EHI-01 (2010-2011)

Ques 1. What do you understand by the term de- industrialization ? What was its impact on the Indian Economy? Ans. Commentators often talk of the long decline of industry in the British economy. In simple terms this is what we mean by de-industrialization - a fall in the contribution made by the manufacturing sector to national output, employment and income. We can consider manufacturing as a whole, or focus on individual industries such as steel and clothing and textiles De-industrialization is a long-term process of structural change in an economy - leading to a change in the composition of national output, and important alterations to the structure of our labour market. There is a number of different ways of measuring the extent to which our manufacturing sector is experiencing de-industrialization: Its impact on the Indian Economy The economic condition of India in the 19th century started becoming worse due to several polices of the British government. The Indian manufacturing sector was sometimes sharply disrupted sue to the import of machine made foreign goods. While analyzing the economic impact of British rule and consequent poverty, Indian nationalists has quite convincingly argued that British rule has de-industrialized India. However, recent researches in modern economic history of India after independence has challenged this widely accepted hypothesis on many grounds. To reach at final analysis it is imperative to go through all major views of the scholars and sources of information of different parts of 19th century India. Drain of wealth the systematic policy of ferring the economic resources of India to Britain i.J erished the country. The officials of the British I government were paid out of the Indian exchequel money went out of India. There was a heavy tax t on the Indian people because large sums had to b annually as interest on loans contracted by the Gove~ of India. UnemploY}llent increased in India. It was first time in Indias history that the balance of trade t unfavourable towards India. De-industrialisation The British caused 1 Dous harm to the traditional handicraft industry decayed beyond recovery. Heavy customs dutiE imposed on Indian goods. The British officials! Preference for European goods. This provided an. to the demand for European goods and contribute decline of Indian handicrafts. The availability of n made goods in abundance at a comparatively low H greatly contributed to the decline of Indian handicri failure of the British Government to offer any protE indigenous industry also contributed to the de Indian handicrafts because they could not compt machine-made goods produced in bulk, and Consequently cheaper. With the subjugation of Indian princely 51 patronage to the handicraft industry ceased to exist.

Ruralisation Indian economy tended to more and more agricultural with the disintegratio traditional industries. The increase in the number 01 in agriculture. did not mean increase in agricultural tion but impoverishment of the rural masses; then industrial alternative. This accounted for the famines and increasing poverty in the 19th and quarter of the 20th century. India merely became a of raw material for industrial Britain. Ques 2. Discuss the rise of national consciousness in 19th century India. Ans. The British ruled India to promote their own interests. In doing so they often subordinate Indian welfare to British gain. The Indians realized gradually that their interests were being sacrificed to those of British interests. This clash of interests was the root cause of the rise of the nationalist movement. Eventually the peasants, the artisans and the workers discovered that they had no political rights and virtually nothing was being done for their intellectual and cultural development. The educated Indians discovered that economic exploitation by Britain was only increasing Indias poverty. Thus the anti-imperialist movement gradually arose and developed in India. Nationalist sentiments grew up among the general people on account of the following major factors. And it did not take even much time. The factors were as follows. The British Imperialist Policy After the Revolt of 1857 the British Government followed a policy of Divide and Rule. First, it seeks the support of the Zamindars, rulers of Princely states and other conservative sections of Indian society. The English educated class considered itself the true representative of the Indian people. It, therefore, wanted more representation in the Legislative Councils and the same rights in public that the British nationals enjoyed in public services. The British rulers regarded India as a British colony. They wished to reserve the right of administration for themselves. Ripon wanted the educated class to support British rule in India while Lytton sought the support of the conservative elements in society. Thus the imperialist policy of the government based on the principle of `Divide and Rule` of Indians led to the rise of anti-imperialist feelings in India. English Education Educated young men who know English were informed about the struggle of the people of Italy, and Greece against foreign domination in their countries. They got inspiration from the revolutions in France and America. When a uniform system of education was introduced in India it helped to evolve a common goal and uniform approach to the political leaders of the different regions. Although the English educated class was a minority of the whole population of India but its influence and leadership could mould public opinion as the newspapers, educational institutions and the advocates of the legal courts were all greatly influenced by the opinion of this group. English education up to the end of the 19th century was confined to the upper and middle classes of society. Their views had become popular. Thus English education helped in lessening the traditional obstacles in the progress of the country. Patriotism and the feeling for liberty were not the gifts of English education. They pervaded the whole country even before English education was introduced. But English education helped evolving a new direction in the

form of establishing a parliamentary form of government, which had been in existence in England long before its introduction in India. The Press The newspapers contributed a good deal to the awakening of national consciousness in India. After the Revolt of 1857 the government tried to control the newspapers. The government prepared a `Report on Native Newspapers`. But the number of newspapers continued to increase and they became a very good medium of spreading ideas about political rights among the common people. Both in Bengal and Maharashtra these newspapers criticized the government policies. The government tried to put restrictions on these newspapers as they brought various problems such as injustice of the administration, racial discrimination, economic exploitation of Indians, etc. to the notice of the people. They expressed the opinion that the British rule in India was resulting in the moral, economic and intellectual degeneration of Indians. In 1878 Lytton got Vernacular Press Act passed to check the growing criticism of government measures. But the press and the newspapers became more active after 1878 and the people protested against this measure by organizing meetings and submitting memoranda to the government and the members of British Parliament. Literature Nationalist literature in the form of novels, essays and patriotic poetry also played an important role in arousing national consciousness. For example, the novel Ananda math by Bankim Chandra Chatterji was a source of great inspiration to all the nationalist leaders. The national song `Vandematram` was a great awakening for the society. Other prominent nationalist writers of the period were Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali, Vishnu Shastri Chiplukar in Marathi, Subramanya Bharati in Tamil, and Baratendu Harish Chandra in Hindi. Political Associations As early as 1830 the Zamindars of Bengal organized themselves into a Landholder`s Society. They protested against the Act that empowered government to take in its possession all rent-free lands. Soon after, three political associations namely British Indian Association in Calcutta (1851) Madras Native Association in Madras (1852) and Bombay Association in Bombay (1852) were established. These associations submitted memoranda to the government on contemporary political problems. But the government did not accept any of the suggestions of these Associations. In 1876 Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose organized the Indian Association. In Western India Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was organized in 1870. It contributed a good deal in creating national consciousness among the people in Maharashtra. As early as 1866 the East India Association was organized in London. It tried to let the people of England and the members of British Parliament know about the problems of Indians. Poverty of India All the farmers, artisans, craftsmen and later the factory workers were reduced to poverty on account of the economic policies of the British Government in India. Dadabhai Naoraji proved how British Rule had resulted in the `Drain of Wealth` from India to

Britain and according to him this was the real cause of poverty of India. It was the result of Free Trade Policy followed by the British Government that failed to prove the interest of Indian artisans and craftsmen. Ques. 3 why did the Revolt of 1857 fail? How did it affect the British policy in India? Ans. Reasons for the revolt: the new revenue policy impoverished the peasants were impoverished; the English policies of trade and commerce ruined the Indian Industries. Hence a strong resentment developed among the artisans such as the weavers, blacksmiths and carpenters. The English interfered with the customs and traditions of the people by enacting laws such as prohibitions of sati, permitting widow marriages etc. They upheld the right of inheritance of those who had forsaken their religion and had embraced Christianity. Such laws led the orthodox people to believe that the alien government is out to destroy the very foundations of their way of life. Hence, they too resented the English rule. From 1848 to 1856 Lord Dalhousie had annexed many Indian states such as Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur and some other states by refusing to recognize the right of inheritance of the adopted sons of those rulers. Pensions of the heirs of some deposed rulers were discontinued. They, too, developed a strong resentment against the tyrannical British rule. Discontent among the Indian soldiers: the majority of the Indian soldiers in the Company's army came from peasant families. They were deeply hurt to see their family groaning under the insufferable burden of poverty. These soldiers were treated contemptuously by their English Officers. Their allowances also were gradually reduced. Because of all these reasons, acute discontent prevailed among the Indian soldiers. Against such a background came to the fore the episode of the greased cartridges. In 1856, new long range Enfield rifles with greased cartridges was given to the soldiers. While loading the rifles, the greased covering of the cartridges had to be bitten off. The news that this grease contained the fat of cows and pigs infuriated the soldiers beyond measure. The outbreak of the uprising: The first explosion of the uprising took place on the 29th of March 1857 in the cantonment at Barrackpore. As the military parade began, a soldier name Mangal Pande refused to use the new cartridges and exhorted other soldiers also not to do so. When the English Officer of the battalion tried to force the soldiers to use the cartridges, Mangal Pande fired at him. Mangal Pande was arrested and hanged. This news spread likes wildfire in the other military cantonments. On the 24th of April 1857, Indian soldiers of the cavalry unit at Meerut flatly refused to use the new cartridges. They were all thrown into prison. Because of this, the whole battalion of Indian soldiers at Meerut rose in revolt on the 10th of May 1857. They advanced to Delhi, which was barely 64 kilometers away. On the way, thousands of common people joined them. As they reached Delhi, the Indian soldiers in Delhi cantonment made common cause with the rebels. All these soldiers appealed to the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zaafar to lead the revolt. They proclaimed Bahadur Shah the Emperor of India.

The scope of the revolt: within no time the revolt spread to all parts of North India. From Bihar to Rajputana, all the India soldiers in the Company's army contonments raised a standard of rebellion. Lakhs of common people joined them. Within a period of four months all the territories of East Punjab, areas around Delhi, Rohilkhand, Bundelkhand, Allahabad, Avadh, Western Bihar were engulfed by the fire of rebellion. The British power collapsed in those areas. However, territories south of the river Narmada were not affected by the revolt to great extent, though in Nagpur, Satara, Kolhapur and some other aces, there were some sporadic incidents of revolt. Local like the uprising of the Bhils in Khandesh under the leadership of Kharjasingh and the one in the Satpuda area under Shankarshah were nipped in the bud by the English. Leadership of the revolt: Bahadur shah, the aged Mughal Emperor, was the leader of the revolt were Peshwa Nanasaheb, Tatya Tope, Rani Laxmibai, Begum Hazrat Mahal, Maulavi Ahmedulla, Kunwarsingh and the Mughal general Bakht Khan. The revolt assumed serious proportions especially in Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, and the western parts of Bihar. In September 1857 British captured Delhi. They arrested Bahadur Shah and killed his sons. In the region around Kanpur, Nanasaheb Peshwa and Tatya Tope revolt led the revolt. In West Bihar the Zamindar of Jagdishpur, Kunwarsingh, along with his sons gave a determined fight to the English while in Rohilkhand, Maulavi Ahmedulla inspired the people to rise against them. The revolt is crushed: The rebels and their leaders fought the English bravely but within a short time, the English recovered from the first shock of the unexpected revolt. Within six months the picture began to change. The English recaptured all-important places that they had lost to the rebels. By the end of 1858,leaders like Rani Laxmibai Kunwarsingh; Ahmedulla fell fighting against them. Bahadur Shah was deported to Rangoon. Nanasaheb and Begum Hazrat Mahal took refuge in Nepal. Tatya Tope, however, continued his struggle against the English for ten long months, but ultimately he was betrayed. The English hanged him. The end of 1858 mercilessly crushed the revolt by the English. Why did the revolt fail? : The revolt of 1857 was an event of great magnitude. But it didn't end the English power in India. On the side of the rebels, there was no centralized leadership and hence there was no co-ordination of planning and action. The rebels didn't have sufficient arms. Moreover, the educated Indians and rulers of majority of the States kept themselves aloof from the struggle. The revolt didn't spread to South India. The English had with them centralized leadership, a trained and disciplined army, modern weapons and experienced commanders. They also controlled the means of transport. Therefore, the Indians couldn't resist them successfully. The effects of the revolt: The revolt of 1857 had far reaching effects. It made the rulers of Britain realize the intense disaffection of Indians against the English rule. They were convinced that the power of the British in India wasn't safe in the hands of the Company. Hence, the British parliament made a law in 1858 dissolving the East India Company and taking over the administration of India directly into their hands.

The Indians also were deeply affected by the revolt. Local loyalties gradually gave to a national feeling. Fully realizing the futility of the ways till then employed against the British, they began to feel the need to search for new ways. Ques. 4 Discuss the factors that led to the partition of India. Ans. August 15, 1947 was a very significant day for Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs and many others. It marked the day of the British partition of India into a Muslim-controlled Pakistan and a Hindu-dominated India. India won its freedom from colonial rule, ending nearly 200 years of British rule. Many different events lead to the final decision of the partition. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the British gained full power over India. Bitterness towards the British developed as Hindus and Muslims were denied jobs and high positions in the government and army. The Indian National Congress (INC), lead by Jawaharlal Nehru, was created by the end of the 19th Century. Indians demanded equal opportunity and freedom from colonial rule. The British wanted to make the Muslims their allies in order to counter the perceived threat of the Hindu educated class. The British feared the potential threat from the Muslims, since the Muslims were the former rulers of the subcontinent and ruled India for over 300 years under the Mughal Empire. In order to win them over to their side, the British helped support the All-India Muslim Conference. They instilled the notion that the Muslims were a separate political entity and by the beginning of the 1900s they gave the Muslims separate electorates in local government all over British India. Thus the idea of the separateness of Muslims in India was built into the electoral process of India. Thus, August 14, 1947 saw the birth of the new Islamic Republic of Pakistan- a Muslim nation separate from the predominantly Hindu India. At midnight the next day (on Aug. 15, 1947) India won its freedom from colonial rule. Pakistan was made up of two regions: West Pakistan on the Indus River plain, and East Pakistan, which is now known as Bangladesh. In a speech to the nation in the night of August 14th, Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India said "A moment comes which comes but rarely in history, when we step from the old to the new, when a age ends, and when the soul of a nation long suppressed, finds utterance." For Indians, the partition was the logical outcome of Britain's policies of dividing and ruling. For Pakistanis it was their founding moment. It was the outcome of the struggle of Muslims to have their separate identity recognized by both the British and the Indian nationalist movement. For the British, the partition was a necessity because they could no longer afford the cost of maintaining colonial rule. It was unquestionably a very significant event for many. The partition can also be seen from a different perspective; on a more personal level. "Cracking India", a novel written by Bapsi Sidhwa, is a fascinating account of the violent racial-religious clashes created by the partition of India and Pakistan as seen through the eyes of Lenny, an eight-year-old girl. The experiences, hopes and fears of Lenny provide an intense image of the period. Lenny is growing up rich in pre-partition Lahore (the Punjabi city that saw some of the bloodiest pogroms) in 1947. This story is unique in that

it not only comes from the point of view of a child, but also from within an impartial community. Lenny, belonged to the minority sect of 'Parsees', who are new there and emigrated from Persia during the 9th century in order to escape religious persecution following the rise of Islam. The Parsees were not allied with any particular ethnic group during Partition and thus tried to remain neutral among the warring Sikhs, Muslims and Hindus. Being neither Hindu nor Muslim, the Parsees were able to keep out of the sectarian divide and stayed on the sidelines; they were not targeted by the mobs nor forced leave. The story begins with the British preparing to quit their empire in India and the process of splitting British India into Independent India and Pakistan is about to begin. Lenny's family is well off and maintains friendly relations with various religious groups. But later, these relationships begin to turn sour. Everyday jokes and innocent games between friends of different ethnic and religious backgrounds are replaced by bickering and harsh remarks over religion and family bloodlines. The serious killing begins. Lenny and her nanny, Ayah see Sikhs slaughtering Muslims, Hindus butchering Muslims and Muslims burning Hindus alive. Men betray one another. Rising tensions are inflamed with reports of murder, rape, and rioting mobs wrecking homes, shops and temples and mosques. "One day everybody is themselves," Lenny observes, "and the next day they are Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Christian. People shrink, dwindling into symbols." Ayah (a Hindu), is the kind of woman who is desired by every man. She has two main admirers in this story, one a Hindu (Hasan), and the other a Muslim (Ice Candy Man). Ice Candy Man turns into a madman when Ayah falls in love with Hasan. He becomes one of the many roaming the streets of Lahore with vengeance and murder on their minds. Enraged by jealousy, he leads a group of Muslim rioters to Lenny's house to demand the removal of all Hindu servants, including Ayah. The servants attempt to protect Ayah, claiming that she has left the house; but trusting the Ice Candy Man, Lenny admits that Ayah is still in the house. The young nanny is dragged off to her death. Lenny's innocent mistake will haunt her for the rest of her life. This story vividly portrays how the process of partition claimed many lives in the riots. It shows it in an up close and personal level. All in the name of religion and nationalism, people who had lived together in relative harmony for centuries committed mindless acts of violence against each other. It was a tragic experience because over a million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims who were killed. Twelve million people were forced to move-Hindus to India, and Muslims to Pakistan. Both groups moved because they feared being ruled by leaders of the other faith. If a Hindu, Muslim or Sikh was caught on the wrong side of the dividing lines, they were driven out of their homes. The journey was long and torturous. Many people were forced to leave their possessions or trade them for water. Hunger, thirst and exhaustion killed others. An estimated 75,000 women were raped. The two countries lost many of their most dynamic leaders, such as Gandhi, Jinnah and Allama Iqbal, soon after the partition. Pakistan had to face the separation of Bangladesh in 1971. Even the imposition of an official boundary has not stopped conflict between them. A war between India and Pakistan continues to this day. Boundary issues, left unresolved by the British, have caused two wars and continuing conflict between the two countries. Over the past fifty years, India and Pakistan have been in a state of constant hostility, fighting three wars in 1947-48, 1963 and 1971. In the last decade, they have

fought over the possession of Kashmir and the drawing of boundaries in the high Himalayas. Ques. 5 Write a note the non-cooperation movement. Ans. The most significant event that unfolded in Indian politics in 1919 was the rise of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, known to the world as Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi's emergence on the Indian political scenario inaugurated the third phase of Indian Nationalism, during which the country witnessed the launch of a number of nationalist movements under his leadership. His unique political ideologies that basically represented an extension of his spiritual doctrines revolutionized Indian politics and played a major role in awakening the political consciousness of the masses. The National Movements launched under Gandhi's aegis gave expression to his celebrated political ideologies like satyagraha and ahimsa, and saw the country unifying to fight the single cause of India's independence. The three important milestones of India's pre independence history, namely the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Civil Disobedience Movement and the Quit India Movement, were launched and gathered momentum under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. The first among these was the Non-Cooperation Movement. Before proceeding to an analysis of Gandhi's role in the Non-Cooperation Movement, it is pertinent to delineate the circumstances that shook Gandhi's confidence in the fairness of the British Government and transformed him into a non-co-operator. When Gandhi returned to India in the year 1915, he did not directly enter the political scenario, following the advice of his political mentor Gopal Krishna Gokhle. However, in the period between 1917 and 18, he rendered leadership to some local disputes and thus rose to prominence. He supported the cause of the oppressed cultivators of Champaran district of Bihar, associated himself with the campaign of the peasants of the Kheda district in Gujarat and also backed the textile workers of Ahmedabad, who were fighting for their wages. During this phase, Gandhi was loyal to the colonial government and even volunteered for the recruitment of soldiers to fight on behalf of the English, during the First World War. However, the Gandhi's role as a co-operator of the British government did not last long. The Rowlatt Act, followed by the Jallianwallah Bagh massacre and the Khilafat issue embittered Gandhi's feelings towards the British government. Gandhi stance changed to that of a non-co-operator of the British government and he soon after launched the Non-Cooperation Movement. When Gandhi realized that there was no prospect of getting any fair treatment at the hands of British, he planned to withdraw the nation's co-operation from the government and thereby mar the administrative set up of the country. In this initiative, he expected to garner the support of the Muslims, who were nurturing anti British sentiments, on the Turkey-issue. Gandhi's main objective was to procure justice for the Muslims, through his method of passive resistance; satyagraha. In August 1920, a hartal was organized in the entire country. The formal launch of the Non-Cooperation Movement in the August of 1920 followed the expiry of the notice that was sent to the Viceroy by Gandhi. He returned to the Viceroy, all the medals he had received in recognition of his war services from the British government.

Gandhi urged the Congress to launch a Non-Cooperation Movement on three issues, which were; redressal of the wrongs committed in Punjab that entailed the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the atrocities related to the marital laws, the Khilafat wrong and accomplishment of swaraj. In September, 1920, a special session of the Congress, presided by Lala Lajpat Rai was convened at Calcutta that sought to approve the scheme. Several legislations were passed by the delegates, wherein the British government was criticized and condemned for its incapability of protecting innocent lives in Punjab and failing to keep its promise in the Khilafat issue. In one of the resolutions, it was declared by the Congress that the people of India had no other option but to approve and endorse the nonviolent, non-cooperation policy inaugurated by Gandhi, till the wrongs were rectified and swaraj established. The Non-Cooperation resolution garnered mixed responses. Pt. Motilal Nahru and Anil Ali Brothers supported the resolution, whereas Mrs Annie Besant, Pt. Malaviya and Shri C. R Das vehemently opposed. They feared that large scale mass action against the British government would lead to violence on a wide scale, as occurred during Rowlatt satyagraha. In December 1920, at the Nagpur Congress, the resolution on Non-Cooperation was repeated again. This session garnered greater support in favor of the resolution. The Congress redefined the resolution as the procurement of Swaraj by the use of peaceful and legitimate means. According to Gandhi, swaraj meant establishment of self rule within British Empire with complete freedom to secede any time. The program and policies of the Non-Cooperation Movement that was adopted at the special session of the Congress in Calcutta and restated at the Nagpur session included; promotion of swadeshi and boycott of foreign made articles, surrender of honorary posts and titles, rejection of official Durbars, progressive rejection by lawyers of British courts, boycott of elections appointing new Councils, refusal by clerks and soldiers to serve in Mesopotamia and boycott of Government run and state assisted schools. Gandhi played an active role in propagating the policies and programs of the NonCooperation Movement throughout the country. He along with other loyalists toured around the country in a bid to gather public support and mobilize the masses in favor of the movement. Following the persuasion of Gandhi to withdraw from state institutions and join national schools, several students left their schools. This period also witnessed the coming into being of numerous national educational institutions for the benefit of the students. Noteworthy among them were Jamia Milia University, Aligarh University and National College, Lahore. In contradiction to the approach of non-violence championed by Mahatma Gandhi, the Non-Cooperation Movement sparked off an incident of mob violence in Chauri Chaura in the United Provinces. A few police constables were killed, following an attack of a police outpost on February 5th, 1922. Disillusioned by this incident, Gandhi called for the suspension of the movement in 1922. This sudden suspension of the movement was not welcomed by the radical section of the Congress, like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose. Against the background of widespread dissatisfaction that was generated by Gandhi's decision to withdraw the movement, Motilal Nehru and Chitta Ranjan Das formed the Swaraj Party. The motif of the Swaraj Party was to enter the Council and then destroying the constitution from inside. Although, Gandhi initially opposed the policy of the Swaraj Party, he later gave the Congressmen the choice to affiliate or not with the British institutions.

It can be said without any doubt that The Non Cooperation Movement and the role played by Gandhi in it took the Indian freedom movement to new heights. It ushered in a new political fervor among the people and taught the Indians fearlessness. Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, Swarajya found popular expression and a patriotic zeal gripped the entire nation. The weapon of passive resistance or satyagraha, that Gandhi gave to the nation, emerged as the greatest asset of the Indians. An important program of The Non-Cooperation Movement was the promotion of khadi. Under the guidance of Gandhi, charkha and Indian handloom products gained back their glory. Many weavers were employed. The contribution of Gandhi to this movement and eventually to Indian Nationalism was that for the very first time he coasted the entire country bound by a single ethos. The freedom struggle assumed an all India character under his impeccable leadership. Ques. 6 Discuss the various types of land settlements in colonial India. Ans. British system of land revenue in India can blindly be accredited to the Permanent Settlement Act of 1793, formulated by the then Governor General of India, Lord Cornwallis. After the advent of the British to the country, India was still being ruled and strictly administered under the Mughal system of moneymaking. With Islamic rule still dominating the governing scenario, the arrival of the British was looked at as almost a cultural and administrative shock. The very English style of living, administering and imposing of rules by the East India Company in the early years of 17th century, was yet far away from the yet to come Ryotwari System, Zamindari System or Mahalwari system. Initially, the imperialists had circulated the idea of common Indian compassion and kindness towards the native farmers in the agrarian economy. India back then essentially served as a nation entirely based upon farming and cultivation of lands and crops. However, with the introduction of British land revenue system in India, the farmers had cope with an entirely new merciless side of colonial rule. Land revenue in India during British times were primarily based upon the mode of money collection by the tax farmers, who in turn would receive this money from the local land owners (or termed as zamindars). In such a process of intermediary, the poor and helpless farmers remained absolutely exploited, with maximum of the moolah going to British tax farmers and the zamindars, as denominated by the British. After such hard work and toil in the fields for day and night, the only thing they received in turn were floggings and caustic comments from the lord class. The British land revenue system in India had shattered and devastated the native agrarians from the core psyche, with practically nothing left for them to call their own. The rules were always set leaning towards the benefit and relaxation of the higher strata of the society with zamindars and English demanding the most. Lord Cornwallis`s Permanent Settlement Act had tried to do some bit of amending, which again was thrown to plundering by Governor General Warren Hastings and his five-yearly inspections and collection of revenue. British domination and authority over Indian soil commenced during the seventeenth century and by the end of that century colonial rule had expanded over wide areas with the fall of Mughal Empire, crushing of the Maratha rule and political overthrow of local powers. The British, as such effortlessly had inherited the `institutional form of agrarian system` from the Mughals. The rulers then had blindly overlaid a system over the still

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active pattern, in tune with strict British customs and laws associated with land. Such desperate actions on the part of such shrewd English administers did not go down well with the East India Company rulers, who practically had been usurping priceless native funds. As such, British system of land revenue in India was hugely criticized in England, with the Company suffering a crushing defeat. Largely, three basic kinds of land revenue system were introduced during British India. The fundamental feature of each of these systems was the challenge to integrate elements of the antedating agrarian construction. The interface of this colonial policy and the existing systems, gave rise to grossly dissimilar local results and hybrid forms. It is fascinating to note that the techniques employed in land revenue in various parts of India remain largely unaltered even today since their initiation by Raja Todarmal during the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar. Various kinds of land revenue systems were ushered in, in various part of British India, as the British annexed parts of India in succeeding periods. These land revenue systems comprised. Zamindari system, Rywotari System and, Mahalwari System. Ques. 7 Write short notes on any two of the following: (i) The Nehru report 1928 Ans. The Government of India Act 1919 was essentially transitional in character. Under Section 84 of the said Act, a statutory Commission was to be appointed at the end of ten years to determine the next stage in the realization of self-rule in India. Accordingly, the Simon Commission was sent to the Sub-continent under the command of Sir John Simon. All members of the commission were British. This was regarded as highly insulting to the Indians and immediate protest was raised from all the important political parties. When the Simon Commission arrived, the local masses welcomed it by with slogans of Go back Simon!. All the major political parties of Sub-continent, except the Shafi League of Punjab, boycotted the Simon Commission. After the failure of Simon Commission, there was no alternative for the British government but to ask the local people to frame a constitution for themselves. They knew that the Congress and Muslim League were the two main parties and that they both had serious difference of opinions. Birkenhead, Secretary of Sate for Indian Affairs, threw the ball in the Indian politicians' court, and asked them to draw a draft of the forthcoming Act on which both Hindus and Muslims could agree. The Indian leaders accepted the challenge and for this purpose, the All Parties Conference was held at Delhi in January 1928. More than a hundred delegates of almost all the parties of the Sub-continent assembled and participated in the conference. Unfortunately, the leaders were not able to come to any conclusion. The biggest hindrance was the issue of the rights of minorities. The second meeting of the All Parties Conference was held in March the same year, but the leaders still had their differences and again were not able to reach a conclusion. The only work done in this conference was the appointment of two subcommittees. But due to the mutual differences between Muslims and Hindus, the committees failed to produce any positive result. When the All Parties Conference met for the third time in Bombay on May 19 1928, there was hardly any prospect of an agreed constitution. It was then decided that a small committee should be appointed to work out the details of the constitution. Motilal Nehru

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headed this committee. There were nine other members in this committee including two Muslims, Syed Ali Imam and Shoaib Qureshi. The committee worked for three months at Allahabad and its memorandum was called the "Nehru Report". The chairman joined hands with the Hindu Mahasabha and unceremoniously quashed the recent Congress acceptance of the Delhi Proposals. The Nehru Report recommended that a Declaration of Rights should be inserted in the constitution assuring the fullest liberty of conscience and religion. The following were the recommendations advanced by the Nehru Report: 1. India should be given the status of a dominion. 2. There should be federal form of government with residuary powers vested in the center. 3. India should have a parliamentary form of government headed by a Prime Minister and six ministers appointed by the Governor General. 4. There should be bi-cameral legislature. 5. There should be no separate electorate for any community. 6. System of weightage for minorities was as bad as that of separate electorates. 7. Reservation of Muslim seats could be possible in the provinces where Muslim population was at least ten percent, but this was to be in strict proportion to the size of the community. 8. Muslims should enjoy one-fourth representation in the Central Legislature. 9. Sindh should be separated from Bombay only if the Committee certified that it was financially self-sufficient. 10. The N. W. F. P. should be given full provincial status. 11. A new Kanarese-speaking province Karnatic should be established in South India. 12. Hindi should be made the official language of India. The recommendations of the Nehru Report went against the interests of the Muslim community. It was an attempt to serve Hindu predominance over Muslims. The Nehru Committee's greatest blow was the rejection of separate electorates. If the report had taken into account the Delhi Proposals, the Muslims might have accepted it. But the Nehru Committee did not consider the Delhi Proposals at all while formulating their report. The Muslims were asking for one-third representation in the center while Nehru Committee gave them only one-fourth representation. It is true that two demands of Muslims were considered in the Nehru Report but both of them incomplete. It was said that Sindh should be separated from Bombay but the condition of self-economy was also put forward. It demanded constitutional reforms in N. W. F. P. but Baluchistan was overlooked in the report. Of the two Muslim members of the Nehru Committee, Syed Ali Imam could attend only one meeting due to his illness and Shoaib Qureshi did not endorse views of the Committee on the issue of Muslim representation in legislature. Thus the Nehru Report was nothing else than a Congress document and thus totally opposed by Muslims of the Sub-continent. The Hindus under Congress threatened the government with a disobedience movement if the Nehru report was not implemented into the Act by December 31, 1929. This Hindu attitude proved to be a milestone in the freedom movement of the Muslims. It also proved to be a turning point in the life of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. After reading the Nehru Report, Jinnah announced a 'parting of the ways'. The Nehru Report reflected the inner prejudice and narrow-minded approach of the Hindus.

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ii) Indian National Army Ans. The Indian National Army (INA) or Azad Hind Fauj was an armed force formed by Indian nationalists in 1942 in Southeast Asia during World War II. The aim of the army was to overthrow the British Raj in colonial India, with Japanese assistance. Initially composed of Indian prisoners of war captured by Japan in her Malayan campaign and at Singapore, it later drew large numbers of volunteers from Indian expatriate population in Malaya and Burma. Initially formed in 1942 immediately after the fall of Singapore under Mohan Singh, the first INA collapsed in December that year before it was revived under the leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose in 1943 and proclaimed the army of Bose's Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (The Provisional Government of Free India). This second INA fought along with the Imperial Japanese Army against the British and Commonwealth forces in the campaigns in Burma, Imphal and Kohima, and later, against the successful Burma Campaign of the Allies. The end of the war saw a large number of the troops repatriated to India where some faced trial for treason and became a galvanising point of the Indian Independence movement. After Indian independence, the ex-INA members, with some exceptions, were refused service in the Indian Army. However, a number of notable members later became involved in public life in India and in Southeast Asia. The legacy of the INA is controversial given its associations with Imperial Japan, the course of Japanese occupations in Burma, Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia, her alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, as well as Japanese war crimes and the alleged complicity of the troops of the INA in these. Also, its relative insignificance in military terms, its obvious propaganda value to the Japanese, as well as wartime British Intelligence propaganda of cowardice and stories that associated INA soldiers in mistreatment of captured Allied troops, to some extent mires the history of the army. However, after the war, the Red Fort trials of captured INA officers in India provoked massive public outcries in support of their efforts to fight the Raj, eventually triggering the Bombay mutiny in the British Indian forces. These events in the twilight of the Raj are accepted to have played a crucial role in its hasty end.

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