A Study on Tribal Social Structure (Family) and Tribal-Forest Relationship A Project submitted for the course Contemporary India

(HUM C312)

by, C.AJAY ADITYA-2008B4A7376P and JAYKIRAN KAMICHETTY-2007A1PS453P.

BIRLA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, PILANI-333031.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE: FAMILY

The structure of anything consists of the stable relationships among its parts: moreover, the term part itself implies a certain degree of stability. Since a social system is composed of the interrelated acts of the people, its structure must be sought in some degree of regularity or recurrence in these acts. The term social structure has often been used interchangeably with social organization in social anthropology and has been used particularly in the analysis of kinship and of political and legal institutions of primitive societies. R. Firth explicitly distinguishes between two terms. According to him, a social organization is concerned with the choices and decisions included in the actual social relations (the working arrangement of society) while social structure refers to the more fundamental social relations which give a society its basic form and which set limits to the courses of action organizationally possible. Fortes believes that the term can be applied to any ordered arrangement of distinguishable wholes i.e. to institutions, groups, situations, processes, social positions: but Evans Pritchard restricts the term to the relationships between groups. Radcliffe-Brown considers all the social relations of a person with others as part of a social structure; and he includes in the social structures the differentiations of individuals and of classes by their social roles. He says: In the study of the social structure, the concrete reality with which we are concerned is the set of actually existing relations, at a given moment of time, which links together certain human beings. Lucy Mair says, The word structure is now the central concept in a large part of the work being done in social anthropology. We think of the society, not the culture, as an orderly arrangement of parts, and that our business is to detect and explain this order. It consists in relationships between persons which are regulated by a common body of recognized rights and obligations. Beteille states: There is some advantage in viewing the social structure as a set of relations between groups of persons having a high degree of consistency and constancy. One can then identify these groups, define their boundaries and specify their mutual positions. Here we have defined social structure as an ordered arrangement of relationships between members of a given social group. We have tried to examine the nature of

relationships obtaining in the various spheres of the life of a tribal group. These spheres include family, marriage, kinship, religion and political relations. Family is one of the most important primary institutions. It is one of the oldest institutions of the human society. Although sociologists are convinced that the family is the basic unit of social organization, the term itself remains on of the most loosely defined in their vocabulary. The family is an organized group. Its members occupy a definite set of mutual statuses, interact according to define behavior patterns, and are motivated by reciprocal attitudes and sentiments. Tribal India exhibits a colourful diversity of families because of varied rules and customs among different tribes. Different forms of family came into existence at different stage of cultural and social development viz, matriarchal family, patriarchal family, polygamous family and monogamous family, joint family and nuclear family. It is quite difficult to ascertain as to which form of family came into existence first or which was the earliest form of family. In tribal families, the members even at a tender age are attracted towards economic activities e.g. grazing of animals, knowledge of forest produce, agricultural activities and tribal indigenous handicrafts. From the early childhood, these people try to develop know how of the above traits. Family transmits the culture, customs and tradition of the tribal group from one generation to another. As the tribals have no scripts of their own, these things pass from one generation to another, orally. But as tribal people here come in contact with the people outside their society, their socialization process is affected. Because, the internal socialization process tries to maintain and preserve their tribal culture heritage, whereas the outside contact tries to bring changes in the same. Inspite of all these changes, the family plays a very significant role in maintaining the tribal culture.

Characteristics of Tribal Families

The characteristics of the tribal families can be viewed on the following basis: 1) 2) 3) Membership of the family and the nature of family members. Form of marriage. Family authority and descent.

On the basis of membership or number of members, the tribal families can be classified into the following: a) Nuclear family. b) Family of procreation, and c) Joint family. (a) Nuclear family This type of family consists of parents (husband and wife) and their unmarried children. This is the smallest and most probably the earliest family unit. Compared to joint family its composition is easy and this small unit is responsible for looking after the needs of its members. Among the Ho tribe the family and the clan (kabila) were dependent on each other, but there is clear cut division of work between family and clan. For example, clan or kili was collectively responsible for the collection of forest produce and later on, it distributed the same (equally) among the families. Similarly, they collectively worship the village deities, but each family cooperated in a separate way. Yet for the personal needs of its members, the family was deemed responsible. If a person falls sick, all the family members took care of that sick person. Nowadays because of dowry and high bride price, the girls among Ho tribe remain unmarried for a longer period and unmarried girls remain with their parents. (b) Family of Procreation Though the basis of formation of this type of family is marriage, some other relatives also stay with the family. In India, among kharia tribe, this type of family is specially found.

(c) Joint Family This type of family has been basically the characteristics of traditional Hindu society and many tribal groups in India also seem to have adopted this form of family. Where as in the nuclear family there is network of primary kins, there is presence of secondary kin members, thus there is a wider network of kinship members.

On the basis of family authority, descent and residence, family system among Indian tribes, they can be divided into two categories. (a) Matrilineal Family Such a type of family is also termed as matriarchal family as authority in such family rests with the mother. These are also known as mother centred family. This is perhaps the oldest form of family, in which children are known through mother and descent is traced from mothers side. In this family five relationships are found: mother-son, mother, daughter, brother-brother, sister-sister, and brothersister. In such type of family women have exclusive rights over family property and on all sorts of economic activities and social matters. Husband, after marriage, leaves his parental place and goes to his wifes home to live on a permanent basis and his wifes home is the basis of his family. Mother plays more important role in looking after the children. In other important tasks, the role played by mothers brother (maternal uncle) is more important than that of the husband (father).even on religious matters, women play key role. Matrilineal types of families in India are found in the following three areas: 1. Khasi and Garo tribes residing at the southern coast of Brahmaputra. 2. Nayars of Kerala and 3. Kadar, Eurula and Pulayan tribes of south India. Khasi Khasi are matriarchal and matrilineal. These people are matrilocal also. Among these people, having no daughter into family is considered inauspicious. If a girl is not born in the family, there is a custom of adopting her as customarily she is the only legal heir to the family property. Thus, property is inherited by the daughter from the mother. The youngest daughter usually performs familys religious activities and she gets major share in family property. Daughters automatically inherit mothers property. A man, before marriage gives his earning to his mother and after marriage, to his wife. Thus, women enjoy control over property. Garo Garo tribe is another interesting example of matriarchal family. Women enjoy rights over family property. Yet all women do not have equal rights over property matters. Though wife (mother) is the owner of the family, she gets her ownership through her husband. Women enjoy property rights so long as her

husband is alive. As one could find among Garo Nokroms, the mother-in-law married the son-in-law (after her daughters death) so that the property remains intact and no other person could inherit the family property. Among these Garos if a woman becomes widow, her property rights are in danger. Therefore, she marries her own son-in-law within a specified period, after which the property could easily be inherited by the daughter in the family. Thus, a widow is devoid of property rights if she does not marry again within a specific period. This second marriage at times used to take place, irrespective of her age especially with a view to retain the property. The Nayars of south India, were once practising matriarchal system. The after marriage did not accompany her husband to the new home. Rather, she stayed back into the family of orientation and her husband used to visit her from time to time. The maternal uncle (mama) had more important position in the family than the father. The children in the family were more responsible to the maternal uncle than the father. He (mama) looked after the children. All property matters were decided by the mother. Thus, in matriarchal societies, all property rights, descent and inheritance etc, were from mother to the daughter. But after coming in contact with the outside world their traditional family system is on a decline and these people have also started adopting the patriarchal model. (b) Patriarchal Family Patriarchal family is also patrilineal and patriclocal. This means in such type of family all the authority and economic rights pass from the husband or father to the son. The descent is traced from the male line. After marriage, the girl leaves her parents house and stays with her husband. After marriage, the husbands home is considered as her own home. In patriarchal family, the head of the household is usually a man. His decision on family matters is supreme and all the family members are expected to follow his decision. There are a few tribal societies which have a matriarchal system, while in all the remaining societies, there is patriarchal system. In the following pages, some important tribes from various regions of the country having patriarchal system have been briefly discussed. Kharia Reside into hilly region of Orissa. These people strictly follow patriarchal system. The male head of the family enjoys highest authority. The descent is reckoned through him. The girls, after marriage, leave the parental home and stay with the husband. Usually, these people follow monogamy. Bhils

Bhils are an important patriarchal tribe. Father has extraordinary powers in the family but he does not misuse his powers arbitrarily. These people have a sort of joint family system which varies from the Hindu joint family system. After marriage, all the sons (married ones) instead of staying with the father make their own house, near to fathers house and live there. Father gives to each of his married son, some land and a few domestic animals. The son, later on, does not economically depend on his father. Though they live and eat separately, the father keeps a watch on all the activities and conduct of his sons. The sons perform all the tasks under their fathers guidance and he is a highly respected person in the family. On various festive and ceremonial occasions, fathers house is the centre of all activities. At the time of sons marriage, bride-price is paid by the father. The patriarchal family system is very strong among the Bhils of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Naga Among Naga tribe also there is patrilineal system. Like Bhils, these people also make separate dwelling after marriage. Thus, there is a system of neo-local residence. Father gives some part of his property to his sons after their marriage. But if he does not like any son, he can debar him from his property (the property which he has earns or inherited). If there is no male child in the family or if the father dies before a son is born in the family, the property goes to his father and after his death, the property is inherited by the youngest son. Now it is purely up to the youngest brother whether he keeps his deceased brothers property himself or distributes among other brothers also. Thus, in Patriarchal family the property is inherited through male line. Women are debarred from the property rights. In husbands house, the property is inherited by her sons and in fathers house, by her brother. Thus, in Patriarchal system, usually the condition of women has been, by and large, unfavourable. Yet in India, there are certain tribal groups where, inspite of a Patriarchal system, women play important role in the familys economic activities. At times, they seem to play more important role than their men folk. Women among Bhotias are the transhumance residing in the northern parts of Kumaon and Garhwal in the Himalayan region. The whole Bhotia economy centres on their women folk. She is expert in making garments and in the preparation of carpet, weaving of shawls, woollen rugs and several woollen garments at home. The men are traders who usually move from one place to another. Women are the custodians of the family purse and take decisions on important economic matters. Thus, by their skill and hard work, these women have been able to attain a respectable position in the Bhotia society. After their coming in contact with the Hindu society, we can observe changes in the position of women. In family and other matters, the outside

contact has adversely affected their position. The Bhotia women now, no more enjoy extra-ordinary freedom and economic independence. The introduction of dowry and early marriages have also adversely affected the position of Bhotia women in the family.

On the basis of marriage, tribal families can be classified into the following categories: a) Monogamous family and b) Polygamous family i) Polygenous family

ii) Polyandrous family (a) Monogamous Family The monogamous family is the most popular form among tribal groups also. In this system, a man marries only one woman. This type of family generally consists of husband, wife and children. Among tribals, Kharia, Ho, Santhals and Kadars etc are monogamous. Some of the tribals seem to have adopted monogamy owing to economic hardships. Ho tribe follows monogamy because of high bride price, due to which it becomes very difficult for a man to marry more than one woman. The Gonds of Madhya Pradesh are monogamous but some of the rich Gonds keep a second wife also in the family. Among Tangsa tribe, there is a custom of marrying one woman. However, these people marry again, if the first wife dies or if she is barren or ill and is unable to perform agricultural work other economic activities. This is important to point out that in monogamy, the opportunity of alternative marriage (second marriage) is available to man only. (b) Polygamous Family In this type of family system, man and woman, (husband and wife) both by custom, have more than one life partner. This type is further subdivided into two i.e. polyandrous family and polygenous family. Polyandrous Family In this type of family, a woman has two or more than two husbands. Its earliest instance could be taken from the famous epic Mahabharata where Panchali or Draupadi had five pandavas as her husbands. Among Toda tribe in south India,

several brothers have (one) common wife in the family. There are several other Indian tribes following these customs. Some of these are the Khas tribe (Jaunsaris) of Jaunsar Bhavar, Kota, Tiyan and Ladaki Botas etc. In this type of family, the biological father of a child may be any one of the husbands, but the legal father is the one who performs a special ritual at the time of childs birth. When the first child is born, the eldest brother among the husbands performs the ritual. Likewise, the other brothers perform the ritual in subsequent births. Among some of these tribes, there was a custom of female infanticide in the past. The main reason behind this was economic hardships and fear of abduction of young girl by neighbouring tribes. The prevalence of the practice of female infanticide was seen till nineteenth century when the British government in India banned this practice by law. However, banning of this practice altered the sex ratio in tribal areas, but the custom of polyandry was in existence till recent times. In due course of time, changes occur in the form of polyandrous marriage. Because, several brothers, combined together, marry many women instead of one. Thus, instead of polyandrous marriage it ciuld be termed as group marriage. The group marriage came into exiatence because of wide range of age gap between the brothers. When the eldest brother becomes of marriageable age and marries a woman, the youngest brother sometimes is of very tender age or even sometimes he is born after the eldest brother has already married. The woman (eldest brothers wife) at times looked after the new born child (her husbands youngest brother) and treated him as her husband when he became young. The other younger brothers bring a new wife to the family when they become young and she automatically becomes wife to all the brothers. Thus, many brothers share many wives, depending on the economic status of the family. Polyandrous family consists of 2 types: a) Fraternal Polyandrous family b) Non-fraternal polyandrous family In fraternal polyandrous family type, all husbands in the family are siblings (real brothers), where as in the latter type (non-fraternal polyandrous family), a husband may be a person other than the real brother viz, a cousin or a near or a distant relative. Extreme poverty and high bride price system seem to be one of the important factors for this type of marriage. Among Eravans (south India), the economically backward persons and artisan tribes of Malawar followed this practice. There has been a feeling that polyandry brings harmony and unity in the family. It also protected agricultural land from becoming uneconomic. The tribals such as Toda, Badaga and Kurumba, who are traditional artisans, prepare

iron tools, and wooden utensils and also earthen pots. These people also do some agriculture along with their artisan activities. These people have this feeling that all these activities in the family bring better coordination among the brothers having fraternal polyandrous family. These factors have been responsible for the existence of this type of family in the past. However, outside contact has encouraged them to adopt monogamous family, which has become universal in character.
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