Report writing

What is a report? A report is a very formal document that is written for a variety of purposes in the sciences, social sciences, engineering and business disciplines. Generally, findings pertaining to a given or specific task are written up into a report. It should be noted that reports are considered to be legal documents in the workpl ace and, thus, they need to be precise, accurate and difficult to misinterpret. How many different types of reports are there? laboratory reports health and safety reports research reports case study reports field study reports cost-benefit analysis reports proposals comparative advantage reports progress reports feasibility studies technical reports instruction manuals financial reports And on it goes When would I be asked to write a report? Engineering Reports can outline a proposal for a project; report on progress of a project; present research and findings from a project; detail the technica l aspects of innovations; present results from a feasibility or cost-benefit ana lytical study. Education and Health Science Practicum reports are based on experiences at pr ac. school or hospital. Ongoing journal entries are written up into a report at the end of term. There are field and research reports. Science and some Social Sciences Laboratory reports outline, analyse and evaluate results from experiments. Research or field reports are findings from t he field and make recommendations based on this. Feasibility studies report inve stigations into the feasibility of something and make recommendations accordingl y. Case study reports are found especially in the areas of social welfare, socia l work, and psychology. Business Report writing is frequently used in business subjects. Reports can range from short memos to lengthy reports such as cost-benefit analysis repo rts; research and field reports; financial reports; proposals; progress reports; health and safety reports; quality reports; case study reports. How does the structure of a report differ from the structure of an essay? Reports are organised into separate sections according to the specific requireme nts of the given task. While it is important that paragraphs are structured and there is unity, coherence and logical development to the report, it is not a con tinuous piece of writing like an essay. Each type of report serves a very specif ic purpose and is aimed at a very particular audience. Report writing may seem repetitive to us, but this is because reports are not us ually read from cover-to-cover by one person. For example, a manager may read on ly the synopsis or abstract and act on the advice it contains while a technical officer may read only the section that explains how things work. On the other ha nd, a personnel officer may look at only the conclusions and recommendations tha t directly affect his or her working area. What should I include in a report? Because there is such a wide range of reports that serve different purposes, you r faculty will generally have guidelines that they want you to follow. As a gene ral rule, however, the following should give you some indication of what to incl ude in a formal report. A letter of transmittal This is a covering letter which is sent with the report to the person or organis ation that requested the report. (Your assignment may not require you to provide this with your report.) Sample letter of transmittal Kalkadoo Council PO Box 102

Kalkadoo Qld 4830 10 December 2001 The Planning Committee Kalkadoo Shire Council PO Box 102 Kalkadoo Qld 4830 Dear Councillors, Please find enclosed the Feasibility Study into the damming of the Blue River as requested. The report discusses in detail the findings of the study for your pe rusal. It is our belief that discussions about the proposed dam should be given a high priority at the next planning meeting scheduled for 12 January 2002. Yours faithfully, Jane Brown John Black Jane Brown and John Black Environmental Engineers A title page This outlines the name of the report; who prepared the report; for whom the repo rt was prepared; the nature of the report; the date the report was prepared. Sample title page FEASIBILITY STUDY PROPOSED DAM - BLUE RIVER KALKADOO 10 DECEMBER 2001 Prepared for: Kalkadoo Shire Council Planning Committee Prepared by: Jane Brown and John Black Environmental Engineers An abstract or synopsis An abstract or synopsis outlines, very briefly, the entire report. It contains: the aim or purpose, the procedures followed, the main findings and conclusions a nd recommendations that are outlined in the report. The abstract or synopsis is like an introduction of an essay. Sample abstract This report discusses the feasibility study carried out from 12 June 2001 to 7 D ecember 2001 into the damming of the Blue River between Johnson's Creek and Blac kstump Creek. Water flow rates, sediment levels, fish stock numbers, weed infilt ration rates and salinity tests have been carried out and positive conclusions h ave been drawn. It should be noted that areas flooded by the proposed dam includ e only those areas already declared unusable for agricultural purposes. It is ex pected that economic opportunities for a fishery, council caravan park, irrigati on leases and household water meter reservoirs will be forthcoming within twelve months of the dam's completion. It is recommended that the council approves dam construction and seeks firm financial backing immediately. A contents page This includes the page numbers of each section within the report and any appendi ces that are attached to the report. It does not include the title page or abstr act. These are attached to the report before the contents page. Contents Page Introduction.................................................................... .................. 1 Aim............................................................................. ...................... 1 Scope........................................................................... .................... 1

Background to study............................................................. ........... 1 Procedure....................................................................... .................. 2 Data collection methods......................................................... .......... 2 Analysis of data................................................................ ................ 4 Conclusions..................................................................... .................. 18 Recommendations................................................................. ............ 22 References...................................................................... .................. 23 Appendices...................................................................... ................. 25 The report itself The report is broken into sections and each section and subsection has a heading . Often, a numbering system is used to indicate each section or subsection. Beco ming more popular, however, is changing the font size of headings to indicate th e importance of each heading. Only numbering style is indicated below. Sample numbering system used in report writing 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Aim 1.2. Scope 1.3. Background to study 2. PROCEDURE 2.1. Data collection method 2.2. Literature review 2.2.1. Literature review of journals 2000 - 2001 3. ANALYSIS Of DATA 3.1. Water flow of Blue River 3.2. Sediment levels of Blue River 3.3. Fish stock numbers 3.4. Weed infiltration rates 3.5. Salinity levels of Blue River 3.6. Likely areas to be flooded 4. CONCLUSIONS 5. RECOMMENDATIONS REFERENCES APPENDICES Parts of the report Introduction Aim In this section you indicate the purpose of the report. Scope This shows what the report includes and excludes. For example: This feasibility study indicates the environmental feasibility of the proposed d amming of the Blue River between Johnson's Creek and Blackstump Creek. It does n ot include building specifications of the dam itself. A further proposal would b e offered if council decides to proceed with the recommendations of this study. Background to study This section contains any relevant details regarding the background information that may be needed to make sense of the information in the report. It may outlin e the history of a project, or major players in the project. For example: In January 1999, Kalkadoo township experienced severe water shortages as a resul t of prolonged drought periods during 1997 and 1998. The Kalkadoo Shire Council has made it a priority for this situation to be remedied so that this situation does not occur in the future. The Shire Council had conducted investigations int

o providing a dam for the region in the mid-1980s but plans were halted due to p ublic dissatisfaction with the outcome of those investigations. Further environm ental studies needed to be conducted over a longer period to determine the impac t of the dam on neighbouring farms and Crown land reserves. This series of inves tigations was completed in December 2000. The outcome suggested no significant n egative environmental or economic impacts would be felt. In June 2001, the Shire Council proposed that the final stages of the feasibility study should be condu cted, and conclusions and recommendations from the entire study should be tabled at Council's Planning Committee meeting scheduled for 12 January 2002. This fea sibility study report should thus enable Council to make a final decision regard ing improving water supplies to the Shire. This is one of its three priority are as for the period 2001-2002. Procedures Data collection methods In this section, you would briefly outline how you collected the data that will provide the basis for analysis that will produce conclusions and recommendations . Even though it may be called something different, all reports use specific dat a and ways of collecting it that would be included in this section. In research reports, you would probably use a different heading because your dat a would come mainly from texts and journal articles. This is the section where y ou would discuss the main issues arising from your research. In reports that are based on data you have collected yourself, like the report u sed in the example so far, this section would detail the methods you used to col lect that data and why those methods were chosen. You would also outline the ste ps taken during the process of collecting data and carrying out research. An exa mple is set out below: During this six-month feasibility study, data was collected and analysed accordi ng to the criteria outlined for environmental impact studies as set out in the Q ueensland Department of Primary Industry's Environmental Studies Handbook (2001) . Water flow rates were measured according to rate of flow 100ml per hour. These rates were recorded three times per week during the study. Sediment and salinit y levels were measured according to the percentage of suspended siltation carrie d in the fastest flowing section of the river channel. These measurements were a lso taken three times per week, and more often during the change of tides. Fish stock numbers were recorded once per month where tagged fish were counted and me asured. Specific areas within the study region were targeted and fish stock numb ers randomly checked using sonar equipment. Weed infiltration rates were recorde d, both in the river itself, and in the land regions that would be directly affe cted by flooding. Weekly recordings were made of the types of species already pr esent in the areas of study, and identification of new varieties was monitored. Analysis of data This section is perhaps the longest section in most reports and it is where, usi ng visual displays, you outline the data you have collected. Graphs, charts, tables, maps, graphic displays should always be used to summaris e the findings you have made from the data you have collected. Each set of data may be displayed in more than one way and each diagram or visua l should have a title, figure or table number, and should be thoroughly labelled . Each set of data is systematically displayed and analysed in a paragraph under t he appropriate diagram. For example: Water flow rates Table 1: Water flow rates Blue River, 1 June 2001-7 December 2001 Date Time Volume/Hour 100ml/Hour Recommended flow rate for viable damming The table indicates that periods of peak flow occurred between July and Septembe r 2001. The rates of flow are 50% higher than those rates recommended to be viab le for substantial damming of an area. The lowest flow recorded occurred during November but is still significantly higher than the recommended flow rate for vi

able damming. There is no evidence to suggest that these levels are unusual for this region. Table 2 compares water flow rates for the same periods from studies conducted over the period 1985-1999 (See Table 2, page 12). This indicates that the water flow rates are stable and there is very little variation from year to year or month to month. Conclusions The conclusions are dot pointed and are drawn directly from the analysis section of the report. Dot points are used when the sequential order is not important. For each section under the main heading 'Analysis', there should be at least one corresponding conclusion. For example: The Blue River flow rate is significantly higher than was expected. Damming the Blue River between Johnson's Creek and Blackstump Creek would not affect average water (flow rates upstream or downstream from this area). Sediment levels remained between 0.02% and 0.05% during the dry months. Sediment levels of 1.2% are considered to be acceptable. Damming the river will not sign ificantly increase sedimentation downstream. Upstream, sediment levels will incr ease between 0.5% and 1.0%. This increase is still within the acceptable range a ccording to guidelines (given by the Department of Primary Industries). Recommendations These are your suggestions for further action based on your conclusions. Not all reports will ask for recommendations. Some will have a section where both concl usions and recommendations are given. Recommendations are numbered as they norma lly follow sequentially. For example: 1. The damming of the Blue River between Johnson's Creek and Blackstump Cre ek should proceed. 2. Damming of this area could lead to significant economic advantages. References A reference list with publication details of sources used should be included aft er the conclusions/recommendations section. Any appendices follow the reference list. Additional sections that may be required Appendices Appendices include things like raw data sheets, extra or supplementary informati on or diagrams, maps of regions etc. You draw your reader's attention to the app ropriate appendix by indicating this briefly at the appropriate place in the rep ort. For example: Water flow rates indicate that there is no significant change between 1998 and 2 001. Comprehensive flow rate charts for the period 1998-2000 are included as App endix 1. Here are some examples of appendices: National Science Foundation Home page http://www.nsf.gov Go to Program Areas Social, Behavioural, Economic Science Go to Science Resources Statistics, then Featured Publications and look at Women , Minorities and Persons with Disabilities Look at the appendices: Technical Notes and Statistical Tables Note how tables are shown in Appendix 2: Statistical Tables Glossary Sometimes, when there is a lot of 'jargon' contained in a report (as in Science or Engineering), a glossary of terms should also be included. This ensures that those reading the report understand the way you have used the terms or jargon in your report. Sometimes words can have different meanings in different disciplin es. If you need to include a glossary, it would generally be placed just after t he contents page. Language style The style of language used in reports is concrete, active and formal as a rule. The rules of plain English definitely apply most of the time. There is no room for bias or 'fudging' results especially when they are consider ed to be legal documents. This is particularly the case in engineering, business , the sciences and some social sciences.

Layout The use of white space is very important in report writing. Spacing between head ings, subheadings, paragraphs, ends of sections, diagrams etc. need to be unifor m. As a guide - one space between heading and subheading, one space between para graphs, and two spaces between the end of a section and the next heading. Whatev er you choose, make sure you aim for consistency.

Title of paper 1. Introduction Introduce the overall situation(technology advances, theoretical reasons, indust ry needs, etc.) leading to the problem to be solved. A few paragraphs are suffic ient. 2. Problem statement State the problem clearly and concisely. List the criteria for solutions and key goals to be achieved in solving the problem. Use a numbered list format for eas y reference in subsequent sections. 3. Review of previous works Review of recent (within the last 5 years) works on solving this problem. Referr ing to the list in section 2, discuss how these previous techniques work and wha t are their technical strengths and shortcomings. Do not disparage other people' s work just to make your work look good: your work is good only when it solves t he problem. Be fair in criticism and support your views with technical reasons, not personal opinions. 4. Proposed approach 4.1 Theoretical model, analysis, and solution Present an in-depth discussion of the theoretical aspects of your proposed appro ach. Use fundamental theory (EE, Math, Physics, etc.), circuit design, circuit a nalysis, algorithms, etc. Analyze the efficiency of your approach after the pres entation, again using theoretical analysis. Theoretical results may be plotted o r illustrated by figures and / or tables for later comparison with simulated and experimental results. Analyze the complexity, overhead, cost, etc. of your appr oach. This is the most important part of the paper. All approaches must be theor etically solid and justifiable. Trial-and-error and lucky good guesses are not a cceptable. 4.2 Simulated results Simulate your approach using CAD tools such as Matlab (behavioral), Spice (circu it level), Verilog (logic level and timing analysis), etc. Generate figures and / or tables of results and compare with the theoretical results in section 4.1 t o support the theoretical analysis. Discuss agreements and discrepancies. Choose realistic case studies, not just those that your approach happens to work well with. Do not choose "toy" problems as case studies. For example, an 8-bit ADC is

a valid case study, a 3-bit ADC is "toy." Some conferences accept papers with s imulation results but others demand more (see section 4.3). Use subsections if necessary if you have a few case studies. 4.3 Experimental results Present experimental results from real ICs, boards, circuits, etc. In analog and mixed-signal test and design-for-test, "experimental data" refers to real circu it and board data, not to "simulated" data. Simulation alone is not sufficient t o support your theory since simulation is not accurate and does not include many real-life effects. High-quality conferences and journals demand experimental re sults before publications. Plan the experiment well in advance since it takes at least one year to get real test data from ICs and board from the time the desig n begins. * All Ph.D. theses and journal papers must include experimental data * Compare experimental results in figures / tables with simulated results (section 4.2) and theoretical predictions (section 4.1). Discuss agreements and discrepa ncies. Use subsections if necessary if you have a few case studies or if you want to pr esent the design and test procedure for the IC/ board case study in a systematic manner. 5. Comparison with previous works Compare honestly your work with previous works reviewed in section 3, using the list of goals / criteria established in section 2. Discuss where your solution i s better, where it is weaker, etc. Use a table with criteria as column headings and solution methods (others and yours) as row headings to show tradeoffs. Use f igures to illustrate differences in solutions. Check to make sure that your appr oach actually solves the problem posed in section 2. 6. Limitations No work is perfect. Discuss honestly the limitations of your proposed approach. Limitations may be theoretical or experimental or practical (e.g. manufacturing cost increasing too fast with circuit complexity, etc.). Is it possible to overc ome some limitations while others are totally unavoidable? 7. Conclusion Summarize the problem and your proposed approach, with its strong and weak point s. A short paragraph is sufficient. Acknowledgements Acknowledge sponsorship (NSF, SRC, specific companies for chip fabrication, etc. ) and technical discussions with other colleagues, if any. References List appropriate works referred to in the paper. Use recent works (in the last 5 years). ________________________________________ Some notes on writing 1. Document format: Word or pdf or postscript. Incorporate all graphics in the document. Use black / white / gray scale since most conferences and journals do not publish color documents. 2. Most papers are limited to 6 to 10 pages (including figures). Write conc isely. 3. Use any technical writing guide to help with paragraph and sentence stru ctures, word usage, writing styles, good practices in figures and tables, etc. 4. Run a spell check on the final document. 5. Use formatting styles (character styles, paragraph styles, heading style s) and page templates provided by Word (or FrameMaker, LaTex, etc.) to write the paper in a structured manner and to present a consistent look-and-feel. This wi ll also be helpful in revisions and in incorporating papers into a thesis. 6. Check your final document on PC Windows, UNIX, and Mac platforms since d ocuments are usually distributed internationally and must be legible without any loss of information across all these platforms. Return to the DTRRL Student Info Page