Tolerancing

Interchangeability of manufactured parts is a critical element of present day production. The production of closely mating parts, although theoretically possible, is economically unfeasible. For this reason, the engineer, designer or drafter specifies an allowable deviation (tolerance) between decimal limits. The definition of a Tolerance, per ASME Y14.5.5M-1994, is the total amount a specific dimension is permitted to vary. For instance, a dimension shown as 1.498 to 1.502 means that it may be 1.498 or 1.502 or anywhere between these dimensions. Since greater accuracy costs money, you would not callout the tightest possible tolerance, but instead would callout as generous a tolerance as possible.

Definition of Terms

Example 1
Maximum Material Condition (MMC) Is the condition where a feature of a finished part contains the maximum amount of material. That is, the largest shaft or smallest hole. See Example 1. Least Material Condition (LMC) - Is the condition where a feature of a finished part contains the least amount of material. That is, the smallest shaft or the largest hole. See Example 1. Nominal Size Approximate size used for the purpose of identification such as stock material. Basic Size Is the theoretical exact size from which limits of size are determined by the application of allowances and tolerances. Tolerance The total amount by which a given dimension may vary or the difference between the limits. Limits The extreme maximum and minimum sizes specified by a toleranced dimension. Allowance An allowance is the intentional difference between the maximum material limits (minimum clearance or maximum interference) of mating parts. Refer to Example 1 above: MMC of the hole MMC of the shaft = Allowance. MMC Hole = 1.250 - MMC Shaft = 1.248 Allowance = .002

Fits
Clearance fit A clearance fit results in limits of size that assure clearance between assembled mating parts. Refer to Example 1 above: LMC of the hole LMC of the shaft = Clearance. LMC Hole = 1.251 - LMC Shaft = 1.247 Clearance = .004

Interference fit (also referred to as Force fit or Shrink fit) interference fit has limits of size that always result in interference between mating parts. For example, a hole and shaft, the shaft will always be larger than the hole, to give an interference of metal that will result in either a force or press fit. The effect would be an almost permanent assembly for two assembled parts.

Example 2
Least amount of Interference is: LMC Shaft = 1.2513 - LMC Hole = 1.2506 Min Interference = .0007 Greatest amount of Interference: MMC Shaft = 1.2519 - MMC Hole = 1.2500 Max Interference = .0019 Transition fit A transition fit might be either a clearance or interference fit. That is, a shaft may be either larger or smaller than the hole in a mating part.

Example 3
LMC Hole = 1.2506 - LMC Shaft = 1.2503 Positive Clearance = .0003 MMC Shaft = 1.2509 - MMC Hole = 1.2500 Negative Allowance (Interference) = .0003 Basic Hole System The basic hole system is used to apply tolerances to holes and shafts assemblies. The minimum hole is assigned the basic diameter (basic size) from which the tolerance and allowance are applied. This system is widely used in industry due to standard reamers being used to produce holes, and standard size plugs used to check hole sizes accurately. Computed Clearance Fit using Basic Hole System .500 = hole basic size .500 basic hole .002 = Allowance (decided) - .002 allowance .498 Maximum shaft Step 1 Step 2 If tolerance of part is = .003 then: .498 maximum shaft .500 basic hole -. 003 tolerance +.003 tolerance .495 minimum shaft .503 maximum hole Step 3 Step 4 Calculate clearances:

.500 smallest hole (MMC) -. 498 largest shaft (MMC) .002 minimum clearance Step 5

.503 largest hole (LMC) -.495 smallest shaft (LMC) .008 maximum clearance Step 6

Drawing annotation of tolerance

Example 3
Basic Shaft System The basic shaft system can be used for shafts that are produced in standard sizes. When applying this system, the largest shaft is assigned the basic size diameter from which the allowance for the mating part is assigned. Then, tolerances are applied on both sides and away from the assigned allowance. One situation for using the basic shaft system is when a purchased motor, with an attached shaft, from which a mating hole must be calculated. Computed Interference fit using Basic Shaft System .500 = shaft basic size .500 basic shaft .002 = Allowance (decided) - .002 allowance .498 Maximum hole Step 1 Step 2 If tolerance of part is = .003 then: .498 maximum hole .500 basic shaft -. 003 tolerance +.003 tolerance .495 minimum hole .503 maximum shaft Step 3 Step 4 Calculate clearances: .498 largest hole (LMC) .495 smallest hole (MMC) -. 500 smallest shaft (LMC) -.503 largest shaft (MMC) - .002 minimum interference -.008 maximum interference Step 5 Step 6

Drawing annotation of tolerance

Example 4
Preferred precision fits The American National Standards Institute publishes the Preferred Limits and Fits for Cylindrical Parts (ANSI B4.1-1967) to define terms and recommending standard allowances, tolerances, and fits for mating parts. The chart data is provided in thousandths (.001) of an inch. For example: -1.2 and -2.2 (See Example 5) for calculation purposes would be -.0012 and -.0022. Running and Sliding fits (RC1-RC9) Loosest of the class fits, used when a shaft is must move freely inside a hole or bearing, and the positioning of the shaft is not critical. This fit would always allow a clearance between shaft and hole.

Clearance locational fits (LC1-LC11) Tighter than RC fits, but the shaft and hole may be the same size. LC fits allow the shaft to be located more accurately than the RC fits but may still be loose. With this fit, a shaft would move less freely inside a hole. Transition locational fits (LT1-LT6) These fits are a compromise between LC and LN (interference/force) fits. These fits would allow either a small amount of clearance or interference. Interference locational fits (LN1-LN3) Used where accuracy of location is the prime importance such as alignment of dowel pins and other devices where location relative to another part is of prime importance. Force and shrinks fits (FN1-FN5) With this fit, the shaft is always considered larger than the hole. These fits are used to transmit torque such as a motor shaft to a bearing. Limits Calculations Using ANSI B4.1 Standard Tables Class RC6 Clearance Fit

Partial Table from ANSI B4.1 Example 5 A nominal hole size of .8750 Diameter and a RC6 Class Fit has been selected. Hole nominal size range = .71 1.19 Minimum clearance = .0016 Maximum clearance = .0048 Tolerance of hole = +.0020, -.0000 Tolerance of shaft = -.0016, -.0028 Calculations: Hole: Basic size .8750 .8750 Tolerance +.0020 -.0000 Maximum hole .8770 Minimum hole .8750 Shaft: Basic size .8750 Tolerance -.0016 Maximum shaft .8734 Minimum shaft .8722 .8750 -.0028

Limits of size for Hole and Shaft

Example 5 Limit Calculations when one Design Feature Exists

When calculating the limit tolerances for features that mate with purchased parts, the purchased part size must be known. This may be obtained be requesting a drawing from a vendor or, a caliper or micrometer can be used to obtain an accurate size. Example: A shaft diameter of .2500 is to be pressed into a part using a FN4 interference (force) fit. Limits of size for the shaft diameter are .2500 and .2495. The table shows a minimum acceptable interference of .0006 and maximum interference of .0016. Calculations: Maximum shaft: . 2500 Maximum interference: -. 0016 Minimum hole: . 2484 Minimum shaft: Minimum interference: Maximum hole: . 2495 -. 0006 .2489

References: Dimensioning and Tolerancing, ASME Y 14.5M-1994, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Technical Drawing Tenth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing, 2003, David A. Matson, Goodheart-Wilcox Co. Inc., Tinley Park, Illinois.

Methods for axially retaining components on a shaft

In shaft assemblies, axial retention is important for maintaining relative displacements between components on the shaft and for limiting the axial motion of the shaft with respect to its relative ground. Even when axial loading is not expected in a given application, the design of a shaft assembly should always incorporate a means positive engagement between the shaft and the components for which axial motion is undesired. There are several methods for ensuring positive engagement including machining steps or threads (see How to tap a hole), or using manufactured hardware such as cotter pins, retaining rings, or shaft collars. Each method has limitations in terms of size, cost, machining requirements, and ease of assembly that make one better suited to a given application than the alternatives.

Importance of axial retention

Figure 1. Multiple Shaft Assembly

Axial retention of components can often end up as an afterthought in the design process. However, it has a large impact on not only the actual performance of the mechanism, but also the design of the mechanism including spacing and alignment issues, the required machining time, the ease of assembly, and the final cost. The importance of axial retention becomes compounded when a design requires component alignment between two or more shafts and when components must pass over each other with minimal clearance.

Why is proper alignment necessary?

Figure 2. Single-Crank 4-Bar

Some of the shaft assembly issues mentioned are present in the mechanisms shown in Figures 1 and 2. In each, there is a clearance issue with a component moving over the end of a shaft. In Figure 2, considering the green link to be ground and the red to be input, the blue coupler link must be able to pass over the shaft connecting the input link to the ground. In both mechanisms, there are also alignment concerns. The better aligned components are, the more efficient your mechanism will operate and the chance of binding or failure will be reduced. Alignments issues pop up in nearly all designs, whether it involves links mounted on separate shafts, planetary gear systems, or sprockets connected by a chain.

Design considerations
When determining which method of axial retention you would like to pursue, there are several considerations to keep in mind. Physical space: This is most important when the design includes more than one shaft and when there are low

clearances between moving parts of the design. When using a retention method that requires a greater length of shaft to secure onto (e.g. shaft collar), other components and shafts may need to be extended outward to ensure that there are no clearance issues. Not only will this require more material, but it also creates longer moment arms for gravity and moving components to act on. Required machining operations: Machining operations can affect manufacturing time, tolerances, and overall

adjustability of your design. If the retention method requires a groove in the shaft, then additional lathe operations will be required during the manufacturing process. The placement of the groove will need to incorporate the relative widths of all components stacked on the shaft. Tight tolerances on the groove width and placement are a must to ensure a good fit between all components, and to discourage any skewing of components, such as links extending out from the shaft. For more detail on machining, see Mechanical Tutorials.

Potential issues: It is important to consider that no matter how much time is put into the designing process,

problems arise throughout the manufacturing and assembly process that require quick adjustments of the design. If additional spacing along a shaft is required to fix alignment or clearance issues, it would be more difficult to adjust if a new groove in the shaft is required. When a component simply needs to be tightened onto a shaft to be adequately secured, it is much easier and faster to make adjustments to the shaft assembly.

Methods of axial retention

Shaft collars

Figure 3. Set Screw Collar

There are two basic types of shaft collars for use with shaft assemblies. These types are the set screw and the basic clamp. The set screw type shaft collars consist of a full ring with a screw which presses into the shaft. The clamp type shaft collars have a variety of different designs such as one-piece clamp, two-piece clamp, and quick-release. The clamp collars adhere to the shaft by tightening a set of screws on the collar itself. Tightening the screws reduces the inner diameter, creating friction between the shaft collar and the shaft. Depending on the design specifications, the collars come in a variety of materials, including steel, stainless steel, aluminum, brass, and plastic.

Advantages
No additional machinining on the shaft Quick installation in just seconds

Disadvantages
Bulky design takes up axial space and could cause clearance issues More expensive than other methods of retention Can cause damage to the shaft surface if not properly tightened

Figure 4. Clamp Collar

Retaining rings

Figure 5. Snap Ring

Retaining rings come in a variety of different types. This section will focus primarily on external retaining rings rather than internal. The most basic types of external retaining rings include spiral and snap. Snap retaining rings do not provide complete coverage around the shaft, whereas spiral rings wrap completely around the outer diameter. Retaining rings must be fit very carefully on a shaft. They are seated in grooves which must be machined into the shaft to fit the rings (see How to use the parting tool on the lathe). The depth of the groove is specified by the manufacturer depending on the ring's size.

=Advantages
Inexpensive to buy in bulk Don't take up much space on the shaft

Disadvantages
Requires additional lathe operations (see How to use the parting tool on the lathe) Non-adjustable location requires nearly perfect assemblies

Figure 6. Spiral Ring

Important tips when installing a retaining ring: It can often be difficult to install rings on large shafts due to limitations on the lathe. Make sure not to cut the groove too deep. Cutting the groove too deep can ruin the shaft and not allow the ring to seat well. Make sure the shaft is spinning properly in the lathe before using the parting tool. Retaining rings have the ability to withstand just as much force as shaft collars, but take up much less space. The best time to use retaining rings is when the shaft has clearance issues with another part and the shaft assembly does not require adjustability.

Cotter pins

Figure 7. Cotter Pin

Cotter pins are yet another means of securing parts to a shaft so that they will remain in the same place. They consist of a pin which is placed through a hole drilled in a shaft, and will often have either ridges to keep it from shift out of the shaft, or a basic locking mechanism on one side.

Advantages
Very inexpensive and can often be made in-house from a piece of thick wire Good for use on large shafts where retaining rings are not plausible

Disadvantages
Not as strong as shaft collars or retaining rings and can shear under large forces Requires additional machining on the mill to install (see How to drill and ream on a mill or drill press)

Special considerations when installing a cotter pin: It is important to select a cotter pin size based on the shaft size. The diameter of the pin should be determined after the shaft is selected. Using a cotter pin that is too large for a shaft will result in an over-sized hole in the shaft, weakening its overall strength. Cotter pins are best used in situations where the axial forces are generally weak. It is also a good to use if space is limited and you have access to a mill, but not a lathe.

Others
Other more specialized methods of axial retention may be considered for use in mechanisms that require exceptional thrust load capacity or custom mating faces. The shaft may be machined to incorporate steps or threads that provide an ideal interface with the assembly that could not have otherwise been achieved with shaft collars, retaining rings, or

cotter pins. Depending on the complexity of the interface requirements, machining will be complicated and require very tight tolerances. This should only be considered when the aforementioned methods are inadequate.

Summary
Axial retention method comparison

Relative Size Relative Cost Machining Requirements Ease of Assembly

Shaft Collar Large

$$

None

Easy

Retaining Ring Small

Lathe - groove

Moderate

Cotter Pins

Small

Mill - hole

Moderate

What is meant by tolerance? How many types of tolerance is there? A1. Tolerance is the difference between maximum and minimum dimensions of a component, ie, between upper limit and lower limit. Depending on the type of application, the permissible variation of dimension is set as per available standard grades. Tolerance is of two types, bilateral and unilateral. When tolerance is present on both sides of nominal size, it is termed as bilateral; unilateral has tolerance only on one side. Q2. What are the types fit? Describe the differences. A2. The nature of assembly of two mating parts is defined by three types of fit system, Clearance Fit, Transition Fit and Interference Fit. Clearance Fit: In this type of fit, the shaft of largest possible diameter can be fitted easily in the hole of smallest possible diameter. Interference Fit : In this type of fit, irrespective of tolerance grade there is always a overlapping of the matting parts. Transition Fit: In this case, a clearance is present between the minimum dimension of the shaft and the minimum dimension of the hole. However, the fit is tight, if the shaft dimension is maximum and the hole dimension is minimum. Hence, transition fit have both the characteristics of clearance fit and interference fit. Q3. What are preferred numbers? A3. Preferred numbers are the numbers belonging to four categories of geometric progression series, called basic series, having common ratio of, 5 10 20 40 10 1.58, 10 1.26, 10 and 10 1.12 1.06 Preferred numbers of derived series are formed by multiplying or dividing the basic series by 10, 100 etc. These numbers are used to build-up or manufacture a product range. The range of operational speeds of a machine or the range of powers of a typical machine may be also as per a series of preferred numbers

Tolerancing System
In an assembly process the degree of "clearance" or "tightness" desired between mating parts is important. In a manufacture of a machine, quality is a primary consideration. Manufacturing precision taken into

the product determines its quality, its cost and selling price. Parts of a machine are designed in order to make a function. The working parts have a definite relationship with each other: free rotation, free longitudinal movement, clamping action, permanent fixed position. Precision is the degree of accuracy necessary to ensure the functioning of a part as intended. There are two types of surfaces: 1) Nonmating parts - left in their original rough-cast form 2) Mating parts - are machined to proper smoothness and must be at correct distance from each other. So greater manufacturing precision is required for these surfaces. However because of impossiblity to make a distance to an absolute size some variation must be allowed. TOLERANCE is the allowable variation for any given size in order to achive a proper function.

asic size : 1.500 in Tolerance on the shaft : 0.002 in Tolerance on the slot : 0.001 in

Allowance : 0.004 (tightest possible fit - maximum material limit)

A clearance fit (the shaft is always smaller than the hole) Tolerance on shaft : 0.002 Tolerance on hole : 0.002 minimum clearance : 1.500 - 1.495 = 0.005 in maximum clearance : 1.502 - 1.493 = 0.009 in clearance 0.005 in for the tightest possible fit

Standardized Tolerances We use standardized tolerances for fits of parts. Cylindrical Fits: Decimal inch system, based on ANSI Standard (B4.1 - 1967(1979)) Millimeter system (ISO), based on ANSI Standard (B4.2 - 1978) ANSI - American National Standards Institute ISO - International Organization for Standardization Basic - Hole System : (Nominal) size is given to Hole Basic - Shaft System: (Nominal) size is given to shaft Basic(or Normal) Hole System : Hole dia. constant, shaft dia. changing either smaller or larger to satisfy the required fit (min hole dia. always nominal size)

Basic (Normal) Shaft System : Shaft dia. constant, hole dia. can be smaller or larger to satisfy the required fit (max shaft always nominal size) Normal - Hole System is prefered because of availability of drills and reamers in machine shop. But for a transmission system bearings must fit the shaft so shaft system is used. Decimal inch system, based on ANSI Standard (B4.1 - 1967(1979)) The letter symbols are used in ANSI Standard RC, running or sliding fit LC, locational clearance fit LT, locationa transition fit LN, locational interference fit FN, force or shrink fit RC# (The letter symbols are used in conjunction with numbers) the lower RC numbers are the tighter fits the higher numbers are the looser fits FN4 - Represents a complete fit (class 4 force fit)

APPENDIX 8 B

SECTION 4 -- PREFERRED LIMITS AND FITS FOR CYLINDRICAL PARTS

4.1 SCOPE This section covers preferred limits and fits for cylindrical parts used in the design of APS mechanical components. The tables included in this section are based on ANSI B4.1-1979 (R1987). For purchased parts such as shafts, dowels, bearings, bushings, etc., fits and allowances outlined in this section shall be used when manufacturers' recommendations are not available. 4.2 DEFINITIONS Allowance: Tolerance: Basic Size: Fit: Clearance Fit: Interference Fit: Transition Fit: Basic Hole System: Basic Shaft System: Allowance is the intentional difference between the maximum material limits of mating parts. It is the minimum clearance or maximum interference intended between such parts. A tolerance is the total by which a specific dimension may vary. The basic size is that diameter to which allowances and tolerances are applied to achieve the limits of size for shaft and hole. Fit is the general term used to signify the range of tightness which may result from the application of a specific combination of allowances and tolerance in the design of mating parts. A clearance fit is one having limits of size so prerscribed that a clearance always results when mating parts are assembled. An interference fit is one having limits of size so prescribed that an interference always results when mating parts are assembled. A transition fit is one having limits of size so prescribed that either a clearance or an interference may result when mating parts are assembled. A basic hole system is a system of fits in which the design size of the hole is the basic size and the allowance is applied to the shaft. This is the system used in this standard. A basic shaft system is a system of fits in which the design size of the shaft is the basic size and the allowance is applied to the hole.

4.3 SELECTION OF FITS In selecting limits of size for any application, the type of fit is determined first, based on the use or service required from the equipment being designed. Then the limits of size of the mating parts are established to insure that the desired fit will be produced. The standard fits shown herein should cover most applications. Plate/Bearing Fit from Table 4.5: 1" Nom. Size, Hole = + 0.8 thousandths - 0.0 thousandths Plate = 1.0000 dia. Shaft (Bearing OD) = + 1.9 thousandths + 1.4 thousandths Prg OD = 1.0019 dia. + .0008 - .0000 +.0000 -.0005

Bearing/Shaft Fit from Table 4.1: 1/2" Nom. Size, Hole = + 1.6 thousandths - 0.0 thousandths Prg ID + .5000 dia. Shaft = - 2.0 thousandths - 3.0 thousandths Shaft OD = .4980 dia. _________________________ *Purchased sleeve bearings generally come with OD oversize by the amount necessary to achieve the proper press fit in a normal reamed hole. It is therefore necessary for the designer to specify the hole size and tolerance to accommodate the bearing accordingto the "Limits of Clearance" in the tables, or to use the manufacturer's recommendations if available. + .0016 - .0000 + .000 - .001

SECTION 6 -- GENERAL DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING

6.1 SCOPE Rules and guidelines for dimensioning and tolerancing are intended to establish uniform practices for specifying and interpreting design requirements. As a rule, all APS drawings shall comply with ANSI Y14.5M-82, "Dimensioning and Tolerancing," in its entirety. If there is a conflict, the rules given in this section shall take precedence. ANSI Y14.5M-82 is included in this design manual as Appendix 6-A. For a quick reference, only the most commonly used dimensioning and tolerancing requirements are outlined below. 6.2 DEFINITIONS 6.2.1 Dimension. A dimension is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measure and indicated on a drawing along with lines, symbols, and notes to define a geometric characteristic of an object. 6.2.2 Reference Dimension (REF). A reference dimension is a dimension without tolerance used only for information purposes and does not govern production or inspection operations. The preferred method is to place the reference dimension within parentheses. 6.2.3 Nominal Size (NOM). The nominal size is the designation which is used for the purpose of general identification, that is, 1.500 IPS, .062 stock size, etc. 6.2.4 Basic Dimension. A numerical value used to describe the theoretically exact size, profile, orientation, or location of a feature or datum target. It is the basis from which permissible variations are established by tolerances on other dimensions, in notes, or in feature control frames. Basic dimensions are shown on the drawing in enclosed rectangle. 6.2.5 Maximum Material Condition (MMC). The condition in which a feature of size contains the maximum amount of material within the stated limits of size; for example, minimum hole diameter, maximum shaft diameter.

6.2.6 Allowance. An allowance is the intentional difference between the maximum material limits of mating parts. It is the minimum clearance or maximum interference intended between such parts. 6.2.7 Tolerance. The total amount by which a specific dimension is permitted to vary. The tolerance is the difference between the maximum and minimum limits. 6.2.8 Standard Tolerances. Dimensions shown without tolerances are controlled by the standard tolerances shown in the title block, except dimensions in welding symbols; those labeled STOCK, NOM, REF, MAX, MIN, BASIC; and similar dimensions that are otherwise controlled. 6.2.9 Datum. A datum is the origin from which the location or geometric characteristics of features of a part are established. NOT A CENTERLINE. 6.2.10 Feature. The general term applied to a physical portion of a part, such as a surface, hole, or slot. 6.3 GENERAL DIMENSIONING RULES 6.3.1 Dimensioning of parts must convey enough information to define clearly the engineering intent, so that no scaling of drawings is required, nor any assumptions need to be made. Functional dimensional values is the preferred method. 6.3.2 Each dimension must be expressed clearly so that it will be interpreted only one way. No factional dimensions are to be used only decimal dimension is the accepted practice. 6.3.3 No surface, line, or point may be located by more than one toleranced dimension in any one direction. If a dimension is repeated, it is marked REF. 6.3.4 Dimensions shall be selected and arranged to avoid accumulation of tolerances. 6.3.5 Dimensions are shown on the view that most clearly represents the form of the feature being dimensioned. 6.3.6 Dimensions are shown outside the outline of the part unless clarity is impaired. 6.3.7 Dimensioning to hidden lines shall be avoided. 6.3.8 Dimensions must be selected to give the required information directly so that no calculations are needed to arrive at usable figures. 6.3.9 Where practicable, the finished part should be defined without specifying the manufacturing method. Thus, only the diameter of a hole is given without specifying how it is to be produced. 6.3.10 Dimensions out of scale shall be avoided. 6.3.11 Unidirectional dimensioning is to be used, that is, all dimensions and notes should be aligned with the bottom of the drawing.

6.4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 6.4.1 All drawings produced by APS (except the Conventional Facilities Division) shall use the inch as the unit of measurement as per ANSI Y14.5. 6.4.2 On drawings that are not to be released for production or fabricatioin (e.g., drawings for machine physics layout, beamline layout, survey and alignment networks), units of meters or millimeters may be used as primary units with or without equivalent inch dimensions in brackets. The drawing should indicate in a note that this drawing is a metric drawing. 6.5 APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONS Dimensions are applied with dimension lines or as notes with leaders. Dimension lines indicate linear distance between feature centers or surfaces directly or by the use of extension lines (see Figure 6.1). 6.6 TOLERANCING Dimensional tolerances may be expressed as follows: 6.6.1 Title Block Tolerancing - The tolerances are specified in the title block and depend on the number of decimal places used in the basic dimension (Figure 6.2). 6.6.2 Limit Tolerancing - The high (maximum) value of a dimension is placed above the low (minimum) value as shown in Figure 6.3. 6.6.3 Plus and Minus Tolerancing - The basic dimension is followed by plus and minus tolerance values (Figure 6.4). 6.6.4 Geometric Tolerancing - The tolerances are defined by means of a Feature Control Frame (Figure 6.5) which specifies dimensional limits for an individual geometric feature such as location, orientation, form, profile and runout. The Feature Control Frame is divided into several compartments containing (1) geometric characteristic symbol (which is, when applicable, preceded by a diameter symbol), and (3) datum references as needed. Symbols used for geometric tolerances are shown in Figure 6.6. These symbols can be down-loaded from a CAD file available from the design room supervisor. Figure 6.7 shows typical uses of geometric tolerances on a drawing. 6.7 GENERAL TOLERANCING RULES 6.7.1 Tolerances shall be assigned, directly or as default values, to all dimensions in a drawing. 6.7.2 Title block default tolerances shall be used whenever feasible or modified for the drawing requirements.

6.7.3 For stock such as bars, sheets, tubings, and structural shapes, tolerances established by industry or Government standards shall apply unless geometric tolerances are specified explicitly. 6.7.4 Tolerances shall be specified to meet actual design requirements. Do not use restrictive tolerances simply because they can be easily generated on a CAD station. 6.7.5 Bilateral tolerances should be selected instead of unilateral tolerances when plus and minus tolerancing is used. Preference should be given to equal plus and minus values. 6.7.6 Tolerances shall have the same number of decimal places as the base dimensions, and have the same character height as the dimensions.

9.7 Terms related to Fits and Tolerances ANSI B4.2-1978 9.7.1 Denitions D basic size of the hole d basic size of the shaft u upper deviation l lower deviation F Fundamental deviation D tolerance grade for the hole d tolerance grade for the shaft Tolerance the dierence between the maximum and minimum size limits of the dimensions of a part Natural tolerance a tolerance equal to three standard deviations from the mean Clearance amount of space between an internal and external member Interference the amount of overlap between an internal and external member International Tolerance Grade Numbers (IT) designate groups of tolerances such that the tolerances for a particular IT number have the same relative level of accuracy, i.e., IT 9 Smaller numbers mean tighter tolerances, IT 6 through IT 11 are used for preferred ts. For a 32 mm hole we might use 32H7 The H establishes the fundamental deviation and the number 7 denes a tolerance grade of IT7. The grade number species a tolerance zone. For the mating shaft we might have 32g6 9.7.2 Table of Tolerance Grades 2 Lower and Upper Deviations For shaft letter codes c, d, f, g, and h

Table 9.1: International Tolerance Grades Basic Sizes All values in mm Tolerance Grades A<dB IT6 IT7 IT8 IT9 IT10 IT11 0-3 0.006 0.010 0.014 0.025 0.040 0.060 3-6 0.008 0.012 0.018 0.030 0.048 0.075 6-10 0.009 0.015 0.022 0.036 0.058 0.090 10-18 0.011 0.018 0.027 0.043 0.070 0.110 18-30 0.013 0.021 0.033 0.052 0.084 0.130 30-50 0.016 0.025 0.039 0.062 0.100 0.160 50-80 0.019 0.030 0.046 0.074 0.120 0.190 80-120 0.022 0.035 0.054 0.087 0.140 0.220 120-180 0.025 0.040 0.063 0.100 0.160 0.250 180-250 0.029 0.046 0.072 0.115 0.185 0.290 250-315 0.032 0.052 0.081 0.130 0.210 0.320 315-400 0.036 0.057 0.089 0.140 0.230 0.360 Upper deviation = fundamental deviation Lower deviation = upper deviation tolerance grade For shaft letter codes k, n, p ,s, and u Lower deviation = fundamental deviation Upper deviation = lower deviation + tolerance grade Hole letter code is H Lower deviation = 0 Upper deviation = tolerance grade

9.7.3 Fundamental Deviations for Shafts Metric Series These are related to the tolerance grades. See the table below. Capital letters always refer to the hole (or bore) and lowercase letters are used for the shaft. 9.7.4 Fit Types Table 9.3 provides a linguistic description for commonly used references to t types. 9.8 Flywheel Design One of the biggest issues with regard to ywheels is balancing. Because they are, by intention, devices with large inertias, balancing them to remove eccentric loading and thus lower the loading on bearings and other components is very important. Flywheels develop large stresses at their inter hub connection due to dynamic forces caused by the spinning. These stresses can lead to failure. Careful design is required to avoid catastrophic failure. 9.9 Critical Speeds There are three types of vibration that are encountered with shafts:

Table 9.2: Fundamental Deviations for Shafts Metric Series basic dimension Clearance Transition A < d B Upper Deviation Letter c d f g h k 0-3 -0.060 -0.020 -0.006 -0.002 0 0 3-6 -0.070 -0.030 -0.010 -0.004 0 +0.001 6-10 -0.080 -0.040 -0.013 -0.005 0 +0.001 10-14 -0.095 -0.050 -0.016 -0.006 0 +0.001 14-18 -0.095 -0.050 -0.016 -0.006 0 +0.001 18-24 -0.110 -0.065 -0.020 -0.007 0 +0.002 24-30 -0.110 -0.065 -0.020 -0.007 0 +0.002 30-40 -0.120 -0.080 -0.025 -0.009 0 +0.002 40-50 -0.130 -0.080 -0.025 -0.009 0 +0.002 50-65 -0.140 -0.100 -0.030 -0.010 0 +0.002 65-80 -0.150 -0.100 -0.030 -0.010 0 +0.002 80-100 -0.170 -0.120 -0.030 -0.012 0 +0.003 100-120 -0.180 -0.120 -0.036 -0.012 0 +0.003 120-140 -0.200 -0.145 -0.043 -0.014 0 +0.003 140-160 -0.210 -0.145 -0.043 -0.014 0 +0.003 160-180 -0.230 -0.145 -0.043 -0.014 0 +0.003 180-200 -0.240 -0.170 -0.050 -0.015 0 +0.004 200-225 -0.260 -0.170 -0.050 -0.015 0 +0.004 225-250 -0.280 -0.170 -0.050 -0.015 0 +0.004 250-280 -0.300 -0.190 -0.056 -0.017 0 +0.004 280-315 -0.330 -0.190 -0.056 -0.017 0 +0.004 315-355 -0.360 -0.210 -0.062 -0.018 0 +0.004 355-400 -0.400 -0.210 -0.062 -0.018 0 +0.004

Interference Lower-Deviation Letter n p s u +0.004 +0.006 +0.014 +0.018 +0.008 +0.012 +0.019 +0.023 +0.010 +0.015 +0.023 +0.028 +0.012 +0.018 +0.028 +0.033 +0.012 +0.018 +0.028 +0.033 +0.015 +0.022 +0.035 +0.041 +0.015 +0.022 +0.035 +0.048 +0.017 +0.026 +0.043 +0.060 +0.017 +0.026 +0.043 +0.070 +0.020 +0.032 +0.053 +0.087 +0.020 +0.032 +0.059 +0.102 +0.023 +0.037 +0.071 +0.124 +0.023 +0.037 +0.079 +0.144 +0.027 +0.043 +0.092 +0.170 +0.027 +0.043 +0.100 +0.190 +0.027 +0.043 +0.108 +0.210 +0.031 +0.050 +0.122 +0.236 +0.031 +0.050 +0.130 +0.258 +0.031 +0.050 +0.140 +0.284 +0.034 +0.056 +0.158 +0.315 +0.034 +0.056 +0.170 +0.350 +0.037 +0.062 +0.190 +0.390 +0.037 +0.062 +

Type of t Clearance

Reference Loose running t Free running t Close running t Sliding t Locational clearance t (snug t) Locational transitional t Locational transitional t(wringing t) Locational transitional t (tight t) Medium Drive Fit Force Fit

Description For wide commercial tolerances or allowances on external members Not for use where accuracy is essential,but good for large temperature variations, high running speeds, or heavy journal pressures For running on accurate machines and for accurate location at moderate speeds and journal pressures Where parts are not intended to run freely, but must move and turn freely and locate accurately Provides snug t for location of stationary parts, but can be freely assembled and disassembled. For accurate location, a compromise between clearance and interference For more accurate location where greater interference is permissible

Symbol H11/c11 H9/d9

H8/f8 H7/g6 H7/h6 H7/k6 H7/n6

Transition

Interference

For parts requiring rigidity and alignment with H7/p6 prime accuracy of location but without special bore pressure requirements For ordinary steel parts or shrink ts on light H7/s6 sections, the tightest t usable with cast iron Suitable for parts which can be highly stressed or for shrink ts where the heavy pressing forces H7/u required are impractical

9.11 Summary While shafting can be purchased as a stock item, most applications require some customization of the layout and dimensioning to accommodate the attachment of components and bearings. Almost all shafts are 9Figure 9.5: Typical automotive universal joint Figure 9.6: Small exible couplings designed for high cycle fatigue (HCF), and are made of steel, since it has an fatigue limit. One is cautioned to applied the shaft diameter design equations presented in Norton (Equation 9.6 & Equation 9.8) properly since specic requirements must be met to apply these equations. Many other factors come into play during the shaft design process. These may include: keyways and keys splines couplings shaft vibrations and balancing ywheels