Chapter 5: Chemicals for Consumers Soap

Soap = sodium salts (RCOO-Na+) / potassium salts (RCOO-K+) of long-chain fatty acids Alkalis + fatty acids = soap Fatty acids = animal fats or vegetable oils

Soap preparation Saponification: hydrolysing fats or oils under alkaline condition. Saponification process boiling fats / oils with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution or concentrated potassium hydroxide solution to produce glycerol + salts of fatty acids (soap) Saponification steps: o Hydrolysis of fats / oils > glycerol + fatty acids. o Neutralisation of fatty acids + concentrated alkali > soap + water Overall equation: Fats / oils + alkali > glycerol + soap Sodium chloride reduces the solubility of soap in water Liquid soap Sodium hydroxide + saturated oils (coconut oil) Uses: bathing purposes Detergent

Solid soap Potassium hydroxide + unsaturated oil (sunflower oil / olive oil) Uses: shaving cream

Detergent = sodium salt of sulphonic acid Alkalis react with sulphonic acid > detergent Common detergent: sodium alkyl sulphate & sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate. Other type of detergents: o Anionic detergent (dishwashing liquid detergent) o Cationic detergent (hair conditioner) o Non-ionic detergent (car washing detergent).

Detergent preparation- 2 processes: 1. Sulphonation: Petroleum fraction (long chain hydrocarbon compounds) converted into sulphonic acid with the present of concentration sulphuric acid. Water molecule is removed. 2. Neutralisation: sulphonic acid neutralised with sodium hydroxide to form detergent (water molecule is formed).

Cleansing action of soap and detergent

Soap and detergent are surfactants. Surfactants are organic compounds that lower the surface tension of a liquid. Surfactants act as emulsifiers and foaming agents. Anion soap consists of carboxylate ion (hydrophilic = soluble in water) and long hydrocarbon tail (hydrophobic = soluble in grease /oils). Anion detergent consists of sulphate ion/sulphonate ion (hydrophilic = soluable in water) and long hydrocarbon tail (hydrophobic = soluble in grease / oils). The action process 1. Soap or detergent is added to water. 2. This has lower the surface tension of water and increases the wetting ability of water. o Hydrophilic part of the anion dissolves in water. o Hydrophobic part dissolves in grease. 3. Scrubbing helps to pull the grease free and break the grease into small droplets. 4. These droplets do not coagulate and redeposit on the surface of the cloth. It is because the repulsion between negative charges on the surface. 5. The droplets are suspended in water forming an emulsion. 6. Foam produces to float the emulsion. 7. Rinsing helps to remove these droplets. The effectiveness of the cleansing action of soap and detergent Condition Hard water (contain calcium & magnesium ion) Soap Detergent Form soap scum (causes wastage Detergent is effective cleaner. of soap) Do not form scum. Form soluble substances - calcium or magnesium salts Soft water (do not contain Soap is effective cleaner. Detergent is effective cleaner. calcium & magnesium ion) Acidic water (contain Form insoluble long-chain fatty Detergent is effective cleaner. Form hydrogen ion) acids (reduces the amount of soap soluble substances. Do not form scum. used for cleaning) Environment Soap is biodegradable Soap is non-biodegradable

Additives in detergent Additives Biological enzyme Foam control agent Builder Filler Fragrance Optical brightener Stabilising agent Suspension agent Whitening agent Food Additives Food additive = a natural / synthetic substance that is added to food to prevent spoilage extend food storage life improve food appearance improve food taste improve food texture A. Preservatives Function: slow down / prevent the growth of microorganisms / bacteria / fungi extend food storage life Preservatives Functions Example Salt Draws the water out of the cells of Salted vegetables microorganisms. Retards the growth of microorganisms. Sugar Draws the water out of the cells of Fruit jam microorganisms. Retards the growth of microorganisms. Vinegar Inhibits the growth of microorganisms. Pickled cucumber Sodium nitrite / Slows down the growth of Sausage sodium nitrate microorganisms. Stabilise red colour in meats. Benzoic acid / Slows down the growth of Tomato sauce sodium benzoate microorganisms. Sulphur dioxide Slows down the growth of Grape juice microorganisms. Function Remove protein stains Control foaming in detergent Enhance the surfactant efficiency Make the solid detergent dry and enable the liquid detergent to be poured easily Add fragrance Add brightness by convert UV radiation to blue light and whiteness Lower the production of foam Prevent the dirt particles removed from redepositing onto cleaned fabrics Bleach stains Example Amylase, lipase & protease Silicones Sodium phosphate Sodium silicate Fluorescent dye Silicones Sodium carboxymethylcellulose Sodium hypochlorite

Side effect Increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases Tooth decay, diabetes and obesity Carcinogenic

Asthma and allergies

B. Antioxidant Function: prevent oxidation (causes rancid fats and brown fruits) Antioxidant Vitamin E Functions Example Prevent oils from turns rancid Palm oil & sunflower oil Vitamin C Preserve the colour of fruit Fruit juice & cured juice and the formation of meat nitrosamines Sodium citrate Stop rancidity in fats Ice-cream BHA (Butylated Retard rancidity in fats, oils Margarine & cereal hydroxyanisole) BHT and oil-containing foods (Butylated hydroxytoluene) C. Flavouring Functions: improve the taste improve the smell restore taste loss due to food process Flavouring Functions MSG (monosodium Bring out the flavor glutamate) Aspartame (non-sugar Sweeten food (about sweetener) 180 200 times than sugar) Synthetic essences (esters) Produce artificial flavours = natural flavour. Cheaper to use than the real fruits Example Salad dressing & canned soup Soft drinks & diet drinks Side effect Headache, thirsty, nausea & chest pain. Increase the risk of leukaemia, cancer and neurological problems Side effect No No

Carcinogenic

Methyl butanoate (apple flavour) & octyl ethanoate (orange flavour)

D. Stabilisers Functions: prevent an emulsion from separating out Stabilisers Functions Monoglycerides Mix oil and water of fatty acids Acacia gum Mix two liquids that do not mix together. Forms an emulsion. Lecithin Example Ice-cream, chewing gum, beverages, whipped topping and margarine Marshmallow, gumdrop, edible glitter, carbonated drink syrup & gummy candies Reduces viscosity. Replaces more Margarine, dough, candy bar & expensive ingredients. Controls sugar cocoa powder crystallisation and the flow properties of chocolate. Helps in the homogeneous mixing of ingredients. Uses as a coating. Mixture of peptides and proteins of Fruit jam, jelly babies, shells of collagen extracted from the boiled pharmaceutical capsules, margarine bones, connective tissues, organs and & yogurt some intestines of animals

Gelatin

E. Thickeners Functions: thicken food give the food dense, smooth and uniform texture Thickeners Functions Side effect Acacia gum Mix two liquids that do not mix together. Marshmallow, gumdrop, edible Forms an emulsion. glitter, carbonated drink syrup & gummy candies Gelatin Mixture of peptides and proteins of Fruit jam, jelly babies, shells collagen extracted from the boiled bones, of pharmaceutical capsules, connective tissues, organs and some margarine & yogurt intestines of animals. Pectin Dietary fiber Fruit jam Starch Thicken food Soup, custard, pudding, noodles and pasta Modified Increase their visco-stability Instant soups & cheese sauce starch granules Xanthan Helps to prevent oil separation. Increase Sauce & salad dressing Allergies gum in the viscosity of a liquid. Example

F. Dyes or Colourings Functions: add colour vanished during food processing replace colour vanished during food processing make food appear more attractive Dyes / Colourings Function Tartrazine E102 / Sunset Yellow azo dye yellow E110 (artificial dye) Brilliant blue FCF Blue 1 Blue triphenyl dye (artificial dye) Examples Side effect Orange drinks, sweet & Hyperactive custard powder in children Ice-cream, beverages, Allergic jellies & blue raspberries flavoured product. Carmosine E122/ Azorubine Red azo dye Sweet, jellies & confections Carcinogenic, (artificial dye) allergic Anthocyanin (natural dye Natural red colouring Ice-cream & sweet red grape, red cabbages, sweet potatoes and tomatoes) Carotenoids / saffron Natural red colouring Cooking oil & confections (natural dye carrots, sweet potatoes and palm oil) Paprika Natural red colouring Dessert food Butterfly pea (clitoria A blue food dye Dessert food & confections ternatea) Pandan (pandanus A green food dye Noodles & confections amaryllifolius)