The photovoltaic effect is the creation of voltage or electric current in a material upon exposure to light.

Though the photovoltaic effect is directly related to the photoelectric effect, they are

different processes. In the photoelectric effect, electrons are ejected from a material's surface upon exposure to radiation. The photovoltaic effect differs in that electrons are transferred between different bands (i.e., from the valence to conduction bands) within the material, resulting in the buildup of voltage between two electrodes.[1] In most photovoltaic applications the radiation is sunlight, which is why the devices are known as solar cells. In the case of a p-n junction solar cell, illuminating the material creates an electric current as excited electrons and the remaining holes are swept in different directions by the built-in electric field of the depletion region.[2

Types of photovoltaic cells Monocrystalline silicon photovoltaic cells Polycrystalline silicon photovoltaic cells Thin-film silicon photovoltaic cells Material: Monocrystalline silicon photovoltaic cells

Monocrystalline silicon photovoltaic cells are the oldest form of photovoltaic cells and have the highest conversion efficiency among all commercial photovoltaic cells today, but they require thinly sliced silicon of high purity. They need energy and capital investment to produce monocrystalline silicon, which boosts its price. Product Features: High performance PV modules made of monocrystalline (155.55 mm) silicon solar cells with module efficiency of up to 14.1% Bypass diodes to minimise power loss with shading Textured cell surface for especially high current yields BSF structure (Black Surface Field) for optimising cell efficiency Use of tempered white glass, EVA plastic, weather-protection foil and anodised aluminium frame with water drainage holes for prolonged use Output: connection cable with water-protected plug connector

Material: Polycrystalline silicon photovoltaic cells

While their heat conversion efficiency falls short of monocrystalline cells, they are inexpensive and thus are the current mainstream.

The resistivity, mobility, and free-carrier concentration in monocrystalline silicon vary with doping concentration of the single crystal silicon. Whereas the doping of polycrystalline silicon does have an effect on the resistivity, mobility, and free-carrier concentration, these properties strongly depend on the polycrystalline grain size, which is a physical parameter that the material scientist can manipulate.[5] Through the methods of crystallization to form polycrystalline silicon, an engineer can control the size of the polycrystalline grains which will vary the physical properties of the material. Thin-film silicon photovoltaic cells These are photovoltaic cells produced by depositioning silicon film onto substrate glass. While the cost is kept low because less silicon is used compared to crystalline types, conversion is less efficient than crystalline types. But efficiency can be improved by layering several cells and generating power from each one (multijunction); something that can only be done using thin-film types.

Photovoltaics Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect The conversion of solar radiation into an electron current takes place in the photovoltaic cell, a device consisting of a thin sheet of semiconductor metal, very

often made of suitably treated silicon. This treatment is characterised by various chemical processes including so-called "doping". Adding impurities, that is atoms of boron and phosphorous, to the crystalline structure of the silicon generates an electrical field and produces the charges necessary for the formation of an electrical current. This is created when the cell, whose two faces are connected to a user, is exposed to the light. characteristics hotovoltaic cell is essentially a diode with a large surface. Exposing it to solar radiation the cell behaves like a current generator, whose functioning may be described in terms of its voltage-current characteristic.

Generally speaking the characteristic of a photovoltaic cell depends on three basic variables; intensity of solar radiation, temperature and area of the cell. The intensity of solar radiation has no significant effect on the open circuit voltage; vice versa the

intensity of the short-circuit current varies in proportion to the varying intensity of the irradiation, increasing as this increases. Temperature has no significant effect on the reading of the short-circuit current. On the contrary, this is proportional to the open circuit voltage, the voltage decreasing as the temperature increases. The cell's area has no effect on the reading of the voltage. Vice versa this is directly proportional to the available current.

n closed circuit conditions the current generated is maximum (Isc), while in open circuit conditions the voltage is maximum (Voc). In open and closed circuit conditions zero power will be generated as, applying the equation P=V x I, there will be zero current in the first case and zero voltage in the second. At other points power will increase with an increase in voltage, reaching a maximum and decreasing rapidly in proximity to the Voc.

Mono Si Cell 14-17% efficiency

Multi Si

Amorphous Si 4-6% single / 710% tandem

GaAs

CdTe

CIS (CULNSe2) 12%

12-14%

32,5% (lab.)

10%

Benefits

High stable efficiency Reliable technology

< efficiency cost < Easier to fabricate Less space consuming

Cost < need for High resistance materials and to high energy in temperatures fabrication, good (OK for level of efficiency concentrators) with low radiation

Low cost

Very stable

Cost Grey energy Quantity of Drawbacks material required for fabrication Complexity

Complexity Sensitive to impurities

Low efficiency Initial deterioration Stability over time

Toxicity Availability of material

Toxicity Toxicity Availability (Cd) of material

The production of photovoltaic cells Production methods of photovoltaic cells will differ depending on the type of cell we intend to produce The major differences lie in the fabrication of the slice of silicon, called the "wafer", which is the principal structure to which various (mainly chemical) treatments are applied, leading to the production of the cell itself. The monocrystal wafer is produced by the Czochralski method, based on the crystallisation of an extremely pure "seed" of material, which is plunged into the

liquid silicon and then extracted and cooled slowly to obtain a monocrystal "ingot", which will be cylindrical in shape (from 13 to 30 cm in diameter and 200 cm in length). This is then doped by adding boron. The ingots are subsequently sliced into wafers measuring between 250 and 350 micrometers thick. Instead, multicrystal wafers come from the fusion and subsequent re-crystallisation of silicon discarded by the electronics industry (silicon "scraps"). From this fusion we get a "pig", which is then vertically cut into ingots in the shape of parallelepipeds. A subsequent horizontal cut produces slices with a similar thickness to monocrystal cells (250-350 micrometers). Compared to monocrystal wafers, multicrystal wafers provide a high level of efficiency at a lower cost. For wafers to become actual photovoltaic cells it is necessary (in the case of both mono and multicrystal wafers):
o o

to "clean" them by plunging them into soda; to add phosphorous atoms (this is N type doping) to the material in order to produce the "p-n junction". This is done by slowly passing the wafers through an oven that "diffuses" orthophosphoric acid, containing the desired phosphorous atoms, into the material; to make the front electrical contacts (a metallic grid which collects the electrical charges) and the back surface (a full area metal contact) by screen-printing or electrodeposition, after applying a thin, non-reflective layer (titanium dioxide, TiO2). At this point the cell is tested by simulating standard conditions of sunlight (1000 W/m at 25 with AM1.5 spectrum) in order to classify it and so combine it with cells that have analogous electrical characteristics. This step is very important in order to avoid producing modules with very different cells, which could lead to a drastic reduction in the level of performance of photovoltaic modules. Application of solar cell Mono Si Multi Si Amorphous Si 4-6% single / 710% tandem GaAs CdTe CIS (CULNSe2) 12%

Cell 14-17% efficiency High stable efficiency Reliable technology

12-14%

32,5% (lab.)

10%

Benefits

Cost < need for < efficiency materials and cost < Easier energy in to fabricate fabrication, good Less space level of efficiency

High resistance to high temperatures (OK for

Low cost

Very stable

consuming Cost Grey energy Quantity of Drawbacks material required for fabrication Complexity

with low radiation concentrators)

Complexity Sensitive to impurities

Low efficiency Initial deterioration Stability over time

Toxicity Availability of material

Toxicity Toxicity Availability (Cd) of material

The production of photovoltaic cells Production methods of photovoltaic cells will differ depending on the type of cell we intend to produce The major differences lie in the fabrication of the slice of silicon, called the "wafer", which is the principal structure to which various (mainly chemical) treatments are applied, leading to the production of the cell itself. The monocrystal wafer is produced by the Czochralski method, based on the crystallisation of an extremely pure "seed" of material, which is plunged into the liquid silicon and then extracted and cooled slowly to obtain a monocrystal "ingot", which will be cylindrical in shape (from 13 to 30 cm in diameter and 200 cm in length). This is then doped by adding boron. The ingots are subsequently sliced into wafers measuring between 250 and 350 micrometers thick. Instead, multicrystal wafers come from the fusion and subsequent re-crystallisation of silicon discarded by the electronics industry (silicon "scraps"). From this fusion we get a "pig", which is then vertically cut into ingots in the shape of parallelepipeds. A subsequent horizontal cut produces slices with a similar thickness to monocrystal cells (250-350 micrometers). Compared to monocrystal wafers, multicrystal wafers provide a high level of efficiency at a lower cost.

For wafers to become actual photovoltaic cells it is necessary (in the case of both mono and multicrystal wafers):
o o

to "clean" them by plunging them into soda; to add phosphorous atoms (this is N type doping) to the material in order to produce the "p-n junction". This is done by slowly passing the wafers through an oven that "diffuses" orthophosphoric acid, containing the desired phosphorous atoms, into the material; to make the front electrical contacts (a metallic grid which collects the electrical charges) and the back surface (a full area metal contact) by screen-printing or electrodeposition, after applying a thin, non-reflective layer (titanium dioxide, TiO2). At this point the cell is tested by simulating standard conditions of sunlight (1000 W/m at 25 with AM1.5 spectrum) in order to classify it and so combine it with cells that have analogous electrical characteristics. This step is very important in order to avoid producing modules with very different cells, which could lead to a drastic reduction in the level of performance of photovoltaic modules.

Mono Si Cell 14-17% efficiency

Multi Si

Amorphous Si 4-6% single / 710% tandem

GaAs

CdTe

CIS (CULNSe2) 12%

12-14%

32,5% (lab.)

10%

Benefits

High stable efficiency Reliable technology

< efficiency cost < Easier to fabricate Less space consuming

Cost < need for High resistance materials and to high energy in temperatures fabrication, good (OK for level of efficiency concentrators) with low radiation

Low cost

Very stable

Cost Grey energy Quantity of Drawbacks material required for fabrication Complexity

Complexity Sensitive to impurities

Low efficiency Initial deterioration Stability over time

Toxicity Availability of material

Toxicity Toxicity Availability (Cd) of material

The production of photovoltaic cells Production methods of photovoltaic cells will differ depending on the type of cell we intend to produce The major differences lie in the fabrication of the slice of silicon, called the "wafer", which is the principal structure to which various (mainly chemical) treatments are applied, leading to the production of the cell itself. The monocrystal wafer is produced by the Czochralski method, based on the crystallisation of an extremely pure "seed" of material, which is plunged into the liquid silicon and then extracted and cooled slowly to obtain a monocrystal "ingot", which will be cylindrical in shape (from 13 to 30 cm in diameter and 200 cm in length). This is then doped by adding boron. The ingots are subsequently sliced into wafers measuring between 250 and 350 micrometers thick. Instead, multicrystal wafers come from the fusion and subsequent re-crystallisation of silicon discarded by the electronics industry (silicon "scraps"). From this fusion we get a "pig", which is then vertically cut into ingots in the shape of parallelepipeds. A subsequent horizontal cut produces slices with a similar thickness to monocrystal cells (250-350 micrometers). Compared to monocrystal wafers, multicrystal wafers provide a high level of efficiency at a lower cost. For wafers to become actual photovoltaic cells it is necessary (in the case of both mono and multicrystal wafers):
o o

to "clean" them by plunging them into soda; to add phosphorous atoms (this is N type doping) to the material in order to produce the "p-n junction". This is done by slowly passing the wafers through an oven that "diffuses" orthophosphoric acid, containing the desired phosphorous atoms, into the material; to make the front electrical contacts (a metallic grid which collects the electrical charges) and the back surface (a full area metal contact) by screen-printing or

electrodeposition, after applying a thin, non-reflective layer (titanium dioxide, TiO2). At this point the cell is tested by simulating standard conditions of sunlight (1000 W/m at 25 with AM1.5 spectrum) in order to classify it and so combine it with cells that have analogous electrical characteristics. This step is very important in order to avoid producing modules with very different cells, which could lead to a drastic reduction in the level of performance of photovoltaic modules.

Application of solar cell Solar Cell Bypass Diodes in Silicon Crystalline Photovoltaic Panels

Forward Voltage Drop (VF) at Bypass The basic function of bypass diodes in solar cells is to protect against hot spot damage when the photovoltaic panel is partially shaded by snow, fallen leaves, or other obstructions, as shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 1 - Bypass Operation In this bypass operation, the forward voltage drop of the diode is similar to its internal resistance in operation, and is relative to the power loss of the diode and system efficiency. The equation for power loss of a diode in bypass operation is Pd = VF (at rated current and temperature) x IF. This dissipated energy is a result of a change in temperature, and the definition of this change The maximum junction temperature of most Schottky rectifiers being used as bypass diodes is 200 C for one

hour, and this limitation determines their maximum operating current capability Axial TMBS Rectifiers for Solar Cell Bypass Diodes Axial-type packages are commonly used in bypass diodes, but their current capability is limited by their chip size and leads, which act as a heat sink in diodes.

Bypass diodes in solar junction boxes experience harsh conditions due to the poor ventilation of the enclosure and heat radiation from a limited heatsink. Low forward voltage drop is a critical characteristic of bypass diodes because of the heat they generate by power dissipation. Low leakage current at high temperatures is also important when bypass diodes in solar panels go to normal mode operation from shaded mode.

Space Solar cells are very useful in powering space vehicles such as satellites and telescopes (e.g. Hubble). They provide a very economical and reliable way of powering objects which would otherwise need expensive and cumbersome fuel sources. The design for a solar cell array in space features many inflatable, fresnel reflectors which focus the Sun's light on small arrays of high efficiency cells.

The international space station is also another good example of solar cells being used in space. When it is finished, the station will have the most powerful solar array in space. Four sets of gold coloured wings (each one being 72 metres long and larger than the space station itself) will contain 250,000 solar cells and the whole array will be able to power a small neighbourhood. Some of the energy will be used immediately, such as in life support machines while some will be stored in batteries for when the station is not in use. Solar cells are also being used to power the rovers which will be examining the surface of Mars in early 2004. Solar powered vehicles Solar powered cars are cars which are powered by an array of photovoltaic cells. The electricity created by the solar cells either directly powers the vehicle through a motor, or goes into a storage battery. Even if a vehicle is completely covered in solar cells, it will only receive a smaller amount of solar energy and will be able to convert only a small amount of that to useful energy. Because of this, most solar powered vehicles are only used in research, educational tools or to compete in the various races for solar powered vehicles. The first solar powered car was built be Ed Passerini in 1977. Many large motor manufacturers have also put some serious research into solar cars. General Motors, for example, spent $8 million developing the "Sunraycer" (below). This car has a 90 square foot solar array incorporated into it's teardrop shaped body. Despite being 6m long, the total weight of the car is only 177kg due to light weight composites used in it's manufacture.

Many races for solar powered vehicles occur throughout the year and serve to develop new technologies and show the public the idea of solar power as a viable power source. One of the first and most famous races is the World Solar Challenge; a 1872 mile race held in Australia. In 1996 Honda won with an average speed of 55.77mph. However, these kinds of average speeds can only be obtained with good weather conditions and huge investment in the vehicle. Production solar vehicles are still in their infancy and lots more research and development needs to be done before they can get close to the production line.

Solar street lights

Solar street lights are raised light sources which are powered by photovoltaic panels generally mounted on the lighting structure. The photovoltaic panels charge a rechargeable battery, which powers a fluorescent or LED lamp during the night. Solar water heater

Solar water heating (SWH) or solar hot water (SHW) systems comprise several innovations and many mature renewable energy technologies that have been well established for many years. SWH has been widely used in Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Israel, Australia, Japan, Austria and China. In a "close-coupled" SWH system the storage tank is horizontally mounted immediately above the solar collectors on the roof. No pumping is required as the hot water naturally rises into the tank through thermosiphon flow. In a "pump-circulated" system the storage tank is ground- or floor-mounted and is below the level of the collectors; a circulating pump moves water or heat transfer fluid between the tank and the collectors. SWH systems are designed to deliver hot water for most of the year. However, in winter there sometimes may not be sufficient solar heat gain to deliver sufficient hot water. In this case a gas or electric booster is normally used to heat the water. Solar power cooker

A solar oven or solar cooker is a device which uses sunlight as its energy source. Because they use no fuel and they cost nothing to run, humanitarian organizationsare promoting their use worldwide to help slow deforestation and desertification, caused by using wood as fuel for cooking. Solar cookers are also sometimes used in outdoor cooking, especially in situations where minimum fuel consumption or fire risk are considered highly important. Simple solar cookers use the following basic principles:

Concentrating sunlight: A reflective mirror of polished glass, metal or metallised film is used to concentrate light and heat from the sun into a small cooking area, making the energy more concentrated and increasing its heating power. Converting light to heat: A black or low reflectivity surface on a food container or the inside of a solar cooker will improve the effectiveness of turning light into heat. Light absorption converts the sun's visible light into heat, substantially improving the effectiveness of the cooker. Trapping heat: It is important to reduce convection by isolating the air inside the cooker from the air outside the cooker. A plastic bag or tightly sealed glass cover will trap the hot air inside. This makes it possible to reach similar temperatures on cold and windy days as on hot days. Greenhouse effect: Glass transmits visible light but blocks infrared thermal radiation from escaping. This amplifies the heat trapping effect.