Research

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Contents
Articles
Research Exploratory research Constructive research Empirical research Primary research Secondary research Qualitative research Quantitative research Basic research Conceptual framework Creativity techniques Internet research Innovation Lab notebook Open research Operations research Original research Research and development Creative problem solving Decision tree Ideas bank Imagination Intuition (knowledge) Invention Problem solving Lateral thinking Situation puzzle Oblique Strategies Po (lateral thinking) Serendipity Thinking outside the box Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning 1 4 5 6 9 10 10 16 19 20 21 22 25 38 39 41 50 51 54 57 61 62 66 70 77 85 87 88 90 91 99 101 106

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 109 113

Article Licenses
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Research

Research
Research can be defined as the search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, with an open mind, to establish novel facts, usually using a scientific method. The primary purpose for applied research (as opposed to basic research) is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world around us. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines. Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth. Historical research is embodied in the scientific method. The phrase my research is also used loosely to describe a person's entire collection of information about a particular subject.

Etymology
The word research is derived from the French recherche, from rechercher, to search closely where "chercher" means "to look for or to search".

Olin Levi Warner, Research holding the torch of knowledge (1896). Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.

Research processes
Scientific research
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied: 1. 2. 3. 4. Observations and Formation of the topic Hypothesis Conceptual definitions Operational definition

5. Gathering of data 6. Analysis of data 7. Test, revising of hypothesis 8. Conclusion, iteration if necessary

Research A common misunderstanding is that by this method a hypothesis could be proven or tested. Generally a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected. However, if the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as true. A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will supplant it.

Artistic research
One of the characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept subjectivity as opposed to the classical scientific methods. As such, it is similar to the social sciences in using qualitative research and intersubjectivity as tools to apply measurement and critical analysis.

Historical method
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various history guidelines commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes higher criticism and textual criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are usually part of most formal historical research: Identification of origin date Evidence of localization Recognition of authorship Analysis of data Identification of integrity Attribution of credibility

Research methods
The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure.): Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence Research can also fall into two distinct types: Primary research (collection of data that does not yet exist) Secondary research (summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research) In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the research: Qualitative research (understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior)
The research room at the New York Public Library, an example of secondary research in progress.

Research Quantitative research (systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships) Research is often conducted using the hourglass model Structure of Research.[1] The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results.

Publishing
Academic publishing describes a system that is necessary in order for academic scholars to peer review the work and make it available for a wider audience. The 'system', which is probably disorganized enough not to merit the title, varies widely by field, and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and medicine. Most established academic fields have their own journals and other outlets for publication, though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields; from the print to the electronic format. Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access. There are two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely available from the time of publication, and self-archiving, where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web.

Research funding
Most funding for scientific research comes from two major sources: Corporate research and development departments; and government research councils such as the National Institutes of Health in the USA[2] and the Medical Research Council in the UK. These are managed primarily through universities and in some cases through military contractors. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research, but also as a source of merit.

References
[1] Trochim, W.M.K, (2006). Research Methods Knowledge Base. [2] "US Scientific Grant Awards Database" (http:/ / search. engrant. com/ ). .

Further reading
Freshwater, D., Sherwood, G. & Drury, V. (2006) International research collaboration. Issues, benefits and challenges of the global network. Journal of Research in Nursing, 11 (4), pp 9295303.

Exploratory research

Exploratory research
Exploratory research is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist. Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. The Internet allows for research methods that are more interactive in nature. For example, RSS feeds efficiently supply researchers with up-to-date information; major search engine search results may be sent by email to researchers by services such as Google Alerts; comprehensive search results are tracked over lengthy periods of time by services such as Google Trends; and websites may be created to attract worldwide feedback on any subject. The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many". Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the population at large.

Social science
In many social science circles, exploratory research "seeks to find out how people get along in the setting under question, what meanings they give to their actions, and what issues concern them. The goal is to learn 'what is going on here?' and to investigate social phenomena without explicit expectations." (Russell K. Schutt, Investigating the Social World, 5th ed.. This methodology can is also at times referred to as a grounded theory approach to qualitative research or interpretive research, and is an attempt to unearth a theory from the data itself rather than from a predisposed hypothesis. Earl Babbie identifies three purposes of social science research. The purposes are exploratory, descriptive and explanatory. Exploratory research is used when problems are in a preliminary stage [1] . Exploratory research is used when the topic or issue is new and when data is difficult to collect. Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why, how). Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses. Shields and Tajalli link exploratory research with the conceptual framework working hypothesis [2] .

Applied research
Applied research in administration is often exploratory because there is need for flexibility in approaching the problem. In addition there are often data limitations and a need to make a decision within a short time period. Qualitative research methods such as case study or field research are often used in exploratory research.[2] . There are three types of objectives in a marketing research project. Exploratory research or formulative research Descriptive research Causal research Exploratory research or formulative research: The objective of exploratory research is to gather preliminary information that will help define problems and suggest hypotheses.'[3] Descriptive Research: The objective of descriptive research is to describe things, such as the market potential for a product or the demographics and attitudes of consumers who buy the product.' [3] Causal research: The objective of causal research is to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships.[3]

Exploratory research

References
[1] < Babbie, Earl.1989. The Practice of Social Research. 5th edition. Belmont CA: Wadsworth [2] Shields, Patricia and Hassan Tajalli. 2006. Intermediate Theory: The Missing Link in Successful Student Scholarship. Journal of Public Affairs Education. Vol. 12, No. 3. Pp. 313-334. http:/ / ecommons. txstate. edu/ polsfacp/ 39/ [3] Philip Kotler, Gary Armstrong (2006), Principles of marketing, p.122.

Russell K. Schutt, Investigating the Social World, 5th ed, Pine Forge Press

Constructive research
Constructive research is perhaps the most common computer science research method. This type of approach demands a form of validation that doesnt need to be quite as empirically based as in other types of research like exploratory research. Nevertheless the conclusions have to be objectively argued and defined. This may involve evaluating the construct being developed analytically against some predefined criteria or performing some benchmark tests with the prototype. The term construct is often used in this context to refer to the new contribution being developed. Construct can be a new theory, algorithm, model, software, or a framework.

The following phrases explain the above figure. The "fuzzy info from many sources" tab refers to different info sources like training materials, processes, literature, articles, working experience etc. In the solution tab, theoretical framework represents a tool to be used in the problem solving. The practical relevance tab it refers to empirical knowledge creation that offers final benefits. The theoretical relevance tab it gives the new theoretical knowledge that needs scientific acceptance: the back arrow to theoretical body of knowledge tab. Steps to be followed in practical utility tab (a):

Constructive research set objectives and tasks identify process model select case execution interview case organization prepare simulation run simulation interpret simulation results give feedback

Steps to be followed in epistemic utility tab (b): constructive research case research surveys qualitative and quantitative methods theory creating theory testing

Empirical research
Empirical research is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct observation or experience. It is used to answer empirical questions, which must be precisely defined and answerable with data (e.g., "Does listening to vocal music during learning a word list have an effect on later memory for these words?"). Usually, a researcher has a certain theory regarding the topic under investigation. Based on this theory some statements, or hypotheses, will be proposed (e.g., "Listening to vocal music has a negative effect on learning a word list."). From these hypotheses predictions about specific events are derived (e.g., "People who study a word list while listening to vocal music will remember fewer words on a later memory test than people who study a word list in silence."). These predictions can then be tested with a suitable experiment. Depending on the outcomes of the experiment, the theory on which the hypotheses and predictions were based will be supported or not.[1]

Terminology
The term empirical was originally used to refer to certain ancient Greek practitioners of medicine who rejected adherence to the dogmatic doctrines of the day, preferring instead to rely on the observation of phenomena as perceived in experience. Later empiricism referred to a theory of knowledge in philosophy which adheres to the principle that knowledge arises from experience and evidence gathered specifically using the senses. In scientific use the term empirical refers to the gathering of data using only evidence that is observable by the senses or in some cases using calibrated scientific instruments. What early philosophers described as empiricist and empirical research have in common is the dependence on observable data to formulate and test theories and come to conclusions.

Empirical research

Usage
The researcher attempts to describe accurately the interaction between the instrument (or the human senses) and the entity being observed. If instrumentation is involved, the researcher is expected to calibrate his/her instrument by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objects. In other words, it describes the research that has not been taken place before and their results. In practice, the accumulation of evidence for or against any particular theory involves planned research designs for the collection of empirical data, and academic rigor plays a large part of judging the merits of research design. Several typographies for such designs have been suggested, one of the most popular of which comes from Campbell and Stanley (1963). They are responsible for popularizing the widely cited distinction among pre-experimental, experimental, and quasi-experimental designs and are staunch advocates of the central role of randomized experiments in educational research.

Scientific research
Accurate analysis of data using standardized statistical methods in scientific studies is critical to determining the validity of empirical research. Statistical formulas such as regression, uncertainty coefficient, t-test, chi square, and various types of ANOVA (analyses of variance) are fundamental to forming logical, valid conclusions. If empirical data reach significance under the appropriate statistical formula, the research hypothesis is supported. If not, the null hypothesis is supported (or, more correctly, not rejected), meaning no effect of the independent variable(s) was observed on the dependent variable(s). It is important to understand that the outcome of empirical research using statistical hypothesis testing is never proof. It can only support a hypothesis, reject it, or do neither. These methods yield only probabilities. Among scientific researchers, empirical evidence (as distinct from empirical research) refers to objective evidence that appears the same regardless of the observer. For example, a thermometer will not display different temperatures for each individual who observes it. Temperature, as measured by an accurate, well calibrated thermometer, is empirical evidence. By contrast, non-empirical evidence is subjective, depending on the observer. Following the previous example, observer A might truthfully report that a room is warm, while observer B might truthfully report that the same room is cool, though both observe the same reading on the thermometer. The use of empirical evidence negates this effect of personal (i.e., subjective) experience. Ideally, empirical research yields empirical evidence, which can then be analyzed for statistical significance or reported in its raw form.

Empirical Research could overcome low level of Financial Maths

There are immense volumes of financial data to analyze and to play with. Some examples: One can load free historical data for all stock, forex and indexes and try hypothetical models. There is a problem with derivatives and soc. certificates since most of them are short term. There is an idea however to introduce fictitious options to simply see what would have happened if one had issued week by week options "at the money" and what would have been "computed" by Black&Scholes. The result is disillusioning. Error range between 10 and more than 100 percent when comparing average B-S-values with avg results of exercised options . One can use the powerful offset-spreadsheet-command to compute daily, weekly, monthly... returns and derive its volatility accordingly. This proves that the annualized volatiliy using the formula Vyear = SQ(Time) * Vday (with SQ(Time) considering 250 banking days makes factor approx. 16) are about three times higher than the volatility measured directly. This an important result. The key volatility indexes are too high. Despite they are used as a key factor for the B&S-formula - western world 10.000 times daily - affecting trillions of Dollars.

Empirical research One can easily compare a - say - quarterly section of historical data and compare it with all other sections of up to 100 years (DOW JONES) and find out, that there are times of relevant correlation and others with no correlation "white noise" so to speak. In a diagram it makes "stalagmites". This is a frontal attack to the soc. GARCH-industry - but nobody is arguing. These easy to use techniques were published 10 years ago but nobody is reading - using them.

Empirical cycle
A.D. de Groot's empirical cycle: Observation: The collecting and organisation of empirical facts; Forming hypotheses. Induction: Formulating hypotheses. Deduction: Deducting consequenses of hypotheses as testable predictions. Testing: Testing the hypotheses with new empirical material. Evaluation: Evaluating the outcome of testing.

References
[1] Goodwin, C. J. (2005). Research in Psychology: Methods and Design. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Empirical cycle according to A.D. de Groot

External links
Some Key Concepts for the Design and Review of Empirical Research (http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-4/ empirical-research.html) What is Empirical Research? (http://library.manor.edu/tutorial/empiricalresearch.htm)

Primary research

Primary research
Primary research (also called field research) involves the collection of data that does not already exist, which is research to collect original data. Primary Research is often undertaken after the researcher has gained some insight into the issue by collecting secondary data. This can be through numerous forms, including questionnaires, direct observation and telephone interviews amongst others. This information may be collected in things like questionnaires and interviews . There are basic approaches to data collections using primary methods: Qualitative research includes interviews, focus groups and participant observations. Quantitative research includes controlled laboratory experiments, field work, questionnaires and surveys and ethnographies. The term primary research is widely used in academic research, market research and competitive intelligence. There are advantages and disadvantages to primary research: Advantages: Addresses specific research issues as the researcher controls the search design to fit their needs Great control, not only does primary research enable the marketer to focus on specific subjects, it also enables the researcher to have a higher control over how the information is collected. Taking this into account, the researcher can decide on such requirements as size of project, time frame and location of research. Efficient spending for information, primary data collection focus on issues specific to the researcher, improving the chances that the research funds are spent efficiently. Proprietary information, primary data collected by the researcher is their own. Disadvantages: Compared to secondary research, primary data may be very expensive in preparing and carrying out the research. In order to be done properly, primary data collection requires the development and execution of a research plan. It is longer to undertake primary research than to acquire secondary data. Some research projects, while potentially offering information that could prove quite valuable, may not be within the reach of a researcher. May be very expensive because many people need to be confronted. By the time the research is complete it may be out of date. People may have to be employed or avoid their primary duties for the duration of the research. People may not reply if emails or letters are used.

Secondary research

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Secondary research
Secondary research (also known as desk research) involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research rather than primary research, where data is collected from, for example, research subjects or experiments.[1] The term is widely used in market research and in medical research.The principal methodology in medical secondary research is the systematic review, commonly using meta-analytic statistical techniques, although other methods of synthesis, like realist reviews and meta-narrative[2] reviews, have been developed in recent years. In archaeology and landscape history, desk research is contrasted with fieldwork. Secondary research can come from either internal or external sources.The proliferation of web search engines has increased opportunities to conduct secondary research without paying fees to database research providers.

References
[1] Crouch; Sunny Crouch, Matthew Housden (2003). Marketing research for managers; The Marketing Series; Chartered Institute of Marketing (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=UC1f3Qk5x40C& pg=PA19& dq="Desk+ research"& hl=en& ei=aUZtTPyzI8P6lwf03PmHDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CDYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q="Desk research"& f=false). Butterworth-Heinemann. p.19. ISBN0750654538. . [2] Diffusion of Innovations in Health Service Organisations: a systematic literature review (http:/ / www. blackwellpublishing. com/ book. asp?ref=9780727918697)

Qualitative research
Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts.[1] Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often needed, rather than large samples. Qualitative methods produce information only on the particular cases studied, and any more general conclusions are only hypotheses (informative guesses). Quantitative methods can be used to verify which of such hypotheses are true.

History
Until the 1970s, the phrase 'qualitative research' was used only to refer to a discipline of anthropology or sociology. During the 1970s and 1980s qualitative research began to be used in other disciplines, and became a significant type of research in the fields of education studies, social work studies, women's studies, disability studies, information studies, management studies, nursing service studies, political science, psychology, communication studies, and many other fields. Qualitative research occurred in the consumer products industry during this period, with researchers investigating new consumer products and product positioning/advertising opportunities. The earliest consumer research pioneers including Gene Reilly of The Gene Reilly Group in Darien, CT, Jerry Schoenfeld of Gerald Schoenfeld & Partners in Tarrytown, NY and Martin Calle of Calle & Company, Greenwich, CT, also Peter Cooper in London, England, and Hugh Mackay in Mission, Australia. There continued to be disagreement about the proper place of qualitative versus quantitative research. In the late 1980s and 1990s after a spate of criticisms from the quantitative side, new methods of qualitative research evolved, to address the perceived problems with reliability and imprecise modes of data analysis.[2] During this same decade, there was a slowdown in traditional media advertising spending, so there was heightened interest in making research related to advertising more effective. To this date the present representative concept of antropy has a way and hence fort.

Qualitative research In the last thirty years the acceptance of qualitative research by journal publishers and editors has been growing. Prior to that time many mainstream journals were far more likely to publish research articles based upon the natural sciences and which featured quantitative analysis, than they were to publish articles based on qualitative methods.[3]

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Distinctions from quantitative research

(In simplified terms - Qualitative means a non-numerical data collection or explanation based on the attributes of the graph or source of data. For example, if you are asked to explain in qualitative terms a thermal image displayed in multiple colours, then you would explain the colour differences rather than the heat's numerical value.) First, in qualitative research, cases can be selected purposefully, according to whether or not they typify certain characteristics or contextual locations. Second, the researcher's role receives greater critical attention. This is because in qualitative research the possibility of the researcher taking a 'neutral' or transcendental position is seen as more problematic in practical and/or philosophical terms. Hence qualitative researchers are often exhorted to reflect on their role in the research process and make this clear in the analysis. Third, while qualitative data analysis can take a wide variety of forms, it differs from quantitative research in its focus on language, signs and meaning. In addition, qualitative research approaches analysis holistically and contextually, rather than being reductionistic and isolationist. Nevertheless, systematic and transparent approaches to analysis are almost always regarded as essential for rigor. For example, many qualitative methods require researchers to carefully code data and discern and document themes consistently and reliably. Perhaps the most traditional division between the uses of qualitative and quantitative research in the social sciences is that qualitative methods are used for exploration (i.e., hypothesis-generating) or for explaining puzzling quantitative results. Quantitative methods, by contrast, are used to test hypotheses. This is because establishing content validity do measures measure what a researcher thinks they measure? is seen as one of the strengths of qualitative research. Some consider quantitative methods to provide more representative, reliable and precise measures through focused hypotheses, measurement tools and applied mathematics. By contrast, qualitative data is usually difficult to graph or display in mathematical terms. Qualitative research is often used for policy and program evaluation research since it can answer certain important questions more efficiently and effectively than quantitative approaches. This is particularly the case for understanding how and why certain outcomes were achieved (not just what was achieved) but also for answering important questions about relevance, unintended effects and impact of programs such as: Were expectations reasonable? Did processes operate as expected? Were key players able to carry out their duties? Did the program cause any unintended effects? Qualitative approaches have the advantage of allowing for more diversity in responses as well as the capacity to adapt to new developments or issues during the research process itself. While qualitative research can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, many fields of research employ qualitative techniques that have been specifically developed to provide more succinct, cost-efficient and timely results. Rapid Rural Appraisal is one formalized example of these adaptations but there are many others.

Qualitative research

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Data collection
Qualitative researchers may use different approaches in collecting data, such as the grounded theory practice, narratology, storytelling, classical ethnography, or shadowing. Qualitative methods are also loosely present in other methodological approaches, such as action research or actor-network theory. Forms of the data collected can include interviews and group discussions, observation and reflection field notes, various texts, pictures, and other materials. Qualitative research often categorizes data into patterns as the primary basis for organizing and reporting results. Qualitative researchers typically rely on the following methods for gathering information: Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation, Field Notes, Reflexive Journals, Structured Interview, Semi-structured Interview, Unstructured Interview, and Analysis of documents and materials.[4] The ways of participating and observing can vary widely from setting to setting. Participant observation is a strategy of reflexive learning, not a single method of observing[5] In participant observation[6] researchers typically become members of a culture, group, or setting, and adopt roles to conform to that setting. In doing so, the aim is for the researcher to gain a closer insight into the culture's practices, motivations and emotions. It is argued that the researchers' ability to understand the experiences of the culture may be inhibited if they observe without participating. Some distinctive qualitative methods are the use of focus groups and key informant interviews. The focus group technique involves a moderator facilitating a small group discussion between selected individuals on a particular topic. This is a particularly popular method in market research and testing new initiatives with users/workers. One traditional and specialized form of qualitative research is called cognitive testing or pilot testing which is used in the development of quantitative survey items. Survey items are piloted on study participants to test the reliability and validity of the items. In the academic social sciences the most frequently used qualitative research approaches include the following: 1. Ethnographic Research, used for investigating cultures by collecting and describing data that is intended to help in the development of a theory. This method is also called ethnomethodology or "methodology of the people". An example of applied ethnographic research, is the study of a particular culture and their understanding of the role of a particular disease in their cultural framework. 2. Critical Social Research, used by a researcher to understand how people communicate and develop symbolic meanings. 3. Ethical Inquiry, an intellectual analysis of ethical problems. It includes the study of ethics as related to obligation, rights, duty, right and wrong, choice etc. 4. Foundational Research, examines the foundations for a science, analyses the beliefs and develops ways to specify how a knowledge base should change in light of new information. 5. Historical Research, allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and problems. Historical research helps us in answering questions such as: Where have we come from, where are we, who are we now and where are we going? 6. Grounded Theory, is an inductive type of research, based or grounded in the observations or data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative data, review of records, interviews, observation and surveys. 7. Phenomenology, describes the subjective reality of an event, as perceived by the study population; it is the study of a phenomenon. 8. Philosophical Research, is conducted by field experts within the boundaries of a specific field of study or profession, the best qualified individual in any field of study to use an intellectual analyses, in order to clarify definitions, identify ethics, or make a value judgment concerning an issue in their field of study.

Qualitative research

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Data analysis
Interpretive techniques The most common analysis of qualitative data is observer impression. That is, expert or bystander observers examine the data, interpret it via forming an impression and report their impression in a structured and sometimes quantitative form. Coding Coding is an interpretive technique that both organizes the data and provides a means to introduce the interpretations of it into certain quantitative methods. Most coding requires the analyst to read the data and demarcate segments within it. Each segment is labeled with a code usually a word or short phrase that suggests how the associated data segments inform the research objectives. When coding is complete, the analyst prepares reports via a mix of: summarizing the prevalence of codes, discussing similarities and differences in related codes across distinct original sources/contexts, or comparing the relationship between one or more codes. Some qualitative data that is highly structured (e.g., open-end responses from surveys or tightly defined interview questions) is typically coded without additional segmenting of the content. In these cases, codes are often applied as a layer on top of the data. Quantitative analysis of these codes is typically the capstone analytical step for this type of qualitative data. Contemporary qualitative data analyses are sometimes supported by computer programs, termed Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software. These programs do not supplant the interpretive nature of coding but rather are aimed at enhancing the analysts efficiency at data storage/retrieval and at applying the codes to the data. Many programs offer efficiencies in editing and revising coding, which allow for work sharing, peer review, and recursive examination of data. A frequent criticism of coding method is that it seeks to transform qualitative data into quantitative data, thereby draining the data of its variety, richness, and individual character. Analysts respond to this criticism by thoroughly expositing their definitions of codes and linking those codes soundly to the underlying data, therein bringing back some of the richness that might be absent from a mere list of codes. Recursive abstraction Some qualitative datasets are analyzed without coding. A common method here is recursive abstraction, where datasets are summarized, those summaries are then further summarized, and so on. The end result is a more compact summary that would have been difficult to accurately discern without the preceding steps of distillation. A frequent criticism of recursive abstraction is that the final conclusions are several times removed from the underlying data. While it is true that poor initial summaries will certainly yield an inaccurate final report, qualitative analysts can respond to this criticism. They do so, like those using coding method, by documenting the reasoning behind each summary step, citing examples from the data where statements were included and where statements were excluded from the intermediate summary. Mechanical techniques Some techniques rely on leveraging computers to scan and sort large sets of qualitative data. At their most basic level, mechanical techniques rely on counting words, phrases, or coincidences of tokens within the data. Often referred to as content analysis, the output from these techniques is amenable to many advanced statistical analyses. Mechanical techniques are particularly well-suited for a few scenarios. One such scenario is for datasets that are simply too large for a human to effectively analyze, or where analysis of them would be cost prohibitive relative to the value of information they contain. Another scenario is when the chief value of a dataset is the extent to which it contains red flags (e.g., searching for reports of certain adverse events within a lengthy journal dataset from patients in a clinical trial) or green flags (e.g., searching for mentions of your brand in positive reviews of marketplace products).

Qualitative research A frequent criticism of mechanical techniques is the absence of a human interpreter. And while masters of these methods are able to write sophisticated software to mimic some human decisions, the bulk of the analysis is nonhuman. Analysts respond by proving the value of their methods relative to either a) hiring and training a human team to analyze the data or b) letting the data go untouched, leaving any actionable nuggets undiscovered.

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Paradigmatic differences
Contemporary qualitative research has been conducted from a large number of various paradigms that influence conceptual and metatheoretical concerns of legitimacy, control, data analysis, ontology, and epistemology, among others. Research conducted in the last 10 years has been characterized by a distinct turn toward more interpretive, postmodern, and critical practices.[7] Guba and Lincoln (2005) identify five main paradigms of contemporary qualitative research: positivism, postpositivism, critical theories, constructivism, and participatory/cooperative paradigms.[7] Each of the paradigms listed by Guba and Lincoln are characterized by axiomatic differences in axiology, intended action of research, control of research process/outcomes, relationship to foundations of truth and knowledge, validity (see below), textual representation and voice of the researcher/participants, and commensurability with other paradigms. In particular, commensurability involves the extent to which paradigmatic concerns can be retrofitted to each other in ways that make the simultaneous practice of both possible.[8] Positivist and postpositivist paradigms share commensurable assumptions but are largely incommensurable with critical, constructivist, and participatory paradigms. Likewise, critical, constructivist, and participatory paradigms are commensurable on certain issues (e.g., intended action and textual representation).

Validation
A central issue in qualitative research is validity (also known as credibility and/or dependability). There are many different ways of establishing validity, including: member check, interviewer corroboration, peer debriefing, prolonged engagement, negative case analysis, auditability, confirmability, bracketing, and balance. Most of these methods were coined, or at least extensively described by Lincoln and Guba (1985)[9]

Academic research
By the end of the 1970s many leading journals began to publish qualitative research articles[3] and several new journals emerged which published only qualitative research studies and articles about qualitative research methods.[10] In the 1980s and 1990s, the new qualitative research journals became more multidisciplinary in focus moving beyond qualitative researchs traditional disciplinary roots of anthropology, sociology, and philosophy.[10] The new millennium saw a dramatic increase in the number of journals specializing in qualitative research with at least one new qualitative research journal being launched each year.

Qualitative research

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Notes
[1] Denzin, Norman K. & Lincoln, Yvonna S. (Eds.). (2005). The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 0-7619-2757-3 [2] Taylor, 1998 [3] Loseke, Donileen R. & Cahil, Spencer E. (2007). Publishing qualitative manuscripts: Lessons learned. In C. Seale, G. Gobo, J. F. Gubrium, & D. Silverman (Eds.), Qualitative Research Practice: Concise Paperback Edition, pp. 491-506. London: Sage. ISBN 978-1-7619-4776-9 [4] Marshall, Catherine & Rossman, Gretchen B. (1998). Designing Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 0-7619-1340-8 [5] Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2002) Qualitative communication research methods: Second edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-7619-2493-0 [6] "Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collectors Field Guide" (http:/ / www. techsociety. com/ cal/ soc190/ fssba2009/ ParticipantObservation. pdf). techsociety.com. . Retrieved 7 October 2010. [7] Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging influences" In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.), pp. 191-215. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 0-7619-2757-3 [8] Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging influences" (p. 200). In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.), pp. 191-215. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 0-7619-2757-3 [9] Lincoln Y and Guba EG (1985) Naturalist Inquiry, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA. [10] Denzin, Norman K. & Lincoln, Yvonna S. (2005). Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.), pp. 1-33. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 0-7619-2757-3

References
Adler, P. A. & Adler, P. (1987). Membership roles in field research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. ISBN 978-0803927605 Becker, Howard S., The epistemology of qualitative research. University of Chicago Press, 1996. 53-71. [from Ethnography and human development : context and meaning in social inquiry / edited by Richard Jessor, Anne Colby, and Richard A. Shweder] OCLC46597302 Boas, Franz (1943). Recent anthropology. Science, 98, 311-314, 334-337. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research ( 2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. DeWalt, K. M. & DeWalt, B. R. (2002). Participant observation. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Fischer, C.T. (Ed.) (2005). Qualitative research methods for psychologists: Introduction through empirical studies. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-088470-4. Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). "Five Misunderstandings About Case Study Research." Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 12, no. 2, April 2006, pp. 219-245. (http://flyvbjerg.plan.aau.dk/Publications2006/0604FIVEMISPUBL2006.pdf) Giddens, A. (1990). The consequences of modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Holliday, A. R. (2007). Doing and Writing Qualitative Research, 2nd Edition. London: Sage Publications Kaminski, Marek M. (2004). Games Prisoners Play. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11721-7. Mahoney, J & Goertz, G. (2006) A Tale of Two Cultures: Contrasting Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Political Analysis, 14, 227249. doi:10.1093/pan/mpj017 Malinowski, B. (1922/1961). Argonauts of the Western Pacific. New York: E. P. Dutton. Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Pamela Maykut, Richard Morehouse. 1994 Beginning Qualitative Research. Falmer Press. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods ( 3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Pawluch D. & Shaffir W. & Miall C. (2005). Doing Ethnography: Studying Everyday Life. Toronto, ON Canada: Canadian Scholars' Press. Charles C. Ragin, Constructing Social Research: The Unity and Diversity of Method, Pine Forge Press, 1994, ISBN 0-8039-9021-9 Stebbins, Robert A. (2001) Exploratory Research in the Social Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Qualitative research Taylor, Steven J., Bogdan, Robert, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods, Wiley, 1998, ISBN 0-471-16868-8 Van Maanen, J. (1988) Tales of the field: on writing ethnography, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Wolcott, H. F. (1995). The art of fieldwork. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Wolcott, H. F. (1999). Ethnography: A way of seeing. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Ziman, John (2000). Real Science: what it is, and what it means. Cambridge, Uk: Cambridge University Press.

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External links
C.Wright Mills, On intellectual Craftsmanship, The Sociological Imagination,1959 (http://ddl.uwinnipeg.ca/ res_des/files/readings/cwmills-intel_craft.pdf) Participant Observation, Qualitative research methods: a Data collector's field guide (http://www.fhi.org/en/ RH/Pubs/booksReports/QRM_datacoll.htm)

Quantitative research
In the social sciences, quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Quantitative research is used widely in social sciences such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and political science. Research in mathematical sciences such as physics is also 'quantitative' by definition, though this use of the term differs in context. In the social sciences, the term relates to empirical methods, originating in both philosophical positivism and the history of statistics, which contrast qualitative research methods. Qualitative methods produce information only on the particular cases studied, and any more general conclusions are only hypotheses. Quantitative methods can be used to verify, which of such hypotheses are true. A comprehensive analysis of 1274 articles published in the top two American sociology journals between 1935 and 2005 found that roughly two thirds of these articles used quantitative methods[1] .

Overview
Quantitative research is generally made using scientific methods, which can include: The generation of models, theories and hypotheses The development of instruments and methods for measurement Experimental control and manipulation of variables Collection of empirical data Modeling and analysis of data Evaluation of results

In the social sciences particularly, quantitative research is often contrasted with qualitative research which is the examination, analysis and interpretation of observations for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships, including classifications of types of phenomena and entities, in a manner that does not involve mathematical models. Approaches to quantitative psychology were first modelled on quantitative approaches in the physical sciences by Gustav Fechner in his work on psychophysics, which built on the work of Ernst Heinrich Weber. Although a distinction is commonly drawn between qualitative and quantitative aspects of scientific investigation, it has been argued that the two go hand in hand. For example, based on analysis of the history of

Quantitative research science, Kuhn (1961, p. 162) concludes that large amounts of qualitative work have usually been prerequisite to fruitful quantification in the physical sciences[2] . Qualitative research is often used to gain a general sense of phenomena and to form theories that can be tested using further quantitative research. For instance, in the social sciences qualitative research methods are often used to gain better understanding of such things as intentionality (from the speech response of the researchee) and meaning (why did this person/group say something and what did it mean to them?)(Kieron Yeoman). Although quantitative investigation of the world has existed since people first began to record events or objects that had been counted, the modern idea of quantitative processes have their roots in Auguste Comte's positivist framework.

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Use of statistics
Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research outside of the physical sciences, and also finds applications within the physical sciences, such as in statistical mechanics. Statistical methods are used extensively within fields such as economics, social sciences and biology. Quantitative research using statistical methods starts with the collection of data, based on the hypothesis or theory. Usually a big sample of data is collected - this would require verification, validation and recording before the analysis can take place. Software packages such as SPSS and R are typically used for this purpose. Causal relationships are studied by manipulating factors thought to influence the phenomena of interest while controlling other variables relevant to the experimental outcomes. In the field of health, for example, researchers might measure and study the relationship between dietary intake and measurable physiological effects such as weight loss, controlling for other key variables such as exercise. Quantitatively based opinion surveys are widely used in the media, with statistics such as the proportion of respondents in favor of a position commonly reported. In opinion surveys, respondents are asked a set of structured questions and their responses are tabulated. In the field of climate science, researchers compile and compare statistics such as temperature or atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide. Empirical relationships and associations are also frequently studied by using some form of General linear model, non-linear model, or by using factor analysis. A fundamental principle in quantitative research is that correlation does not imply causation. This principle follows from the fact that it is always possible a spurious relationship exists for variables between which covariance is found in some degree. Associations may be examined between any combination of continuous and categorical variables using methods of statistics.

Measurement
Views regarding the role of measurement in quantitative research are somewhat divergent. Measurement is often regarded as being only a means by which observations are expressed numerically in order to investigate causal relations or associations. However, it has been argued that measurement often plays a more important role in quantitative research. For example, Kuhn argued that within quantitative research, the results that are shown can prove to be strange. This is because accepting a theory based on results of quantitative data could prove to be a natural phenomenon. He argued that such abnormalities are interesting when done during the process of obtaining data, as seen below: When measurement departs from theory, it is likely to yield mere numbers, and their very neutrality makes them particularly sterile as a source of remedial suggestions. But numbers register the departure from theory with an authority and finesse that no qualitative technique can duplicate, and that departure is often enough to start a search (Kuhn, 1961, p. 180). In classical physics, the theory and definitions which underpin measurement are generally deterministic in nature. In contrast, probabilistic measurement models known as the Rasch model and Item response theory models are generally employed in the social sciences. Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and

Quantitative research technique for measuring social and psychological attributes and phenomena. This field is central to much quantitative research that is undertaken within the social sciences. Quantitative research may involve the use of proxies as stand-ins for other quantities that cannot be directly measured. Tree-ring width, for example, is considered a reliable proxy of ambient environmental conditions such as the warmth of growing seasons or amount of rainfall. Although scientists cannot directly measure the temperature of past years, tree-ring width and other climate proxies have been used to provide a semi-quantitative record of average temperature in the Northern Hemisphere back to 1000 A.D. When used in this way, the proxy record (tree ring width, say) only reconstructs a certain amount of the variance of the original record. The proxy may be calibrated (for example, during the period of the instrumental record) to determine how much variation is captured, including whether both short and long term variation is revealed. In the case of tree-ring width, different species in different places may show more or less sensitivity to, say, rainfall or temperature: when reconstructing a temperature record there is considerable skill in selecting proxies that are well correlated with the desired variable.

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Quantitative methods
Quantitative methods are research techniques that are used to gather quantitative data information dealing with numbers and anything that is measurable. Statistics, tables and graphs, are often used to present the results of these methods. They are therefore to be distinguished from qualitative methods. In most physical and biological sciences, the use of either quantitative or qualitative methods is uncontroversial, and each is used when appropriate. In the social sciences, particularly in sociology, social anthropology and psychology, the use of one or other type of method has become a matter of controversy and even ideology, with particular schools of thought within each discipline favouring one type of method and pouring scorn on to the other. Advocates of quantitative methods argue that only by using such methods can the social sciences become truly scientific; advocates of qualitative methods argue that quantitative methods tend to obscure the reality of the social phenomena under study because they underestimate or neglect the non-measurable factors, which may be the most important. The modern tendency (and in reality the majority tendency throughout the history of social science) is to use eclectic approaches. Quantitative methods might be used with a global qualitative frame. Qualitative methods might be used to understand the meaning of the numbers produced by quantitative methods. Using quantitative methods, it is possible to give precise and testable expression to qualitative ideas. This combination of quantitative and qualitative data gathering is often referred to as mixed-methods research.

Examples
Research that consists of the percentage amounts of all the elements that make up Earth's atmosphere. Survey that concludes that the average patient has to wait two hours in the waiting room of a certain doctor before being selected. An experiment in which group x was given two tablets of Aspirin a day and Group y was given two tablets of a placebo a day where each participant is randomly assigned to one or other of the groups. The numerical factors such as two tablets, percent of elements and the time of waiting make the situations and results quantitative.

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References
[1] Hunter, Laura and Erin Leahey. 2008. "Collaborative Research in Sociology: Trends and Contributing Factors". American Sociologist 39:290306 [2] Thomas S. Kuhn, The Function of Measurement in Modern Physical Science

Basic research
Basic research or fundamental research (sometimes pure research) is research carried out to increase understanding of fundamental principles. Many times the end results have no direct or immediate commercial benefits: basic research can be thought of as arising out of curiosity. However, in the long term it is the basis for many commercial products and applied research. Basic research is mainly carried out by universities. Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the human world. It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain how this world operates, what makes things happen, why social relations are a certain way, and why society changes. Basic research is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; however, explanatory research is the most common. Basic research generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be immediately utilized; though are the foundations of modern progress and development in different fields. Today's computers could not exist without the pure research in mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which there was no known practical application at that time. Basic research rarely helps practitioners directly with their everyday concerns. Nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of thinking about deviance that have the potential to revolutionize and dramatically improve how practitioners deal with a problem. A new idea or fundamental knowledge is not generated only by basic research can build new knowledge. Nonetheless, basic research is essential for nourishing the expansion of knowledge. Researchers at the center of the scientific community conduct most of the basic research.

USA
In the USA, the National Science Foundation was created after WW2 to sponsor basic research. Its creation was delayed by political opposition and other federal agencies with specific missions were specifically empowered to sponsor basic research too. In 1956, the basic research budgets included:[1] Atomic Energy Commission $45M Department of Defense $72M National Institute of Health $26M

Weblinks
Basic Research Examples from US National Agencies [2]

References
[1] Hugh Davis Graham, Nancy A. Diamond, The rise of American research universities (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=e-yeBo6p-_gC& pg=PA32), [2] http:/ / www. ovcr. ucla. edu/ uploads/ file/ Basic_Research___DOE,_NSF,_NIST,_and_DOD_Drive_Innovation%5B1%5D. pdf

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Conceptual framework
A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to an idea or thought. For example, the philosopher Isaiah Berlin used the "hedgehogs" versus "foxes" approach;[1] a "hedgehog" might approach the world in terms of a single organizing principle; a "fox" might pursue multiple conflicting goals simultaneously. Alternatively, an empiricist might approach a subject by direct examination, whereas an intuitionist might simply intuit what's next.[2] Conceptual frameworks (theoretical frameworks) are a type of intermediate theory that attempt to connect to all aspects of inquiry (e.g., problem definition, purpose, literature review, methodology, data collection and analysis). Conceptual frameworks can act like maps that give coherence to empirical inquiry. Because conceptual frameworks are potentially so close to empirical inquiry, they take different forms depending upon the research question or problem. Several types of conceptual frameworks have been identified,[3] [4] such as Working hypothesis Descriptive categories Practical ideal types Models of operations research Formal hypotheses These are linked to particular research purposes such as:[5] Exploration or Exploratory research Description or Descriptive research Gauging Decision making Explanation Prediction

Proponents claim that when purpose and framework are aligned, other aspects of empirical research such as methodological choices and statistical techniques become simpler to identify.

References
[1] Michiko Kakutani (Tuesday, April 28, 2009) p. C1, "The Era of Adapting Quickly", The New York Times [2] Charles McGrath (Tuesday, April 28, 2009) p. C1, "Coming of Age in Sag Harbor, Amid Privilege and Paradox", The New York Times [3] Shields, Patricia and Hassan Tajalli (2006), "Intermediate Theory: The Missing Link in Successful Student Scholarship," Journal of Public Affairs Education 12(3): 313-334. http:/ / ecommons. txstate. edu/ polsfacp/ 39/ [4] Shields, Patricia (1998). "Pragmatism as a Philosophy of Science:A Tool for Public Administration," Research in Public Administration. Volume 4: 195-225. http:/ / ecommons. txstate. edu/ polsfacp/ 33/ [5] For examples of applied research that use these conceptual frameworks to organize empirical inquiry see the Applied Research Projects at Texas State University - San Marcos. http:/ / ecommons. txstate. edu/ arp/

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Further reading
Kaplan, Abraham. (1964). The Conduct of Inquiry: Methodology for Behavioral Science. Scranton, PA: Chandler Publishing Co. Botha, M.E. (1989), "Theory Development in Perspective: The Role of Conceptual Frameworks and Models in Theory Development", Journal of Advanced Nursing 14(1), 4955. Dewey, John. (1938). Logic: The Theory of Inquiry. New York: Hold Rinehart and Winston.

Creativity techniques
Creativity techniques are methods that encourage creative actions, whether in the arts or sciences. They focus on a variety of aspects of creativity, including techniques for idea generation and divergent thinking, methods of re-framing problems, changes in the affective environment and so on. They can be used as part of problem solving, artistic expression, or therapy. Some techniques require groups of two or more people while other techniques can be accomplished alone. These methods include word games, written exercises and different types of improvisation, or algorithms for approaching problems. Aleatory techniques exploiting randomness are also common.

Aleatory techniques
Randomness, or aleatory, is the introduction of chance elements. Aleatory is commonly found in music, art, and literature, particularly in poetry. In film, Andy Voda made a movie in 1979 called "Chance Chants" which he produced by a flip of a coin, or roll of a dice. In music, John Cage, an avant-garde musician, composed music by superimposing star maps on blank sheet music, by rolling dice, and by preparing open ended scores that depended on the spontaneous decisions of the performers. (1) Other ways of practicing randomness include coin tossing, picking something out of a hat, or selecting random words from a dictionary. In short, aleatory is a way to introduce new thoughts or ideas into a creative process.

Improvisation
Improvisation is a creative process which can be spoken, written, or composed without prior preparation.[1] Improvisation, also called extemporization, can lead to the discovery of new ways to act, new patterns of thought and practices, or new structures. Improvisation is used in the creation of music, theatre, and other various forms. Many artists also use improvisational techniques to help their creative flow. Here are two significant methods: Improvisational Theater is a form of theater in which actors use improvisational acting techniques to perform spontaneously. Many improv techniques are taught in standard drama classes. The basic skills of listening, clarity, confidence, and performing instinctively and spontaneously are considered important skills for actors to develop.[2] Free Improvisation is real time composition. Musicians of all kinds improv music; this music is not limited to particular genre. Two contemporary musicians that use free improvisation are Anthony Braxton and Cecil Taylor. Through free improvisation, musicians can develop increased spontaneity and fluency.[3] Each type of improvisation improves the thinking and acting skill of the actor, this is made by using no practise, a similar set of techniques is called Alienation since one of its many techniques uses actors that haven't rehearsed or even read the play, improvisation is an acting skill where actors make up a storyline, start and ending on the spot and actors have to try their best to keep in character.

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Problem Solving
In problem-solving contexts, the random word creativity technique is perhaps the simplest method. A person confronted with a problem is presented with a randomly generated word, in the hopes of a solution arising from any associations between the word and the problem. A random image, sound, or article can be used instead of a random word as a kind of creativity goad or provocation.[4] [5]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ improvisation http:/ / www. cognos. com/ newsletter/ decisions/ st_070307_01. html http:/ / www. musilosophy. com/ jazz-improvisation. htm http:/ / ideaflow. corante. com/ archives/ 2003/ 05/ 09/ more_on_idea_generation_tools_and_techniques. php http:/ / mitsloan. mit. edu/ vc/ Ideationpaper022805. pdf

External links
Creativity Techniques - an A to Z (http://www.mycoted.com/Category:Creativity_Techniques)

Internet research
This article is about using the Internet for research; for the field of research about the Internet, see Internet studies. Internet research is the practice of using the Internet, especially the World Wide Web, for research. The internet is widely used and readily accessible to hundreds of millions of people in many parts of the world. It can provide practically instant information on most topics, and has a profound impact on the way ideas are formed and knowledge is created. Research is a broad term. Here, it is used to mean "looking something up (on the Web)". It includes any activity where a topic is identified, and an effort is made to actively gather information for the purpose of furthering understanding. Common applications of Internet research include personal research on a particular subject (something mentioned on the news, a health problem, etc), students doing research for academic projects and papers, and journalists and other writers researching stories. It should be distinguished from scientific research - research following a defined and rigorous process - carried out on the Internet; from straightforward finding of specific info, like locating a name or phone number; and from research about the Internet. Compared to the Internet, print physically limits access to information. A book has to be identified, then actually obtained. On the Net, the Web can be searched, and typically hundreds or thousands of pages can be found with some relation to the topic, within seconds. In addition, email (including mailing lists), online discussion forums (aka message boards, BBS's), and other personal communication facilities (instant messaging, IRC, newsgroups, etc) can provide direct access to experts and other individuals with relevant interests and knowledge. However, difficulties persist in verifying a writer's credentials, and therefore the accuracy or pertinence of the information obtainedsee also the article Reliability of Wikipedia. Further difficulties in internet research center around search tool bias and whether the searcher has sufficient skill to draw meaningful results from the abundance of material typically available.[1] The first resources retrieved may not be the most suitable resources to answer a particular question. For example, popularity is often a factor used in structuring internet search results but the most popular information is not always the most correct or representative of the breadth of knowledge and opinion on a topic.

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Search skills
Part of the skill set for using internet research with finesse involves adding the Boolean search terms Not (-) and OR (|) to search engine queries. Advanced internet searching is a term that organizations like Monash University quoted below use to describe the learning of Boolean terms and the choosing of appropriate search tool. Quality on the internet is more than a difficulty with specific search techniques having evolved to assist us to reveal the quality of information found online. The use of context searching (using the inurl: field search) and the retrieval of endorsements (using primarily the link field search but with other options) reveals much of the information we need to make a better quality assessment. A familiarity with context and endorsement searching is thus an internet research skill that lies beyond advanced internet searching. Once we recognize search tool bias and the superficial anonymity of internet information, we open the door to further search skills that personalize and sharpen the focus of our searching. Deep Url interpretation and a recognition of format can counter some of the initial anonymity. Context searching can also assist here. There is also a skill in evolving a search question as we repeatedly make requests of search engines and as we grow more familiar with a topic and how it is organized. Since internet information particularly of a certain quality or standard can be organized in other ways besides word choice and prominence (as attended by global search engines), some information may require further search skills to retrieve. A familiarity with midpoints like directories, invisible databases and an attentiveness to further types of organization may reveal the key to finding missing information. A thesaurus, for example, may prove critical to connecting information organized under the business term staff loyalty to information addressing the preferred nursing term personnel loyalty (MeSH entry for Medline by the [US] National Library of Medicine). This may only come to light by noticing the absence of nursing-related research when collecting staff loyalty related material. Experience noticing the volume of information (particularly by repeatedly searching in a precise manner) and looking for gaps in collections of information can help overcome this. As the volume of internet information continues to rise, emerging search skills like link companion searches and triangulation as well knowledge of as well-established tools like regional search engines will be needed to retrieve information unlikely to reach the attention of those who depend on search engine ranking to reveal relevant information. This situation calls into question what constitutes an internet search - particularly how it is different from a search engine offering an internet recommendation - and the meaning and difficulties in searching the internet comprehensively.

Search tools
The most popular search tools for finding information on the internet include Web search engines, metasearch engines, Web directories, and specialty search services. A Web search engine uses software known as a Web crawler to follow the hyperlinks connecting the pages on the World Wide Web. The information on these Web pages is indexed and stored by the search engine. To access this information, a user enters keywords in a search form and the search engine queries its indices to find Web pages that contain the keywords and displays them in search engine results page (SERP). The SERP list typically includes hyperlinks and brief descriptions of the content found. Search results are ranked using complex algorithms, which take into consideration the location and frequency of keywords on a Web page, along with the quality and number of external hyperlinks pointing at the Web page. A Metasearch engine enables users to enter a search query once and have it run against multiple search engines simultaneously, creating a list of aggregated search results. Since no single search engine covers the entire web, a metasearch engine can produce a more comprehensive search of the web. Most metasearch engines automatically eliminate duplicate search results. However, metasearch engines have a significant limitation because the most popular search engines, such as Google, are not included because of legal restrictions.

Internet research A Web directory organizes subjects in a hierarchical fashion that lets users investigate the breadth of a specific topic and drill down to find relevant links and content. Web directories can be assembled automatically by algorithms or handcrafted. Human-edited Web directories have the distinct advantage of higher quality and reliability, while those produced by algorithms can offer more comprehensive coverage. The scope of Web directories are generally broad, such as DMOZ, Yahoo! and The WWW Virtual Library, covering a wide range of subjects, while others focus on specific topics. Specialty search tools enable users to find information that conventional search engines and metasearch engines cannot access because the content is stored in databases. In fact, the vast majority of information on the web is stored in databases that require users to go to a specific site and access it through a search form. Often, the content is generated dynamically. As a consequence, Web crawlers are unable to index this information. In a sense, this content is "hidden" from search engines, leading to the term invisible or deep Web. Specialty search tools have evolved to provide users with the means to quickly and easily find deep Web content. These specialty tools rely on advanced bot and intelligent agent technologies to search the deep Web and automatically generate specialty Web directories, such as the Virtual Private Library.

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Internet Research Software

Internet Research Software enables you to capture information you find while performing internet research. This information can then be organized in various ways included tagging and hierarchical trees. The goal is to collect information relevant to a specific research project in the one place, so that it can be found and accessed again quickly. These tools typically go beyond just capture and enable content to be edited, notes to be added and information to be cross referenced. Full text search aids in quickly locating information and filters enable you to drill down to see only information relevant to a specific query. By capturing and keeping information you don't have to worry about web pages and whole sites disappearing or being inaccessible. Internet Research Software greatly enhances internet research by enabling you to build knowledge and reuse it. Available software includes Surfulater, Evernote, WebResearch Professional and Scrapbook.

References
[1] Hargittai, E. (April 2002). "Second-Level Digital Divide: Differences in Peoples Online Skills" (http:/ / firstmonday. org/ htbin/ cgiwrap/ bin/ ojs/ index. php/ fm/ article/ view/ 942/ 864). First Monday. . Retrieved February 5, 2010.

External links
How to do research on the internet (http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/www/wwwcon.htm) - Monash University Evaluating Internet Research Sources (http://www.virtualsalt.com/evalu8it.htm)

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Innovation
Innovation comes from the Latin innovationem, noun of action from innovare. The Etymology Dictionary further explains innovare as dating back to 1540 and stemming from the Latin innovatus, pp. of innovare "to renew or change," from in- "into" + novus "new". Innovation can therefore be seen as the process that renews something that exists and not, as is commonly assumed, the introduction of something new. Furthermore this makes clear innovation is not an economic term by origin, but dates back to the Middle Ages at least. Possibly even earlier. The central meaning of innovation thus relates to renewal. For this renewal to take place it is necessary for people to change the way they make decisions, they must choose to do things differently, make choices outside of their norm. Schumpeter c.s. (~1930) seems to have stated that innovation changes the values onto which the system is based. So when people change their value (system) the old (economic) system will tumble over to make room for the new one. When that happens innovation has occurred. So innovation must be seen as something that does not something that is

A confusing personification of the innovator as represented by a statue in The American Adventure in the World Showcase pavilion of Walt Disney World's Epcot. Effectively an inventor is displayed.

On a lower level, innovation can be seen as a change in the thought process for doing something, or the useful application of new inventions or discoveries.[1] It may refer to incremental, emergent, or radical and revolutionary changes in thinking, products, processes, or organizations. Following Schumpeter (1934), contributors to the scholarly literature on innovation typically distinguish between invention, an idea made manifest, and innovation, ideas applied successfully in practice. In many fields, such as the arts, economics and government policy, something new must be substantially different to be innovative. In economics the change must increase value, customer value, or producer value. The goal of invention is positive change, to make someone or something better. Invention and introduction of it that leads to increased productivity is the fundamental source of increasing wealth in an economy. Innovation is an important topic in the study of economics, business, entrepreneurship, design, technology, sociology, and engineering. Colloquially, the word "innovation" is often synonymous with the output of the process. However, economists tend to focus on the process itself, from the origination of an idea to its transformation into something useful, to its implementation; and on the system within which the process of innovation unfolds. Since innovation is also considered a major driver of the economy, especially when it leads to new product categories or increasing productivity, the factors that lead to innovation are also considered to be critical to policy makers. In particular, followers of innovation economics stress using public policy to spur innovation and growth. Those who are directly responsible for application of inventions are often called pioneers in their field, whether they are individuals or organizations. When pioneers are followed by many others, the dominant value system may be replaced by the new one. When this happens innovation has occurred a posteriori: The spark that set off the explosive boom of Silicon startups in Stanford Industrial Park was a personal dispute in 1957 between employees of Shockley Semiconductor and the companys namesake and founder,

Innovation Nobel laureate and co-inventor of the transistor William Shockley... (His employees) formed Fairchild Semiconductor immediately following their departure... After several years, Fairchild gained its footing, becoming a formidable presence in this sector. Its founders began to leave to start companies based on their own, latest ideas and were followed on this path by their own former leading employees... The process gained momentum and what had once began in a Stanfords research park became a veritable startup avalanche... Thus, over the course of just 20 years, a mere eight of Shockleys former employees gave forth 65 new enterprises, which then went on to do the same...[2]

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Introduction
In the organizational context, innovation may be linked to changes in efficiency, productivity, quality, competitive positioning, market share, etc. can all be affected positively or negatively by innovative forces. All organizations can innovate, including for example hospitals, universities, and local governments. Some will flourish under its influence. Other will die. So as innovation typically changes value, innovation may also have a negative or destructive effect as new developments clear away or change old organizational forms and practices. Organizations that do not compensate effectively for innovative forces (mainly from outside) may be destroyed by those that do. Hence managing an organization typically involves risk. A key challenge in management is maintaining a balance between the current processes and business model. Innovation has been studied in a variety of contexts, including in relation to technology, commerce, social systems, economic development, and policy construction. There are, therefore, naturally a wide range of approaches to conceptualizing innovation in the scholarly literature.[3]

Distinguishing from invention

Invention is the embodiment of something new. While both invention and innovation have "uniqueness" implications, innovation is related to acceptance in society, profitability and market performance expectation. An improvement on an existing form or embodiment, composition or processes might be an invention, an innovation, both or neither if it is not substantial enough. According to certain business literature, an idea, a change or an improvement is only an innovation when it is put to use and effectively causes a social or commercial reorganization. In business, innovation can be easily distinguished from invention. Invention is the conversion of cash into ideas. Innovation is the conversion of ideas into cash. This is best described by comparing Thomas Edison with Nikola Tesla. Thomas Edison was an innovator because he made money from his ideas. Nikola Tesla was an inventor. Tesla spent money to create his inventions but was unable to monetize them. Innovators produce, market and profit from their innovations. Inventors may or may not profit from their work.

In organizations
Expert Cris Beswick [4] (2010) defines innovation as: " The successful exploitation of an idea that adds value to the customer and commercial return for the creator"[5] A convenient definition of innovation from an organizational perspective is given by Luecke and Katz (2003), who wrote: "Innovation . . . is generally understood as the successful introduction of a new thing or method . . . Innovation is the embodiment, combination, or synthesis of knowledge in original, relevant, valued new products, processes, or services." A content analysis on the term "innovation" carried out by Baregheh et al. (2009) within the organizational context, defines innovation as:

Innovation "Innovation is the multi-stage process whereby organizations transform ideas into new/improved products, service or processes, in order to advance, compete and differentiate themselves successfully in their marketplace."[6] Innovation typically involves creativity, but is not identical to it: innovation involves acting on the creative ideas to make some specific and tangible difference in the domain in which the innovation occurs. For example, Amabile et al. (1996) (Amabile, T. M., R. Conti, et al. (1996). "Assessing the work environment for creativity." Academy of Management Journal 39(5): 1154-1184) propose: "All innovation begins with creative ideas . . . We define innovation as the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization. In this view, creativity by individuals and teams is a starting point for innovation; the first is necessary but not sufficient condition for the second". For innovation to occur, something more than the generation of a creative idea or insight is required: the insight must be put into action to make a genuine difference, resulting for example in new or altered business processes within the organization, or changes in the products and services provided. "Innovation, like many business functions, is a management process that requires specific tools, rules, and discipline." From this point of view emphasis is moved from the introduction of specific novel and useful ideas to the general organizational processes and procedures for generating, considering, and acting on such insights leading to significant organizational improvements in terms of improved or new business products, services, or internal processes. Through these varieties of viewpoints, creativity is typically seen as the basis for innovation, and innovation as the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization. It should be noted, however, that the term 'innovation' is used by many authors rather interchangeably with the term 'creativity' when discussing individual and organizational creative activity.

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Economic conceptions
Joseph Schumpeter defined economic innovation in "Theorie der Wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung" (1912). (The Theory of Economic Development, 1934, Harvard University Press, Boston.)[7] 1. The introduction of a new good that is one with which consumers are not yet familiar or of a new quality of a good. 2. The introduction of a new method of production, which need by no means be founded upon a discovery scientifically new, and can also exist in a new way of handling a commodity commercially. 3. The opening of a new market, that is a market into which the particular branch of manufacture of the country in question has not previously entered, whether or not this market has existed before. 4. The conquest of a new source of supply of raw materials or half-manufactured goods, again irrespective of whether this source already exists or whether it has first to be created. 5. The carrying out of the new organization of any industry, like the creation of a monopoly position (for example through trustification) or the breaking up of a monopoly position Schumpeter's focus on innovation is reflected in Neo-Schumpeterian economics, developed by such scholars as Christopher Freeman[8] and Giovanni Dosi.[9] Innovation is also studied by economists in a variety of other contexts, for example in theories of entrepreneurship or in Paul Romer's New Growth Theory. In network theory, innovation can be seen as "a new element introduced in the network which changes, even if momentarily, the costs of transactions between at least two actors, elements or nodes, in the network".[10]

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Market outcome
Market outcome from innovation can be studied from different lenses. The industrial organizational approach of market characterization according to the degree of competitive pressure and the consequent modelling of firm behavior often using sophisticated game theoretic tools, while permitting mathematical modelling, has shifted the ground away from the usual understanding of markets. The earlier visual framework in economics, of market demand and supply along price and quantity dimensions, has given way to powerful mathematical models which though intellectually satisfying has led policy makers and managers groping for more intuitive and less theoretical analyses to which they can relate to at a practical level. In the management (strategy) From an academic point of view, there is often a divorce between industrial organisation theory and strategic management models. While many economists view management models as being too simplistic, strategic management consultants perceive academic economists as being too theoretical, and the analytical tools that they devise as too complex for managers to understand. Innovation literature while rich in typologies and descriptions of innovation dynamics is mostly technology focused. Most research on innovation has been devoted to the process (technological) of innovation, or has otherwise taken a how to (innovate) approach.

Sources of innovation
There are several sources of innovation. In the linear model of innovation the traditionally recognized source is manufacturer innovation. This is where an agent (person or business) innovates in order to sell the innovation. Another source of innovation, only now becoming widely recognized, is end-user innovation. This is where an agent (person or company) develops an innovation for their own (personal or in-house) use because existing products do not meet their needs. Eric von Hippel has identified end-user innovation as, by far, the most important and critical in his classic book on the subject, Sources of Innovation.[11]

Training meeting about sustainable design. The photo shows a training meeting with factory workers in a stainless steel ecodesign company from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The work force is a very important source of innovation

Joseph F. Engelberger, paraphrasing the conclusion of the 1967 US DoD program "Project Hindsight", says that innovations require only three things:[12] 1. A recognized need, 2. Competent people with relevant technology, and 3. Financial support. Innovation by businesses is achieved in many ways, with much attention now given to formal research and development for "breakthrough innovations." But innovations may be developed by less formal on-the-job modifications of practice, through exchange and combination of professional experience and by many other routes. The more radical and revolutionary innovations tend to emerge from R&D, while more incremental innovations may emerge from practice but there are many exceptions to each of these trends. accelerated radical innovation is

Innovation another buzzword topping radical innovation expressing the target to move things quicker than by relying on the ideas flowing in from inventors. User as customers buying products or using services are an important factor in innovation. Firms may incorporate users in focus groups (user centred approach), work closely with so called lead users (lead user approach) or users might adapt their products them selves.[13] Regarding this user innovation, a great deal of innovation is done by those actually implementing and using technologies and products as part of their normal activities. In most of the times user innovators have some personal record motivating them. Sometimes user-innovators may become entrepreneurs, selling their product, they may choose to trade their innovation in exchange for other innovations, or they may be adopted by their suppliers. Nowadays, they may also choose to freely reveal their innovations, using methods like open source. In such networks of innovation the users or communities of users can further develop technologies and reinvent their social meaning.[14] Whether innovation is mainly supply-pushed (based on new technological possibilities) or demand-led (based on social needs and market requirements) has been a hotly debated topic. Similarly, what exactly drives innovation in organizations and economies remains an open question. More recent theoretical work moves beyond this simple dualistic problem, and through empirical work shows that innovation does not just happen within the industrial supply-side, or as a result of the articulation of user demand, but through a complex set of processes that links many different players together not only developers and users, but a wide variety of intermediary organisations such as consultancies, standards bodies etc. Work on social networks suggests that much of the most successful innovation occurs at the boundaries of organisations and industries where the problems and needs of users, and the potential of technologies can be linked together in a creative process that challenges both.

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Value of experimentation
When an innovative idea requires a new business model, or radically redesigns the delivery of value to focus on the customer, a real world experimentation approach increases the chances of market success. New business models and customer experiences can't be tested through traditional market research methods. Pilot programs for new innovations set the path in stone too early thus increasing the costs of failure. On the other hand, the good news is that recent years have seen considerable progress in identifying important key factors/principles or variables that affect the probability of success in innovation. Of course, building successful businesses is such a complicated process, involving subtle interdependencies among so many variables in dynamic systems, that it is unlikely to ever be made perfectly predictable. But the more business can master the variables and experiment, the more they will be able to create new companies, products, processes and services that achieve what they hope to achieve.[15] [16]

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Diffusion
Once innovation occurs, innovations may be spread from the innovator to other individuals and groups. This process has been proposed that the life cycle of innovations can be described using the 's-curve' or diffusion curve. The s-curve maps growth of revenue or productivity against time. In the early stage of a particular innovation, growth is relatively slow as the new product establishes itself. At some point customers begin to demand and the product growth increases more rapidly. New incremental innovations or changes to the product allow growth to continue. Towards the end of its life cycle growth slows and may even begin to decline. In the later stages, no amount of new investment in that product will yield a normal rate of return. The s-curve derives from an assumption that new products are likely to have "product Life". i.e. a start-up phase, a rapid increase in revenue and eventual decline. In fact the great majority of innovations never get off the bottom of the curve, and never produce normal returns. Innovative companies will typically be working on new innovations that will eventually replace older ones. Successive s-curves will come along to replace older ones and continue to drive growth upwards. In the figure above the first curve shows a current technology. The second shows an emerging technology that current yields lower growth but will eventually overtake current technology and lead to even greater levels of growth. The length of life will depend on many factors.

Goals
Programs of organizational innovation are typically tightly linked to organizational goals and objectives, to the business plan, and to market competitive positioning. One driver for innovation programs in corporations is to achieve growth objectives. As Davila et al. (2006) note, "Companies cannot grow through cost reduction and reengineering alone... Innovation is the key element in providing aggressive top-line growth, and for increasing bottom-line results" (p.6) In general, business organisations spend a significant amount of their turnover on innovation, such as making changes to their established products, processes and services. The amount of investment can vary from as low as a half a percent of turnover for organisations with a low rate of change to anything over twenty percent of turnover for organisations with a high rate of change. The average investment across all types of organizations is four percent. For an organisation with a turnover of one billion currency units, this would represent an investment of forty million units. This budget will typically be spread across various functions including marketing, product design, information systems, manufacturing systems and quality assurance. The investment may vary by industry and by market positioning. One survey across a large number of manufacturing and services organisations found, ranked in decreasing order of popularity, that systematic programs of organizational innovation are most frequently driven by: 1. Improved quality 2. Creation of new markets 3. Extension of the product range

Innovation 4. Reduced labour costs 5. Improved production processes 6. Reduced materials 7. Reduced environmental damage 8. Replacement of products/services 9. Reduced energy consumption 10. Conformance to regulations These goals vary between improvements to products, processes and services and dispel a popular myth that innovation deals mainly with new product development. Most of the goals could apply to any organisation be it a manufacturing facility, marketing firm, hospital or local government. Whether innovation goals are successfully achieved or otherwise depends greatly on the environment prevailing in the firm.[17]

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Failure
Research findings vary, ranging from fifty to ninety percent of innovation projects judged to have made little or no contribution to organizational goals. One survey regarding product innovation quotes that out of three thousand ideas for new products, only one becomes a success in the marketplace. Failure is an inevitable part of the innovation process, and most successful organisations factor in an appropriate level of risk. Perhaps it is because all organisations experience failure that many choose not to monitor the level of failure very closely. The impact of failure goes beyond the simple loss of investment. Failure can also lead to loss of morale among employees, an increase in cynicism and even higher resistance to change in the future. Innovations that fail are often potentially good ideas but have been rejected or postponed due to budgetary constraints, lack of skills or poor fit with current goals. Failures should be identified and screened out as early in the process as possible. Early screening avoids unsuitable ideas devouring scarce resources that are needed to progress more beneficial ones. Organizations can learn how to avoid failure when it is openly discussed and debated. The lessons learned from failure often reside longer in the organisational consciousness than lessons learned from success. While learning is important, high failure rates throughout the innovation process are wasteful and a threat to the organisation's future. The causes of failure have been widely researched and can vary considerably. Some causes will be external to the organisation and outside its influence of control. Others will be internal and ultimately within the control of the organisation. Internal causes of failure can be divided into causes associated with the cultural infrastructure and causes associated with the innovation process itself. Failure in the cultural infrastructure varies between organizations but the following are common across all organisations at some stage in their life cycle (O'Sullivan, 2002): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Poor Leadership Poor Organization Poor Communication Poor Empowerment Poor Knowledge Management

Common causes of failure within the innovation process in most organisations can be distilled into five types: 1. 2. 3. 4. Poor goal definition Poor alignment of actions to goals Poor participation in teams Poor monitoring of results

5. Poor communication and access to information

Innovation Effective goal definition requires that organisations state explicitly what their goals are in terms understandable to everyone involved in the innovation process. This often involves stating goals in a number of ways. Effective alignment of actions to goals should link explicit actions such as ideas and projects to specific goals. It also implies effective management of action portfolios. Participation in teams refers to the behaviour of individuals in and of teams, and each individual should have an explicitly allocated responsibility regarding their role in goals and actions and the payment and rewards systems that link them to goal attainment. Finally, effective monitoring of results requires the monitoring of all goals, actions and teams involved in the innovation process. Innovation can fail if seen as an organisational process whose success stems from a mechanistic approach i.e. 'pull lever obtain result'. While 'driving' change has an emphasis on control, enforcement and structure it is only a partial truth in achieving innovation. Organisational gatekeepers frame the organisational environment that "Enables" innovation; however innovation is "Enacted" recognised, developed, applied and adopted through individuals. Individuals are the 'atom' of the organisation close to the minutiae of daily activities. Within individuals gritty appreciation of the small detail combines with a sense of desired organisational objectives to deliver (and innovate for) a product/service offer. From this perspective innovation succeeds from strategic structures that engage the individual to the organisation's benefit. Innovation pivots on intrinsically motivated individuals, within a supportive culture, informed by a broad sense of the future. Innovation, implies change, and can be counter to an organisation's orthodoxy. Space for fair hearing of innovative ideas is required to balance the potential autoimmune exclusion that quells an infant innovative culture.

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Measures
There are two fundamentally different types of measures for innovation: the organizational level and the political level. The measure of innovation at the organizational level relates to individuals, team-level assessments, private companies from the smallest to the largest. Measure of innovation for organizations can be conducted by surveys, workshops, consultants or internal benchmarking. There is today no established general way to measure organizational innovation. Corporate measurements are generally structured around balanced scorecards which cover several aspects of innovation such as business measures related to finances, innovation process efficiency, employees' contribution and motivation, as well benefits for customers. Measured values will vary widely between businesses, covering for example new product revenue, spending in R&D, time to market, customer and employee perception & satisfaction, number of patents, additional sales resulting from past innovations. For the political level, measures of innovation are more focussing on a country or region competitive advantage through innovation. In this context, organizational capabilities can be evaluated through various evaluation frameworks, such as those of the European Foundation for Quality Management. The OECD Oslo Manual (1995) suggests standard guidelines on measuring technological product and process innovation. Some people consider the Oslo Manual complementary to the Frascati Manual from 1963. The new Oslo manual from 2005 takes a wider perspective to innovation, and includes marketing and organizational innovation. These standards are used for example in the European Community Innovation Surveys. Other ways of measuring innovation have traditionally been expenditure, for example, investment in R&D (Research and Development) as percentage of GNP (Gross National Product). Whether this is a good measurement of Innovation has been widely discussed and the Oslo Manual has incorporated some of the critique against earlier methods of measuring. The traditional methods of measuring still inform many policy decisions. The EU Lisbon Strategy has set as a goal that their average expenditure on R&D should be 3% of GNP. The Oslo Manual is focused on North America, Europe, and other rich economies. In 2001 for Latin America and the Caribbean countries it was created the Bogota Manual

Innovation Many scholars claim that there is a great bias towards the "science and technology mode" (S&T-mode or STI-mode), while the "learning by doing, using and interacting mode" (DUI-mode) is widely ignored. For an example, that means you can have the better high tech or software, but there are also crucial learning tasks important for innovation. But these measurements and research are rarely done. A common industry view (unsupported by empirical evidence) is that comparative cost-effectiveness research (CER) is a form of price control which, by reducing returns to industry, limits R&D expenditure, stifles future innovation and compromises new products access to markets.[18] Some academics claim the CER is a valuable value-based measure of innovation which accords truly significant advances in therapy (those that provide 'health gain') higher prices than free market mechanisms.[19] Such value-based pricing has been viewed as a means of indicating to industry the type of innovation that should be rewarded from the public purse.[20] The Australian academic Thomas Alured Faunce has developed the case that national comparative cost-effectiveness assessment systems should be viewed as measuring 'health innovation' as an evidence-based concept distinct from valuing innovation through the operation of competitive markets (a method which requires strong anti-trust laws to be effective) on the basis that both methods of assessing innovation in pharmaceuticals are mentioned in annex 2C.1 of the AUSFTA.[21] [22] [23] Political Level Studies There are several international benchmarking studies of the innovation performance of countries ( above called the political level), Global Innovation Index (below) being one. Other examples are Richard Florida's index for the Creative Class and the Innovation Capacity Index (ICI)[24] published by a large number of international professors working in a collaborative fashion. The top scorers of ICI 2009-2010 being: #1. Sweden 82.2, #2. Finland 77.8, and #3. United States 77.5. The Global Innovation Index is a global index measuring the level of innovation of a country, produced jointly by The Boston Consulting Group (BCG), the National Association of Manufacturers (NAM), and The Manufacturing Institute (MI), the NAM's nonpartisan research affiliate. NAM describes it as the "largest and most comprehensive global index of its kind".[25] The International Innovation Index is part of a large research study that looked at both the business outcomes of innovation and government's ability to encourage and support innovation through public policy. The study comprised a survey of more than 1,000 senior executives from NAM member companies across all industries; in-depth interviews with 30 of the executives; and a comparison of the "innovation friendliness" of 110 countries and all 50 U.S. states. The findings are published in the report, "The Innovation Imperative in Manufacturing: How the United States Can Restore Its Edge."[26] The report discusses not only country performance but also what companies are doing and should be doing to spur innovation. It looks at new policy indicators for innovation, including tax incentives and policies for immigration, education and intellectual property. The latest index was published in March 2009.[27] To rank the countries, the study measured both innovation inputs and outputs. Innovation inputs included government and fiscal policy, education policy and the innovation environment. Outputs included patents, technology transfer, and other R&D results; business performance, such as labor productivity and total shareholder returns; and the impact of innovation on business migration and economic growth. The following is a list of the twenty largest countries (as measured by GDP) by the International Innovation Index:

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34

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Country South Korea United States Japan Sweden Netherlands Canada

Overall 2.26 1.80 1.79 1.64 1.55 1.42

Innovation Inputs 1.75 1.28 1.16 1.25 1.40 1.39 1.33 1.05 1.17 0.89 0.83 0.85 0.07 0.16 0.14 -0.02 0.11 0.15 -0.63 -0.62

Innovation Performance 2.55 2.16 2.25 1.88 1.55 1.32 1.37 1.09 0.96 1.05 0.95 0.79 1.32 0.24 -0.02 -0.16 -0.42 -0.55 -0.46 -0.51

United Kingdom 1.42 Germany France Australia Spain Belgium China Italy India Russia Mexico Turkey Indonesia Brazil 1.12 1.12 1.02 0.93 0.86 0.73 0.21 0.06 -0.09 -0.16 -0.21 -0.57 -0.59

Public awareness
Public awareness of innovation is an important part of the innovation process. This is further discussed in the emerging fields of innovation journalism and innovation communication.

Government policies encouraging innovation

Many governments have crafted policies to promote innovation in the economy. These include increased government spending on R&D and education. An example of an innovation programme is the Medvedev modernisation programme in Russia which aims at creating a diversified economy based on high technology and innovation.

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References
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Innovation ISSN01663615. Rogers, Everett M. (1962). Diffusion of Innovation. New York, NY: Free Press. Rosenberg, Nathan (1975). Perspectives on Technology. Cambridge, London and N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. Sarkar, Soumodip (2007). Innovation, Market Archetypes and Outcome- An Integrated Framework. Springer Verlag. ISBN379081945X. Schumpeter, Joseph (1934). The Theory of Economic Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Scotchmer, Suzanne (2004). Innovation and Incentives. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Silvestre, Bruno dos Santos; Dalcol, Paulo Roberto Tavares. "Geographical proximity and innovation: Evidences from the Campos Basin oil & gas industrial agglomerationBrazil". Technovation (Elsevier) 29 (8): 546561. doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2009.01.003. ISSN0166-4972. Stein, Morris (1974). Stimulating creativity. New York: Academic Press. Utterback, James M.; Fernando F. Suarez. (1993). "Innovation, Competition, and Industry Structure". Research Policy 22 (1): 121. doi:10.1016/0048-7333(93)90030-L. Veneris, Yannis (1984). The Informational Revolution, Cybernetics and Urban Modelling, PhD Thesis. University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.

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Veneris, Yannis (1990). "Modeling the transition from the Industrial to the Informational Revolution". Environment and Planning A 22 (3): 399416. doi:10.1068/a220399. von Hippel, Eric (2005). Democratizing Innovation. MIT Press. ISBN0-262-22074-1. Woodman, Richard .W.; John E. Sawyer, Ricky W. Griffin (1993). "Toward a theory of organizational creativity" [30] . Academy of Management Review (The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 18, No. 2) 18 (2): 293321. doi:10.2307/258761. Wolpert, John (2002). "Breaking Out of the Innovation Box". Harvard Business Review August.

Inline references
[1] McKeown, Max (2008). The Truth About Innovation. London, UK: Prentice Hall. ISBN0273719122. [2] A Legal Bridge Spanning 100 Years: From the Gold Mines of El Dorado to the 'Golden' Startups of Silicon Valley (http:/ / www. netvalley. com/ silicon_valley/ Legal_Bridge_From_El_Dorado_to_Silicon_Valley. html) by Gregory Gromov 2010. [3] Fagerberg et al. (2004). [4] http:/ / www. letsthinkbeyond. com [5] Beswick, C; Gallagher, D (2010) The Road to Innovation. LTBpublishing. UK. pp10. [6] Baregheh A, Rowley J and Sambrook S.(2009) Towards a multidisciplinary definition of innovation, Management decision, vol. 47, no. 8, pp.13231339 [7] Schumpeter, Joseph (1934). The Theory of Economic Development. Harvard University Press, Boston. [8] Freeman, Christopher (1982). The Economics of Industrial Innovation. Frances Pinter, London.. [9] Dosi, Giovanni (1982). "Technological paradigms and technological trajectories". Research Policy 11 (3): 147162. [10] Regis Cabral (1998, 2003) [11] von Hippel, Eric (1988). The Sources of Innovation (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ evhippel/ www/ books/ sources/ SofI. pdf). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195094220. [12] "Robotics in practice: Future capabilities" by Joseph F. Engelberger.: in "Electronic Servicing & Technology" magazine 1982 August [13] http:/ / www. u-stir. eu [14] Tuomi, Ilkka (2002). Networks of Innovation (http:/ / www. oup. com/ uk/ catalogue/ ?ci=9780199256983). Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-925698-3. [15] Christensen, Clayton (2002). "The Rules of Innovation". Technology Review 105 (5): 3238. [16] Thomke, Stefan H. (2003) Experimentation Matters: Unlocking the Potential of New Technologies for Innovation. Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 1578517508. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=nM-5IWBGhoEC& pg=PA163& dq=Anticipate+ and+ Exploit+ Early+ Information+ Through+ Front-Loaded+ Innovation+ Processes& sig=F6hTllVtx3j3kkX_tOoWBF8Br5Q#PPA163,M1) [17] Khan, Arshad M.; V. Manopichetwattana (1989). "Innovative and Noninnovative Small Firms: Types and Characteristics". Management Science 35 (5): 597606.. doi:10.1287/mnsc.35.5.597. [18] Chalkidou K, Tunis S, Lopert R, Rochaix L, Sawicki PT, Nasser M, Xerri B. Comparative Effectiveness research and Evidence-Based Health Policy: Experience from Four Countries. The Milbank Quarterly 2009; 87(2): 339-367 at 362-363.

Innovation
[19] Roughead E, Lopert R and Sansom L. Prices for innovative pharmaceutical products that provide health gain: a comparison between Australia and the United States Value in Health 2007;10:514-20 [20] Hughes B. Payers Growing Influence on R&D Decision Making. Nature Reviews Drugs Discovery 2008; 7: 876-78. [21] Faunce T, Bai J and Nguyen D. Impact of the Australia-US Free Trade Agreement on Australian medicines regulation and prices. Journal of Generic Medicines 2010; 7(1): 18-29 [22] Faunce TA. Global intellectual property protection of innovative pharmaceuticals:Challenges for bioethics and health law in B Bennett and G Tomossy (eds) Globalization and Health Springer 2006 http:/ / law. anu. edu. au/ StaffUploads/ 236-Ch%20Globalisation%20and%20Health%20Fau. pdf . Retrieved 18 June 2009. [23] Faunce TA. Reference pricing for pharmaceuticals: is the Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement affecting Australia's Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme? Medical Journal of Australia. 2007 Aug 20;187(4):240-2. [24] http:/ / www. innovationfordevelopmentreport. org/ [25] "America Ranks #8 In New Global Innovation Index" (http:/ / www. nam. org/ NewsFromtheNAM. aspx?DID={8D10F9A6-28AE-456D-97EA-340146144190}). Nam.org. . Retrieved 2009-08-28. [26] "U.S. Ranks #8 In Global Innovation Index" (http:/ / www. industryweek. com/ articles/ u-s-_ranks_8_in_global_innovation_index_18638. aspx). Industryweek.com. 2009-03-10. . Retrieved 2009-08-28. [27] "The Innovation Imperative in Manufacturing: How the United States Can Restore Its Edge" (http:/ / www. nam. org/ innovationreport. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2009-08-28. [28] http:/ / www. oxfordreference. com/ pages/ Subjects_and_titles__t132. html [29] http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 2098683 [30] http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 258761

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External links
Academic article on Being a Systems Innovator (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=964672) on SSRN "Communication on Innovation policy: updating the Union's approach in the context of the Lisbon strategy" (http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/innovation/communication.htm) The European Commission. Commission proposes 2009 to become European Year of Creativity and Innovation (http://europa.eu/rapid/ pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/08/482&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en) The European Commission. PRO-INNO Europe - Innovation policy analysis and development throughout Europe (http://www. proinno-europe.eu) (Initiative of the European Commission). 12 Innovations that Changed the World (http://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/2009/08/24/lifestyle/features/ 12-innovations-changed-world.html) Inno Inc's Frontier Visionary Interview with Innovators (http://www.hwswworld.com/interview.php)

Lab notebook

38

Lab notebook
A lab notebook is a primary record of research. Researchers use a lab notebook to document their hypotheses, experiments and initial analysis or interpretation of these experiments. The notebook serves as an organizational tool, a memory aid, and can also have a role in protecting any intellectual property that comes from the research.

Structure
The guidelines for lab notebooks vary widely between institution and between individual labs, but some guidelines are fairly common. Dates are given as a rule and pages are often numbered. The lab notebook is usually written as the experiments progress, rather than at a later date. In many laboratories, it is the original place of record of data (no copying is carried out from other notes). For data recorded by other means (e.g., on a computer), the lab notebook will record that the data was obtained and the identification of the data set will be given in the notebook. Many adhere to the concept that a lab notebook should be thought of as a diary of activities that are described in sufficient detail to allow another scientist to replicate the steps. In laboratories with several staff and a common laboratory notebook, entries in the notebook are signed by those making them.

Page from a laboratory notebook of Alexander Graham Bell, 1876.

Legal aspects
To ensure that data cannot be easily altered, notebooks with permanently bound pages are often recommended. Researchers are often encouraged to write only with unerasable pen, to sign and date each page, and to have their notebooks inspected periodically by another scientist who can read and understand it. All of these guidelines can be useful in proving exactly when a discovery was made, in the case of a patent dispute.

Page from the notebook of Otto Hahn, 1938.

Electronic formats
Several companies now offer electronic lab notebooks. This format has gained some popularity, especially in large pharmaceutical companies, which have large numbers of researchers and great need to document their experiments.

Open lab notebooks

In recent years, lab notebooks kept online have started to become as transparent to the world as they are to the researcher keeping them, a trend often referred to as Open Notebook Science, after the title of a 2006 blogpost by chemist Jean-Claude Bradley. The term is frequently used to distinguish this aspect of Open Science from the related but

Page from the notebook of Luis E. Miramontes, 1951.

Lab notebook rather independent developments commonly labeled as Open Source, Open Access, Open Data and so forth. The openness of the notebook, then, specifically refers to the set of the following points, or elements thereof: 1. Sharing of the researcher's laboratory notebook online in real time without password protection or limitations on the use of the data. 2. The raw data used by the researcher to derive observations and conclusions are made available online to anyone. 3. All experimental data are shared, including failed or ambiguous attempts. 4. Feedback and other contributions to the research effort can be integrated easily with the understanding that everything is donated to the public domain. The use of a wiki makes it convenient to track contributions by individual authors.

39

External links
UsefulChem Project [1]

References
[1] http:/ / usefulchem. wikispaces. com

Open research
Open research is research, conducted in the spirit of free and open source software. If the research is scientific in nature it is frequently referred to as open science; open research can also include social sciences and the humanities. Much like open source schemes that are built around a source code that is made public, the central theme of open research is to make clear accounts of the methodology, along with data and results extracted therefrom, freely available via the Internet. This permits a massively distributed collaboration. Most open research is conducted in existing research groups. Primary research data are posted which can be added to/interpreted by anybody who has the necessary expertise and who can therefore join the collaborative effort. Thus the 'end product' of the project arises from many contributions rather than the effort of one group. Open research is therefore distinct from open access in that the output of open research is mutable.[1] Issues of copyright are dealt with by either standard copyright or by releasing the content under licenses such as one of the Creative Commons Licence or one of the GNU General Public Licenses. Several early (2005) examples arose in the area of the search for new/improved treatments in Neglected Diseases.[2]
[3] [4] [5]

In June 2008 The Open Source Science Project was launched in Michigan to invite members of the internet community to directly fund scientific research projects in exchange for researchers publishing their insights and research data under a Creative Commons license. In September 2008 the Open Source Drug Discovery Network [6] was launched in India to combat infectious diseases common to developing countries. While first attempts towards opening research primarily aimed at opening scientific data, methodologies, software and publications now increasingly also other artifacts of the scientific work-cycles are tackled, such as scientific meta-data[7] and funding ideas [8] .

Open research

40

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Article on open access and open research in Chemistry (http:/ / www. journal. chemistrycentral. com/ content/ 1/ 1/ 3) Usefulchem (http:/ / usefulchem. wikispaces. com/ ) The Synaptic Leap (http:/ / www. thesynapticleap. org/ ) Article in the American Chemical Society's magazine C&E News on Open Research (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ science/ 84/ 8430sci1. html) Article in Australian Journal of Chemistry on The Synaptic Leap (http:/ / www. publish. csiro. au/ nid/ 51/ paper/ CH06095. htm) http:/ / www. osdd. net/ http:/ / OpenResearch. org Auer, S.; Braun-Thrmann, H.: Towards Bottom-Up, Stakeholder-Driven Research Funding - Open Source Funding, Open Peer Review. (http:/ / www. informatik. uni-leipzig. de/ ~auer/ publication/ OpenScience. pdf) In Peer Review Reviewed: The International Career of a Quality-control Instrument and New Challenges 2425 April 2008, Social Science Research Center Berlin (WZB), Berlin.

External links
OpenResearch.org (http://OpenResearch.org) - a semantic Wiki aiming to collect scientific meta-data such as about calls for papers, tools, journals etc. Philoptima.org (http://www.philoptima.org/) - Open Research Marketplace & Community. IdeaSpace Blog (http://ispace.osdd.net/) - !Space is the experimental ideaBlog at the Open Source Drug Discovery Network . OpenScience (http://os.osdd.net/) - OpenScience Archive of E-theses and Dissertation Metadata is a part of the Open Source Drug Discovery Initiative . Open Source Drug Discovery (OSDD) Network (http://www.osdd.net) TBrowse Integrative Map of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (http://tbrowse.osdd.net) SysBorg TB Portal for Collaborative Research (http://sysborgtb.osdd.net) The GNU Free Documentation License or GFDL is the licence used for the open-research content associated with Meta Collab. MIT's open source research community (http://opensource.mit.edu/) is another example of open research. UsefulChem (http://usefulchem.wikispaces.com) is an example of Open Notebook Science (http:// drexel-coas-elearning.blogspot.com/2006/09/open-notebook-science.html) mainly focussed on the synthesis and testing of anti-malarial compounds The Synaptic Leap (http://www.thesynapticleap.org/) Open Research organisation in biomedical science, currently focussing on neglected tropical diseases. SCRIBE (http://www.scribeproject.org) - an interdisciplinary and open research group on computer-aided searches by similarity of handwritings in digitized music manuscripts. designbreak (http://www.designbreak.org) - open science and engineering non-profit, with a focus on interdisciplinary collaboration to address issues of health and poverty. Science Commons (http://www.sciencecommons.org/) - a branch of the Creative Commons process specifically dedicated to open science and research. Open Source Drug Discovery Foundation (http://www.osdd.org/index.htm) - Open Source Drug Discovery Foundation is an international non-profit foundation based in India to accelerate drug discovery for infectious diseases. Public Library of Science (PLoS) (http://www.plos.org/) Universal platform for statistical and mathematical computing (http://biocep-distrib.r-forge.r-project.org/doc. html)

Operations research

41

Operations research
Operations research (also referred to as decision science, or management science) is an interdisciplinary mathematical science that focuses on the effective use of technology by organizations. In contrast, many other science & engineering disciplines focus on technology giving secondary considerations to its use. Employing techniques from other mathematical sciences such as mathematical modeling, statistical analysis, and mathematical optimization operations research arrives at optimal or near-optimal solutions to complex decision-making problems. Because of its emphasis on human-technology interaction and because of its focus on practical applications, operations research has overlap with other disciplines, notably industrial engineering and management science, and draws on psychology and organization science. Operations Research is often concerned with determining the maximum (of profit, performance, or yield) or minimum (of loss, risk, or cost) of some real-world objective. Originating in military efforts before World War II, its techniques have grown to concern problems in a variety of industries.[1]

Overview
Operational research encompasses a wide range of problem-solving techniques and methods applied in the pursuit of improved decision-making and efficiency.[2] Some of the tools used by operational researchers are statistics, optimization, probability theory, queuing theory, game theory, graph theory, decision analysis, mathematical modeling and simulation. Because of the computational nature of these fields, OR also has strong ties to computer science and analytics. Operational researchers faced with a new problem must determine which of these techniques are most appropriate given the nature of the system, the goals for improvement, and constraints on time and computing power. Work in operational research and management science may be characterized as one of three categories:[3] Fundamental or foundational work takes place in three mathematical disciplines: probability, optimization, and dynamical systems theory. Modeling work is concerned with the construction of models, analyzing them mathematically, implementing them on computers, solving them using software tools, and assessing their effectiveness with data. This level is mainly instrumental, and driven mainly by statistics and econometrics. Application work in operational research, like other engineering and economics' disciplines, attempts to use models to make a practical impact on real-world problems. The major subdisciplines in modern operational research, as identified by the journal Operations Research,[4] are: Computing and information technologies Decision analysis Environment, energy, and natural resources Financial engineering Manufacturing, service sciences, and supply chain management Policy modeling and public sector work Revenue management Simulation Stochastic models Transportation

Operations research

42

History
As a formal discipline, operational research originated in the efforts of military planners during World War II. In the decades after the war, the techniques began to be applied more widely to problems in business, industry and society. Since that time, operational research has expanded into a field widely used in industries ranging from petrochemicals to airlines, finance, logistics, and government, moving to a focus on the development of mathematical models that can be used to analyze and optimize complex systems, and has become an area of active academic and industrial research.[1]

Historical origins
In the World War II era, operational research was defined as "a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding the operations under their control."[5] Other names for it included operational analysis (UK Ministry of Defence from 1962)[6] and quantitative management.[7] Prior to the formal start of the field, early work in operational research was carried out by individuals such as Charles Babbage. His research into the cost of transportation and sorting of mail led to England's universal "Penny Post" in 1840, and studies into the dynamical behaviour of railway vehicles in defence of the GWR's broad gauge.[8] Percy Bridgman brought operational research to bear on problems in physics in the 1920s and would later attempt to extend these to the social sciences.[9] The modern field of operational research arose during World War II. Modern operational research originated at the Bawdsey Research Station in the UK in 1937 and was the result of an initiative of the station's superintendent, A. P. Rowe. Rowe conceived the idea as a means to analyse and improve the working of the UK's early warning radar system, Chain Home (CH). Initially, he analyzed the operating of the radar equipment and its communication networks, expanding later to include the operating personnel's behaviour. This revealed unappreciated limitations of the CH network and allowed remedial action to be taken.[10] Scientists in the United Kingdom including Patrick Blackett later Lord Blackett OM PRS, Cecil Gordon, C. H. Waddington, Owen Wansbrough-Jones, Frank Yates, Jacob Bronowski and Freeman Dyson, and in the United States with George Dantzig looked for ways to make better decisions in such areas as logistics and training schedules. After the war it began to be applied to similar problems in industry.

Second World War

During the Second World War close to 1,000 men and women in Britain were engaged in operational research. About 200 operational research scientists worked for the British Army.[11] Patrick Blackett worked for several different organizations during the war. Early in the war while working for the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) he set up a team known as the "Circus" which helped to reduce the number of anti-aircraft artillery rounds needed to shoot down an enemy aircraft from an average of over 20,000 at the start of the Battle of Britain to 4,000 in 1941.[12] In 1941 Blackett moved from the RAE to the Navy, first to the Royal Navy's Coastal Command, in 1941 and then early in 1942 to the Admiralty.[13] Blackett's team at Coastal Command's Operational Research Section (CC-ORS) included two future Nobel prize winners and many other people who went on to be preeminent in their fields.[14] They undertook a number of crucial analyses that aided the war effort. Britain introduced the convoy system to reduce shipping losses, but while the principle of using warships to

Patrick Blackett

Operations research accompany merchant ships was generally accepted, it was unclear whether it was better for convoys to be small or large. Convoys travel at the speed of the slowest member, so small convoys can travel faster. It was also argued that small convoys would be harder for German U-boats to detect. On the other hand, large convoys could deploy more warships against an attacker. Blackett's staff showed that the losses suffered by convoys depended largely on the number of escort vessels present, rather than on the overall size of the convoy. Their conclusion, therefore, was that a few large convoys are more defensible than many small ones.[15] While performing an analysis of the methods used by RAF Coastal Command to hunt and destroy submarines, one of the analysts asked what colour the aircraft were. As most of them were from Bomber Command they were painted black for nighttime operations. At the suggestion of CC-ORS a test was run to see if that was the best colour to camouflage the aircraft for daytime operations in the grey North Atlantic skies. Tests showed that aircraft painted white were on average not spotted until they were 20% closer than those painted black. This change indicated that 30% more submarines would be attacked and sunk for the same number of sightings.[16] Other work by the CC-ORS indicated that on average if the trigger depth of aerial delivered depth charges (DCs) was changed from 100 feet to 25 feet, the kill ratios would go up. The reason was that if a U-boat saw an aircraft only shortly before it arrived over the target then at 100 feet the charges would do no damage (because the U-boat wouldn't have time to descend as far as 100 feet), and if it saw the aircraft a long way from the target it had time to alter course under water so the chances of it being within the 20 feet kill zone of the charges was small. It was more efficient to attack those submarines close to the surface when these targets' locations were better known than to attempt their destruction at greater depths when their positions could only be guessed. Before the change of settings from 100 feet to 25 feet, 1% of submerged U-boats were sunk and 14% damaged. After the change, 7% were sunk and 11% damaged. (If submarines were caught on the surface, even if attacked shortly after submerging, the numbers rose to 11% sunk and 15% damaged). Blackett observed "there can be few cases where such a great operational gain had been obtained by such a small and simple change of tactics".[17] Bomber Command's Operational Research Section (BC-ORS), analysed a report of a survey carried out by RAF Bomber Command. For the survey, Bomber Command inspected all bombers returning from bombing raids over Germany over a particular period. All damage inflicted by German air defences was noted and the recommendation was given that armour be added in the most heavily damaged areas. Their suggestion to remove some of the crew so that an aircraft loss would result in fewer personnel loss was rejected by RAF command. Blackett's team instead made the surprising and counter-intuitive recommendation that the armour be placed in the areas which were completely untouched by damage in the bombers which returned. They reasoned that the survey was biased, since it only included aircraft that returned to Britain. The untouched areas of returning aircraft were probably vital areas, which, if hit, would result in the loss of the aircraft. (Info to help verify some/most of the above paragraph is found in "Dirty Little Secrets of the Twentieth Century" authored by James F. Dunnigan on pages 215-217

43

Operations research

44 When Germany organised its air defences into the Kammhuber Line, it was realised that if the RAF bombers were to fly in a bomber stream they could overwhelm the night fighters who flew in individual cells directed to their targets by ground controllers. It was then a matter of calculating the statistical loss from collisions against the statistical loss from night fighters to calculate how close the bombers should fly to minimise RAF losses.[18] The "exchange rate" ratio of output to input was a characteristic feature of operational research. By comparing the number of flying hours put in by Allied aircraft to the number of U-boat sightings in a given area, it was possible to redistribute aircraft to more productive patrol areas. Comparison of exchange rates established "effectiveness ratios" useful in planning. The ratio of 60 mines laid per ship sunk was common to several campaigns: German mines in British ports, British mines on German routes, and United States mines in Japanese routes.[19]

Map of Kammhuber Line

Operational research doubled the on-target bomb rate of B-29s bombing Japan from the Marianas Islands by increasing the training ratio from 4 to 10 percent of flying hours; revealed that wolf-packs of three United States submarines were the most effective number to enable all members of the pack to engage targets discovered on their individual patrol stations; revealed that glossy enamel paint was more effective camouflage for night fighters than traditional dull camouflage paint finish, and the smooth paint finish increased airspeed by reducing skin friction.[19] On land, the operational research sections of the Army Operational Research Group (AORG) of the Ministry of Supply (MoS) were landed in Normandy in 1944, and they followed British forces in the advance across Europe. They analysed, among other topics, the effectiveness of artillery, aerial bombing, and anti-tank shooting.

After World War II

With expanded techniques and growing awareness of the field at the close of the war, operational research was no longer limited to only operational, but was extended to encompass equipment procurement, training, logistics and infrastructure. Academic Denis Bouyssou describes the historical development of operational research from the 1940s to the 1970s as follows. "The historical development of Operational Research (OR) is traditionally seen as the succession of several phases: the 'heroic times' of the Second World War, the 'Golden Age' between the fifties and the sixties during which major theoretical achievements were accompanied by a widespread diffusion of OR techniques in private and public organisations, a 'crisis' followed by a 'decline' starting with the late sixties, a phase during which OR groups in firms progressively disappeared while academia became less and less concerned with the applicability of the techniques developed".[20] Individuals such as Stafford Beer and George Dantzig pioneered early academic efforts in operational research.

Operations research

45

Problems addressed with operational research

critical path analysis or project planning: identifying those processes in a complex project which affect the overall duration of the project floorplanning: designing the layout of equipment in a factory or components on a computer chip to reduce manufacturing time (therefore reducing cost) network optimization: for instance, setup of telecommunications networks to maintain quality of service during outages allocation problems Bayesian search theory : looking for a target optimal search routing, such as determining the routes of buses so that as few buses are needed as possible supply chain management: managing the flow of raw materials and products based on uncertain demand for the finished products efficient messaging and customer response tactics automation: automating or integrating robotic systems in human-driven operations processes globalization: globalizing operations processes in order to take advantage of cheaper materials, labor, land or other productivity inputs transportation: managing freight transportation and delivery systems (Examples: LTL Shipping, intermodal freight transport) scheduling: personnel staffing manufacturing steps project tasks network data traffic: these are known as queueing models or queueing systems. sports events and their television coverage blending of raw materials in oil refineries determining optimal prices, in many retail and B2B settings, within the disciplines of pricing science Operational research is also used extensively in government where evidence-based policy is used.

Management science
In 1967 Stafford Beer characterized the field of management science as "the business use of operations research".[21] However, in modern times the term management science may also be used to refer to the separate fields of organizational studies or corporate strategy. Like operational research itself, management science (MS), is an interdisciplinary branch of applied mathematics devoted to optimal decision planning, with strong links with economics, business, engineering, and other sciences. It uses various scientific research-based principles, strategies, and analytical methods including mathematical modeling, statistics and numerical algorithms to improve an organization's ability to enact rational and meaningful management decisions by arriving at optimal or near optimal solutions to complex decision problems. In short, management sciences help businesses to achieve their goals using the scientific methods of operational research. The management scientist's mandate is to use rational, systematic, science-based techniques to inform and improve decisions of all kinds. Of course, the techniques of management science are not restricted to business applications but may be applied to military, medical, public administration, charitable groups, political groups or community groups. Management science is concerned with developing and applying models and concepts that may prove useful in helping to illuminate management issues and solve managerial problems, as well as designing and developing new

Operations research and better models of organizational excellence.[22] The application of these models within the corporate sector became known as Management science.[23]

46

Techniques
Some of the fields that have considerable overlap with Management Science include:
Data mining Decision analysis Engineering Forecasting Game theory Industrial engineering Logistics Mathematical modeling Optimization Probability and statistics Project management Simulation Social network/Transportation forecasting models Supply chain management Financial engineering

Applications of management science

Applications of management science are abundant in industry as airlines, manufacturing companies, service organizations, military branches, and in government. The range of problems and issues to which management science has contributed insights and solutions is vast. It includes:.[22] scheduling airlines, including both planes and crew, deciding the appropriate place to site new facilities such as a warehouse, factory or fire station, managing the flow of water from reservoirs, identifying possible future development paths for parts of the telecommunications industry, establishing the information needs and appropriate systems to supply them within the health service, and identifying and understanding the strategies adopted by companies for their information systems

Management science is also concerned with so-called soft-operational analysis, which concerns methods for strategic planning, strategic decision support, and Problem Structuring Methods (PSM). In dealing with these sorts of challenges mathematical modeling and simulation are not appropriate or will not suffice. Therefore, during the past 30 years, a number of non-quantified modelling methods have been developed. These include: stakeholder based approaches including metagame analysis and drama theory morphological analysis and various forms of influence diagrams. approaches using cognitive mapping the Strategic Choice Approach robustness analysis

Societies and journals

Societies The International Federation of Operational Research Societies (IFORS)[24] is an umbrella organization for operational research societies worldwide, representing approximately 50 national societies including those in the US,[25] UK,[26] France,[27] Germany, Canada,[28] Australia,[29] New Zealand,[30] Philippines,[31] India,[32] Japan and South Africa,.[33] The constituent members of IFORS form regional groups, such as that in Europe,.[34] Other important operational research organizations are Simulation Interoperability Standards Organization (SISO)[35] and Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation and Education Conference (I/ITSEC)[36] In 2004 the US-based organization INFORMS began an initiative to market the OR profession better, including a website entitled The Science of Better[37] which provides an introduction to OR and examples of successful applications of OR to industrial problems. This initiative has been adopted by the Operational Research Society in

Operations research the UK, including a website entitled Learn about OR,.[38] Journals INFORMS publishes twelve scholarly journals about operations research, including the top two journals in their class, according to 2005 Journal Citation Reports.[39] They are: Decision Analysis[40] Information Systems Research INFORMS Journal on Computing INFORMS Transactions on Education[41] (an open access journal) Interfaces: An International Journal of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences Management Science: A Journal of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences Manufacturing & Service Operations Management Marketing Science Mathematics of Operations Research Operations Research: A Journal of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences Organization Science Transportation Science.

47

Other journals 4OR-A Quarterly Journal of Operations Research: jointly published the Belgian, French and Italian Operations Research Societies (Springer); European Journal of Operational Research (EJOR): Founded in 1975 and is presently by far the largest operational research journal in the world, with its around 9,000 pages of published papers per year. In 2004, its total number of citations was the second largest amongst Operational Research and Management Science journals; INFOR Journal: published and sponsored by the Canadian Operational Research Society; International Journal of Operations Research and Information Systems (IJORIS)": an official publication of the Information Resources Management Association, published quarterly by IGI Global;[42] Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation (JDMS): Applications, Methodology, Technology: a quarterly journal devoted to advancing the science of modeling and simulation as it relates to the military and defense.[43] Journal of the Operational Research Society (JORS): an official journal of The OR Society; this is the oldest continuously published journal of OR in the world, published by Palgrave;[44] Journal of Simulation (JOS): an official journal of The OR Society, published by Palgrave;[44] Mathematical Methods of Operations Research (MMOR): the journal of the German and Dutch OR Societies, published by Springer;[45] Military Operations Research (MOR): published by the Military Operations Research Society; Opsearch: official journal of the Operational Research Society of India; OR Insight: a quarterly journal of The OR Society, published by Palgrave;[44] TOP: the official journal of the Spanish Society of Statistics and Operations Research.[46]

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48

Notes
[1] http:/ / www. hsor. org/ what_is_or. cfm [2] http:/ / www. bls. gov/ oco/ ocos044. htm [3] What is Management Science Research? (http:/ / www. jbs. cam. ac. uk/ programmes/ mphil_mgtscience/ mgtresearch. html) University of Cambridge 2008. Retrieved 5 June 2008. [4] http:/ / www3. informs. org/ site/ OperationsResearch/ index. php?c=10& kat=Forthcoming+ Papers [5] "Operational Research in the British Army 19391945, October 1947, Report C67/3/4/48, UK National Archives file WO291/1301 Quoted on the dust-jacket of: Morse, Philip M, and Kimball, George E, Methods of Operations Research, 1st Edition Revised, pub MIT Press & J Wiley, 5th printing, 1954. [6] UK National Archives Catalogue for WO291 (http:/ / www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/ catalogue/ displaycataloguedetails. asp?CATID=109& CATLN=2& Highlight=& FullDetails=True) lists a War Office organisation called Army Operational Research Group (AORG) that existed from 1946 to 1962. "In January 1962 the name was changed to Army Operational Research Establishment (AORE). Following the creation of a unified Ministry of Defence, a tri-service operational research organisation was established: the Defence Operational Research Establishment (DOAE) which was formed in 1965, and it absorbed the Army Operational Research Establishment based at West Byfleet." [7] http:/ / brochure. unisa. ac. za/ myunisa/ data/ subjects/ Quantitative%20Management. pdf [8] M.S. Sodhi, "What about the 'O' in O.R.?" OR/MS Today, December, 2007, p. 12, http:/ / www. lionhrtpub. com/ orms/ orms-12-07/ frqed. html [9] P. W. Bridgman, The Logic of Modern Physics, The MacMillan Company, New York, 1927 [10] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 682073/ operations-research/ 68171/ History#ref22348 [11] Kirby, p. 117 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=DWITTpkFPEAC& lpg=PA141& pg=PA117) [12] Kirby, pp. 9194 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=DWITTpkFPEAC& lpg=PA141& pg=PA94) [13] Kirby, p. 96,109 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=DWITTpkFPEAC& lpg=PA141& pg=PA109) [14] Kirby, p. 96 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=DWITTpkFPEAC& lpg=PA141& pg=PA96) [15] "Numbers are Essential": Victory in the North Atlantic Reconsidered, MarchMay 1943 (http:/ / www. familyheritage. ca/ Articles/ victory1943. html) [16] Kirby, p. 101 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=DWITTpkFPEAC& lpg=PA141& pg=PA101) [17] (Kirby, pp. 102,103 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=DWITTpkFPEAC& lpg=PA141& pg=PA103)) [18] (http:/ / www. raf. mod. uk/ bombercommand/ thousands. html) [19] Milkman, Raymond H. (May 1968). Operations Research in World War II. United States Naval Institute Proceedings. [20] Bouyssou, Denis, Questioning the history of operational in order to prepare its future http:/ / hal. ccsd. cnrs. fr/ docs/ 00/ 02/ 86/ 41/ PDF/ cahierLamsade196. pdf [21] Stafford Beer (1967) Management Science: The Business Use of Operations Research [22] What is Management Science? (http:/ / www. lums. lancs. ac. uk/ departments/ ManSci/ DeptProfile/ WhatisManSci/ ) Lancaster University, 2008. Retrieved 5 June 2008. [23] What is Management Science? (http:/ / bus. utk. edu/ soms/ information/ whatis_msci. html) The University of Tennessee, 2006. Retrieved 5 June 2008. [24] IFORS (http:/ / www. ifors. org/ ) [25] INFORMS (http:/ / www. informs. org/ ) [26] The OR Society (http:/ / www. orsoc. org. uk) [27] http:/ / www. roadef. org/ content/ index. htm [28] CORS (http:/ / www. cors. ca) [29] ASOR (http:/ / www. asor. org. au) [30] ORSNZ (http:/ / www. orsnz. org. nz/ ) [31] ORSP (http:/ / www. orsp. org. ph/ ) [32] ORSI (http:/ / www. orsi. in/ ) [33] ORSSA (http:/ / www. orssa. org. za/ ) [34] EURO (http:/ / www. euro-online. org/ ) [35] SISO (http:/ / www. sisostds. org/ ) [36] I/ITSEC (http:/ / www. iitsec. org/ ) [37] The Science of Better (http:/ / www. scienceofbetter. org/ ) [38] Learn about OR (http:/ / www. learnaboutor. co. uk/ ) [39] INFORMS Journals (http:/ / www. informs. org/ index. php?c=31& kat=-+ INFORMS+ Journals) [40] Decision Analysis (http:/ / www. informs. org/ site/ DA/ ) [41] INFORMS Transactions on Education (http:/ / www. informs. org/ site/ ITE/ ) [42] (http:/ / www. igi-global. com/ Bookstore/ TitleDetails. aspx?TitleId=1141) [43] JDMS (http:/ / www. scs. org/ pubs/ jdms/ jdms. html) [44] The OR Society (http:/ / www. orsoc. org. uk); [45] Mathematical Methods of Operations Research website (http:/ / www. springer. com/ mathematics/ journal/ 186)

Operations research
[46] TOP (http:/ / www. springer. com/ east/ home/ business/ operations+ research?SGWID=5-40521-70-173677307-detailsPage=journal|description)

49

References
Kirby, M. W. (Operational Research Society (Great Britain)). Operational Research in War and Peace: The British Experience from the 1930s to 1970, Imperial College Press, 2003. ISBN 1860943667, 9781860943669

Further reading
C. West Churchman, Russell L. Ackoff & E. L. Arnoff, Introduction to Operations Research, New York: J. Wiley and Sons, 1957 Joseph G. Ecker & Michael Kupferschmid, Introduction to Operations Research, Krieger Publishing Co. Frederick S. Hillier & Gerald J. Lieberman, Introduction to Operations Research, McGraw-Hill: Boston MA; 8th. (International) Edition, 2005 Michael Pidd, Tools for Thinking: Modelling in Management Science, J. Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester; 2nd. Edition, 2003 Hamdy A. Taha, Operations Research: An Introduction, Prentice Hall; 9th. Edition, 2011 Wayne Winston, Operations Research: Applications and Algorithms, Duxbury Press; 4th. Edition, 2003 Kenneth R. Baker, Dean H. Kropp (1985). Management Science: An Introduction to the Use of Decision Models David Charles Heinze (1982). Management Science: Introductory Concepts and Applications Lee J. Krajewski, Howard E. Thompson (1981). "Management Science: Quantitative Methods in Context" Thomas W. Knowles (1989). Management science: Building and Using Models Kamlesh Mathur, Daniel Solow (1994). Management Science: The Art of Decision Making Laurence J. Moore, Sang M. Lee, Bernard W. Taylor (1993). Management Science William Thomas Morris (1968). Management Science: A Bayesian Introduction. William E. Pinney, Donald B. McWilliams (1987). Management Science: An Introduction to Quantitative Analysis for Management Shrader, Charles R. (2006). History of Operations Research in the United States Army, Volume 1:1942-1962 (http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/hist_op_research/index.html). Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 70-102-1. Gerald E. Thompson (1982). Management Science: An Introduction to Modern Quantitative Analysis and Decision Making. New York : McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Saul I. Gass & Arjang A. Assad (2005). An Annotated Timeline of Operations Research: An Informal History. New York : Kluwer Academic Publishers.

External links
INFORMS OR/MS Resource Collection (http://www.informs.org/Resources/): a comprehensive set of OR links. International Federation of Operational Research Societies (http://www.ifors.org/) Occupational Outlook Handbook, U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics (http://stats.bls.gov/ oco/ocos044.htm/) "Operation Everything: It Stocks Your Grocery Store, Schedules Your Favorite Team's Games, and Helps Plan Your Vacation. The Most Influential Academic Discipline You've Never Heard Of." Boston Globe, June 27, 2004 (http://www.boston.com/news/globe/reprints/062704_postrel/) "Optimal Results: IT-powered advances in operations research can enhance business processes and boost the corporate bottom line." Computerworld, November 20, 2000 (http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/ 54157/Optimal_Results?taxonomyId=063/)

Original research

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Original research
Original research is research that is not exclusively based on a summary, review or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This material is of a primary source character. The purpose of the original research is to produce new knowledge, rather than to present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., summarized or classified).[1] [2]

Different forms
Original research can take a number of forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject, e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results. In analytical work, there are typically some new (for example) mathematical results produced, or a new way of approaching an existing problem. In some subjects which do not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the originality is in the particular way existing understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome of the work of the researcher. The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review. Graduate students are commonly required to perform original research as part of a dissertation.[3]

References
[1] What is Original Research? Original research is considered a primary source. Thomas G. Carpenter Library (http:/ / www. unf. edu/ library/ guides/ originalresearch. html) University of North Florida [2] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XlIH4R9Z_k8C& pg=PT75 [3] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=oFFWt5oyA3oC& pg=PA178& dq=%22original+ research%22& lr=& cd=90#v=onepage& q=%22original%20research%22& f=false

External links
Wikinfo (http://www.wikinfo.org/index.php/Main_Page), encourages original research (http://www. wikinfo.org/index.php/Wikinfo:Original_research)

Research and development

51

Research and development

The phrase research and development (also R and D or, more often, R&D), according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, refers to "creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications".[1] Research and development is often scientific or towards developing particular technologies and is frequently carried out as corporate or governmental activity.
Cycle of research and development

Overview
New product design and development is more often than not a crucial factor in the survival of a company. In an industry that is changing fast, firms must continually revise their design and range of products. This is necessary due to continuous technology change and development as well as other competitors and the changing preference of customers. Without an R&D program, the firm must rely on strategic alliances, acquisitions, and networks to tap into the innovations of others. A system driven by marketing is one that puts the customer needs first, and only produces goods that are known to sell. Market research is carried out, which establishes what is needed. If the development is technology driven then it is a matter of selling what it is possible to make. The product range is developed so that production processes are as efficient as possible and the products are technically superior, hence possessing a natural advantage in the market place. R&D has a special economic significance apart from its conventional association with scientific and technological development. R&D investment generally reflects a government's or organization's willingness to forgo current operations or profit to improve future performance or returns, and its abilities to conduct research and development. The top eight spenders in terms of percentage of GDP were Israel (4.53%), Sweden (3.73%), Finland (3.45%) Japan (3.39%), South Korea (3.23%), Switzerland (2.9%), Iceland (2.78%) and United States (2.62%).[2] The Commitment to Development Index ranks these countries, rewarding them for research and development that support the creation and dissemination of innovations of value to developing countries. In general, R&D activities are conducted by specialized units or centers belonging to companies, universities and state agencies. In the context of commerce, "research and development" normally refers to future-oriented, longer-term activities in science or technology, using similar techniques to scientific research without predetermined outcomes and with broad forecasts of commercial yield. Statistics on organizations devoted to "R&D" may express the state of an industry, the degree of competition or the lure of progress. Some common measures include: budgets, numbers of patents or on rates of peer-reviewed publications. Bank ratios are one of the best measures, because they are continuously maintained, public and reflect risk. In the U.S., a typical ratio of research and development for an industrial company is about 3.5% of revenues. A high technology company such as a computer manufacturer might spend 7%. Although Allergan (a biotech company) tops the spending table 43.4% investment, anything over 15% is remarkable and usually gains a reputation for being a high technology company. Companies in this category include pharmaceutical companies such as Merck & Co. (14.1%) or Novartis (15.1%), and engineering companies like Ericsson (24.9%).[3] Such companies are often seen as poor credit risks because their spending ratios are so unusual.

Research and development Generally such firms prosper only in markets whose customers have extreme needs, such as medicine, scientific instruments, safety-critical mechanisms (aircraft) or high technology military armaments. The extreme needs justify the high risk of failure and consequently high gross margins from 60% to 90% of revenues. That is, gross profits will be as much as 90% of the sales cost, with manufacturing costing only 10% of the product price, because so many individual projects yield no exploitable product. Most industrial companies get only 40% revenues. On a technical level, high tech organizations explore ways to re-purpose and repackage advanced technologies as a way of amortizing the high overhead. They often reuse advanced manufacturing processes, expensive safety certifications, specialized embedded software, computer-aided design software, electronic designs and mechanical subsystems. Research has shown that firms with a persistent R&D strategy outperform those with an irregular or no R&D investment programme.[4]

52

Pharmaceuticals
Research often refers to basic experimental research; development refers to the exploitation of discoveries. Research involves the identification of possible chemical compounds or theoretical mechanisms. In the United States, universities are the main provider of research level products. In the United States, corporations buy licences from universities or hire scientists directly when economically solid research level products emerge and the development phase of drug delivery is almost entirely managed by private enterprise. Development is concerned with proof of concept, safety testing, and determining ideal levels and delivery mechanisms. Development often occurs in phases that are defined by drug safety regulators in the country of interest. In the United States, the development phase can cost between $10 to $200 million and approximately one in ten compounds identified by basic research pass all development phases and reach market.

Business
Research and development is nowadays of great importance in business as the level of competition, production processes and methods are rapidly increasing. It is of special importance in the field of marketing where companies keep an eagle eye on competitors and customers in order to keep pace with modern trends and analyze the needs, demands and desires of their customers. Unfortunately, research and development are very difficult to manage, since the defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher R&D spending does not guarantee "more creativity, higher profit or a greater market share".[5]

R&D alliance
An R&D alliance is a, mutually beneficial formal relationship formed between two or more parties to pursue a set of agreed upon goals while remaining independent organisations, where acquiring new knowledge is a goal by itself. The different parties agree to combine their knowledge to create new innovative products. Thanks to funding from government organizations, like the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7), and modern advances in technology, R&D alliances have now become more efficient. Research and development is nowadays of great importance in business as the level of competition, production processes and methods are rapidly increasing. It is of special importance in the field of marketing where companies keep an eagle eye on competitors and customers in order to keep pace with modern trends and analyze the needs, demands and desires of their customers.

Research and development

53

R&D Reorientation
Industrial sector is transforming from vertical integration to horizontal structure. So far this transformation has taken place in manufacturing, but now its the turn for R&D to make a paradigm shift. The restructuring trends of manufacturing predict the future of R&D to be focused, financially independent, universally expanded and distributed. In 2003 with their article titled Reorienting R&D for a Horizontal Future Downey, Greenberg and Kapur illustrated that a horizontal structure of development in all industrial disciplines is required because of emerging markets, cost cutting needs and globalization. Collaborative networks in a decentralized environment are produci ng better results because of flexibility and cost reduction. R&D is spreading across the globe for faster development and unique innovations. Building block structure is getting popular in R&D because it is more manageable and focused. In a challenging market environment after manufacturing now companies are eyeing to reduce the development cost where R&D needs to justify its existence as an independent profit center with increased productivity and reduced operational costs. This can only be achieved through collaboration and trade-offs. Formation of horizontal collaborative network is challenging because it incorporates the issues of adaptability, security, cultural differences, varying standards, trust and ownership. Globalization is pushing R&D to concentrate on global design approach with the design flexibility where products can be tailored as per different geographic markets. Innovating products in response to market requirements will keep organizations in business whereas knowing their own productivity and capacity will enable them to operate more effectively. Firms can make better investment decisions if they can predict their development cost. This will directly add to the bottom line of the business. In a race to improve the productivity, lower the cost and save time, firms should not forget to retain the expertise of their core competencies. The proper synchronization of global resources must be addressed in order to save time and money. Companies must support the development of innovation management system for future growth. Companies are decentralizing their R&D units across the globe to extract the time and diversity benefits. Customer centric orientation is most profitable approach for any firm to operate in a competitive environment. R&D is an area where The World is Flat theory applies perfectly. World is shrinking with the increasing pace of information technology, and the same time decentralization is making our days longer. In this fast pace environment managing intellectual property is more critical for businesses to keep themselves in the race. Never ending attempts should be made to optimize the development with minimal resources. Flattening the innovation process will result in technological development with greater profits and efficiency.

Notes
[1] OECD OECD Factbook 2008: Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics (http:/ / lysander. sourceoecd. org/ vl=5134145/ cl=23/ nw=1/ rpsv/ factbook/ 070101. htm) [2] http:/ / www. oecd. org/ dataoecd/ 17/ 53/ 41558958. pdf [3] All figures UK R&D Scoreboard (http:/ / www. innovation. gov. uk/ rd_scoreboard/ ) as of 2006. [4] Johansson; Lf (December 2008). "The Impact of Firms R&D Strategy on Profit and Productivity" (http:/ / cesis. abe. kth. se/ documents/ WP156. pdf). . [5] Aerospace and Defense: Inventing and Selling the Next Generation (http:/ / csis. org/ files/ publication/ 090520_diig_aerospace. pdf). Center for Strategic Internal Studies

Research and development

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External links
U.S. Federal Investments in Energy R&D: 1961-2008 (http://www.greentechhistory.com/wp-content/uploads/ 2009/07/federal-investment-in-energy-rd-2008.pdf) R&D Magazine (http://www.rdmag.com): R&D 100 Awards (http://www.rdmag.com/Awards/RD-100-Awards/R-D-100-Awards/). DOE Funded Research Projects Win 30 R&D Awards for 2008 (http://www.energy.gov/news/6423.htm) USA Today May 2008 Q&A with Texas Instruments CEO about Bayh-Dole Act (http://www.usatoday.com/ money/companies/management/2008-05-18-texas-instruments-rich-templeton_N.htm) OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook 2008 (http://www.oecd.org/document/36/ 0,3343,en_2649_33703_41546660_1_1_1_1,00.html) 2010 Science and Engineering Indicators Research and Development: National Trends and International Linkages (http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind10/c4/c4h.htm) Scientific Grant Awards Database (http://search.engrant.com/) Contains details of over 2,000,000 scientific research projects conducted over the past 25 years.

Creative problem solving

Creative problem solving is the mental process of creating a solution to a problem. It is a special form of problem solving in which the solution is independently created rather than learned with assistance. Creative problem solving always involves creativity. However, creativity often does not involve creative problem solving, especially in fields such as music, poetry, and art. Creativity requires newness or novelty as a characteristic of what is created, but creativity does not necessarily imply that what is created has value or is appreciated by other people. To qualify as creative problem solving the solution must either have value, clearly solve the stated problem, or be appreciated by someone for whom the situation improves.[1] The situation prior to the solution does not need to be labeled as a problem. Alternate labels include a challenge, an opportunity, or a situation in which there is room for improvement.[1] Solving school-assigned homework problems does not usually involve creative problem solving because such problems typically have well-known solutions.[1] If a created solution becomes widely used, the solution becomes an innovation and the word innovation also refers to the process of creating that innovation. A widespread and long-lived innovation typically becomes a new tradition. "All innovations [begin] as creative solutions, but not all creative solutions become innovations."[1] Some innovations also qualify as inventions.[1] Inventing is a special kind of creative problem solving in which the created solution qualifies as an invention because it is a useful new object, substance, process, software, or other kind of marketable entity.[1]

Creative problem solving

55

Techniques and tools

Many of the techniques and tools for creating an effective solution to a problem are described in creativity techniques and problem solving. Creative-problem-solving techniques can be categorized as follows: Creativity techniques designed to shift a person's mental state into one that fosters creativity. These techniques are described in creativity techniques. One such popular technique is to take a break and relax or sleep after intensively trying to think of a solution. Creativity techniques designed to reframe the problem. For example, reconsidering one's goals by asking "What am I really trying to accomplish?" can lead to useful insights. Creativity techniques designed to increase the quantity of fresh ideas. This approach is based on the belief that a larger number of ideas increases the chances that one of them has value. Some of these techniques involve randomly selecting an idea (such as choosing a word from a list), thinking about similarities with the undesired situation, and hopefully inspiring a related idea that leads to a solution. Such techniques are described in creativity techniques. Creative-problem-solving techniques designed to efficiently lead to a fresh perspective that causes a solution to become obvious. This category is useful for solving especially challenging problems.[1] Some of these techniques involve identifying independent dimensions that differentiate (or separate) closely associated concepts.[1] Such techniques can overcome the mind's instinctive tendency to use "oversimplified associative thinking" in which two related concepts are so closely associated that their differences, and independence from one another, are overlooked.[1] The following formalized and well-known methods and processes combine various creativity and creative-problem-solving techniques: TRIZ, which is also known as Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TIPS), was developed by Genrich Altshuller and his colleagues based on examining more than 200,000 patents. This method is designed to foster the creation and development of patentable inventions, but is also useful for creating non-product solutions. Mind mapping is a creativity technique that both reframes the situation and fosters creativity. Brainstorming is a group activity designed to increase the quantity of fresh ideas. Getting other people involved can help increase knowledge and understanding of the problem and help participants reframe the problem. Edward de Bono has published numerous books that promote an approach to creative problem solving and creative thinking called lateral thinking. The Creative Problem Solving Process (CPS) is a six-step method developed by Alex Osborn and Sid Parnes that alternates convergent and divergent thinking phases. A frequent approach to teaching creative problem solving is to teach critical thinking in addition to creative thinking, but the effectiveness of this approach is not proven. As an alternative to separating critical and creative thinking, some creative-problem-solving techniques focus on either reducing an idea's disadvantages or extracting a flawed idea's significant advantages and incorporating those advantages into a different idea.[1] Creative-problem-solving tools typically consist of software or manipulatable objects (such as cards) that facilitate specific creative-problem-solving techniques. Electronic meeting systems provide a range of interactive tools for creative-problem-solving by groups over the Internet.

Creative problem solving

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References
[1] Richard Fobes, The Creative Problem Solver's Toolbox: A Complete Course in the Art of Creating Solutions to Problems of Any Kind (1993) ISBN 0-96-322210-4

Further reading
Alex Osborn, Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Problem Solving, Creative Education Foundation Press, 1953/2001, ISBN 0-930222-73-3 Edward de Bono, Lateral Thinking : Creativity Step by Step, Harper & Row, 1973, trade paperback, 300 pages, ISBN 0-06-090325-2 Altshuller, Henry. 1994. The Art of Inventing (And Suddenly the Inventor Appeared). Translated by Lev Shulyak. Worcester, MA: Technical Innovation Center. ISBN 0-9640740-1-X McFadzean, E.S. (1996), New Ways of Thinking: An Evaluation of K-Groupware and Creative Problem Solving, Doctoral Dissertation, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex. McFadzean, E.S. (1997), Improving Group Productivity with Group Support Systems and Creative Problem Solving Techniques, Creativity and Innovation Management, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 218-225.

External links
Destination ImagiNation Inc. (http://www.idodi.org) A global, non-profit program dedicated to teaching teamwork and creative problem solving to kids of all ages. Odyssey of the Mind (http://www.odysseyofthemind.com) An international creative problem-solving program for students K-college. Creative Education Foundation (http://www.creativeeducationfoundation.org) Creative Problem Solving Institute (http://www.cpsiconference.com) International Center for Studies in Creativity (http://www.buffalostate.edu/centers/creativity/) Includes a list of techniques for creative problem solving (http://www.mycoted.com/index.htm) Problemistics: the art and craft of Problem Dealing (http://www.problemistics.org/courseware/front.page. html) A courseware on Problem Finding and Problem Solving Creative-problem-solving tips (http://www.solutionscreative.com/cpstips.html) Tips that originally appeared in the American Creativity Association's newsletter. Sustainable Earth Solutions (http://www.sustainableearthsolutions.com/) Environmental Youth Leadership Organization using the process

Decision tree

57

Decision tree
A decision tree is a decision support tool that uses a tree-like graph or model of decisions and their possible consequences, including chance event outcomes, resource costs, and utility. It is one way to display an algorithm. Decision trees are commonly used in operations research, specifically in decision analysis, to help identify a strategy most likely to reach a goal. Another use of decision trees is as a descriptive means for calculating conditional probabilities. When the decisions or consequences are modelled by computational verb, then we call the decision tree a computational verb decision tree.[1]

General
In decision analysis, a "decision tree" and the closely-related influence diagram is used as a visual and analytical decision support tool, where the expected values (or expected utility) of competing alternatives are calculated. Decision trees have traditionally been created manually, as the following example shows:

A decision Tree consists of 3 types of nodes:1. Decision nodes - commonly represented by squares 2. Chance nodes - represented by circles 3. End nodes - represented by triangles

Decision tree

58

Drawn from left to right, a decision tree has only burst nodes (splitting paths) but no sink nodes (converging paths). Therefore, used manually, they can grow very big and are then often hard to draw fully by hand. Analysis can take into account the decision maker's (e.g., the company's) preference or utility function, for example:

The basic interpretation in this situation is that the company prefers B's risk and payoffs under realistic risk preference coefficients (greater than $400Kin that range of risk aversion, the company would need to model a third strategy, "Neither A nor B").

Decision tree

59

Influence diagram
A decision tree can be represented more compactly as an influence diagram, focusing attention on the issues and relationships between events.

Uses in teaching
Decision trees, influence diagrams, utility functions, and other decision analysis tools and methods are taught to undergraduate students in schools of business, health economics, and public health, and are examples of operations research or management science methods.

Advantages
Amongst decision support tools, decision trees (and influence diagrams) have several advantages: Decision trees: Are simple to understand and interpret. People are able to understand decision tree models after a brief explanation. Have value even with little hard data. Important insights can be generated based on experts describing a situation (its alternatives, probabilities, and costs) and their preferences for outcomes. Use a white box model. If a given result is provided by a model, the explanation for the result is easily replicated by simple math. Can be combined with other decision techniques. The following example uses Net Present Value calculations, PERT 3-point estimations (decision #1) and a linear distribution of expected outcomes (decision #2):

Decision tree

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Example
Decision trees can be used to optimize an investment portfolio. The following example shows a portfolio of 7 investment options (projects). The organization has $10,000,000 available for the total investment. Bold lines mark the best selection 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7, which will cost $9,750,000 and create a payoff of 16,175,000. All other combinations would either exceed the budget or yield a lower payoff.[2]

Example
In the game of "20 Questions", the querent tries to construct a short binary decision tree that isolates a specific item. The item's identity question is asked when the current decision tree node is considered reliable by the querent.

References
[1] Yang, T. (Dec. 2006). "Computational Verb Decision Trees". International Journal of Computational Cognition (Yang's Scientific Press) 4 (4): 3446. [2] Y. Yuan and M.J. Shaw, Induction of fuzzy decision trees (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6V05-4007D5X-C& _user=793840& _coverDate=01/ 27/ 1995& _fmt=summary& _orig=search& _cdi=5637& view=c& _acct=C000043460& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=793840& md5=b66b56153f6780c30e07201eadd454cf& ref=full). Fuzzy Sets and Systems 69 (1995), pp. 125139

External links
5 Myths About Decision Tree Analysis in Litigation (https://paperchace.com/decision-trees/?p=6) Decision Tree Analysis (http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_04.htm) mindtools.com Decision Analysis open course at George Mason University (http://gunston.gmu.edu/healthscience/730/ default.asp) Extensive Decision Tree tutorials and examples (http://www.public.asu.edu/~kirkwood/DAStuff/ decisiontrees/index.html) Cha, Sung-Hyuk; Tappert, Charles C (2009). " A Genetic Algorithm for Constructing Compact Binary Decision Trees (http://www.jprr.org/index.php/jprr/article/view/44/25)". Journal of Pattern Recognition Research (http://www.jprr.org/index.php/jprr) 4 (1): 113. Decision Trees in PMML (http://www.dmg.org/v4-0/TreeModel.html)

Ideas bank

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Ideas bank
An ideas bank is a website where people post, exchange, discuss, and polish new ideas. Some ideas banks are used for the purpose of developing new inventions or technologies. Many corporations have installed internal ideas banks to gather the input from their employees and improve their ideation process. Some ideas banks employ a voting system to estimate an idea's value. In some cases, ideas banks can be more humor-oriented than their serious counterparts. The underlying theory of an ideas bank is that if a large group of people collaborate on a project or the development of an idea that eventually said project or idea will reach perfection in the eyes of those who worked on it. Many ideas banks are provided as free of charge, or set around certain companies in general to work out new inventions. Although ideas are provided by a community of people, problems can arise when people take the ideas of the site and begin developing them. There is no possible way to prove that the idea on the ideas bank was original and not taken from something else.

Examples
As part of the adoption of enterprise social software, many companies have decided to use such a portal to allow their employees (on the intra-net) or their customers (on the internet) to collaborate in the process of raising new ideas. Idea management software has the sole purpose of raising new ideas for new products, process improvements, employee welfare or any other corporate use. Although not necessarily ideas banks per se, by allowing anyone to edit, wikis allow a group of people to work on information collaboratively. This collaborative writing can continue until all are satisfied with the article or piece of writing, but more often than not contributions continue as visitors add information, improve what is already there, and remove irrelevant or incorrect information. Halfbakery is an example of a slightly less serious ideas bank. Users submit ideas, often jokingly, which are then commented on, often jokingly, by other users. The Global Ideas Bank is the opposite of Halfbakery in that ideas are proposed seriously, and in some cases actually implemented. It started as a group of inventors in 1985 and became a large organization over several years until it was put online with its current name in 1995. Founded in London in 2000, Idea A Day solicits submissions of original ideas from around the world, edits and publishes one considered example every day. A book, The Big Idea Book, comprising 500 of the best ideas was published by Wiley in 2003.

Ideas bank

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External links
Taylor, William C. (2006-03-26). "Here's an Idea: Let Everyone Have Ideas" [1]. The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-12-27. Ideas Banks [2] at the Open Directory Project OpenPatents.net [3]

References
[1] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 03/ 26/ business/ yourmoney/ 26mgmt. html?ex=1301029200& en=0d90ed5116e769d0& ei=5090 [2] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Computers/ Open_Source/ Open_Content/ Idea_Banks/ [3] http:/ / www. openpatents. net

Imagination
Imagination, also called the faculty of imagining, is the ability of forming mental images, sensations and concepts, in a moment when they are not perceived through sight, hearing or other senses. Imagination is the work of the mind that helps create. Imagination helps provide meaning to experience and understanding to knowledge; it is a fundamental facility through which people make sense of the world,[1] [2] [3] and it also plays a key role in the learning process.[1] [4] A basic training for imagination is listening to storytelling (narrative),[1] [5] in which the exactness of the chosen words is the fundamental factor to "evoke worlds."[6] It is accepted as the innate ability and process of inventing partial or complete personal realms within the mind from elements derived from sense perceptions of the shared world. The term is technically used in psychology for the process of reviving in the mind, percepts of objects formerly given in sense perception. Since this use of the term conflicts with that of ordinary language, some psychologists have preferred to describe this process as "imaging" or "imagery" or to speak of it as "reproductive" as opposed to "productive" or "constructive" imagination. Imagined images are seen with the "mind's eye." Imagination can also be expressed through stories such as fairy tales or fantasies. Most famous inventions or entertainment products were created from the inspiration of someone's imagination. Children often use narratives or pretend play in order to exercise their Olin Levi Warner, Imagination (1896). imagination. When children create fantasy they play at two levels: first, Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson they use role playing to act out what they have created with their Building, Washington, D.C. imagination, and at the second level they play again with their make-believe situation by acting as if what they have created is an actual reality that already exists in narrative myth.[7]

Description
The common use of the term is for the process of forming new images in the mind that have not been previously experienced, or at least only partially or in different combinations. Some typical examples follow:

Imagination Fairy tale Fiction A form of verisimilitude often invoked in fantasy and science fiction invites readers to pretend such stories are true by referring to objects of the mind such as fictional books or years that do not exist apart from an imaginary world. Imagination in this sense, not being limited to the acquisition of exact knowledge by the requirements of practical necessity, is, up to a certain point, free from objective restraints. The ability to imagine one's self in another person's place is very important to social relations and understanding. Albert Einstein said, "Imagination ... is more important than knowledge. Knowledge is limited. Imagination encircles the world."[8] In various spheres, however, even imagination is in practice limited: thus a person whose imaginations do violence to the elementary laws of thought, or to the necessary principles of practical possibility, or to the reasonable probabilities of a given case is regarded as insane. The same limitations beset imagination in the field of scientific hypothesis. Progress in scientific research is due largely to provisional explanations which are constructed by imagination, but such hypotheses must be framed in relation to previously ascertained facts and in accordance with the principles of the particular science. Imagination is an experimental partition of the mind used to create theories and ideas based on functions. Taking objects from real perceptions, the imagination uses complex IF-functions to create new or revised ideas. This part of the mind is vital to developing better and easier ways to accomplish old and new tasks. These experimental ideas can be safely conducted inside a virtual world and then, if the idea is probable and the function is true, the idea can be actualized in reality. Imagination is the key to new development of the mind and can be shared with others, progressing collectively. Regarding the volunteer effort, imagination can be classified as: voluntary (the dream from the sleep, the daydream) involuntary (the reproductive imagination, the creative imagination, the dream of perspective)

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Psychology of imagination
Psychologists have studied imaginative thought, not only in its exotic form of creativity and artistic expression but also in its mundane form of everyday imagination.[9] Ruth M.J. Byrne has proposed that everyday imaginative thoughts about counterfactual alternatives to reality may be based on the same cognitive processes that rational thoughts are based on.[10] Children can engage in the creation of imaginative alternatives to reality from their very early years.[11]

Imagination and perception

From the work of Piaget it is known that perceptions depend on the world view of a person. The world view is the result of arranging perceptions into existing imagery by imagination. Piaget cites the example of a child saying that the moon is following her when she walks around the village at night. Like this, perceptions are integrated into the world view to make sense. Imagination is needed to make sense of perceptions.[12]

Imagination vs. belief

Imagination differs fundamentally from belief because the subject understands that what is personally invented by the mind does not necessarily impact the course of action taken in the apparently shared world, while beliefs are part of what one holds as truths about both the shared and personal worlds. The play of imagination, apart from the obvious limitations (e.g. of avoiding explicit self-contradiction), is conditioned only by the general trend of the mind at a given moment. Belief, on the other hand, is immediately related to practical activity: it is perfectly possible to

Imagination imagine oneself a millionaire, but unless one believes it one does not, therefore, act as such. Belief endeavors to conform to the subject's experienced conditions or faith in the possibility of those conditions; whereas imagination as such is specifically free. The dividing line between imagination and belief varies widely in different stages of technological development. Thus in more extreme cases, someone from a primitive culture who ill frames an ideal reconstruction of the causes of his illness, and attributes it to the hostile magic of an enemy based on faith and tradition rather than science. In ignorance of the science of pathology the subject is satisfied with this explanation, and actually believes in it, sometimes to the point of death, due to what is known as the nocebo effect. It follows that the learned distinction between imagination and belief depends in practice on religion, tradition, and culture.

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Imagination as a reality
The world as experienced is an interpretation of data arriving from the senses; as such, it is perceived as real by contrast to most thoughts and imaginings. Users of hallucinogenic drugs are said to have a heightened imagination. This difference is only one of degree and can be altered by several historic causes, namely changes to brain chemistry, hypnosis or other altered states of consciousness, meditation, many hallucinogenic drugs, and electricity applied directly to specific parts of the brain. The difference between imagined and perceived reality can be proven by psychosis. Many mental illnesses can be attributed to this inability to distinguish between the sensed and the internally created worlds. Some cultures and traditions even view the apparently shared world as an illusion of the mind as with the Buddhist maya, or go to the opposite extreme and accept the imagined and dreamed realms as of equal validity to the apparently shared world as the Australian Aborigines do with their concept of dreamtime. Imagination, because of having freedom from external limitations, can often become a source of real pleasure and unnecessary suffering. Consistent with this idea, imagining pleasurable and fearful events is found to engage emotional circuits involved in emotional perception and experience.[13] A person of vivid imagination often suffers acutely from the imagined perils besetting friends, relatives, or even strangers such as celebrities. Also crippling fear can result from taking an imagined painful future too seriously. Imagination can also produce some symptoms of real illnesses. In some cases, they can seem so "real" that specific physical manifestations occur such as rashes and bruises appearing on the skin, as though imagination had passed into belief or the events imagined were actually in progress. See, for example, psychosomatic illness and folie a deux. It has also been proposed that the whole of human cognition is based upon imagination. That is, nothing that is perceived is purely observation but all is a morph between sense and imagination.

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Norman 2000 pp. 1-2 Brian Sutton-Smith 1988, p. 22 Archibald MacLeish 1970, p. 887 Kieran Egan 1992, pp. 50 Northrop Frye 1963, p. 49 As noted by Giovanni Pascoli Laurence Goldman (1998). Child's play: myth, mimesis and make-believe. Basically what this means is that the children use their make-believe situation and act as if what they are acting out is from a reality that already exists even though they have made it up.. Berg Publishers. ISBN1-85973-918-0. [8] Viereck, George Sylvester (October 26, 1929). "What life means to Einstein: an interview". The Saturday Evening Post. [9] Ward, T.B., Smith, S.M, & Vaid, J. (1997). Creative thought. Washington DC: APA [10] Byrne, R.M.J. (2005). The Rational Imagination: How People Create Alternatives to Reality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [11] Harris, P. (2000). The work of the imagination. London: Blackwell. [12] Piaget, J. (1967). The child's conception of the world. (J. & A. Tomlinson, Trans.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. BF721 .P5 1967X [13] Costa, VD, Lang, PJ, Sabatinelli, D, Bradley MM, and Versace, F (2010). "Emotional imagery: Assessing pleasure and arousal in the brain's reward circuitry". Human Brain Mapping 31 (9): 14461457. doi:10.1002/hbm.20948. PMID20127869.

Imagination

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External links
Imagination (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548lc) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now (http:// www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p00548lc/In_Our_Time_Imagination)) Imagination, Mental Imagery, Consciousness, and Cognition: Scientific, Philosophical and Historical Approaches (http://www.imagery-imagination.com/) Two-Factor Imagination Scale (http://search.dmoz.org/cgi-bin/search?search=Two-Factor+Imagination+ Scale&all=yes&cs=UTF-8&cat=Science/Social_Sciences/Psychology/Intelligence/Emotional_Intelligence/ Online_Tests) at the Open Directory Project

References
Byrne, R.M.J. (2005). The Rational Imagination: How People Create Alternatives to Reality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Egan, Kieran (1992). Imagination in Teaching and Learning. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Frye, N. (1963). The Educated Imagination. Toronto: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Norman, Ron (2000) Cultivating Imagination in Adult Education Proceedings of the 41st Annual Adult Education Research. Sutton-Smith, Brian. (1988). In Search of the Imagination. In K. Egan and D. Nadaner (Eds.), Imagination and Education. New York, Teachers College Press. Fabiani, Paolo "The Philosophy of the Imagination in Vico and Malebranche". F.U.P. (Florence UP), English edition 2009. (http://www.fupress.com/Archivio/pdf/3622.pdf) PDF See also: Alice in wonderland Watkins, Mary: "Waking Dreams" [Harper Colophon Books, 1976] and "Invisible Guests - The Development of Imaginal Dialogues" [The Analytic Press, 1986] Moss, Robert: "The Three "Only" Things: Tapping the Power of Dreams, Coincidence, and Imagination" [New World Library, September 10, 2007] Two philosophers for whom imagination is a central concept are John Sallis and Richard Kearney. See in particular: John Sallis, Force of Imagination: The Sense of the Elemental (2000) John Sallis, Spacings-Of Reason and Imagination. In Texts of Kant, Fichte, Hegel (1987) Richard Kearney, The Wake of Imagination. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press (1988); 1st Paperback Edition- (ISBN 0-8166-1714-7) Richard Kearney, "Poetics of Imagining: Modern to Post-modern." Fordham University Press (1998) See also This articleincorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopdia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Intuition (knowledge)

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Intuition (knowledge)
The term intuition is used to describe "thoughts and preferences that come to mind quickly and without much reflection".[1] "The word 'intuition' comes from the Latin word 'intueri', which is often roughly translated as meaning 'to look inside' or 'to contemplate'."[2] Intuition provides us with beliefs that we cannot necessarily justify. For this reason, it has been the subject of study in psychology, as well as a topic of interest in the supernatural. The "right brain" is popularly associated with intuitive processes such as aesthetic abilities.[3] [4] [5] Some scientists have contended that intuition is associated with innovation in scientific discovery.[6] Intuition is also a common subject of New Age writings.[7]

In psychology and personality assessment

In Carl Jung's theory of the ego, described in 1921 in Psychological Types, intuition was an "irrational function", opposed most directly by sensation, and opposed less strongly by the "rational functions" of thinking and feeling. Jung defined intuition as "perception via the unconscious": using sense-perception only as a starting point, to bring forth ideas, images, possibilities, ways out of a blocked situation, by a process that is mostly unconscious. Jung said that a person in whom intuition was dominant, an "intuitive type", acted not on the basis of rational judgment but on sheer intensity of perception. An extraverted intuitive type, "the natural champion of all minorities with a future", orients to new and promising but unproven possibilities, often leaving to chase after a new possibility before old ventures have borne fruit, oblivious to his or her own welfare in the constant pursuit of change. An introverted intuitive type orients by images from the unconscious, ever exploring the psychic world of the archetypes, seeking to perceive the meaning of events, but often having no interest in playing a role in those events and not seeing any connection between the contents of the psychic world and him- or herself. Jung thought that extraverted intuitive types were likely entrepreneurs, speculators, cultural revolutionaries, often undone by a desire to escape every situation before it becomes settled and constrainingeven repeatedly leaving lovers for the sake of new romantic possibilities. His introverted intuitive types were likely mystics, prophets, or cranks, struggling with a tension between protecting their visions from influence by others and making their ideas comprehensible and reasonably persuasive to othersa necessity for those visions to bear real fruit.[8] The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), first published in 1944, attempted to provide an empirical method of identifying a person's dominant ego function, in terms of Carl Jung's theory. Tabulations of MBTI results showed that about one fourth of the United States population favor intuition over sensing. Such people are highly overrepresented in some careers: for example, about 60% of college professors, and two thirds of psychological counselors, favor intuition.[9] Whether an intuitive ego function really exists, or MBTI results really tell whether a person's dominant function is intuition, is highly doubtful, and is rejected by most contemporary psychological research. Even so, the MBTI is still widely used in career and marital counseling. In more-recent psychology, intuition can encompass the ability to know valid solutions to problems and decision making. For example, the recognition primed decision (RPD) model explains how people can make relatively fast decisions without having to compare options. Gary Klein found that under time pressure, high stakes, and changing parameters, experts used their base of experience to identify similar situations and intuitively choose feasible solutions. Thus, the RPD model is a blend of intuition and analysis. The intuition is the pattern-matching process that quickly suggests feasible courses of action. The analysis is the mental simulation, a conscious and deliberate review of the courses of action.[10] According to the renowned neuropsychologist and neurobiologist Roger Wolcott Sperry though, intuition is a right-brain activity while factual and mathematical analysis is a left-brain activity.[11] The reliability of one's intuition depends greatly on past knowledge and occurrences in a specific area. For example, someone who has had more experiences with children will tend to have a better instinct or intuition about what they

Intuition (knowledge) should do in certain situations with them. This is not to say that one with a great amount of experience is always going to have an accurate intuition (because some can be biased); however, the chances of it being more reliable are definitely amplified.[12] It has been asserted that Jung's analytical psychological theory of synchronicity is equal to intellectual intuition.[13]

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Intuition and spirituality

Intuition is commonly discussed in writings of spiritual thought. Contextually, there is often an idea of a transcendent and more qualitative mind of one's spirit towards which a person strives, or towards which consciousness evolves. Typically, intuition is regarded as a conscious commonality between earthly knowledge and the higher spiritual knowledge[14] and appears as flashes of illumination.[15] It is asserted that by definition intuition cannot be judged by logical reasoning.[16] Thomas Merton discussed variations of intuition in a series of essays. In describing aesthetic intuition he asserted that the artist has a subjective identification with an object that is both heightened and intensified and thereby "sees" the object's spiritual reality.[17] In discussing Zen meditation he asserted that a direct intuition is derived through a "struggle against conceptual knowledge." An end result is "the existent knows existence, or 'isness,' while completely losing sight of itself as a 'knowing subject.'"[18] Rudolf Steiner postulated that intuition is the third of three stages of higher knowledge, coming after imagination and inspiration, and is characterized by a state of immediate and complete experience of, or even union with, the object of knowledge without loss of the subject's individual ego.[19] The high value of intuition in the Sufi schemata is related by El Sayeed Idries Shah el-Hashimi el-Naqshbandi, Grand Sheikh of the Dervish Orders.[20]

Studies and claims

Dismissing the notion that intuitive impulses arise supernaturally, one is left to assume they originate with the five innate human senses. Remnants of perception, such as a movement occurring out of the "corner of your eye" or subtle sound that would normally be ignored as background noise, could occur simultaneously. While these events could be filtered as irrelevant by the mind, their coincidental synchronicity could lead to a sudden assumptions about one's surroundings, such as the feeling of being watched or followed. Intuitive abilities were quantitatively tested at Yale University in the 1970s. While studying nonverbal communication, researchers noted that some subjects were able to read nonverbal facial cues before reinforcement occurred.[21] In employing a similar design, they noted that highly intuitive subjects made decisions quickly but could not identify their rationale. Their level of accuracy, however, did not differ from that of nonintuitive subjects.[22] Law enforcement officers often claim to observe suspects and immediately "know" that they possess a weapon or illicit narcotic substances. Often unable to articulate why they reacted or what prompted them at the time of the event, they sometimes retrospectively can plot their actions based upon what had been clear and present danger signals. Such examples liken intuition to "gut feelings" and when viable illustrate preconscious activity.[23]

Various definitions
Intuition is a combination of historical (empirical) data, deep and heightened observation and an ability to cut through the thickness of surface reality. Intuition is like a slow motion machine that captures data instantaneously and hits you like a ton of bricks. Intuition is a knowing, a sensing that is beyond the conscious understanding a gut feeling. Intuition is not pseudo-science. Abella Arthur

Intuition (knowledge) Intuition (is) perception via the unconscious Carl Gustav Jung INTUITION may be defined as understanding or knowing without conscious recourse to thought, observation or reason. Some see this unmediated process as somehow mystical while others describe intuition as being a response to unconscious cues or implicitly apprehended prior learning. Dr. Jason Gallate & Ms Shannan Keen BA[24]

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Honor
Intuition Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named in appreciation of the role of scientific intuition for the advancement of human knowledge.[25]

Notes and references

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Kahneman D. (2003) A Perspective on Judgment and Choice. American Psychologist, 58(9), 697-720. Carlin Flora. "Gut Almighty". Psychology Today. Vol 40. Issue 3:68-75,2007 Converting Words into Pictures--Reading Comprehension Guide--Academic Support (http:/ / academic. cuesta. edu/ acasupp/ AS/ 312. HTM) Left/Right Processing. (http:/ / frank. mtsu. edu/ ~studskl/ hd/ LRBrain. html) Right-Brain Hemisphere. (http:/ / psychology. jrank. org/ pages/ 545/ Right-Brain-Hemisphere. html)

[6] Gerald Holton, Yehuda Elkana. Albert Einstien: Historical and Cultural Perspectives, Dover Publications, July 1997, p. 97. ISBN 0486298795 "The workings of intuition transcend those of the intellect, and as is well known, innovation is often a triumph of intuition over logic." [7] Peter Steinfels Beliefs (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1996/ 07/ 13/ us/ beliefs-080624. html) The New York Times, July 13, 1996 [8] C.G. Jung. Psychological Types. Bollingen Series XX, Volume 6, Princeton University Press, 1971. [9] Mary H. McCaulley and Charles R. Martin. "[ Career Assessment and the MBTI (http:/ / jca. sagepub. com/ content/ 3/ 2/ 219)]", Journal of Career Assessment 1995 3:219 DOI: 10.1177/106907279500300208 [10] Klein, Gary. Intuition At Work. Random House, NY, NY. January, 2003 [11] Allen Chuck Ross, "Brain Hemispheric Functions and the Native American," Journal of American Indian Education, August 1989. (http:/ / jaie. asu. edu/ sp/ V21S3bra. htm) [12] Eugene Sadler-Smith. Inside Intuition. 2008. [13] Bishop, Paul (2000). Synchronicity and Intellectual Intuition in Kant, Swedenborg, and Jung. The Edwin Mellen Press. pp.1720. ISBN0773475931. [14] Sri Aurobindo, The Life Divine, Sri Aurobindo Publication Department, 1970, p.65. ISBN 81-7058-187-7 [15] Alice A. Bailey, The Light of the Soul, Lucis Publishing Company, 1927, p. 317. ISBN B000XPMTB0 [16] Sri Aurobindo, The Life Divine, Sri Aurobindo Publication Department, 1970, p. 69. ISBN 81-7058-187-7 [17] Thomas Merton The Literary Essays of Thomas Merton, New Directions Publishing, March 1985, pp. 341, 348. ISBN 0811209318 [18] Thomas Merton, The Literary Essays of Thomas Merton, New Directions Publishing, March 1985, p. 364. ISBN 0811209318 [19] Lorenzo Ravagli, Zanders Erzhlungen, Berliner Wissenschafts-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-8305-1613, pp. 680ff [20] Idries Shah, Thinkers of the East, pp. 191 et seq, ISBN 0 224 61912 8 c/r 1971 [21] AJ Giannini, J Daood,MC Giannini, R Boniface, PG Rhodes. Intellect versus intuition--dichotomy in the reception of nonverbal communication.Journal of General Psychology. 99:19-24,1978 [22] AJ Giannini, ME Barringer, MC Giannini, RH Loiselle. Lack of relationship between handedness and intuitive and intellectual (rationalistic) modes of information processing. Journal of General Psychology. 111:31-37 1984 [23] Anthony J. Pinizzotto, PhD, Edward F. Davis, MA, and Charles E. Miller III Emotional/rational decision making in law enforcement (http:/ / www. thefreelibrary. com/ Emotional/ rational+ decision+ making+ in+ law+ enforcement-a0114370262) (Federal Bureau of Investigation), Free Online Library, 2004 [24] Encyclopedia of Creativity, 2nd Edition [25] Intuition Peak. (http:/ / data. aad. gov. au/ aadc/ gaz/ scar/ display_name. cfm?gaz_id=134566) SCAR Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica.

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Further reading
Chopra, Deepak, and Judith Orloff. The Power of Intuition. Hay House, 2005. (Audio) ISBN 978-1401906221 Davis, Elizabeth. Women's Intuition. Celestial Arts, 1989. ISBN 978-0890875728 Mayer, Elizabeth Lloyd. Extraordinary Knowing: Science, Skepticism, and the Inexplicable Powers of the Human Mind. Bantam, 2008. ISBN 978-0553382235 McTaggart, Lynn. The Intention Experiment. Free Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0743276962 Schulz, Mona Lisa, and Christriane Northrup. Awakening Intuition. Three Rivers Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0-609-80424-7 Sheldrake, Rupert. Dogs That Know When Their Owners Are Coming Home: And Other Unexplained Powers of Animals. Three Rivers Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0609805336 Sheldrake, Rupert. The Sense of Being Stared At: And Other Aspects of the Extended Mind. Crown, 2003. ISBN 978-0609608074 Sheldrake, Rupert. Seven Experiments That Could Change the World: A Do-It-Yourself Guide to Revolutionary Science. Park Street Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0892819898 Wilde, Stuart Intuition. Hay House, 1996. (Audio) ISBN 978-1401906740 Wilde, Stuart. The Sixth Sense: Including the Secrets of the Etheric Subtle Body. Hay House, 2000. ISBN 978-1561705016 Levin, Michal. Spiritual Intelligence: Awakening the Power of Your Spirituality and Intuition. Hodder & Stoughton, 2000. ISBN 978-0340733943 Doc Childre and Howard Martin. The HEARTMATH Solution. HarperSanFrancisco, 1999. ISBN 978-0062516060 Hoeflich, Christine. What Everyone Believed: A Memoir of Intuition and Awakening. Between Worlds Publishing, 2008. ISBN 978-0979658907

External links
A scientific research group on intuition (http://www.intuition-sciences.com/) Ask Philosophers: Question on Intuition and Rationality (http://www.amherst.edu/askphilosophers/question/ 1533)

Invention

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Invention
An invention is a new composition, device, or process. An invention may be derived from a pre-existing model or idea, or it could be independently conceived in which case it may be a radical breakthrough. In addition, there is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviors adopted by people and passed on to others.[1] Inventions often extend the boundaries of human knowledge or experience. An invention that is novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field may be able to obtain the legal protection of a patent.

Process
Invention is a creative process. An open and curious mind enables one to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, a new connection or relationship can spark an invention. Inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Sometimes inventors skip over the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields. Ways of thinking, materials, processes or tools from one realm are used as no one else has imagined in a different realm. Play can lead to invention. Childhood curiosity like playing in a sand box, experimentation and imagination can develop one's play instinctan inner need according to Carl Jung. Inventors feel the need to play with things that interest them, and to explore, and this internal drive brings about novel creations.[2] Thomas Edison: "I never did a day's work in my life, it was all fun". Inventing can also be an obsession. To invent is to see anew. Inventors often envision a new idea, seeing it in their mind's eye. New ideas can arise when the conscious mind turns away from the subject or problem; or when the focus is on something else; or even while relaxing or sleeping. A novel idea may come in a flash - a Eureka! moment. For example, after years of working to figure out the general theory of relativity, the solution came to Einstein suddenly in a dream "like a giant die making an indelible impress, a huge map of the universe outlined itself in one clear vision".[3] Inventions can also be accidental, such as in the case of polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon). Insight is also a vital element of invention. It may begin with questions, doubt or a hunch. It may begin by recognizing that something unusual or accidental may be useful or that it could open a new avenue for exploration. For example, the odd metallic color of plastic made by accidentally adding a thousand times too much catalyst led scientists to explore its metal-like properties, inventing electrically conductive plastic and light emitting plastic-an invention that won the Nobel Prize in 2000 and has led to innovative lighting, display screens, wallpaper and much more (see conductive polymer, and organic light-emitting diode or OLED).[4] Invention is often an exploratory process, with an outcome that is uncertain or unknown. There are failures as well as successes. Inspiration can start the process, but no matter how complete the initial idea, inventions typically have to be developed. Inventors believe in their ideas and they do not give up in the face of one or many failures. They are often famous for their perseverance, confidence and passion. Inventors may, for example, try to improve something by making it more effective, healthier, faster, more efficient, easier to use, serve more purposes, longer lasting, cheaper, more ecologically friendly, or aesthetically different, e.g., lighter weight, more ergonomic, structurally different, with new light or color properties, etc.[5] Or an entirely new invention may be created such as the Internet, email, the telephone or electric light. Necessity may be the mother of invention, invention may be its own reward, or invention can create necessity. Nobody needed a phonograph before Edison invented it, the need for it developed afterward. Likewise, few ever imagined the telephone or the airplane prior to their invention, but many people cannot live without these inventions now.[6] The idea for an invention may be developed on paper or on a computer, by writing or drawing, by trial and error, by making models, by experimenting, by testing and/or by making the invention in its whole form. As the dialogue between Picasso and Braque brought about Cubism, collaboration has spawned many inventions. Brainstorming can spark new ideas. Collaborative creative processes are frequently used by designers, architects and scientists.

Invention Co-inventors are frequently named on patents. Now it is easier than ever for people in different locations to collaborate. Many inventors keep records of their working process - notebooks, photos, etc., including Leonardo da Vinci, Thomas Jefferson and Albert Einstein.[7] In the process of developing an invention, the initial idea may change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand, or it may even morph into something totally different. Working on one invention can lead to others too. There is only one country in the world that will grant patent rights for an invention that continues part of an invention in a previously filed patentthe United States.[8] The creation of an invention and its use can be affected by practical considerations. Some inventions are not created in the order that enables them to be most useful. For example, the parachute was invented before powered flight.[9] There are inventions that are too expensive to produce and inventions that require scientific advancements that have not yet occurred.[10] These barriers can erode or disappear as the economic situation changes or as science develops. But history shows that turning an invention that is only an idea into reality can take considerable time, even centuries as demonstrated by inventions originally conceived by Leonardo da Vinci which are now in physical form and commonplace in our lives.[11] Interestingly, some invention that exists as only an idea and has never been made in reality can obtain patent protection.[12] An invention can serve many purposes, these purposes might differ significantly and they may change over time. An invention or a further developed version of it may serve purposes never envisioned by its original inventor(s) or even by others living at the time of its original invention. As an example, consider all the kinds of plastic developed, their innumerable uses, and the tremendous growth this material invention is still undergoing today.[13]

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Artistic invention
Invention has a long and important history in the arts. Inventive thinking has always played a vital role in the creative process. While some inventions in the arts are patentable, others are not because they cannot fulfill the strict requirements governments have established for granting them. (see patent).

Art, design and architecture

"A man paints with his brain and not with his hands." - Michelangelo
[14]

Art is continuously reinvented. Many artists, designers, and architects think like inventors. As they create, they may: explore beyond that which is known or obvious, push against barriers, change or discard conventions, and/or break into new territory. Breaking the rules became the most valued attribute in art during the 20th century, with the highest acclaim going to conceptual innovation which frequently involved the invention of new genres. For the first time the idea within the artwork was unmistakably more important than the tangible art object. All kinds of artists have been inventing throughout history, and among their inventions are important contributions to visual art and other fields. Some visual artists like Picasso become inventors in the process of creating art. Inventions by other artists are separate from their art, such as the scientific inventions of Leonardo da Vinci. Some inventions in visual art employ prior developments in science or technology. For example, Picasso and Julio Gonzalez used welding to invent a new kind of sculpture, the form of which could be more open to light and air, and more recently, computer software has enabled an explosion of invention in visual art, including the invention of computer art, and invention in photography, film, architecture and design. Like the invention of welded sculpture, other inventions in art are new mediums, new art forms, or both. Examples are: the collage and the construction invented by Picasso, the Readymade invented by Marcel Duchamp, the mobile invented by Alexander Calder, the combine invented by Robert Rauschenberg, the shaped painting invented by Frank Stella, and the motion picture, the invention of which is attributed to Eadweard Muybridge.[15] Art has been reinvented by developing new processes of creation. For example, Jackson Pollock invented an entirely new form of painting and a new kind of abstraction by dripping, pouring, splashing and splattering paint onto unstretched canvas laying on the floor. A number of art movements

Invention were inventions often created collaboratively, such as Cubism invented by Picasso and Braque. Substantial inventions in art, design and architecture were made possible by inventions and improvements in the tools of the trade. The invention of Impressionist painting, for example, was possible because the prior invention of collapsible, resealable metal paint tubes facilitated spontaneous painting outdoors. Inventions originally created in the form of artwork can also develop other uses, as Alexander Calder's mobile is commonly used over babies' cribs today. Funds generated from patents on inventions in art, design and architecture can support the realization of the invention or other creative work. Frederic Auguste Bartholdi's 1879 patent on the Statue of Liberty helped fund the statue currently in New York harbor because it covered small replicas.[16] Among other artists, designers and architects who are or were inventors are: Filippo Brunelleschi, Le Corbusier, Naum Gabo, Frederick Hart, Louis Comfort Tiffany, John La Farge, Buckminster Fuller, Walt Disney, Man Ray, Yves Klein, Henry N. Cobb, I. M. Pei, Kenneth Snelson, Helen Frankenthaler, Chuck (Charles) Hoberman and Ingo Maurer. Some of their inventions have been patented. Others might have fulfilled the requirements of a patent, like the Cubist image. There are also inventions in visual art that do not fit into the requirements of a patent. Examples are inventions that cannot be differentiated from that which has already existed clearly enough for approval by government patent offices, such as Duchamp's Readymade and other conceptual works. Invention whose inventor or inventors are not known cannot be patented, such as the invention of abstract art or abstract painting, oil painting, Process Art, Installation art and Light Art. Also, when it cannot or has not been determined whether something was a first in human history or not, there may not be a patentable invention even though it may be considered an invention in the realm of art. For example, Picasso is credited with inventing collage though this was done earlier in cultures outside of the western world. Inventions in the visual arts that may be patentable might be new materials or mediums, new kinds of images, new processes, novel designs, or they may be a combination of these. Inventions by Filippo Brunelleschi, Frederick Hart, Louis Comfort Tiffany, John La Farge, Walt Disney, Henry N. Cobb, Chuck (Charles) Hoberman and others received patents. The color, International Klein Blue invented by Yves Klein was patented in 1960 and used two years later in his sculpture. Inventions by Kenneth Snelson which are crucial to his sculptures are patented. R. Buckminster Fuller's famous geodesic dome is covered in one of his 28 US patents. Ingo Maurer known for his lighting design has a series of patents on inventions in these works. Many inventions created collaboratively by designers at IDEO Inc. have been patented. Countless other examples can easily be found by searching patents at the websites of the Patent Offices of various countries, such as http:/ / www. USPTO. gov. Inventions in design can be protected in a special kind of patent called a "design patent". The first design patent was granted in 1842 to George Bruce for a new font.[17] See a database of patents in the arts at http:/ / www. patenting-art. com/ database/ dbase1-e. htm. See images and text from some patents in the arts at http:/ / www. patenting-art. com/ images/ images-e. htm.
[18] [19] [20]

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The steps of inventing go as follows: 1. 1 Idea: any random person can get an idea. Sometimes they are not the best ideas,but others could change the world. 2. 2 Record: writing your idea down. 3. 3 Diagram: adding drawings and explanations. 4. 4 Plan: Figure out how to create your idea. 5. 5 Create:

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Music
Music has been expanded by invention over the course of thousands of years. Timeline - dates may be approximations 5000 BCE - The first flutes were made in India out of wood. 3000 BCE - The first string instrument, the guqin was invented in China. 619 - The orchestra was invented in the Chinese royal courts with hundreds of musicians. 855 - Polyphonic music was invented. 910 - The musical score was invented by the musician, Hucbaldus. He also invented a staff that had an indefinite number of lines. 1025 - Musical notes were invented by Guido of Arezzo, named UT, RE, MI, FA, SO and LA. Later in the 16th century UT was changed to DO and TI was added. Lines/staves to space printed notes were added then too. 1225 - Rounds, songs sung in harmony, were invented with the song, Sumer is icumen in by John of Fornsete, an English monk. 1607 - A tonal system that gave the recitative a more flexible accompaniment was invented, revolutionizing music in the first opera masterpiece, Orfeo, by Claudio Monteverdi, a composer, musician and singer. 1696 - The metronome, a device for beating time was invented by Etienne Loulie, a musician, pedagogue and musical theorist.[21] 1698-1708 - The piano was invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori[22] 1787 - Algorithmic music was invented by Amadeus Mozart with his Musikalisches Wurfelspiel. 1829 - The accordion, a portable reed instrument was invented by Damian. 1835 - The tuba[23] proper was first patented by Prussian bandmaster Wilhelm Wieprecht and German instrument-builder Johann Gottfried Moritz. 1841 - The saxophone was invented by Adolphe Sax, an instrument maker. 1880 - Tango music was invented by the Argentinians, combining African, Indian and Spanish rhythms. 1919 - The first electronic music instrument, the theremin was invented by Lev Theremin. It is played by moving hands near an antenna. 1922 - Muzak, engineered music without vocals, tempo changes or brass instruments was invented by Brig. General George Owen Squier.[24] 1932 - The electric guitar, the Frying pan was invented by George Beauchamp 1953 - Rock and Roll was invented by the musician, Bill Haley with Crazy Man Crazy combining guitars, saxophones, piano, bass, and snare drums, who was imitating African American musicians such as Chuck Berry. 1957 - Computer-assisted musical composition was invented with Illiac Suite for String Quartet by scientists at the University of Illinois in Urbana.[25] 1964 - The Moog Synthesizer was invented by Robert Moog.[26] 1974 - The Chapman Stick was invented by Emmett Chapman.

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Literature
Literature has been reinvented throughout history. Timeline - dates may be approximations 1950 BC - The novel was invented with a narrative form. This was Story of Sinuhe about a prince of Egypt who flees after a court killing, is saved in the desert by a Bedouin tribe, and marries the eldest daughter of a king. Some people see Story of Sinuhe as the precursor of the story of Moses in the Bible. 675 BC - The heroic ballad was invented by Stesichorus of Sicily. 553 - Scandal literature was invented by Procopius in Anecdota. 808 - Copying written works by printing was invented by the Chinese who created The Diamond Sutra a seven page paper scroll, printed with woodblocks. 1022 - The romance novel was invented by Murasaki Shikibu, a Japanese noblewoman who wrote Genji the Shining One. 1657 - The science fiction novel was invented by Savinien Cyrano de Bergerac who wrote Les etas et empires de la lune about a trip to the moon. 1816 - Literary horror was invented by Mary Shelley who wrote Frankenstein. 1843 - The mystery novel was invented by Edgar Allan Poe who wrote "The Gold-Bug". 1857 - Writing in which the author conceals a single narrator's perspective and uses multiple other points of view was first done by Gustav Flaubert in Madame Bovary. 1895 - The serial comic strip was invented by the publisher, Joseph Pulitzer with The Yellow Kid, in the New World Newspaper.[27]

Performing arts
The value of invention in acting was noted by Paul Newman when retiring, "You start to lose your memory, your confidence, your invention. So that's pretty much a closed book for me".
[28]

Works by Martha Graham and many other artists known for invention.[29] Timeline - dates may be approximations 450 BCE - Mime was invented by Sophron of Syracuse. 1597 - Opera was invented by Jacopo Peri with Dafne. Peri was an Italian composer and singer. 1780 - Bolero dance was invented by Sebastiano Carezo, a Spanish dancer. 1833 - Minstrel shows were invented by Thomas Dartmouth "Daddy" Rice. 1880 - Tango dance was invented by the Argentinians, combining African, Indian and Spanish rhythms. 1922 - Radio drama was invented as Eugene Walter's play, The Wolf was broadcast by WGY, a station in Schenectady, New York. WGY later created a whole radio show, The WGY Players that presented radio adaptations of popular plays.[30] 1993 - a system that allows the wearer of specially designed shoes to lean forward beyond his center of gravity and appear to defy gravity was invented and patented by Michael Jackson, Michael Bush, and Dennis Tompkins. Michael Jackson used it in performances. Refer to US Patent No. 5,255,452.

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Implementation
Inventions get out into the world in different ways. Some are sold, licensed or given away as products or services. Simply exhibiting visual art, playing music or having a performance gets many artistic inventions out into the world. Believing in the success of an invention can involve risk, so it can be difficult to obtain support and funding. Grants, inventor associations, clubs and business incubators can provide the mentoring, skills and resources some inventors need. Success at getting an invention out into the world often requires passion for it and good entrepreneurial skills.[31] In economic theory, inventions are one of the chief examples of "positive externalities", a beneficial side-effect that falls on those outside a transaction or activity. One of the central concepts of economics is that externalities should be internalizedunless some of the benefits of this positive externality can be captured by the parties, the parties will be under-rewarded for their inventions, and systematic under-rewarding will lead to under-investment in activities that lead to inventions. The patent system captures those positive externalities for the inventor or other patent owner, so that the economy as a whole will invest a more-closely-optimum amount of resources in the process of invention.

Invention in patent law

The legal invention concept is central in patent law. As is often the case for legal concepts, its meaning is slightly different from common parlance meaning. A further complication is that the invention concept is quite different in American and European patent law. In Europe, the first test patent applications are submitted to is: "is this an invention"? If it is, subsequent questions to be answered are whether it is new, and sufficiently inventive. The implication - rather counterintuitively - is that a legal invention is not inherently novel. Whether a patent application relates to an invention is governed by Article 52 of the European Patent Convention, that excludes e.g. discoveries as such and software as such. The EPO Boards of Appeal have decided that the technical character of an application is decisive for it to be an invention, following an age-old German tradition. British courts don't agree with this interpretation. Following a 1959 Australian decision ("NRDC"), they believe that it is not possible to grasp the invention concept in a single rule. A British court once stated that the technical character test implies a "restatement of the problem in more imprecise terminology". In the United States, all patent applications are considered inventions. The statute explicitly says that the American invention concept includes discoveries (35 USC 100(a)), contrary to the European invention concept. The European invention concept corresponds to the American "patentable subject matter" concept: the first test a patent application is submitted to. While the statute (35 USC 101) virtually poses no limits to patenting whatsoever, courts have decided in binding precedents that abstract ideas, natural phenomena and laws of nature are not patentable. Various attempts were made to substantiate the "abstract idea" test, which suffers from abstractness itself, but eventually none of them was successful. The last attempt so far was the "machine or transformation" test, but the U.S. Supreme Court decided in 2010 that it is merely an indication at best.

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Invention and innovation

In the social sciences, an innovation is anything new to a culture, whether it has been adopted or not. The theory for adoption (or non-adoption) of an innovation, called diffusion of innovations, considers the likelihood that an innovation will ever be adopted and the taxonomy of persons likely to adopt it or spur its adoption. This theory was first put forth by Everett Rogers.[32] Gabriel Tarde also dealt with the adoption of innovations in his Laws of Imitation.[33]

Notes
[1] Artificial Mythologies: A Guide to Cultural Invention by Craig J. Saper (1997); Review of Artificial Mythologies. A Guide to cultural Invention, Kirsten Ostherr (1998) http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_qa3709/ is_199810/ ai_n8821092 [2] The Lemelson Center's website, Invention at Play: Inventors' Stories, http:/ / www. inventionatplay. org/ inventors_main. html; and Juice: The Creative Fuel That Drives World-Class Inventors (2004), p.14-15 by Evan I. Schwartz. [3] Einstein: A Life by Denis Brian p.159 (1996) [4] Nobelprize.org, The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2000 (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ chemistry/ laureates/ 2000/ public. html) [5] Countless examples can easily be found by searching patents, such as on http:/ / patft. uspto. gov/ netahtml/ PTO/ search-bool. html [6] Forks, Phonographs, and Hot Air Balloons: A Field Guide to Inventive Thinking p. 8 (1992), by Robert J. Weber, also from Juice: The Creative Fuel That Drives World-Class Inventors, p. 13 (2004) by Evan I. Schwartz [7] The Inventor's Notebook by Fred Grissom and David Pressman (2005); Leonardo da Vinci: Artist, Scientist, Inventor by Simona Cremante (2005), http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ ammem/ collections/ jefferson_papers/ ; http:/ / www. alberteinstein. info/ about/ [8] http:/ / www. uspto. gov/ web/ offices/ pac/ mpep/ documents/ 0200_201_08. htm [9] White, Lynn: The Invention of the Parachute, Technology and Culture, Vol. 9, No. 3, (Jul., 1968), pp. 462-467 [10] See US Patent #5,461,114 and D11,023 as well as Leonardo da Vinci: Artist, Scientist, Inventor by Simona Cremante (2005) [11] Leonardo da Vinci: Artist, Scientist, Inventor by Simona Cremante (2005) [12] Patent It Yourself by David Pressman (2000), particularly section 9/2, as a specific example refer to 1879, F. Auguste Bartholdi U.S. Patent D11,023 [13] Most information is directly from the Smithsonian Institution's Lemelson Center for Invention and Innovation, http:/ / www. invention. smithsonian. org/ home/ , e.g., Invention at Play: Inventors' Stories, http:/ / www. inventionatplay. org/ inventors_main. html and Juice: The Creative Fuel That Drives World-Class Inventors (2004) by Evan I. Schwartz (download an interview with this author about his book at http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=4244179). Also: Notebooks of the Mind: Explorations of Thinking (1985) by Vera John-Steiner; http:/ / www. greenfieldpatents. com/ inventitiveprocess. php; http:/ / www. uspto. gov, http:/ / www. uspto. gov/ main/ glossary/ index. html#cip; American Heritage.com article "How Did the Heroic Inventors Do It?" by Thomas P. Hughes at http:/ / www. americanheritage. com/ articles/ magazine/ it/ 1985/ 2/ 1985_2_18. shtml; History of Plastics and Plastic Packaging Products Polyethylene, Polypropylene, and More http:/ / www. packagingtoday. com/ introplasticexplosion. htm; A directory of resins from 600 plastics manufacturers http:/ / www. ides. com/ plastics/ A. htm Plastics Materials; Detailed Guide To All Plastics Processes, British Plastics Federation http:/ / www. bpf. co. uk/ bpfindustry/ process_plastics. cfm; http:/ / www. plastiquarian. com/ Plastics Historical Society; History of plastics, Society of the Plastics Industry http:/ / www. plasticsindustry. org/ industry/ history. htm [14] Finding quotations was never this easy (http:/ / thinkexist. com/ search/ searchquotation. asp?search=brain& q=author:"Michelangelo") [15] www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Eadweard_Muybridge.aspx#1E1-Muybridg, and see www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/399928/Eadweard-Muybridge [16] 1879, F. Auguste Bartholdi U.S. Patent D11,023 [17] http:/ / www. ipwatchdog. com/ 2008/ 11/ 06/ the-first-design-patent-2/ id=242/ [18] "A Textbook Example of Ranking Artworks" by Patricia Cohen, The New York Times, (08-04-08) [19] Picasso and the Invention of Cubism by Pepe Karmel (2003) [20] Leonardo da Vinci: Artist, Scientist, Inventor by Simona Cremante (2005) [21] Patenting Art and Entertainment by Gregory Aharonian and Richard Stim [22] http:/ / www. timelineindex. com/ content/ view/ 1477 [23] http:/ / www. blackdiamondbrass. com/ tbahist/ tubahist. htm [24] Patenting Art and Entertainment by Gregory Aharonian and Richard Stim [25] Patenting Art and Entertainment by Gregory Aharonian and Richard Stim [26] http:/ / 120years. net/ machines/ moog/ [27] Patenting Art and Entertainment by Gregory Aharonian and Richard Stim [28] (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ globe/ living/ articles/ 2007/ 05/ 26/ newman_says_hes_done_with_acting/ ) [29] Creating Minds: An Anatomy of Creativity Seen Through the Lives of Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, Eliot, Graham, and Gandhi by Howard Gardner (1993) [30] Patenting Art and Entertainment by Gregory Aharonian and Richard Stim

Invention
[31] Inventors Assistance League http:/ / www. inventions. org/ ; License Your Invention by Richard Stim (2002); http:/ / inventorspot. com/ ; United Inventors Association, http:/ / www. uiausa. org/ ; The Inventor's Bible: How to Market and License Your Brilliant Ideas by Ronald Louis Docie (2004) [32] Diffusion of Innovations, 5th Edition by Everett Rogers (2003), also see http:/ / www. ciadvertising. org/ studies/ student/ 98_fall/ theory/ hornor/ paper1. html [33] Les lois de l'imitation Gabriel Tarde (1890)

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References
Asimov, Isaac. Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery, Harper & Row, 1989. ISBN 0-06-015612-0 De Bono, Edward, "Eureka! An Illustrated History of Inventions from the Wheel to the Computer", Thames & Hudson, 1974. Gowlett, John. Ascent to Civilization, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992. ISBN 0-07-544312-0 Platt, Richard, "Eureka!: Great Inventions and How They Happened", 2003. Patenting Art and Entertainment by Gregory Aharonian and Richard Stim (2004)

External links
List of PCT (Patent Cooperation Treaty) Notable Inventions (http://www.wipo.int/pct/en/inventions/ inventions.html) (on the WIPO web site)

Problem solving
Problem solving is a mental process and is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding and problem shaping. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental skills.[1] Problem solving occurs when an organism or an artificial intelligence system needs to move from a given state to a desired goal state.

Overview
The nature of human problem solving methods has been studied by psychologists over the past hundred years. There are several methods of studying problem solving, including; introspection, behaviorism, simulation, computer modeling and experiment. Beginning with the early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany (e.g. Duncker, 1935 [2] ), and continuing through the 1960s and early 1970s, research on problem solving typically conducted relatively simple, laboratory tasks (e.g. Duncker's "X-ray" problem; Ewert & Lambert's 1932 "disk" problem, later known as Tower of Hanoi) that appeared novel to participants (e.g. Mayer, 1992 [3] ). Various reasons account for the choice of simple novel tasks: they had clearly defined optimal solutions, they were solvable within a relatively short time frame, researchers could trace participants' problem-solving steps, and so on. The researchers made the underlying assumption, of course, that simple tasks such as the Tower of Hanoi captured the main properties of "real world" problems, and that the cognitive processes underlying participants' attempts to solve simple problems were representative of the processes engaged in when solving "real world" problems. Thus researchers used simple problems for reasons of convenience, and thought generalizations to more complex problems would become possible. Perhaps the best-known and most impressive example of this line of research remains the work by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon [4] . Simple laboratory-based tasks can be useful in explicating the steps of logic and reasoning that underlie problem solving; however, they omit the complexity and emotional valence of "real-world" problems. In clinical psychology, researchers have focused on the role of emotions in problem solving (D'Zurilla & Goldfried, 1971; D'Zurilla &

Problem solving Nezu, 1982), demonstrating that poor emotional control can disrupt focus on the target task and impede problem resolution (Rath, Langenbahn, Simon, Sherr, & Diller, 2004). In this conceptualization, human problem solving consists of two related processes: problem orientation, the motivational/attitudinal/affective approach to problematic situations and problem-solving skills, the actual cognitive-behavioral steps, which, if successfully implemented, lead to effective problem resolution. Working with individuals with frontal lobe injuries, neuropsychologists have discovered that deficits in emotional control and reasoning can be remediated, improving the capacity of injured persons to resolve everyday problems successfully (Rath, Simon, Langenbahn, Sherr, & Diller, 2003).

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Europe
In Europe, two main approaches have surfaced, one initiated by Donald Broadbent (1977; see Berry & Broadbent, 1995) in the United Kingdom and the other one by Dietrich Drner (1975, 1985; see Drner & Wearing, 1995) in Germany. The two approaches have in common an emphasis on relatively complex, semantically rich, computerized laboratory tasks, constructed to resemble real-life problems. The approaches differ somewhat in their theoretical goals and methodology, however. The tradition initiated by Broadbent emphasizes the distinction between cognitive problem-solving processes that operate under awareness versus outside of awareness, and typically employs mathematically well-defined computerized systems. The tradition initiated by Drner, on the other hand, has an interest in the interplay of the cognitive, motivational, and social components of problem solving, and utilizes very complex computerized scenarios that contain up to 2,000 highly interconnected variables (e.g., Drner, Kreuzig, Reither & Studel's 1983 LOHHAUSEN project; Ringelband, Misiak & Kluwe, 1990). Buchner (1995) describes the two traditions in detail. To sum up, researchers' realization that problem-solving processes differ across knowledge domains and across levels of expertise (e.g. Sternberg, 1995) and that, consequently, findings obtained in the laboratory cannot necessarily generalize to problem-solving situations outside the laboratory, has during the past two decades led to an emphasis on real-world problem solving. This emphasis has been expressed quite differently in North America and Europe, however. Whereas North American research has typically concentrated on studying problem solving in separate, natural knowledge domains, much of the European research has focused on novel, complex problems, and has been performed with computerized scenarios (see Funke, 1991, for an overview).

USA and Canada

In North America, initiated by the work of Herbert Simon on learning by doing in semantically rich domains (e.g. Anzai & Simon, 1979; Bhaskar & Simon, 1977), researchers began to investigate problem solving separately in different natural knowledge domains such as physics, writing, or chess playing thus relinquishing their attempts to extract a global theory of problem solving (e.g. Sternberg & Frensch, 1991). Instead, these researchers have frequently focused on the development of problem solving within a certain domain, that is on the development of expertise (e.g. Anderson, Boyle & Reiser, 1985; Chase & Simon, 1973; Chi, Feltovich & Glaser, 1981). Areas that have attracted rather intensive attention in North America include such diverse fields as: Problem Solving (Kepner & Tregoe, 1958) Reading (Stanovich & Cunningham, 1991) Writing (Bryson, Bereiter, Scardamalia & Joram, 1991) Calculation (Sokol & McCloskey, 1991) Political decision making (Voss, Wolfe, Lawrence & Engle, 1991) Problem Solving for Business (Cornell, 2010) Managerial problem solving (Wagner, 1991)

Lawyers' reasoning (Amsel, Langer & Loutzenhiser, 1991) Mechanical problem solving (Hegarty, 1991) Problem solving in electronics (Lesgold & Lajoie, 1991)

Problem solving Computer skills (Kay, 1991) Game playing (Frensch & Sternberg, 1991) Personal problem solving (Heppner & Krauskopf, 1987) Mathematical problem solving (Polya, 1945; Schoenfeld, 1985) Social problem solving (D'Zurilla & Goldfreid, 1971; D'Zurilla & Nezu, 1982) Problem solving for innovations and inventions: TRIZ (Altshuller, 1973, 1984, 1994)

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Characteristics of difficult problems

As elucidated by Dietrich Drner and later expanded upon by Joachim Funke, difficult problems have some typical characteristics that can be summarized as follows: Intransparency (lack of clarity of the situation) commencement opacity continuation opacity Polytely (multiple goals) inexpressiveness opposition transience Complexity (large numbers of items, interrelations and decisions) enumerability connectivity (hierarchy relation, communication relation, allocation relation) heterogeneity Dynamics (time considerations) temporal constraints temporal sensitivity phase effects dynamic unpredictability

The resolution of difficult problems requires a direct attack on each of these characteristics that are encountered. In reform mathematics, greater emphasis is placed on problem solving relative to basic skills, where basic operations can be done with calculators. However some "problems" may actually have standard solutions taught in higher grades. For example, kindergarteners could be asked how many fingers are there on all the gloves of 3 children, which can be solved with multiplication.[5]

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Problem-solving techniques
Abstraction: solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system Analogy: using a solution that solved an analogous problem Brainstorming: (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum is found Divide and conquer: breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems Hypothesis testing: assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assumption
Training meeting about sustainable design. The photo shows a training meeting with factory workers in a stainless steel ecodesign company from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. These type of meeting encourage the brainstorm in the shop floor

Lateral thinking: approaching solutions indirectly and creatively Means-ends analysis: choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal Method of focal objects: synthesizing seemingly non-matching characteristics of different objects into something new Morphological analysis: assessing the output and interactions of an entire system Reduction: transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist Research: employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems Root cause analysis: eliminating the cause of the problem Trial-and-error: testing possible solutions until the right one is found "A solution, to be a solution, must share some of the problems characteristics." Richard L Kempe

Problem-solving methodologies
Eight Disciplines Problem Solving 5 (IAPIE) GROW model How to solve it Kepner-Tregoe Southbeach Notation PDCA RPR Problem Diagnosis TRIZ (Teoriya Resheniya Izobretatelskikh Zadatch, "theory of solving inventor's problems") WebKaizen

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Example applications
Problem solving is of crucial importance in engineering when products or processes fail, so corrective action can be taken to prevent further failures. Perhaps of more value, problem solving can be applied to a product or process prior to an actual fail event i.e. a potential problem can be predicted, analyzed and mitigation applied so the problem never actually occurs. Techniques like Failure Mode Effects Analysis can be used to proactively reduce the likelihood of problems occurring. Forensic engineering is an important technique of failure analysis which involves tracing product defects and flaws. Corrective action can then be taken to prevent further failures.

Notes
[1] Goldstein F. C., & Levin H. S. (1987). Disorders of reasoning and problem-solving ability. In M. Meier, A. Benton, & L. Diller (Eds.), Neuropsychological rehabilitation. London: Taylor & Francis Group. [2] Duncker, K. (1935). Zur Psychologie des produktiven Denkens [The psychology of productive thinking]. Berlin: Julius Springer. [3] Mayer, R. E. (1992). Thinking, problem solving, cognition. Second edition. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. [4] *Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. [5] 2007 Draft, Washington State Revised Mathematics Standard

References
Amsel, E., Langer, R., & Loutzenhiser, L. (1991). Do lawyers reason differently from psychologists? A comparative design for studying expertise. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 223-250). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0-8058-1783-6 Anderson, J. R., Boyle, C. B., & Reiser, B. J. (1985). "Intelligent tutoring systems". Science 228 (4698): 456462. doi:10.1126/science.228.4698.456. PMID17746875. Anzai, K., & Simon, H. A. (1979) (1979). "The theory of learning by doing". Psychological Review 86 (2): 124140. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.86.2.124. PMID493441. Beckmann, J. F., & Guthke, J. (1995). Complex problem solving, intelligence, and learning ability. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 177-200). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Berry, D. C., & Broadbent, D. E. (1995). Implicit learning in the control of complex systems: A reconsideration of some of the earlier claims. In P.A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 131-150). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bhaskar, R., & Simon, H. A. (1977). Problem solving in semantically rich domains: An example from engineering thermodynamics. Cognitive Science, 1, 193-215. Brehmer, B. (1995). Feedback delays in dynamic decision making. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 103-130). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Brehmer, B., & Drner, D. (1993). Experiments with computer-simulated microworlds: Escaping both the narrow straits of the laboratory and the deep blue sea of the field study. Computers in Human Behavior, 9, 171-184. Broadbent, D. E. (1977). Levels, hierarchies, and the locus of control. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29, 181-201. Bryson, M., Bereiter, C., Scardamalia, M., & Joram, E. (1991). Going beyond the problem as given: Problem solving in expert and novice writers. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 61-84). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Buchner, A. (1995). Theories of complex problem solving. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 27-63). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Buchner, A., Funke, J., & Berry, D. C. (1995). Negative correlations between control performance and verbalizable knowledge: Indicators for implicit learning in process control tasks? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 48A, 166-187.

Problem solving Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). Perception in chess. Cognitive Psychology, 4, 55-81. Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P. J., & Glaser, R. (1981). "Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices" (http://www.usabilityviews.com/uv007206.html). Cognitive Science 5: 121152. doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2. Cornell, Kate (2010). WebKaizen, Better Faster Cheaper Problem Solving for Business. Omaha NE: Prevail Digital Publishing. ISBN978-0-9831102-1-7. Drner, D. (1975). Wie Menschen eine Welt verbessern wollten [How people wanted to improve the world]. Bild der Wissenschaft, 12, 48-53. Drner, D. (1985). Verhalten, Denken und Emotionen [Behavior, thinking, and emotions]. In L. H. Eckensberger & E. D. Lantermann (Eds.), Emotion und Reflexivitt (pp. 157-181). Mnchen, Germany: Urban & Schwarzenberg. Drner, D. (1992). ber die Philosophie der Verwendung von Mikrowelten oder "Computerszenarios" in der psychologischen Forschung [On the proper use of microworlds or "computer scenarios" in psychological research]. In H. Gundlach (Ed.), Psychologische Forschung und Methode: Das Versprechen des Experiments. Festschrift fr Werner Traxel (pp. 53-87). Passau, Germany: Passavia-Universitts-Verlag. Drner, D., Kreuzig, H. W., Reither, F., & Studel, T. (Eds.). (1983). Lohhausen. Vom Umgang mit Unbestimmtheit und Komplexitt [Lohhausen. On dealing with uncertainty and complexity]. Bern, Switzerland: Hans Huber. Drner, D., & Wearing, A. (1995). Complex problem solving: Toward a (computer-simulated) theory. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 65-99). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Duncker, K. (1935). Zur Psychologie des produktiven Denkens [The psychology of productive thinking]. Berlin: Julius Springer. Ewert, P. H., & Lambert, J. F. (1932). Part II: The effect of verbal instructions upon the formation of a concept. Journal of General Psychology, 6, 400-411. Eyferth, K., Schmann, M., & Widowski, D. (1986). Der Umgang von Psychologen mit Komplexitt [On how psychologists deal with complexity]. Sprache & Kognition, 5, 11-26. Frensch, P. A., & Funke, J. (Eds.). (1995). Complex problem solving: The European Perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Frensch, P. A., & Sternberg, R. J. (1991). Skill-related differences in game playing. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 343-381). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Funke, J. (1991). Solving complex problems: Human identification and control of complex systems. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 185-222). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Funke, J. (1993). Microworlds based on linear equation systems: A new approach to complex problem solving and experimental results. In G. Strube & K.-F. Wender (Eds.), The cognitive psychology of knowledge (pp. 313-330). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. Funke, J. (1995). Experimental research on complex problem solving. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 243-268). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Funke, U. (1995). Complex problem solving in personnel selection and training. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 219-240). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Goldstein F. C., & Levin H. S. (1987). Disorders of reasoning and problem-solving ability. In M. Meier, A. Benton, & L. Diller (Eds.), Neuropsychological rehabilitation. London: Taylor & Francis Group.

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Problem solving Groner, M., Groner, R., & Bischof, W. F. (1983). Approaches to heuristics: A historical review. In R. Groner, M. Groner, & W. F. Bischof (Eds.), Methods of heuristics (pp. 1-18). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Halpern, Diane F. (2002).Thought & Knowledge. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Worldcat Library Catalog (http://worldcat.org/oclc/50065032&tab=holdings) Hayes, J. (1980). The complete problem solver. Philadelphia: The Franklin Institute Press. Hegarty, M. (1991). Knowledge and processes in mechanical problem solving. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 253-285). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Heppner, P. P., & Krauskopf, C. J. (1987). An information-processing approach to personal problem solving. The Counseling Psychologist, 15, 371-447. Huber, O. (1995). Complex problem solving as multi stage decision making. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 151-173). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hbner, R. (1989). Methoden zur Analyse und Konstruktion von Aufgaben zur kognitiven Steuerung dynamischer Systeme [Methods for the analysis and construction of dynamic system control tasks]. Zeitschrift fr Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie, 36, 221-238. Hunt, E. (1991). Some comments on the study of complexity. In R. J. Sternberg, & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 383-395). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hussy, W. (1985). Komplexes Problemlsen - Eine Sackgasse? [Complex problem solving - a dead end?]. Zeitschrift fr Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie, 32, 55-77. Kay, D. S. (1991). Computer interaction: Debugging the problems. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 317-340). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kluwe, R. H. (1993). Knowledge and performance in complex problem solving. In G. Strube & K.-F. Wender (Eds.), The cognitive psychology of knowledge (pp. 401-423). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. Kluwe, R. H. (1995). Single case studies and models of complex problem solving. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 269-291). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kolb, S., Petzing, F., & Stumpf, S. (1992). Komplexes Problemlsen: Bestimmung der Problemlsegte von Probanden mittels Verfahren des Operations Research ? ein interdisziplinrer Ansatz [Complex problem solving: determining the quality of human problem solving by operations research tools - an interdisciplinary approach]. Sprache & Kognition, 11, 115-128. Krems, J. F. (1995). Cognitive flexibility and complex problem solving. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 201-218). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Lesgold, A., & Lajoie, S. (1991). Complex problem solving in electronics. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 287-316). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Mayer, R. E. (1992). Thinking, problem solving, cognition. Second edition. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. Mller, H. (1993). Komplexes Problemlsen: Reliabilitt und Wissen [Complex problem solving: Reliability and knowledge]. Bonn, Germany: Holos. Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Paradies, M.W., & Unger, L. W. (2000). TapRooT - The System for Root Cause Analysis, Problem Investigation, and Proactive Improvement. Knoxville, TN: System Improvements. Putz-Osterloh, W. (1993). Strategies for knowledge acquisition and transfer of knowledge in dynamic tasks. In G. Strube & K.-F. Wender (Eds.), The cognitive psychology of knowledge (pp. 331-350). Amsterdam: Elsevier

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Problem solving Science Publishers. Riefer, D.M., & Batchelder, W.H. (1988). Multinomial modeling and the measurement of cognitive processes. Psychological Review, 95, 318-339. Ringelband, O. J., Misiak, C., & Kluwe, R. H. (1990). Mental models and strategies in the control of a complex system. In D. Ackermann, & M. J. Tauber (Eds.), Mental models and human-computer interaction (Vol. 1, pp. 151-164). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. Schaub, H. (1993). Modellierung der Handlungsorganisation. Bern, Switzerland: Hans Huber. Sokol, S. M., & McCloskey, M. (1991). Cognitive mechanisms in calculation. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 85-116). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Stanovich, K. E., & Cunningham, A. E. (1991). Reading as constrained reasoning. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 3-60). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Sternberg, R. J. (1995). Conceptions of expertise in complex problem solving: A comparison of alternative conceptions. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 295-321). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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Sternberg, R. J., & Frensch, P. A. (Eds.). (1991). Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Strau, B. (1993). Konfundierungen beim Komplexen Problemlsen. Zum Einflu des Anteils der richtigen Lsungen (ArL) auf das Problemlseverhalten in komplexen Situationen [Confoundations in complex problem solving. On the influence of the degree of correct solutions on problem solving in complex situations]. Bonn, Germany: Holos. Strohschneider, S. (1991). Kein System von Systemen! Kommentar zu dem Aufsatz "Systemmerkmale als Determinanten des Umgangs mit dynamischen Systemen" von Joachim Funke [No system of systems! Reply to the paper "System features as determinants of behavior in dynamic task environments" by Joachim Funke]. Sprache & Kognition, 10, 109-113. Van Lehn, K. (1989). Problem solving and cognitive skill acquisition. In M. I. Posner (Ed.), Foundations of cognitive science (pp. 527-579). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Voss, J. F., Wolfe, C. R., Lawrence, J. A., & Engle, R. A. (1991). From representation to decision: An analysis of problem solving in international relations. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 119-158). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Wagner, R. K. (1991). Managerial problem solving. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 159-183). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Wisconsin Educational Media Association. (1993). "Information literacy: A position paper on information problem-solving." Madison, WI: WEMA Publications. (ED 376 817). (Portions adapted from Michigan State Board of Education's Position Paper on Information Processing Skills, 1992). Altshuller, Genrich (1973). Innovation Algorithm. Worcester, MA: Technical Innovation Center. ISBN0-9640740-2-8. Altshuller, Genrich (1984). Creativity as an Exact Science. New York, NY: Gordon & Breach. ISBN0-677-21230-5. Altshuller, Genrich (1994). And Suddenly the Inventor Appeared. translated by Lev Shulyak. Worcester, MA: Technical Innovation Center. ISBN0-9640740-1-X. DZurilla, T. J., & Goldfried, M. R. (1971). Problem solving and behavior modification. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 78, 107-126. D'Zurilla, T. J., & Nezu, A. M. (1982). Social problem solving in adults. In P. C. Kendall (Ed.), Advances in cognitive-behavioral research and therapy (Vol. 1, pp.201274). New York: Academic Press.

Problem solving Rath J. F.; Langenbahn D. M.; Simon D.; Sherr R. L.; Fletcher J.; Diller L. (2004). The construct of problem solving in higher level neuropsychological assessment and rehabilitation. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19, 613-635. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2003.08.006 Rath, J. F.; Simon, D.; Langenbahn, D. M.; Sherr, R. L.; Diller, L. (2003). Group treatment of problem-solving deficits in outpatients with traumatic brain injury: A randomised outcome study. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 13, 461-488.

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External links
Computer Skills for Information Problem-Solving: Learning and Teaching Technology in Context (http://www. ericdigests.org/1996-4/skills.htm) Problem solving-Elementary level (http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/ Problem_solving-Elementary_level) CROP (Communities Resolving Our Problems) (http://ceap.wcu.edu/houghton/Learner/basicidea.html) The Altshuller Institute for TRIZ Studies, Worcester, MA (http://www.aitriz.org)

Lateral thinking
Lateral thinking is solving problems through an indirect and creative approach, using reasoning that is not immediately obvious and involving ideas that may not be obtainable by using only traditional step-by-step logic. The term lateral thinking was coined by Edward de Bono in the book New Think: The Use of Lateral Thinking published in 1967.

Methods
Critical thinking is primarily concerned with judging the true value of statements and seeking errors. Lateral thinking is more concerned with the movement value of statements and ideas. A person would use lateral thinking when they want to move from one known idea to creating new ideas. Edward de Bono defines four types of thinking tools: Idea generating tools that are designed to break current thinking patternsroutine patterns, the status quo Focus tools that are designed to broaden where to search for new ideas Harvest tools that are designed to ensure more value is received from idea generating output Treatment tools that are designed to consider real-world constraints, resources, and support[1]

Random Entry Idea Generating Tool: Choose an object at random, or a noun from a dictionary, and associate that with the area you are thinking about. For example imagine you are thinking about how to improve a web site. Choosing an object at random from an office you might see a fax machine. A fax machine transmits images over the phone to paper. Fax machines are becoming rare. People send faxes directly to phone numbers. Perhaps this could be a new way to embed the web site's content in emails and other sites. Provocation Idea Generating Tool: choose to use any of the provocation techniqueswishful thinking, exaggeration, reversal, escape, or arising. Create a list of provocations and then use the most outlandish ones to move your thinking forward to new ideas. Challenge Idea Generating Tool: A tool which is designed to ask the question "Why?" in a non-threatening way: why something exists, why it is done the way it is. The result is a very clear understanding of "Why?" which naturally leads to fresh new ideas. The goal is to be able to challenge anything at all, not just items which are problems.

Lateral thinking For example you could challenge the handles on coffee cups. The reason for the handle seems to be that the cup is often too hot to hold directly. Perhaps coffee cups could be made with insulated finger grips, or there could be separate coffee cup holders similar to beer holders. Concept Fan Idea Generating Tool: Ideas carry out concepts. This tool systematically expands the range and number of concepts in order to end up with a very broad range of ideas to consider. Disproving: Based on the idea that the majority is always wrong (Henrik Ibsen, John Kenneth Galbraith), take anything that is obvious and generally accepted as "goes without saying", question it, take an opposite view, and try to convincingly disprove it. The other focus, harvesting and treatment tools deal with the output of the generated ideas and the ways to use them.

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Lateral thinking and problem solving

Problem Solving: When something creates a problem, the performance or the status quo of the situation drops. Problem solving deals with finding out what caused the problem and then figuring out ways to fix the problem. The objective is to get the situation to where it should be. For example, a production line has an established run rate of 1000 items per hour. Suddenly, the run rate drops to 800 items per hour. Ideas as to why this happened and solutions to repair the production line must be thought of. Creative Problem Solving: Using creativity, one must solve a problem in an indirect and unconventional manner. For example, if a production line produced 1000 books per hour, creative problem solving could find ways to produce more books per hour, use the production line, or reduce the cost to run the production line. Creative Problem Identification: Many of the greatest non-technological innovations are identified while realizing an improved process or design in everyday objects and tasks either by accidental chance or by studying and documenting real world experience....

Further reading
De Bono, Edward (1970). Lateral thinking: creativity step by step [2]. Harper & Row. pp.300. ISBN0-14-021978-1. De Bono, Edward (1972). Po: Beyond Yes and No. Penguin Books. ISBN0-14-021715-0. De Bono, Edward (1992). Serious creativity: using the power of lateral thinking to create new ideas [3]. HarperBusiness. pp.338. ISBN0-88730-635-7. Sloane, Paul (1994). Test your Lateral Thinking IQ [4]. Sterling Publishing. pp.96. ISBN0-8069-0684-7. The Leader's Guide to Lateral Thinking Skills, Paul Sloane, (Kogan Page, 2006), ISBN 0-7494-4797-4

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Lateral Thinking: The Power of Provocation manual: Published in 2006 by de Bono Thinking Systems http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=H-ROAAAAMAAJ http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=NbB9AAAAMAAJ http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0op9AAAAMAAJ

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Situation puzzle
Situation puzzles are often referred to as lateral thinking puzzles or "yes/no" puzzles. Situation puzzles are usually played in a group, with one person hosting the puzzle and the others asking questions which can only be answered with a "yes" or "no" answer. Depending upon the settings and level of difficulty, other answers, hints or simple explanations of why the answer is yes or no, may be considered acceptable. The puzzle is solved when one of the players is able to recite the narrative the host had in mind, in particular explaining whatever aspect of the initial scenario was puzzling. These puzzles are inexact and many puzzle statements have more than one possible fitting answer. The goal however is to find out the story as the host has it in mind. Critical thinking and reading, logical thinking, as well as lateral thinking may all be required to solve a situation puzzle. The term lateral thinking was coined by Edward De Bono to denote a creative problem-solving style that involves looking at the given situation from unexpected angles, and is typically necessary to the solution of situation puzzles. The term lateral thinking puzzle has been popularised for this type of puzzle by Paul Sloane who has written many books of such puzzles. This term is also used in the MindTrap series of board games, which contain a large number of situation puzzles.

Example
One of the most famous situation puzzles is told similar to this: A man walks into a bar, and asks the bartender for a drink of water. The bartender pulls out a gun, points it at the man, and cocks it. The man says "Thank you" and leaves. What happened? The question and answer segment might go something like this. 1. 2. 3. 4. Question: Could the bartender hear him? Answer: Yes Question: Was the bartender angry for some reason? A: No Question: Was the gun a water pistol? A: No Question: Did they know each other from before? A: No (or: "irrelevant" since either way it does not affect the outcome) 5. Question: Was the man's "Thank you" sarcastic? A: No (or with a small hint: "No, he was genuinely grateful for some reason") 6. Question: Did the man ask for water in an offensive way? A: No 7. Question: Did the man ask for water in some strange way? A: Yes Eventually the questions lead up to the conclusion that the man had the hiccups, and that his reason for requesting a drink of water was not to quench his thirst but to cure his hiccups. The bartender realized this and chose instead to cure the hiccups by frightening the man with the gun. Once the man realized that his hiccups were gone, he no longer needed a drink of water, gratefully thanked the bartender, and left.

Terminology
Yope is a word devised to answer a question with yes and no simultaneously. You can think of it as an answer saying Yes, but ... and No, but ... at the same time. This would be used when it would be misleading to give a simple "yes" or "no" answer to the player's question. (See also: Mu) N/a (or stating "irrelevant") is used when a question is not applicable to the current situation or a when a "yes" or "no" answer would not provide any usable information to solving the puzzle. Irrelevant, but assume yes is used when the situation is the same regardless of what the correct answer to the question is, but assuming one direction will make further questioning easier or the situation more likely. An example question that might have this answer from the puzzle above is: "Was the bartender human?"

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Further reading
Edward De Bono, Lateral Thinking : Creativity Step by Step, Harper & Row, 1973, trade paperback, 300 pages, ISBN 0-06-090325-2 Paul Sloane, Lateral Thinking Puzzlers, Sterling Publishing, 1991, ISBN 0806982276 Paul Sloane, The Leader's Guide to Lateral Thinking Skills, Kogan Page, 2003, paperback, 186 pages, ISBN 0-7494-4002-3 Paul Sloane and Des MacHale, Outstanding Lateral Thinking Puzzles, Sterling Publishing, 2005, ISBN 1402703805 Paul Sloane and Des MacHale, Cunning Lateral Thinking Puzzles, Sterling Publishing, 2006, ISBN 1402732759 Sandy Silverthorne, John Warner,One-Minute Mysteries and Brain Teasers, Harvest House Publishing, 2007, paperback, 176 pages, ISBN 0-7369-1942-2 Lloyd King, Test Your Creative Thinking, Kogan-Page, 2003, paperback, 156 pages, ISBN 0-7494-4004-X Lloyd King, Amazing Aha! Puzzles, Puzzle Wizard, 2004, paperback, 180 pages, ISBN 1-4116-1330-9

External links
The Lateral Puzzles Forum [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. lateralpuzzles. com/

Oblique Strategies
Oblique Strategies (subtitled over one hundred worthwhile dilemmas) is a set of published cards created by Brian Eno and Peter Schmidt first published in 1975, and is now in its fifth, open ended, edition. Prior to Oblique Strategies, Schmidt created "The Thoughts Behind the Thoughts" [1] in 1970, a similar collection of "55 sentences", in an edition of 100.

Design and use

Each card contains a phrase or cryptic remark which can be used to break a deadlock or dilemma situation. Some are specific to music composition; others are more general. Examples include: Use an old idea State the problem in words as clearly as possible. Only one element of each kind. What would your closest friend do? What to increase? What to reduce? Are there sections? Consider transitions. Try faking it! Honour thy error as a hidden intention. Ask your body Work at a different speed

From the introduction to the 2001 edition: These cards evolved from separate observations of the principles underlying what we were doing. Sometimes they were recognised in retrospect (intellect catching up with intuition), sometimes they were identified as they were happening, sometimes they were formulated.

Oblique Strategies They can be used as a pack, or by drawing a single card from the shuffled pack when a dilemma occurs in a working situation. In this case the card is trusted even if its appropriateness is quite unclear...

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Cultural impact
References to Oblique Strategies exist in popular culture, most notably in the film Slacker, in which a character offers passers-by cards from a deck. Strategies mentioned include "Honor thy error as a hidden intention", "Look closely at the most embarrassing details and amplify", "Not building a wall; making a brick", "Repetition is a form of change", and one which came to be seen as a summary of the film's ethos (though it was not part of the official set of Oblique Strategies), "Withdrawing in disgust is not the same thing as apathy." This line was quoted in the 1994 song "What's the Frequency, Kenneth?" by R.E.M., who also mentioned Oblique Strategies in their 1998 song "Diminished" off the album Up. Other musicians reportedly inspired by Oblique Strategies include the British band Coldplay, said to have used the cards when recording their 2008 Brian Eno-produced album Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends, and French band Phoenix, who claimed to have used the cards when recording their 2009 album Wolfgang Amadeus Phoenix.[2] German musician/composer Blixa Bargeld has a similar navigation system, called Dave. In response to their song "Brian Eno", off their album Congratulations, MGMT has said they had a deck of Oblique Strategies in the studio, but they "don't know if [they] used them correctly."

References
[1] http:/ / www. peterschmidtweb. com/ thoughtsbehind. html [2] http:/ / earfarm. com/ band-of-the-week/ 3020

External links
The Oblique Strategies (http://www.rtqe.net/ObliqueStrategies/) PeterSchmidtWeb (http://www.PeterSchmidtWeb.com/) The Peter Schmidt web site. Random Oblique Strategies (http://www.joshharrison.net/oblique-strategies/) Gives you a random Oblique Strategy selected from editions 15. Random Strategies (http://tools.blackhat-seo.com/strategies/) A script that displays a random phrase from an Oblique Strategies deck. Brian Eno with Jarvis Cocker (http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/jarviscocker/2010/11/ jarvis-talks-to-brian-eno-abou.shtml) - Eno explains Oblique Strategies on Jarvis Cocker's BBC6 Radio show, Nov. 08, 2010.

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Po (lateral thinking)
A "po" is an idea which moves thinking forward to a new place from where new ideas or solutions may be found. The term was created by Edward de Bono as part of a lateral thinking technique to suggest forward movement, that is, making a statement and seeing where it leads to. It is an extraction from words such as hypothesis, suppose, possible and poetry, all of which indicate forward movement and contain the syllable "po." Po can be taken to refer to any of the following: provoking operation, provocative operation or provocation operation. Also, in ancient Polynesian and the Maori, the word "po" refers to the original chaotic state of formlessness, from which evolution occurred. Edward de Bono argues that this context as well applies to the term. For example, Sales are dropping off because our product is perceived as old fashioned. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. po: Change the colour of the packaging po: Flood the market with even older-looking products to make it seem more appealing po: Call it retro po: Sell it to old people po: Sell it to young people as a gift for old people po: Open a museum dedicated to it

7. po: Market it as a new product Some of the above ideas may be impractical, not sensible, not business-minded, not politically correct, or just plain daft. The value of these ideas is that they move thinking from a place where it is entrenched to a place where it can move. The above ideas might develop into... 1. po: Change the colour of the packaging update the product casing to bring it up to date (electronic goods can often do this) 2. po: Flood the market with even older-looking products to make it seem more appealing take a cut down version and release it as an older cheaper one to make this product seem like the top of the line 3. po: Call it retro instead of retro say "tried and tested" or "industry standard" 4. po: Sell it to old people good idea 5. po: Sell it to young people as a gift for old people good idea 6. po: Open a museum dedicated to it exhibit only your competitor's products sell this product in the museum make the experience educational within your sector open a caf accept group bookings add a theme park 7. po: Market it as a new product give it a new name and call it state of the art The point of these examples is that an initial po may seem silly, but a further development may seem very good indeed. The intermediate silly idea is a necessary step to find the good idea. If silly ideas are not allowed to form, the subsequent good idea will be undiscovered. Po allows silly ideas to form so that good ones can follow.

Po (lateral thinking)

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References
Edward de Bono. The Mechanism of Mind (1969). ISBN 0224617095, introduced the term po in chapter 34, The New Functional Word Edward de Bono. Po: A Device for Successful Thinking (1972). ISBN 0-671-21338-5 Edward de Bono. Po: Beyond Yes and No (1973). ISBN 0-14-021715-0 Edward de Bono. Serious Creativity (1992). ISBN 0-00-255143-8

Serendipity
Serendipity denotes the property of making fortunate discoveries while looking for something unrelated, or the occurrence of such a discovery during such a search. The word has been voted as one of the ten English words that were hardest to translate in June 2004 by a British translation company.[1] However, due to its sociological use, the word has been exported into many other languages.[2]

Etymology
The first noted use of this word was by Horace Walpole (17171792). In a letter to Horace Mann (dated January 28th 1754) he said he formed it from the Persian fairy tale The Three Princes of Serendip, whose heroes "were always making discoveries, by accidents and sagacity, of things they were not in quest of". The name stems either from Serendip, an old name for Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), or from Arabic Sarandib, or from Sanskrit Simhaladvipa which literally translates to "Dwelling-Place-of-Lions Island".[3]

Role in science and technology

The intended subject of the photograph was a perched Black-crowned Night Heron; the photographer discovered later that the image serendipitously included a Pileated Woodpecker.

One aspect of Walpole's original definition of serendipity that is often missed in modern discussions of the word is the "sagacity" of being able to link together apparently innocuous facts to come to a valuable conclusion. Thus, while some scientists and inventors are reluctant about reporting accidental discoveries, others openly admit its role; in fact serendipity is a major component of scientific discoveries and inventions. According to M. K. Stoskopf[4] "it should be recognized that serendipitous discoveries are of significant value in the advancement of science and often present the foundation for important intellectual leaps of understanding". The amount of benefit contributed by serendipitous discoveries varies extensively among the several scientific disciplines. Pharmacology and chemistry are probably the fields where serendipity is more common. Most authors who have studied scientific serendipity both in a historical, as well as in an epistemological point of view, agree that a prepared and open mind is required on the part of the scientist or inventor to detect the importance of information revealed accidentally. This is the reason why most of the related accidental discoveries occur in the field of specialization of the scientist. About this, Albert Hofmann, the Swiss chemist who discovered LSD properties by unintentionally ingesting it at his lab, wrote It is true that my discovery of LSD was a chance discovery, but it was the outcome of planned experiments and these experiments took place in the framework of systematic pharmaceutical, chemical research. It could better be described as serendipity. Another example of Serendipity in science is associated with Alexander Fleming and his discovery of penicillin against the serious diseases at the time. He accidentally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria open and a mould

Serendipity had got inside which had appeared to have killed around the mould. It turned out that it was the fungus Penicillium and he turned the fungus into a groundbreaking anti-biotic. The French scientist Louis Pasteur also famously said: "In the fields of observation chance favors only the prepared mind."[5] This is often rendered as "Chance favors the prepared mind." William Shakespeare expressed the same sentiment 250 years earlier in act 4 of his play Henry V: "All things are ready if our minds be so." History, of course, does not record accidental exposures of information which could have resulted in a new discovery, and we are justified in suspecting that they are many. There are several examples of this, however, and prejudice of preformed concepts is probably the largest obstacle. See for example[6] for a case where this happened (the rejection of an accidental discovery in the field of self-stimulation of the limbic system in humans).

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Role in business and strategy

M. E. Graebner describes serendipitous value in the context of the acquisition of a business as "windfalls that were not anticipated by the buyer prior to the deal": i.e., unexpected advantages or benefits incurred due to positive synergy effects of the merger. Ikujiro Nonaka (1991,p.94 NovemberDecember issue of HBR) points out that the serendipitous quality of innovation is highly recognized by managers and links the success of Japanese enterprises to their ability to create knowledge not by processing information but rather by "tapping the tacit and often highly subjective insights, intuitions, and hunches of individual employees and making those insights available for testing and use by the company as a whole". Serendipity is a key concept in Competitive Intelligence because it is one of the tools for avoiding Blind Spots (see Blindspots analysis)[7]

Examples in science and technology

Chemistry
The German chemist Friedrich August Kekul von Stradonitz having a reverie of Ourobouros, a snake forming a circle, leading to his solution of the closed chemical structure of cyclic compounds, such as benzene. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (or LSD) by Albert Hofmann, who found this potent hallucinogen while trying to find medically useful derivatives in ergot, a fungus growing on wheat. Gelignite by Alfred Nobel, when he accidentally mixed collodium (gun cotton) with nitroglycerin Polymethylene by Hans von Pechmann, who prepared it by accident in 1898 while heating diazomethane Low density polyethylene by Eric Fawcett and Reginald Gibson at the ICI works in Northwich, England. It was the first industrially practical polyethylene synthesis and was discovered (again by accident) in 1933 Silly Putty by James Wright, on the way to solving another problem: finding a rubber substitute for the United States during World War II. Chemical synthesis of urea, by Friedrich Woehler. He was attempting to produce ammonium cyanate by mixing potassium cyanate and ammonium chloride and got urea, the first organic chemical to be synthesised, often called the 'Last Nail' of the coffin of the lan vital Theory Pittacal, the first synthetic dyestuff, by Carl Ludwig Reichenbach. The dark blue dye appeared on wooden posts painted with creosote to drive away dogs who urinated on them. Mauve, the first aniline dye, by William Henry Perkin. At the age of 18, he was attempting to create artificial quinine. An unexpected residue caught his eye, which turned out to be the first aniline dyespecifically, mauveine, sometimes called aniline purple. Racemization, by Louis Pasteur. While investigating the properties of sodium ammonium tartrate he was able to separate for the first time the two optical isomers of the salt. His luck was twofold: it is the only racemate salt to have this property, and the room temperature that day was slightly below the point of separation.

Serendipity Teflon, by Roy J. Plunkett, who was trying to develop a new gas for refrigeration and got a slick substance instead, which was used first for lubrication of machine parts Cyanoacrylate-based Superglue (a.k.a. Krazy Glue) was accidentally twice discovered by Dr. Harry Coover, first when he was developing a clear plastic for gunsights and later, when he was trying to develop a heat-resistant polymer for jet canopies. Scotchgard, is a 3M brand of products used to protect fabric, furniture, and carpets from stains, was discovered accidentally in 1953 by Patsy Sherman. One of the compounds she was investigating as a rubber material that wouldn't deteriorate when in contact with aircraft fuel spilled onto a tennis shoe and would not wash out; she then considered the spill as a protectant against spills. Cellophane, a thin, transparent sheet made of regenerated cellulose, was developed in 1908 by Swiss chemist Jacques Brandenberger, as a material for covering stain-proof tablecloth. The chemical element helium. British chemist William Ramsay isolated helium while looking for argon but, after separating nitrogen and oxygen from the gas liberated by sulfuric acid, noticed a bright-yellow spectral line that matched the D3 line observed in the spectrum of the Sun. The chemical element Iodine was discovered by Bernard Courtois in 1811, when he was trying to remove residues with strong acid from the bottom of his saltpeter production plant which used seaweed ashes as a prime material. Polycarbonates, a kind of clear hard plastic The synthetic polymer celluloid was discovered by British chemist and metallurgist Alexander Parkes in 1856, after observing that a solid residue remained after evaporation of the solvent from photographic collodion. Celluloid can be described as the first plastic used for making solid objects (the first ones being billiard balls, substituting for expensive ivory). Rayon, the first synthetic silk, was discovered by French chemist Hilaire de Chardonnet, an assistant to Louis Pasteur. He spilled a bottle of collodion and found later that he could draw thin strands from the evaporated viscous liquid. The possibility of synthesizing indigo, a natural dye extracted from a plant with the same name, was discovered by a chemist named Sapper who was heating coal tar when he accidentally broke a thermometer whose mercury content acted as a catalyst to produce phthalic anhydride, which could readily be converted into indigo. The dye monastral blue was discovered in 1928 in Scotland, when chemist A. G. Dandridge heated a mixture of chemicals at high temperature in a sealed iron container. The iron of the container reacted with the mixture, producing some pigments called phthalocyanines. By substituting copper for iron he produced an even better pigment called 'monastral blue', which became the basis for many new coloring materials for paints, lacquers and printing inks. Acesulfame, an artificial sweetener, was discovered accidentally in 1967 by Karl Claus at Hoechst AG. Another sweetener, cyclamate, was discovered by graduate student Michael Sveda, when he smoked a cigarette accidentally contaminated with a compound he had recently synthesized. Aspartame (NutraSweet) was accidentally discovered by G.D. Searle & Company chemist James M. Schlatter, who was trying to develop a test for an anti-ulcer drug. Saccharin was accidentally discovered during research on coal tar derivatives. Saran (plastic) was discovered when Ralph Wiley had trouble washing beakers used in development of a dry cleaning product. It was soon used to make plastic wrap. A new blue pigment with almost perfect properties was discovered accidentally by scientists at Oregon State University after heating manganese oxide.[8]

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Serendipity

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Pharmacology
Penicillin by Alexander Fleming. He failed to disinfect cultures of bacteria when leaving for his vacations, only to find them contaminated with Penicillium molds, which killed the bacteria. However, he had previously done extensive research into antibacterial substances. The psychedelic effects of LSD by Albert Hofmann. A chemist, he unintentionally absorbed a small amount of it upon investigating its properties, and had the first acid trip in history, while cycling to his home in Switzerland; this is commemorated among LSD users annually as Bicycle Day. 5-fluorouracil's therapeutic action on actinic keratosis, was initially investigated for its anti-cancer actions Minoxidil's action on baldness; originally it was an oral agent for treating hypertension. It was observed that bald patients treated with it grew hair too. Viagra (sildenafil citrate), an anti-impotence drug. It was initially studied for use in hypertension and angina pectoris. Phase I clinical trials under the direction of Ian Osterloh suggested that the drug had little effect on angina, but that it could induce marked penile erections. Retin-A anti-wrinkle action. It was a vitamin A derivative first used for treating acne. The accidental result in some older people was a reduction of wrinkles on the face The libido-enhancing effect of l-dopa, a drug used for treating Parkinson's disease. Older patients in a sanatorium had their long-lost interest in sex suddenly revived. The first anti-psychotic drug, chlorpromazine, was discovered by French pharmacologist Henri Laborit. He wanted to add an anti-histaminic to a pharmacological combination to prevent surgical shock and noticed that patients treated with it were unusually calm before the operation. The anti-cancer drug cisplatin was discovered by Barnett Rosenberg. He wanted to explore what he thought was an inhibitory effect of an electric field on the growth of bacteria. It was rather due to an electrolysis product of the platinum electrode he was using. The anesthetic nitrous oxide (laughing gas). Initially well known for inducing altered behavior (hilarity), its properties were discovered when British chemist Humphry Davy tested the gas on himself and some of his friends, and soon realised that nitrous oxide considerably dulled the sensation of pain, even if the inhaler was still semi-conscious. Mustine a derivative of mustard gas (a chemical weapon), used for the treatment of some forms of cancer. In 1943, physicians noted that the white cell counts of US soldiers, accidentally exposed when a cache of mustard gas shells were bombed in Bari, Italy, decreased, and mustard gas was investigated as a therapy for Hodgkin's lymphoma. Prontosil, an antibiotic of the sulfa group was an azo dye. German chemists at Bayer had the wrong idea that selective chemical stains of bacteria would show specific antibacterial activity. Prontosil had it, but in fact it was due to another substance metabolised from it in the body, sulfanilimide.

Medicine and biology

Bioelectricity, by Luigi Galvani. He was dissecting a frog at a table where he had been conducting experiments with static electricity. His assistant touched an exposed sciatic nerve of the frog with a metal scalpel which had picked up a charge, provoking a muscle contraction. Neural control of blood vessels, by Claude Bernard Anaphylaxis, by Charles Richet. When he tried to reuse dogs that had previously shown allergic reactions to sea anemone toxin, the reactions developed much faster and were more severe the second time. The role of the pancreas in glucose metabolism, by Oskar Minkowski. Dogs that had their pancreas removed for an unrelated physiological investigation urinated profusely; the urine also attracted flies, signaling its high glucose content. Coronary catheterization was discovered as a method when a cardiologist at the Cleveland Clinic accidentally injected radiocontrast into the coronary artery instead of the left ventricle.

Serendipity The mydriatic effects of belladonna extracts, by Friedrich Ferdinand Runge Interferon, an antiviral factor, was discovered accidentally by two Japanese virologists, Yasu-ichi Nagano and Yasuhiko Kojima while trying to develop an improved vaccine for smallpox. The hormone melatonin was discovered in 1917 when it was shown that extract of bovine pineal glands lightened frog skin. In 1958 its chemical structure was defined by Aaron B. Lerner and in the mid-70s it was demonstrated that also in humans the production of melatonin exhibits and influences a circadian rhythm.

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Physics and astronomy

The quite possibly apocryphal story of Archimedes' prototypical cry of Eureka when he realised in the bathtub that a body's displacement water allowed him to measure the weight-to-volume ratio of any irregularly shaped body, such as a gold crown. Isaac Newton's famed apple falling from a tree, supposedly leading to his musings about the nature of gravitation. Discovery of the planet Uranus by William Herschel. Herschel was looking for comets, and initially identified Uranus as a comet until he noticed the circularity of its orbit and its distance and suggested that it was a planet, the first one discovered since antiquity. Infrared radiation, again by William Herschel, while investigating the temperature differences between different colors of visible light by dispersing sunlight into a spectrum using a glass prism. He put thermometers into the different visible colors where he expected a temperature increase, and one as a control to measure the ambient temperature in the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum. The thermometer beyond the red unexpectedly showed a higher temperature than the others, showing that there was non-visible radiation beyond the red end of the visible spectrum. The thermoelectric effect was discovered accidentally by Estonian physicist Thomas Seebeck in 1821, who found that a voltage developed between the two ends of a metal bar when it was submitted to a difference of temperature. Electromagnetism, by Hans Christian rsted. While he was setting up his materials for a lecture, he noticed a compass needle deflecting from magnetic north when the electric current from the battery he was using was switched on and off. Radioactivity, by Henri Becquerel. While trying to investigate phosphorescent materials using photographic plates, he stumbled upon uranium. X rays, by Wilhelm Roentgen. Interested in investigating cathodic ray tubes, he noted that some fluorescent papers in his lab were illuminated at a distance although his apparatus had an opaque cover S. N. Bose discovered Bose-Einstein statistics when a mathematical error surprisingly explained anomalous data. The first demonstration of waveparticle duality during the DavissonGermer experiment at Bell Labs after a leak in the vacuum system and attempts to recover from it unknowingly altered the crystal structure of the nickel target and led to the accidental experimental confirmation of the de Broglie hypothesis. Davisson went on to share the 1937 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery. Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation, by Arno A. Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson. What they thought was excess thermal noise in their antenna at Bell Labs was due to the CMBR. Cosmic gamma-ray bursts were discovered in the late 1960s by the US Vela satellites, which were built to detect nuclear tests in the Soviet Union The rings of Uranus were discovered by astronomers James L. Elliot, Edward W. Dunham, and Douglas J. Mink on March 10, 1977. They planned to use the occultation of the star SAO 158687 by Uranus to study the planet's atmosphere, but found that the star disappeared briefly from view five times both before and after it was eclipsed by the planet. They deduced that a system of narrow rings was present.[9] Pluto's moon Charon was discovered by US astronomer James Christy in 1978. He was going to discard what he thought was a defective photographic plate of Pluto, when his Star Scan machine broke down. While it was being repaired he had time to study the plate again and discovered others in the archives with the same "defect" (a bulge

Serendipity in the planet's image which was actually a large moon). High-temperature superconductivity was discovered serendipitously by physicists Johannes Georg Bednorz and Karl Alexander Mller, ironically when they were searching for a material that would be a perfect electrical insulator (nonconducting). They won the 1987 Nobel Prize in Physics. Metallic hydrogen was found accidentally in March 1996 by a group of scientists at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, after a 60-year search. A new method to create black silicon was developed in the lab of Eric Mazur.

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Inventions
Discovery of the principle behind inkjet printers by a Canon engineer. After putting his hot soldering iron by accident on his pen, ink was ejected from the pen's point a few moments later. Vulcanization of rubber, by Charles Goodyear. He accidentally left a piece of rubber mixture with sulfur on a hot plate, and produced vulcanized rubber Safety glass, by French scientist Edouard Benedictus. In 1903 he accidentally knocked a glass flask to the floor and observed that the broken pieces were held together by a liquid plastic that had evaporated and formed a thin film inside the flask. Corn flakes and wheat flakes (Wheaties) were accidentally discovered by the Kelloggs brothers in 1898, when they left cooked wheat unattended for a day and tried to roll the mass, obtaining a flaky material instead of a sheet. The microwave oven was invented by Percy Spencer while testing a magnetron for radar sets at Raytheon, he noticed that a peanut candy bar in his pocket had melted when exposed to radar waves. Pyroceram (used to make Corningware, among other things) was invented by S. Donald Stookey, a chemist working for the Corning company, who noticed crystallization in an improperly cooled batch of tinted glass. The Slinky was invented by US Navy engineer Richard T. James after he accidentally knocked a torsion spring off his work table and observed its unique motion. Arthur Fry happened to attend a 3M college's seminar on a new "low-tack" adhesive and, wanting to anchor his bookmarks in his hymnal at church, went on to invent Post-It Notes. Chocolate chip cookies were invented by Ruth Wakefield when she attempted to make chocolate drop cookies. She did not have the required chocolate so she broke up a candy bar and placed the chunks into the cookie mix. These chunks later morphed into what is now known as chocolate chip cookies.

Examples in exploration
Stories of accidental discovery in exploration abound, of course, The chocolate chip cookie was invented through serendipity. because the aim of exploration is to find new things and places. The principle of serendipity applies here, however, when the explorer had one aim in mind and found another unexpectedly. In addition, discoveries have been made by people simply attempting to reach a known destination but who departed from the customary or intended route for a variety of reasons. Some classical cases were discoveries of the Americas by explorers with other aims. The first European to see the coast of North America was reputedly Bjarni Herjlfsson, who was blown off course by a storm in 985 or 986 while trying to reach Greenland. Christopher Columbus was looking for a new way to India in 1492 and wound up landing in the Americas. Native Americans were therefore called Indians. Although the first European to see and step on South America was Christopher Columbus in Northeast Venezuela in 1498, Brazil was also discovered by accident, first by Spaniard Vicente Pinzon in 1499, who was only trying to

Serendipity explore the West Indies previously discovered by him and Columbus, and stumbled upon the Northeast of Brazil, in the region now known as Cabo de Santo Agostinho, in the state of Pernambuco. He also discovered the Amazon and Oiapoque rivers. Pedro lvares Cabral, a Portuguese admiral, who was sailing with his fleet to India via the South African route discovered by Vasco da Gama, headed southwest to avoid the calms off the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, and so encountered the coast of Brazil in 1500.

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Uses of serendipity
Serendipity is used as a sociological method in Anselm L. Strauss' and Barney G. Glaser's Grounded Theory, building on ideas by sociologist Robert K. Merton, who in Social Theory and Social Structure (1949) referred to the "serendipity pattern" as the fairly common experience of observing an unanticipated, anomalous and strategic datum which becomes the occasion for developing a new theory or for extending an existing theory. Robert K. Merton also coauthored (with Elinor Barber) The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity[10] which traces the origins and uses of the word "serendipity" since it was coined. The book is "a study in sociological semantics and the sociology of science", as the subtitle of the book declares. It further develops the idea of serendipity as scientific "method" (as juxtaposed with purposeful discovery by experiment or retrospective prophecy).

Related terms
William Boyd coined the term zemblanity to mean somewhat the opposite of serendipity: "making unhappy, unlucky and expected discoveries occurring by design".[11] It derives from Novaya Zemlya (or Nova Zembla), a cold, barren land with many features opposite to the lush Sri Lanka (Serendip). On this island Willem Barents and his crew were stranded while searching for a new route to the east. Bahramdipity is derived directly from Bahram Gur as characterized in the "The Three Princes of Serendip". It describes the suppression of serendipitous discoveries or research results by powerful individuals.[12]

Notes
[1] "Words hardest to translate The list by Today Translations." (http:/ / www. experiencefestival. com/ a/ Words_hardest_to_translate_-_The_list_by_Today_Translations/ id/ 5596801). Global Oneness. 21 April 2009. . [2] For example: Portuguese serendipicidade or serendipidade; French srendipicit or srendipit but also heureux hasard, "fortunate chance"; Italian serendipit ( Italian Dictionary Hoepli, cfr. (http:/ / dizionari. hoepli. it/ Dizionario_Italiano/ parola/ serendipita. aspx?idD=1& Query=serendipit& lettera=S); Dutch serendipiteit; German Serendipitt; Japanese serendipiti (); Swedish, Danish and Norwegian serendipitet; Romanian serendipitate; Spanish serendipia, Polish: Serendypno; Finnish serendipiteetti [3] "Serendipity" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=serendipity& searchmode=none). Etymonline.com. . Retrieved 1 November 2010. Also in Hungarian, one of the oldest written language in the World, the word "szerncse" (srnch) menas luck. [4] Stosskopf, M. K. "Observation and cogitation: how serendipity provides the building blocks of scientific discovery" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ entrez/ query. fcgi?db=pubmed& cmd=Retrieve& dopt=AbstractPlus& list_uids=16179740& query_hl=2& itool=pubmed_DocSum). American College of Zoological Medicine, Wildlife and Aquatic Medicine and Environmental and Molecular Toxicology. . Retrieved 1 November 2010. [5] Original French, as at Louis Pasteur: Dans les champs de l'observation le hasard ne favorise que les esprits prpars. [6] Baumeister, A.A. "Serendipity and the cerebral localization of pleasure" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ entrez/ query. fcgi?db=pubmed& cmd=Retrieve& dopt=AbstractPlus& list_uids=16608738& query_hl=4& itool=pubmed_docsum). Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University. . Retrieved 1 November 2010. [7] Serendipity in Competitive Intelligence by [[Yves-Michel Marti (http:/ / www. egideria. com/ serendip. html)], Egideria] [8] "Accidental Discovery Produces Durable New Blue Pigment for Multiple Applications" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 11/ 091116143621. htm). Sciencedaily.com. 2009-11-19. . Retrieved 2010-05-31. [9] Elliot, J.L.; Dunham, E. and Mink, D. (1977). "The rings of Uranus" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v267/ n5609/ abs/ 267328a0. html). Nature 267: 328330. doi:10.1038/267328a0. . [10] Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003 [11] Boyd, William. Armadillo, Chapter 12, Knopf, New York, 1998. ISBN 0-375-40223-3

Serendipity
[12] (a) Sommer, Toby J. "'Bahramdipity' and Scientific Research", The Scientist, 1999, 13(3), 13. (http:/ / www. the-scientist. com/ yr1999/ feb/ opin_990201. html) (b) Sommer, Toby J. "Bahramdipity and Nulltiple Scientific Discoveries," Science and Engineering Ethicss, 2001, 7(1), 77104. (http:/ / www. uow. edu. au/ arts/ sts/ bmartin/ dissent/ documents/ Sommer. pdf)

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References
"The view from Serendip", by Arthur C. Clarke, Random House, 1977. "Momentum and Serendipity: how acquired leaders create value in the integration of technology firms", by Melissa E. Graebner, McCombs School of Business, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, U.S.A. 2004.

Further reading
Remer, Theodore G., ed (1965). Serendipity and the Three Princes, from the Peregrinaggio of 1557. Edited, with an Introduction and Notes, by Theodore G. Remer. Preface by W. S. Lewis. University of Oklahoma Press. LCC 65-10112 Merton, Robert K.; Barber, Elinor (2004). The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity: A Study in Sociological Semantics and the Sociology of Science. Princeton University Press. ISBN0691117543. (Manuscript written 1958). Hannan, Patrick J. (2006). Serendipity, Luck and Wisdom in Research. iUniverse. ISBN0595365515. Roberts, Royston M. (1989). Serendipity: Accidental Discoveries in Science. Wiley. ISBN0471602035. Andel, Pek Van (1994). "Anatomy of the unsought finding : serendipity: origin, history, domains, traditions, appearances, patterns and programmability". British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 45 (2): 631648. doi:10.1093/bjps/45.2.631.

External links
Polymers & Serendipity: Case Studies (http://www.thebakken.org/education/SciMathMN/ polymers-serendipity/polymer1.htm) rayon, nylon, and more examples in chemistry Incredible Story of Serendipity, Karma, Destiny (http://www.sethchernoff.com/spirituality/ serendipity-karma-destiny-and-intention/) - example of serendipity Social Serendipity (http://reality.media.mit.edu/serendipity.php) MIT Media Lab project using mobile phones for social matchmaking The Three Princes of Serendip (http://livingheritage.org/three_princes.htm) one version of the story. Serendip (http://serendip.brynmawr.edu) a website continually evolving using the principles of serendipity Serendipity and the Internet (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/5018998.stm) from Bill Thompson at the BBC Accidental discoveries (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/cancer/discoveries.html). PBS Serendipity of Science (http://www.simonsingh.net/Serendipity.html) a BBC Radio 4 series by Simon Singh Top Ten: Accidental discoveries. Discovery Channel (http://web.archive.org/web/20071011073747/http:// exn.ca/stories/2004/04/19/51.asp) at the Wayback Machine (archived October 11, 2007). Accidental Genius Book (http://search.barnesandnoble.com/books/product.aspx?ean=9781435125575) anecdotes of serendipitous scientific discoveries. ACM Paper on Creating serendipitous encounters in a geographically distributed community (http://portal.acm. org/citation.cfm?id=1178745.1178756). Serendipitous Information Retrieval : An Academic Research Publication by Elaine G. Toms (http://www. ercim.org/publication/ws-proceedings/DelNoe01/3_Toms.pdf) Programming for Serendipity - AAAI Technical Report FS-02-01 (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers. cfm?abstract_id=1385402)

Serendipity The Serendipity Equations (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1380082) Psychology today's main article about serendipity (http://www.psychologytoday.com/magazine/archive/2010/ 05)

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Thinking outside the box

Thinking outside the box (sometimes erroneously called "thinking out of the box" or "thinking outside the square") is to think differently, unconventionally or from a new perspective. This phrase often refers to novel or creative thinking. This is sometimes called a process of lateral thought. The catchphrase, or clich, has become widely used in business environments, especially by management consultants and executive coaches, and has spawned a number of advertising slogans. To think outside the box is to look further and to try not thinking of the obvious things, but to try thinking beyond them.

Analogy
A simplified definition for paradigm is a habit of reasoning or a conceptual framework.

The "nine dots" puzzle. The goal of the puzzle is to link all 9 dots using four straight lines or less, without lifting the pen and without tracing the same line more than once. One solution appears below.

A simplified analogy is "the box" in the commonly used phrase "thinking outside the box". What is encompassed by the words "inside the box" is analogous with the current, and often unnoticed, assumptions about a situation. Creative thinking encompasses a process which acknowledges and rejects the accepted paradigm. In other words, We are taught to think inside the box. Then we are taught to think outside the box. What I want us to ask is, Who put the box there?[1]

Nine dots puzzle

The notion of something outside a perceived "box" is related to a traditional topographical puzzle called the nine dots puzzle.[2] The origins of the phrase "thinking outside the box" are obscure; but it was popularized in part because of a nine-dot puzzle, which John Adair claims to have introduced in 1969.[3] Management consultant Mike Vance has claimed that the use of the nine-dot puzzle in consultancy circles stems from the corporate culture of the Walt Disney Company, where the puzzle was used in-house.[4] The puzzle proposed an intellectual challengeto connect the dots by drawing four straight, continuous lines that pass through each of the nine dots, and never lifting the pencil from the paper. The conundrum One of many solutions to the puzzle at the is easily resolved, but only if you draw the lines outside the confines of beginning of this article is to go beyond the the square area defined by the nine dots themselves. The phrase boundaries to link all dots in 4 straight lines. "thinking outside the box" is a restatement of the solution strategy. The puzzle only seems difficult because we imagine a boundary around the edge of the dot array.[5] The heart of the matter is the unspecified barrier which is typically perceived.

Thinking outside the box

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The nine dots puzzle is much older than the slogan. It appears in Sam Loyd's 1914 Cyclopedia of Puzzles.[6] In the 1951 compilation The Puzzle-Mine: Puzzles Collected from the Works of the Late Henry Ernest Dudeney, the puzzle is attributed to Dudeney himself.[7] Sam Loyd's original formulation of the puzzle[8] entitled it as "Christopher Columbus's egg puzzle." This was an allusion to the story of Egg of Columbus.

Metaphor
This flexible English phrase is a rhetorical trope with a range of variant applications.

Christopher Columbus's Egg Puzzle as it appeared in Sam Loyd's Cyclopedia of Puzzles.

"The metaphorical "box" in the phrase "outside the box" may be married with something real and measurable for example, perceived budgetary[9] or organizational[10] constraints in a Hollywood development project. Speculating beyond its restrictive confines the box can be both: (a) positive fostering creative leaps as in generating wild ideas (the conventional use of the term);[9] and (b) negative penetrating through to the "bottom of the box." This could result in a frank and insightful re-appraisal of a situation, oneself, the organization, etc.[11] On the other hand, the process of thinking "inside the box" need not be construed in a pejorative sense. It is crucial for accurately parsing and executing a variety of tasks making decisions, analyzing data, and managing the progress of standard operating procedures, etc.[11] Hollywood screenwriter Ira Steven Behr appropriated this concept to inform plot and character in the context of a television series. Behr imagined a core character: He is going to be "thinking outside the box,", you know, and usually when we use that cliche, we think outside the box means a new thought. So we can situate ourselves back in the box, but in a somewhat better position[10] The phrase can be used as a shorthand way to describe speculation about what happens next in a multi-stage design thinking process.[10]

Notes
[1] Langer, Ellen J. (2006). On becoming an artist: reinventing yourself through mindful creativity, p. 101. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=EAgwZl6bHmsC& pg=PA101) at Google Books [2] Kihn, Martin. "'Outside the Box': the Inside Story," (http:/ / www. fastcompany. com/ magazine/ 95/ debunk. html) FastCompany 1995; Random House: "Outside the Box Thinking" (http:/ / www. randomhouse. com/ wotd/ index. pperl?date=20000204). [3] The Art of Creative Thinking: How to Be Innovative and Develop Great Ideas [4] Biography of Mike Vance (http:/ / www. creativethinkingassoc. com/ mikevance. html) at Creative Thinking Association of America. [5] Daniel Kies, "English Composition 2: Assumptions: Puzzle of the Nine Dots" (http:/ / papyr. com/ hypertextbooks/ comp2/ 9dots. htm), retr. Jun. 28, 2009. [6] Sam Loyd, Cyclopedia of Puzzles. (The Lamb Publishing Company, 1914) [7] J. Travers, The Puzzle-Mine: Puzzles Collected from the Works of the Late Henry Ernest Dudeney. (Thos. Nelson, 1951) [8] Facsimile from Cyclopedia of Puzzles - Columbus's Egg Puzzle is on right-hand page (http:/ / www. mathpuzzle. com/ loyd/ cop300-301. html) [9] Lupick, Travis. "Clone Wars proved a galactic task for production team." (http:/ / www. straight. com/ article-158377/ clone-wars-galactic-task) The Georgia Straight, August 21, 2008; "... budgetary constraints forced the production team to think outside the box in a positive way. [10] TCA Tour You Asked For It: Ira Steven Behrs opening remarks (http:/ / www. premiumhollywood. com/ 2009/ 08/ 03/ tca-tour-you-asked-for-it-ira-steven-behrs-opening-remarks) [11] Bandrowski, James F. et al. (2009). Discover Your Inner Strength, p. __.

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References
Bandrowski, James F.; Stephen R. Covey and Ken Blanchard. (2009). Discover Your Inner Strength. Sevierville, Tennessee: Insight Publishing. 10-ISBN 9781600132971/13-ISBN 1600132979; OCLC 320196099 (http:// www.worldcat.org/title/discover-your-inner-strength/oclc/320196099)

Further reading
J. L. Adams (1979). Conceptual blockbusting: A guide to better ideas. New York: W. W. Norton ISBN 9780201100891; ISBN 0201100894 (more solutions to the nine dots problem - with less than 4 lines!) M. Scheerer (1972). Problem-solving. Scientific American, 208(4), 118-128

External links
Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (OALD), Word of the Month: Think outside the box (http://www.oup. com/elt/catalogue/teachersites/oald7/wotm/wotm_archive/think_out_of_box?cc=global) 9 Dots Problem Puzzle (http://sandbox.paulopoiati.com/9dotsproblem/)

Inductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning, also known as induction or inductive logic, or educated guess in colloquial English, is a kind of reasoning that constructs or evaluates inductive arguments. The premises of an inductive logical argument indicate some degree of support (inductive probability) for the conclusion but do not entail it; that is, they suggest truth but do not ensure it. Induction is employed, for example, in the following argument: Every life form we know of depends on liquid water to exist. All life depends on liquid water to exist. Inductive reasoning allows for the possibility that the conclusion is false, even where all of the premises are true.[1] For example: All of the swans we have seen are white. All swans are white. Note that this definition of inductive reasoning excludes mathematical induction, which is considered to be a form of deductive reasoning. Though many dictionaries define inductive reasoning as reasoning that derives general principles from specific observations, this usage is outdated.[2]

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Strong and weak induction

The words 'strong' and 'weak' are sometimes used to praise or demean the goodness of an inductive argument. The idea is that you say "this is an example of strong induction" when you would decide to believe the conclusion if presented with the premises. Alternatively, you say "that is weak induction" when your particular world view does not allow you to see that the conclusions are likely given the premises.

Strong induction
The equation, "the gravitational force between two objects equals the gravitational constant times the product of the masses divided by the distance between them squared," has allowed us to describe the rate of fall of all objects we have observed. Therefore: The gravitational force between two objects equals the gravitational constant times the product of the masses divided by the distance between them squared. The conclusion of this argument is not absolutely certain, even given the premise. At speeds we normally experience, Newtonian mechanics holds quite well. But at speeds approaching that of light, the Newtonian system is not accurate and the conclusion in that case would be false. However, since, in most cases that we experience, the premise as stated would usually lead to the conclusion given, we are logical in calling this argument an instance of strong induction.

Weak induction
Consider this example: I always hang pictures on nails. Therefore: All pictures hang from nails. Here, the link between the premise and the conclusion is very weak. Not only is it possible for the conclusion to be false given the premise, it is even fairly likely that the conclusion is false. Not all pictures are hung from nails; moreover, not all pictures are hung. Thus we say that this argument is an instance of weak induction.

Is induction reliable?
Inductive reasoning has been attacked for millennia by thinkers as diverse as Sextus Empiricus[3] and Karl Popper.[4] The classic philosophical treatment of the problem of induction was given by the Scottish philosopher David Hume. Hume highlighted the fact that our everyday functioning depends on drawing uncertain conclusions from our relatively limited experiences rather than on deductively valid arguments. For example, we believe that bread will nourish us because it has done so in the past, despite no guarantee that it will do so. However, Hume argued that it is impossible to justify inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning certainly cannot be justified deductively, and so our only option is to justify it inductively. However, to justify induction inductively is circular. Therefore, it is impossible to justify induction.[5] However, Hume immediately argued that even if induction were proved unreliable, we would have to rely on it. So he took a middle road. Rather than approach everything with severe skepticism, Hume advocated a practical skepticism based on common sense, where the inevitability of induction is accepted.[6]

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Bias
Inductive reasoning is also known as hypothesis construction because any conclusions made are based on educated predictions. There are three biases that could distort the proper application of induction, thereby preventing the reasoner from forming the best, most logical conclusion based on the clues. These biases include the availability bias, the confirmation bias, and the predictable-world bias. The availability bias causes the reasoner to depend primarily upon information that is readily available to him. People have a tendency to rely on information that is easily accessible in the world around them. For example, in surveys, when people are asked to estimate the percentage of people who died from various causes, most respondents would choose the causes that have been most prevalent in the media such as terrorism, and murders, and airplane accidents rather than causes such as disease and traffic accidents, which have been technically less accessible to the individual since they are not emphasized as heavily in the world around him/her. The confirmation bias is based on the natural tendency to confirm rather than to deny a current hypothesis. Research has demonstrated that people are inclined to seek solutions to problems that are more consistent with known hypotheses rather than attempt to refute those hypotheses. Often, in experiments, subjects will ask questions that seek answers that fit established hypotheses, thus confirming these hypotheses. For example, if it is hypothesized that Sally is a sociable individual, subjects will naturally seek to confirm the premise by asking questions that would produce answers confirming that Sally is in fact a sociable individual. The main reason that people exhibit this type of bias is because it is simply more pleasing to hear yes rather than no. Because of this, people will resort to the confirmation bias and will reason in ways that elicit agreement. Through evolution, the tendency to accept and stick with current hypotheses has often proven more advantageous than attempting to deny the current hypotheses. The predictable-world bias revolves around the inclination to perceive order where it has not been proved to exist. A major aspect of this bias is superstition, which is derived from the inability to acknowledge that coincidences are merely coincidences. Gambling, for example, is one of the most obvious forms of predictable-world bias. Gamblers often begin to think that they see patterns in the outcomes and, therefore, believe that they are able to predict outcomes based upon what they have witnessed. In reality, however, the outcomes of these games are always entirely random. There is no order. Since people constantly seek some type of order to explain human experiences, it is difficult for people to acknowledge that order may be nonexistent. [7]

Types of inductive reasoning

Generalization
A generalization (more accurately, an inductive generalization) proceeds from a premise about a sample to a conclusion about the population. The proportion Q of the sample has attribute A. Therefore: The proportion Q of the population has attribute A. Example There are 20 balls--either black or white--in an urn. To estimate their respective numbers, you draw a sample of four balls and find that three are black and one is white. A good inductive generalization would be thatthere are 15 black, and five white, balls in the urn. How much the premises support the conclusion depends upon (a) the number in the sample group compared to the number in the population and (b) the degree to which the sample represents the population (which may be achieved by taking a random sample). The hasty generalization and the biased sample are generalization fallacies.

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Statistical syllogism
A statistical syllogism proceeds from a generalization to a conclusion about an individual. A proportion Q of population P has attribute A. An individual X is a member of P. Therefore: There is a probability which corresponds to Q that X has A. The proportion in the first premise would be something like "3/5ths of", "all", "few", etc. Two dicto simpliciter fallacies can occur in statistical syllogisms: "accident" and "converse accident".

Simple induction
Simple induction proceeds from a premise about a sample group to a conclusion about another individual. Proportion Q of the known instances of population P has attribute A. Individual I is another member of P. Therefore: There is a probability corresponding to Q that I has A. This is a combination of a generalization and a statistical syllogism, where the conclusion of the generalization is also the first premise of the statistical syllogism. Argument from analogy Some philosophers believe that an argument from analogy is a kind of inductive reasoning. An argument from analogy has the following form: I has attributes A, B, and C J has attributes A and B So, J has attribute C An analogy relies on the inference that the attributes known to be shared (the similarities) imply that C is also a shared property. The support which the premises provide for the conclusion is dependent upon the relevance and number of the similarities between I and J. The fallacy related to this process is false analogy. As with other forms of inductive argument, even the best reasoning in an argument from analogy can only make the conclusion probable given the truth of the premises, not certain. Analogical reasoning is very frequent in common sense, science, philosophy and the humanities, but sometimes it is accepted only as an auxiliary method. A refined approach is case-based reasoning. For more information on inferences by analogy, see Juthe, 2005 [8].

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Causal inference
A causal inference draws a conclusion about a causal connection based on the conditions of the occurrence of an effect. Premises about the correlation of two things can indicate a causal relationship between them, but additional factors must be confirmed to establish the exact form of the causal relationship.

Prediction
A prediction draws a conclusion about a future individual from a past sample. Proportion Q of observed members of group G have had attribute A. Therefore: There is a probability corresponding to Q that other members of group G will have attribute A when next observed.

Bayesian inference
Of the candidate systems for an inductive logic, the most influential is Bayesianism. As a logic of induction rather than a theory of belief, Bayesianism does not determine which beliefs are a priori rational, but rather determines how we should rationally change the beliefs we have when presented with evidence. We begin by committing to a (really any) hypothesis, and when faced with evidence, we adjust the strength of our belief in that hypothesis in a precise manner using Bayesian logic.

Inductive inference
Around 1960, Ray Solomonoff founded the theory of universal inductive inference, the theory of prediction based on observations; for example, predicting the next symbol based upon a given series of symbols. This is a mathematically formalized Occam's razor. Fundamental ingredients of the theory are the concepts of algorithmic probability and Kolmogorov complexity.

Footnotes
[1] John Vickers. The Problem of Induction (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ induction-problem/ ). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

"Some dictionaries define deduction as reasoning from the general to specific and induction as reasoning from the specific to the general. While this usage is still sometimes found even in philosophical and mathematical contexts, for the most part, it is outdated. For example, according to the more modern definitions given above, the following argument, even though it reasons from the specific to general, is deductive, because the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion: The members of the Williams family are Susan, Nathan and Alexander. Susan wears glasses. Nathan wears glasses. Alexander wears glasses. Therefore, all members of the Williams family wear glasses. Moreover, the following argument, even though it reasons from the general to specific, is inductive: It has snowed in Massachusetts every December in recorded history. Therefore, it will snow in Massachusetts this coming December. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Deductive and Inductive Arguments, Deductive and Inductive Arguments (http://www.iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/)
[3] Sextus Empiricus, Outlines Of Pyrrhonism. Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p. 283. [4] Karl R. Popper, David W. Miller. "A proof of the impossibility of inductive probability." Nature 302 (1983), 687688. [5] Vickers, John. "The Problem of Induction" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ induction-problem/ #2HumIndJus) (Section 2). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 21 June 2010 [6] Vickers, John. "The Problem of Induction" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ induction-problem/ #IndJus) (Section 2.1). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 21 June 2010.

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[7] Gray, Peter. Psychology. New York: Worth, 2011. Print. [8] http:/ / www. cs. hut. fi/ Opinnot/ T-93. 850/ 2005/ Papers/ juthe2005-analogy. pdf

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References
Herms, D. "Logical Basis of Hypothesis Testing in Scientific Research" (http://www.dartmouth.edu/~bio125/ logic.Giere.pdf) (pdf). Kemerling, G (2001-10-27). "Causal Reasoning" (http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e14.htm). Holland, JH; Holyoak KJ; Nisbett RE; Thagard PR (1989). Induction: Processes of Inference, Learning, and Discovery. Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press. ISBN0262580969. Holyoak, K; Morrison R (2005). The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0521824170.

External links
Four Varieties of Inductive Argument (http://www.uncg.edu/phi/phi115/induc4.htm) from the Department of Philosophy, University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Inductive Logic (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/) from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Properties of Inductive Reasoning (http://faculty.ucmerced.edu/eheit/heit2000.pdf)PDF(166KiB), a psychological review by Evan Heit of the University of California, Merced. The Mind, Limber (http://dudespaper.com/the-mind-limber.html) An article which employs the film The Big Lebowski to explain the value of inductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning, also called deductive logic, is reasoning which constructs or evaluates deductive arguments. Deductive arguments are attempts to show that a conclusion necessarily follows from a set of premises or hypotheses. A deductive argument is valid if the conclusion does follow necessarily from the premises, i.e., if the conclusion must be true provided that the premises are true. A deductive argument is sound if it is valid and its premises are true. Deductive arguments are valid or invalid, sound or unsound, but are never false nor true. Deductive reasoning is a method of gaining knowledge. An example of a deductive argument: 1. All men are mortal 2. Socrates is a man 3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal The first premise states that all objects classified as 'men' have the attribute 'mortal'. The second premise states that 'Socrates' is classified as a man - a member of the set 'men'. The conclusion states that 'Socrates' must be mortal because he inherits this attribute from his classification as a man.

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Law of Detachment
The law of detachment is the first form of deductive reasoning. A single conditional statement is stated; then, a hypothesis (P) is stated. The conclusion (Q) is deduced from the hypothesis and the statement. The most basic form is listed below: 1. PQ 2. P (Hypothesis stated) 3. Q (Conclusion given) We can conclude Q from P by using the law of detachment from deductive reasoning.[1] However, if the conclusion (Q) is given instead of the hypothesis (P) then there is no valid conclusion. The following is an example of an argument using the law of detachment in the form of an If-then statement: 1. If mA>90, then A is an obtuse angle. 2. mA=120. 3. A is an obtuse angle. Since the measurement of angle A is greater than 90 degrees, we can deduce by that statement alone that A is an obtuse angle.

The Law of Syllogism

The law of syllogism takes two conditional statements and forms a conclusion by combining the hypothesis of one statement with the conclusion of another. The following is an example: 1. If Larry is sick, then he will be absent from school. 2. If Larry is absent, then he will miss his classwork. 3. If Larry is sick, then he will miss his classwork. We deduced the solution by combining the hypothesis of the first problem with the conclusion of the second statement.

Deductive logic
Deductive arguments are generally evaluated in terms of their validity and soundness. An argument is valid if it is impossible for its premises to be true while its conclusion is false. An argument can be valid even though the premises are false. An argument is sound if it is valid and the premises are true. The following is an example of an argument that is valid, but not sound; a premise is false, while the argument is valid: 1. Everyone who eats steak is a quarterback. 2. John eats steak. 3. Therefore, John is a quarterback. The example's first premise is false (there are people who eat steak that are not quarterbacks), but the conclusion must be true, so long as the premises are true (i.e. it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false). Therefore the argument is valid, but not sound. The theory of deductive reasoning known as categorical or term logic was developed by Aristotle, but was superseded by propositional (sentential) logic and predicate logic. Deductive reasoning can be contrasted with inductive reasoning. In cases of inductive reasoning, even though the premises are true and the argument is "valid", it is possible for the conclusion to be false (determined to be false with a counterexample or other means).

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Hume's skepticism
Philosopher David Hume presented grounds to doubt deduction by questioning induction. Hume's problem of induction starts by suggesting that the use of even the simplest forms of induction simply cannot be justified by inductive reasoning itself. Moreover, induction cannot be justified by deduction either. Therefore, induction cannot be justified rationally. Consequentially, if induction is not yet justified, then deduction seems to be left to rationally justify itself an objectionable conclusion to Hume. Hume did not provide a strictly rational solution per se. He simply explained that we cannot help but induce, but that it is lucky that we do so. Certainly we must appeal to first principles of some kind, including laws of thought.

References
[1] Guide to Logic (http:/ / www. jgsee. kmutt. ac. th/ exell/ Logic/ Logic12. htm#25)

Further reading
Vincent F. Hendricks, Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in Reflection and Expression, New York: Automatic Press / VIP, 2005, ISBN 87-991013-7-8 Philip Johnson-Laird, Ruth M. J. Byrne, Deduction, Psychology Press 1991, ISBN 9780863771491jiii Zarefsky, David, Argumentation: The Study of Effective Reasoning Parts I and II, The Teaching Company 2002

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Article Sources and Contributors

Research Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=414608957 Contributors: 16@r, 1exec1, 213.112.220.xxx, 2help, 62.2.17.xxx, A. Parrot, ABF, AS, AVand, Aaron Schulz, Abeg92, AbsolutDan, Acather96, Adam M. 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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=412437700 Contributors: 1234R6789, 7, Aaron Kauppi, AbsolutDan, Ad.shannon, Adi4094, Ahoerstemeier, Aleksandrit, Alvestrand, Ancheta Wis, Andrew Bronx, AndriuZ, Aumaan, Badly, Balster neb, Barbara Shack, Barek, Bart133, Bcjordan, Beast from the Bush, Bobblewik, Bssc, Bushytails, Chancehoney, Charles Matthews, Cirt, ClementSeveillac, Clippership, Conundrumer, Crooked, Cyraan, Czolgolz, DaGizza, Dabomb87, Damian Yerrick, Danelo, DannyStevens, Daveydweeb, David Gerard, Ddon, Dr. Lucifer, Dtobias, Faradayplank, Festinalente, Franis, Fred Bauder, Furrykef, Fxbx, Gerbrant, Gondwanabanana, Grstain, Heroeswithmetaphors, Hunterhogan, IdLoveOne, Ignitis, Inquisitus, Isaacdealey, Itsani07, J.delanoy, JackofOz, Jaschofield, Jedibob5, Jeff3000, Jjzanath, JohannesMarat, John254, Kaihsu, Kbdank71, Kerfuffle53, Kingnosis, KnowledgeHegemonyPart2, Kpjas, KramerNL, Kreb Dragonrider, Kwantada, Letranova, Light current, LuoShengli, Mac Davis, Marskell, Matt Crypto, 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Gurubrahma, JebJoya, Kimmo666, Lokicarbis, Peacemaker 2010, Propaniac, R'n'B, Rcawsey, Reinyday, Retodon8, UnitedStatesian, Wikisculptor, 1 anonymous edits Serendipity Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=415567062 Contributors: 6birc, Ac rainer, Acdx, Adam78, AdderUser, Aewold, AlainV, Alansohn, Alberrosidus, Amatulic, Anarchia, AndrewHowse, Anonymous Dissident, ArglebargleIV, ArkinAardvark, Art Carlson, Arthena, Atlan, Auntof6, AxelBoldt, B9 hummingbird hovering, B9findings, Bastin, Beland, Bender235, Bigmac31, Bishonen, Black Falcon, Blackknight12, Blacklemon67, Blahm, Blanchardb, BlueBeach, Bob9111, Bobber0001, Bonus Onus, Borgx, Bradley0110, Brendan Moody, Brendan19, Briantw, BrunoAssis, Bxmuchacho, CAN, Canuckguy, CapitalR, Carcharoth, Ceefour, Chairman S., ChicXulub, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Clarityfiend, Coemgenus, Connecto, Conversion script, Cootiequits, CroydThoth, Cupidvogel, Cyclopia, DS1953, Daibhid C, Dandelions, Darkonc, David Latapie, Deadstar, 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Thinking outside the box Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=413542164 Contributors: 7&6=thirteen, Airplaneman, Alansohn, Andypandy.UK, Appraiser, Arno Matthias, Banno, Barbara Shack, Barney Gumble, Bart133, Belasted, Brewcrewer, Cameronsstone, CardinalDan, Chris the speller, Conan, Crzrussian, Cupidvogel, Da monster under your bed, Dan.Ogden, Danski14, Dfh88k, Discospinster, Dposse, DreamGuy, Dyaimz, Eamcgrath1009, Emurphy42, Energyfreezer, Furrykef, Geh, Gondwanabanana, Graham87, Greensburger, GregorB, Hammerby, Hammerhead59, Igoldste, Ihcoyc, Independentdependent, Iridescent, Keith Lehwald, LOL, Lkingdon, Lova Falk, Mac Davis, Malleus Fatuorum, Marijnvdzaag, Marmelad, Mausy5043, Melsaran, Miquonranger03, Mistercow, Nirvana2013, Optikos, Overfien, Phoenixrod, PuppyOnTheRadio, Quiddity, RHaworth, RainbowOfLight, Ralphruyters, Rcawsey, RedAlgorithm, Rizuri, Ronz, Rory096, Sara USA, Sceptre, Scoutersig, Serpent's Choice, SharkD, Sherbrooke, Shuttlecockfc, SiobhanHansa, Sissak, SkonesMickLoud, Slavlin, Steve rlm, Stifle, Super-Magician, Tenmei, Terminator21, Theprocessengineer, Uncle G, Woohookitty, Wuffyz, XXstellalunaXx, Yanksox, 95 anonymous edits Inductive reasoning Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=415517061 Contributors: 24ip, A157247, A8UDI, Aaronbrick, Abdullais4u, Albertttt, Alfakim, Anarchangel, Ancheta Wis, Andeggs, Andrea.gf, Andres, Andy Marchbanks, Anthonzi, Antonielly, Archer3, Arno Matthias, AxelBoldt, Bagatelle, Banno, Bemoeial, Bo Jacoby, BoNoMoJo (old), Bob Burkhardt, Bobklahn, Bobo192, Bovlb, Bryan H Bell, CWY2190, CanonLawJunkie, Cathalwoods, Chris Pressey, ChrisKalt, Chrisdone, Cleon7177, Coffee2theorems, DAGwyn, Danny Reese, Davewho2, David Crawshaw, David Kernow, Dbmikus, Defeatedfear, Delbertpeach, Deleet, DennisDaniels, DesertSteve, Dionysiaca, Discospinster, Dmar198, DoctorStrangelove, Dresdnhope, Duke Ganote, ELApro, Earth, EdH, Edivorce, Ek65, El C, El aprendelenguas, Eric Schoettle, EricWesBrown, Evercat, Excirial, F-22 Raptored, Farquaadhnchmn, Farras Octara, Fastily, FieldOperative, Filemon, Flammifer, Fotomatt, Fram, Freestylefrappe, Fresheneesz, GManNickG, George Richard Leeming, Gfoley4, Giftlite, Gilliam, Go For It, Gogo Dodo, Grafen, Gregbard, Grjoni88, Grumpyyoungman01, Hanberke, Harmonicemundi, Hasek is the best, Hazzzzzz12, Heyitspeter, Holycharly, Hotfeba, Hq3473, Hyperbytev2, Indigenius, Infinity0, Iridescent, Istvan, Ivan Bajlo, Jackol, Jammycaketin, Jazzwick, Jfitzg, Jimmaths, Jon Awbrey, Jonrgrover, Jor344, Joshua P. Schroeder, Jtradke, Jusdafax, Jweiss11, K, KUSSOMAK, Kalexander, Katoa, Kazvorpal, Kbh3rd, Kenyon, Khromatikos, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Kikilamb, Kinema, King of Hearts, Klokie, Kzollman, LaggedOnUser, Latka, Leminh91, Letranova, Levineps, Linkboyz, Logical Cowboy, Lord Bane, Lucidish, Lukemcgrath, Luna Santin, Mark Klamberg, Matt Deres, Matthew Yeager, Mavit, McGeddon, Melcombe, MetsFan76, MiNombreDeGuerra, Michael Hardy, Miguel de Servet, Mikeo, Mindmatrix, Minhtung91, Mommyzbrat, Moopiefoof, Mr.Z-man, NerdyScienceDude, NeuroBells123, Newbyguesses, Nightstallion, Normalityrelief, NotJackhorkheimer, Nufy8, Ohnoitsjamie, Oilstone, Ojigiri, Oneforlogic, OttoMkel, Owl, Oxymoron83, Paine Ellsworth, Parthian Scribe, Peregrine981, Peruvianllama, Peterdjones, Philogo, PhysPhD, Pomte, Radiojon, Rbakels, Recury, RedHouse18, Reinis, RexNL, RichMorin, Richard001, Romanm, Roy Brumback, Rtc, Ruud Koot, Ryguasu, SAE1962, SBA1870, Salgueiro, Samohyl Jan, Sardanaphalus, Sethery, Shadro, Shinju dan, Simoes, Spencer, Spencerk, Straw Cat, TMN, Tayste, Teply, The Cunctator, Thewolf37, Tide rolls, Tiktuk, Timwi, Tomisti, Touisiau, Trontonian, Tsunamicharlie, Ucanlookitup, Vanakaris, Vandalometer, Velho, Voidvector, WLU, Wikipediarules2221, Wolfgang Kufner, Yuckfoo, Zach425, Zigger, 358 anonymous edits Deductive reasoning Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=413806531 Contributors: -Majestic-, 2D, AaronY, Abdullais4u, AceMyth, Aequo, Agentnj, Aim Here, Alphachimp, Archenzo, Arno Matthias, Azcolvin429, BD2412, Badelmann, Beclp, BenKovitz, Bfeylia, Blainster, Borgx, Bovlb, Capricorn42, Cathalwoods, Charles Matthews, ChristineD, Comicist, CompuChip, ConMan, Cybercobra, DVD R W, Dbtfz, DennisDaniels, DesertSteve, DesolateReality, Dictabeard, Difu Wu, DirkvdM, Djradon, Doezxcty, Dprust, Drdoug5, Dtgm, EEMIV, EdH, Ember of Light, EricBright, Escape Orbit, Excirial, Extremophile, Flammifer, Flewis, Foreverlove642, Fresheneesz, Garrisonroo, Ggfevans, Giftlite, Gilliam, Glane23, GlasGhost, Gmelli, GoldenGoose100, Graymornings, Gregbard, Guanaco, Hartkiller, HemRaj Singh, Hewinsj, Heyitspeter, Holycharly, Ieopo, Illspirit, Infinity0, Iridescent, IrishPete, J.delanoy, Jaxha, Jimmynudes2, Jon Awbrey, Jon Harald Sby, Jonwilliamsl, JoseREMY, Julian Mendez, Jweiss11, K, Karol Langner, Kborer, Kenji000, Kenyon, Kevinb, Kimberleyporter, Kirrages, Kusyadi, Kwork2, LactoseTI, Lallallal, Leoremy, Lethe, Lord Bane, Lumos3, MARVINWAGNER, MaTT, Mankar Camoran, Meldor, Mhss, Michael Hardy, MindShifts, Mindmatrix, Mjhy0926, Mohehab, Mr.Z-man, Msviolone, Mygerardromance, N4nojohn, Neelix, NeuroBells123, Neverquick, Nightscream, Nishkid64, Noaa, OAC, Oliver Simon, Ordning, OwenX, PaulKincaidSmith, Pbroks13, Penagate, PhilHibbs, Philogo, Philosophy.dude, Piotrus, Pomte, Prbclj25, PresMan, Probios, Psiphiorg, Q1w2e3, Qwertytastic, R3m0t, Rick Norwood, Romanm, RossF18, RowanEvans, Ruby.red.roses, Rucha58, Rupes, Ruud Koot, Ryanmcdaniel, S h i v a (Visnu), SEASONnmr, Sardanaphalus, Sfmammamia, Shadro, Shawn in Montreal, SidP, Skc0001, Skomorokh, SpikeToronto, Stbalbach, Stephen, Stephensuleeman, Stepp-Wulf, Stjeanp, Svick, TakuyaMurata, Tangotango, Tariqabjotu, TedPavlic, Tesseract2, The Cunctator, The Ungovernable Force, The great kawa, TheGeomaster, TheNightFly, Thingg, Thunderboltz, Tide rolls, Tideflat, Toby Bartels, Tparameter, TriGen, Troy 07, Tziemer991, Van helsing, Vanished User 1004, Velho, Vinsfan368, ViolinGirl, Wayne Slam, WookieInHeat, Xephras, YAZASHI, Youandme, Zenwhat, ZephyrAnycon, 663 ,anonymous edits

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Image:Research-Warner-Highsmith.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Research-Warner-Highsmith.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: Artist is Olin Levi Warner (18441896). Photographed in 2007 by Carol Highsmith (1946), who explicitly placed the photograph in the public domain. 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