A Study of Historical Representa ons of Mo on and their Ability to Represent Parkour.

Chris Kelly (000690975-2) University of Greenwich ITTA1: ARCT 1024: Architecture and its Representa ons 3,298 words

Chris Kelly ITTA1: ARCT 1024

A Study of Historical Representa ons of Mo on and their Ability to Represent Parkour. Chris Kelly University of Greenwich ITTA1: ARCT 1024: Architecture and its Representa ons 3,298 words Contents 1 Abstract 2 Introduc on 3 The Instantaneous Photography Movement 4 Mo on in Futurist Pain ng and Sculpture 5 Dance Nota on 6 Conclusion 7 Bibliography

A Study of Historical Representa ons of Mo on and their Ability to Represent Parkour

Figure 1: Jonathan Lucas, Parkour Photo 26, www.jonathanlucas.com

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Abstract Parkour is about expression, experience and interaction. It challenges preconceived ideas of access and boundaries. Motion is integral to the act of parkour but it is not just about acrobatics and athleticism alone. It is a way of thinking, a mind-set that allows the traceur to challenge the physical and mental obstacles imposed by society. To be good at Parkour is to be strong to be useful, in mind and body, to be able to overcome these obstacles. Representation of parkour has almost entirely been confined to live action video and still photography. Looking at historical forms of representation of the body in motion, is there a more suitable way of expressing parkours ideals graphically? This essay looks at three fields of the representation of motion; instantaneous photography, futurist art and dance notation. Before the work of Muybridge and Marey and their instaneous photographs, rapid motion was a continuous, fleeting event which was blurred before the eye. Their photographs captured familiar, everyday movements in a way that nobody had ever seen. Frozen in time, motion looked unfamiliar and eerie. In freezing time in images they were able to dissect the movement of the human body as it moved in different ways, and interacted with different objects. Mareys images capturing simultaneous positions of the body plotted the trajectory, as well as its individual positions. The Futurists saw motion and dynamism as integral parts of the modern world. They wanted to capture this movement but unlike Marey and Muybridge they believed time and motion were continuous, indivisible factors. Motion, for them, could not be represented by repetition of forms, but it should be shown by the forms of the force which create the motion. These forces acting on a body merged it with its environment and they wanted to break down this boundary in their art, creating an emotive abstract representation of motion. Dance notation reduces motion to a set of instructions on how a certain choreography can be achieved. Whilst the act of dance is a performance of a piece of work, the notation of it records the work itself. A number of notation systems exist in dance, some of which try to represent the body by reducing it to a stick figure and others that are purely abstract symbols. Notation, unlike the work of the Futurists, offers a dry, analytical method of recording motion. Each of the forms of motion capture discussed in this essay have both benefits and disadvantages for the representation of parkour. None can fully represent all of the aspects that a traceur experiences when flowing through an environment. Parkour itself is a representation of the environment which creates it, a rewriting of the city, so is it a case that it is only by intuition and by doing that we can fully experience its feeling of freedom?

A Study of Historical Representa ons of Mo on and their Ability to Represent Parkour

A Study of Historical Representations of Motion and their Ability to Represent Parkour Parkour is the art of expressing yourself in your environment without limitations; its the art of movement and action, for me action is the most important thing in lifeit is simply the physical expression of being at one with your body and mind. 1 Parkour challenges established ways of reading and interacting with architecture; the concept of boundaries and access. It is described as the art of movement; it is the idea of flow, travelling by the most efficient route. More than acrobatics, it is a mind-set allowing you to break down the imposed physical and mental restrictions laid down by society. It is being free to explore as an individual, finding your own path. As parkour is still relatively young in terms of its status as a discipline little work has been undertaken into the qualities of the movements of the athletes. The representation of parkour has been almost entirely confined to live action video footage and photography. Using historical representation techniques depicting the body in motion, is there a way to represent this art in terms of the movement and the unique interactions between body and environment?

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Figure 2: Igor Meijer, Sebas en Foucan Free Runner, www.igormeijer.com

A Study of Historical Representa ons of Mo on and their Ability to Represent Parkour

The Instantaneous Photography Movement Before the late 19th century photography could only capture the slowness of the world. The Daguerreotype photograph needed to be exposed for a number of minutes before the image imprinted itself on the plate, which meant everything that was in motion in the scene was lost. Motion capture photography was developed by Eadweard Muybridge to settle a debate on the theory of unsupported transit in horses; whether at any point all four hooves left the ground. The motion of the horses legs was too fast for eyes alone to perceive; it required a tool that could capture an instant and freeze time. Muybridge developed a process and a camera that reduced the expose times sufficiently enough to capture the motion of the horses legs as a clear image. Before Muybridge captured these photos every event seen by the eye was unique to the person viewing it. Those images were committed to memory or forgotten. The instantaneous photograph fixed those moments. The new world Muybridge created, the depictions of moving things was freed from the limitations of memory or preconception. 2 Muybridge proceeded to photograph humans. The images he presented of everyday movement made his audience feel uneasy; people had never before seen time frozen as he had achieved. The positions of the bodies were not something they were familiar with; He offered his audience the whole world of everyday gestures back. Those gestures a gymnast turning a somersault, a nude pouring water were unfamiliar and eerie stopped because they showed what had always been present but never seen. Set into motion they were uncanny in another way when they undid the familiar distinction between representations, which did not move, and life that did. 3 Muybridges photography produced fixed perspectives of a figure in motion, the camera always perpendicular to the subject, which was centred within the frame. It captured individual instances of motion. Bergsons ideas suggest that Muybridge was not capturing motion at all and it would never be possible to capture motion in this way. You cannot reconstitute movement with positions in space or instants in time: that is with immobile sections. You can only achieve this reconstruction by adding to the positions, or to the instants, the abstract idea of succession. 4 Guroult also dismissed Muybridges work of not being a true representation of the movement. Muybridges photographs are false, since they give a sharp image at the moment when, on account of the speed of the persistence of vision on the retina, we only see a confused image 5
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Figure 3: Eadweard Muybridge, Animal Locomo on: Man Running, 1887

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The instantaneous photograph may not represent exactly what we see, but what we cant see with the eye can give an insight into the movements which are too fast to be appreciated. If they are not pictures of motion, they are instances during a period of motion. The intricate movements of a traceurs feet and hands happen in a fraction of a second, the moment he comes into contact with his environment cannot be dissected by the eye. By freezing time we can appreciate the smallest movements and the traceurs physical relationship to the world. It will not represent their entire flow, but a snapshot in time will show the traceurs interaction at that moment. Also in the late 19th century a physiologist, Etienne Jules Marey was investigating the motion of the body and capturing it graphically for anatomical research. Marey also developed a camera with the fast shutter speeds required to freeze motion. Before this however, Marey invented the sphygmograph; an instrument used for the graphical measurement of the pulse. It consisted of a lever with one end on the patients wrist and the other attached to a stylus resting on a strip of smoke blackened paper. A clockwork mechanism made the paper move uniformly past the stylus; as the pulse displaced the lever the stylus mapped it visually. The sphymgmograph transformed the subjective character of pulse feeling into an objective. Visual, graphic representation that was a permanent record of the transient event. 6 Marey developed numerous instruments that transmitted movement by levers or pneumatics to a stylus that would graph it. Every experiment he carried out was always transformed into a graphical representation devoid of any human subjectivity. His instruments permitted the determination of force, the mechanical work produced, and traced the relation between time and space that is the essence of motion. 7 His investigations allowed not just a visual representation of the object in motion but converted this motion into a form of notation that could be compared and studied. The movement itself was broken down into its contributing factors, allowing quantitative data to be collected. Marey, however, was not content with this, he also pursued the study of the form of the bodies and their changing dimensions and their positions in space as they moved. 8 It was for this reason he developed his photographic gun, capable of taking numerous photos each second and transferring them onto a single plate. Unlike Muybridge, Marey was able to capture sequential instances of motion in a single image. Viewers had to unravel the successive parts of the work to understand that they were looking not at several men moving in single file, but a single figure occupying a series of positions in space 9
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Figure 4: E enne-Jules Marey, Gymnast Leaping Over a Chair, 1883

Figure 5: E enne-Jules Marey, Demeny, Gallop, 1883

Figure 6: E enne-Jules Marey, Joinville Soldier Running and Jumping, 1883

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This system removed the intermediary of the graphic method, the use of light removed any interference from levers or pneumatics. Developing and increasing the shutter speeds of his camera further still meant the images became confusing, distorted as they overlapped one another on the plates. To overcome this Marey adjusted the subject to capture only what he wanted to see. He created black body suits with white sections highlighting the parts of the body he wanted to capture. His real goal was to remove the imprint of flesh and skin so to reveal the moving parts of the animate machine 10 The skeletal images he created reduced the movement to a simple notation that could be studied and analysed. His photographs, however, are limited to the angle that can be captured with one lens, they capture a section of motion, but motion continues beyond the frame of the picture. They are suitable to capture a single movement, or series of movements within a single space, but a traceurs movement is over a long distance as they move quickly and freely through the city. Still photography, by freezing motion, allows an insight into the positions of the body at various stages of movement. it can suggest movement but it requires us to add the intermediate motion to the images ourselves. Even in film we are seeing a certain number of frames per second, persistence of vision means these images merge into what we see as motion - what is presented to us is a series of still images. When we view a traceur with our eyes we cannot process motion quick enough to capture all his intricate movements. This raises the question whether representation should show us what we see, or what cannot be seen. Mareys view on this was that we could only truly understand the world by refining our own senses through the use of instruments 11, whereas Bergson believed that movement is reality in itself. It is continuous change utterly indivisible. 12 Photography cant replace the experience of doing parkour, but it is a tool that captures a sequence of instants, and the traceurs position, form and interaction at those instants.

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Figure 7: E enne-Jules Marey, Joinville Soldier Walking, 1883

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Motion in Futurist Painting and Sculpture Compared to photography which became instantaneous, painting represents not an instant but entire events. Its role was to convey the spatial, emotional and phenomenological aspects of that event. The Futurists, in their manifesto, set out their ideals and their rejection of tradition. This concept rejected the idealist notion of static, changeless realityThe artist was to abandon the life of passive contemplation and take his place in the figurative centre of the worlds ceaseless activity. 13 For the Futurists speed and motion were the integral part of the modern world. They wanted to create art which had dynamism and represented the forces at play behind it. For us the gesture will no longer be an arrested moment of the universal dynamism: it will clearly be the dynamic sensation itself made eternal. 14 Giacomo Ballas early works, Leash in Motion (1912) and Rhythms of the Bow (1912), took direct inspiration from Mareys work and that of another instantaneous photographer, Bragalia. Both paintings captured the movement of their subjects by the repetition of forms. Leash in Motion depicts the act of walking a dog. The dogs legs are repeated and blurred, their exact positions are not clear, implying frantic motion. The owners legs are depicted in a similar way but clearer, suggesting the relative speed of their legs to that of the dogs. The leash itself appears to be swaying in a rotating movement, with dashed lines between each of its positions, this has a more smooth movement. The straight lines of the pavement suggest motion of the entire scene as they move forward together. Although the scene depicts motion and gives a sense of dynamism it was not widely accepted by the Futurist movement. Inspired by Bergsons theories, Boccioni was critical of Bragalias work and those that imitated instantaneous photographs. It seems clear to me that this succession is not to be found in repetition of legs, arms and faces, as many people have stupidly believed but it is achieved through the intuitive search for the unique form which gives continuity in space. 15 Boccioni wanted to portray movement through the lines of force that created it. His painting Dynamism of a Soccer Player (1913) is a series of shifting planes and forms, it does not attempt to portray the soccer player himself but instead its abstracted forms extend into the surroundings expressing the energy and forces creating the motion. It breaks apart the division between the body itself and the body in motion. To paint a human figure you must not paint it; you must render the whole of its surrounding atmosphere movement and light destroy the materiality of bodies. 16
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Figure 8: Giacomo Balla, Leash in Mo on, 1912, Oil on Canvas

Figure 9: Giacomo Balla, Rhythms of a Bow, 1912, Oil on Canvas

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Boccionis Unique Forms of Continuity in Space (1913) continues his themes; the aerodynamic form of the sculpture, as if the subject is draped in loose fabric, implies its movement as if gliding through space, yet the bulky forms suggest weight and exertion. It is muscular without muscles, and massive without weight. The rhythms of its forms triumph over the limitations of the human stride to suggest unending movement into infinite space. 17 The work of the Futurists gives a phenomenological insight into motion, they are an emotive depiction of the interaction of the subject and their environment. Their belief that we are mere consequences of the objects that surround us 18 fits well with parkour The traceur becomes at one with their environment, becoming a part of it as they move through it. The Futurists created a way that could be used to represent the traceurs integration and action on his surroundings.

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Figure 10: Umberto Boccioni, Dynamism of a Soccer Player, 1913, Oil on Canvas

Figure 11: Umberto Boccioni, Unique Forms of Con nuity in Space, 1913, Bronze (originally sculpted in plaster) 15

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Dance Notation Stan Allen discusses the use of notation within architectural drawings and the difficulty of representation with a direct resemblance to its subject. A representational drawing that tries to simulate those effects will always fall short, freezing, diminishing, and trivializing the experimental complexity of the realized building. Paradoxically, the dry, dispassionate form of notation, which makes no attempt to approach reality through resemblance, is better to anticipate the experience of the real. 19 This idea can be applied to the traceur, moving across the city. To understand the act of parkour it is important to understand the individual movements of the body. A traceur will practice moves hundreds of times until they can apply them on any obstacle. If these movements could be reduced to notation then they can provide an insight into the motion of parkour. Dance notation can be divided into four forms; words, track drawings, stick figure systems and abstract symbols 20. Words are understood by all and using them to describe dance has its advantages by utilising the names of known steps. However when a step is modified, or in parkour, when a move is changed to react to physical obstacles a lengthy description is required. Parkour has a set of moves, the cat leap, the tic tac, dash vault, so in a sense it already uses this notation. We use it in everyday life to discuss our activities but it is often open to interpretation. The track systems show the movement of the dancers across the floor. The Feuillet System shows the position of the feet, heel and toe relative to one another and the direction and type of movement made by the legs. It shows clearly the route of the dancers path, but this becomes confused when they pass over the same point multiple times. This would not matter in the case of parkour as their theory is to always keeping moving forward 21. A system like this would be sufficient to show a traceurs route in 2-dimensions from above, however it doesnt take into account uneven surfaces; unmodified it would not represent the act of climbing over something or interaction with a vertical surface. It is more of a mapping exercise of the feet than a representation of the bodys motion. It does not notate the movement of the body above the hips; an integral part of a traceurs movement. Stick figure systems attempt to represent the dancer themselves. This system is easily identifiable to the eye, using the familiar form of the body. However by using a stick figure it is difficult to represent rotation and movement within the third dimension; the system becomes heavily annotated with words and other symbols which were often more effective than the figures themselves 22. The figure shown represents the audience perspective raising the question of who the notation is intended for. The founders of parkour have often stated that it
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Figure 12: Raoul-Auger Feuillet, Nota on of The Pastorall, 1700

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is not about performing, you should do it for yourself and no-one else. Notation systems therefore should be directed towards the perspective of the traceur himself. Labanotation has become the most widely used dance notation system and its flexibility means it has also been applied to sports and the movement of animals. [previous systems] needed to be more flexible and able to record the movement of the whole body and not just a set of static positions and definite step patterns[Labanotation] records in vividly legible form all possible movements of the body in space and time. 23 The notation system allows the body to be split up into as many parts as required. Different shaped blocks are used to represent the direction and length of movements and these are shaded to identify the position of that part of the body in space. Dividing the movements into component body parts means it does not require traditional steps of dance; it is possible to describe most movements. It identifies contact with the floor and shift of weight between limbs, which are central to the movement of the traceur. This contact in dance is controlled, whereas in parkour contact with surfaces are impacts, often controlled by gravity rather than the traceur. It is here where dance notation fails to describe the movement of a traceur; external forces are not depicted. No two movements of a traceur will be the same, they are controlled by outside sources as well as the traceur themselves. The idea of notation as a means to represent movement in parkour raises the question of who it is being represented to, and why. If you are representing motion as a way to teach the movements of parkour then notating the individual movements that form the basis of how a traceur moves could prove useful. However each traceur moves differently and is encouraged to find their own way. This means that a detailed description of a specific movement for one person would not suit another. If parkour is being represented to an outsider to describe how they move through their environment challenging perceptions then the notation of the movement of their individual limbs, without a relationship to the objects they come into contact with will not convey the emotive essence of that movement. Part of the effect of parkour, of seeing it happen, is the shock that people experience seeing someone challenging boundaries.

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Figure 13: Ann Hutchinson Guest, Labanota on of Dance of the Li le Swans, 1989

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Parkour is different for everyone who experiences it, unlike dance which is choreographed. The traceur practices moves over and over, but when he utilises them whilst moving across the landscape each one is different, it is based upon the interaction with objects; their solidness, texture, temperature. Layla Curtis created a video entitled Traceurs: to Trace, to Draw, to Go Fast, she used thermal imaging cameras to capture the moments traceurs come into contact with objects and the marks they leave upon them. These interactions are usually so quick that it can be hard for the eye to process them, however the thermal image remains implanted on the surface after the traceur has moved on. The intensity of the mark shows the intensity of touch on the surface and different surfaces produce different types of mark so it represents both the act of the traceur, their effect on the object as well as the effect the texture, surface and shape of the object on the interaction. Multiple traceurs move over the same position and each of their marks are different. The moves they do would all be given the same name but each one performs it differently. The film captures the live motion of the traceurs, but at the same time slows down their intereaction with their environment. It is a successful representation of the motion in multiple ways in the same instance. Photography and film depict the performance of parkour, something that it never set out to be. However, parkour is meant to challenge perceptions of use and function and the instantly recognizable image created by these mediums allows the shock factor to be expressed when someone is challenging these perceptions. Notation is a record of what has already been done, or a set of instructions on how to perform something. Its dry method does not portray the emotive aspect of parkour which is central to it; it is a mindset as well as a movement. Parkour itself is a representation of a different way of reading the city, it could be argued that it can only be fully understood kinaesthetically. So to truly understand it one must experience, first hand, the feeling of freedom parkour gives. Remember, the way we move is just a routine that weve learned over centuries were not actually bound by walking in a certain way. So lets experiment and keep evolving. 24

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Figure 14: Layla Cur s, S lls from Traceurs: To Trace, To Draw, To Go Fast, 2008 21

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Figure 15: Jonathan Lucas, Parkour Photo 05, www.jonathanlucas.com

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Foucan, S., Free Running; Find your Way, 2008, p.8. Prodger, P., Time Stand Still: Muybridge and the Instantaneous Photography Movement, 2003, p.4. 3 Solnit, R., Motion Studies: Time, Space and Eadweard Muybridge, 2003, p. 24. 4 Deleuze, G., Cinema 1: The Movement Image, 1986, p. 1. 5 Guroult, G., Forms, Couleurs et Movements, 1882, p. 179 in Braun, M., Picturing Time:The work of Etienne Jules Marey, 1994, p. 272. 6 Braun, M., Picturing Time:The work of Etienne Jules Marey, 1994, p. 18. 7 Braun, M., 1994, p. 22. 8 Braun, M., 1994, p. 4. 9 Braun, M., 1994, p. 66. 10 Braun, M., 1994, p. 81. 11 Braun, M., 1994, p. 280. 12 Braun, M., 1994, p. 278. 13 Martin, M. W., Futurist Art and Theory 1909 1915, 1978, p. 41. 14 Boccioni, U. et al, Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painters, 1910, http://www.unknown.nu/futurism/techpaint.html, retrieved 8 January 2012. 15 Henderson, L. D., Italian Futurism and The Fourth Dimension, Art Journal, Vol. 41, No. 4, 1981, p. 319 16 Boccioni, U. et al, 1910, http://www.unknown.nu/futurism/techpaint.html, retrieved 8 January 2012. 17 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, 2011, http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1990.38.3, retrieved 8 January 2012 18 Martin, M. W., 1978, p. 57. 19 Allen, S., Practice: Architecture, Technique and Presentation, 2008, p. 43, 20 Guest, A. H., Choreo-Graphics, 1989, p.V. 21 Foucan, S., 2008, p. 95. 22 Guest, A. H., Labanotation, 2005, p.2. 23 Thornton, S., A Movement Perspective of Rudolf Laban, 1971, p. 60. 24 Foucan, S., 2008, p. 13.
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Guest, A. H., Choreo-Graphics: A Comparison of Dance Notation Systems from the Fifteenth Century to the Present, Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, 1989. Guest, A. H., Labanotation: The System of Analyzing and Recording Movement, 4th Edition, Routledge, London, 2005 Guest, A. H., Your Move: A New Approach to the Study of Movement and Dance, Gordon and Breach, London, 1983. Henderson, L. D., Italian Futurism and The Fourth Dimension, Art Journal, Vol. 41, No. 4, 1981, p. 317 323 Joon, J. S., Human Motion Based on Actor Physique Using Motion Capture, VDM, Saarbrucken, 2008. Kitagawa, M., MoCap for Artists: Workflow and Techniques for Motion Capture, Focal, Oxford 2008. Krasner, J. S., Motion Graphic Design: Applied History and Aesthetics, 2nd edition, Focal Press, Boston, 2008. Laban, R., Choreutics, Macdonald and Evans, London, 1966. Louppe, L., Traces of Dance: Drawings and Notations of Choreographers, Editions Dis Voir, Paris, 1994. Martin, M. W., Futurist Art and Theory, 1909-1915, Hacker Art Books, New York, 1978. Muybridge, E., The Human Figure in Motion, New Edition, Dover, New York, 2006. Prodger, P., Time Stands Still; Muybridge and the Instantaneous Photography Movement, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003. Rosenhahn, B. et al, Human Motion: Understanding, Modelling, Capture, and Animation, Springer, Dordrecht, 2008. Solnit, R., Motion studies: Eadweard Muybridge and the Technological Wild West, Bloomsbury, London, 2003. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, The Metropolitan Museum of Art , 2011, retrieved 8 January 2012, http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-ofart/1990.38.3 The Museum of Modern Art, Dynamism of a Soccer Player, The Museum of Modern Art, 2009, retrieved 8 January 2012, http://www.moma.org/collection/object.php?object_id=80009 Thornton, S., A Movement Perspective of Rudolf Laban, Macdonald and Evans, London, 1971.
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