High prepolymer viscosity can lead to problems in processing and final product quality.

Overheated Prepolymer Because prepolymers are generally heated for processing, it is possible to degrade them by applying too much heat. Normally, the isocyanate (NCO) groups within a prepolymer react with a curative to form an elastomer. When the prepolymer has been overheated, however, these NCO groups react with each other instead, leading to an increase in prepolymer viscosity. In severe cases, the prepolymer can actually gel to a solid mass. If overheated prepolymer is used in processing, soft parts will resulteven if the prepolymer has not degraded to the point of gelation. Low Processing Temperature The viscosity of any liquid is a function of temperature; the higher the temperature, the lower the viscosity. All prepolymers have recommended processing temperatures which differ from one product to another. When the prepolymer is at too low a temperature, it will be difficult or impossible to process. Polyester prepolymers are especially likely to be under-heated because they require higher processing temperatures than do polyether prepolymers of similar hardness. Use of Inappropriate Prepolymer Type Polyether prepolymers are typically lower in viscosity than polyester prepolymers. Similarly, different prepolymer production methods yield products with different viscosity characteristics.

Adhere to Melting Guidelines To avoid overheating a prepolymer, adhere to the melting time and temperature guidelines provided by the prepolymer supplier. Although prepolymers degrade at different rates upon heating, minimizing heat exposure is always recommended. To monitor this, keep a log of the prepolymer heat history. Use of a band heater is not recommended because heating is too localized. Also, if possible, the prepolymer drum should be rolled while being heated.

Check the Prepolymer Temperature with a Thermocouple To avoid low processing temperatures, check the temperature of the prepolymer with a reliable thermocouple to ensure that the preheat oven is working properly. Do not assume that the prepolymer is at the same temperature as the setting of the oven. There may be localized hot or cold spots in the oven, or the prepolymer may not have been in the oven long enough. Choose the Most Appropriate Prepolymer Type To obtain lower viscosity, choose polyether prepolymers over polyester prepolymers, if the application allows. Airthane prepolymers have lower viscosities than conventionally made prepolymers with similar percent NCOs. Airthane prepolymers also provide longer pot life. Discuss your requirements with your supplier to determine the best prepolymer to meet your needs.

All prepolymers should be degassed prior to being mixed with the curative, and if time permits, the prepolymer/curative mixture should be degassed again prior to being poured into the mold. This will help prevent potential problems caused by small amounts of nitrogen which may have become entrained in the prepolymer during production and drum filling.

High Prepolymer Viscosity It is more difficult to degas a high-viscosity prepolymer than a lowviscosity prepolymer. High prepolymer viscosity can be a function of the specific prepolymer in use, or it may be because the prepolymer has been degraded. See the High Prepolymer Viscosity Problem for further details on the causes of high viscosity. Insufficient Vacuum If degassing seems to be progressing at a slow rate for an extended period of time, the vacuum system may be faulty. With insufficient vacuum, the pressure may not be low enough to allow entrained air to escape. Insufficient vacuum may be caused by a weak or worn vacuum pump or a leak in the vacuum lines. No Degassing Agent Degassing aids are additives which lower the surface tension of the prepolymer, thereby allowing for easier degassing. Without the use of a degassing aid, degassing problems could be noted.

Check the Prepolymer Temperature and Heat History The higher the prepolymer temperature, the easier it is to degas. Ensure that the prepolymer is at the correct processing temperature when degassing. Also check that the prepolymer has not been previously overheated, which will result in increased viscosity. See the High Prepolymer Viscosity Problem for further details on high prepolymer viscosity. Check the Gauge on the Vacuum Pump

In order to properly degas raw materials, the vacuum gauge on the degassing system should read at least 27 inches mercury (Hg). With less vacuum than this, it will take an excessively long time to degas. Add a Degassing Agent Several commercial degassing aids are available from various suppliers. Two degassing aids used commonly are SAG-47 from Witco, and X-Air from Ciba-Geigy. Use levels are typically recommended at 0.2 parts per hundred parts prepolymer.

All prepolymer/curative combinations have a specific pot life and gel time. Pot life is generally defined as the amount of time available after mixing to work with the system before it becomes too thick to pour. Gel time is typically defined as the time it takes for the system to cease exhibiting any liquid-like characteristics. Generally, the higher the percent NCO of the prepolymer, the shorter the pot life and gel time. Pot life and gel time are also both influenced by temperature.

Degraded Prepolymer A degraded prepolymer will usually exhibit a reduction in percent NCO. This reduction will shorten the apparent pot life and possibly lengthen the demold time. Degraded Curative Some curatives, such as Mboca, can be degraded with exposure to too much heat. When Mboca begins to decompose, a significantly faster reaction with the prepolymer results. Improper Catalyst Addition Catalysts are often added to decrease the pot life and gel time of a system to achieve increased productivity. Typical catalysts used for this purpose are amine, acid or tin based. (See Recommended Catalyst Use Levels for a list of recommended catalysts and their use levels.) Catalysts are added at very small use levels, and it can be very difficult to monitor an exact amount. In addition, since they are used at such low levels, a small amount of catalyst will last a long time. Some catalysts, especially tin-based products, can become less active over time and can lose their effectiveness. Incorrect Temperatures Higher reactant temperatures will cause an increased reactivity rate between the prepolymer and curative, thereby reducing the system pot life and gel time. The converse is also true. With smaller parts, mold temperatures that are significantly different from the mix temperature can cause reactivity problems by quickly adding or removing too much heat from the system.

Minimize the System Heat History Before Processing

To eliminate degradation of the prepolymer and/or curative due to excessive exposure to heat, follow the supplier's processing temperature guidelines for each product. Check the Catalyst Addition Catalysts, if they are used, can have a significant effect on the reactivity of the system. Some catalysts, especially tin-based products, can become less active over time. If reduced catalyst activity is suspected, a new lot of catalyst should be tried. To assist in monitoring catalyst addition amounts, consider mixing the catalyst in a curative or plasticizer, such as Benzoflex. Try a New Lot of Catalyst Monitor Batch Temperatures Closely Changes in batch temperature and mold temperature will affect reactivity. Monitor these temperatures carefully. Also, do not rely solely on oven temperature gaugesalways have a secondary method to determine temperatures.
Recommended Catalysts and Their Use Levels Catalyst Type System Recommendation Typical Use Level (Parts per Hundred Curative

Organic Acids Azealic Acid Used with diamines Oxalic Acid Tertiary Amines Dabco 33-LV catalyst Used with diamines or diols Dabco S-25 catalyst Tins Dabco T-12 catalyst Used with diols Dabco 131 catalyst

0.30.6 parts

0.30.6 parts

0.10.5 parts

Upon demolding, there may be large voids either within the part or on the surface of the part. These voids are visible with the naked eye, and they usually occur at thinwalled sections, corners and other transition areas.

Air Entrapment During Pour As the batch is poured into the mold, it displaces air from the mold. If the air becomes trapped within various cavities and has no mechanism to escape, it will form a void. This can happen in thin-walled areas if the prepolymer viscosity is too high. Short Pot Life As the batch is poured into the mold and it displaces the air in the mold, some air will become trapped there temporarily. This air will then begin to work its way to the upper surface of the part. This process takes a finite amount of time, and if the pot life of the system is too short, the air bubbles will not have a sufficient amount of time to escape. Leaking Mold If some of the material poured into the mold leaks out, a void will form at the leaking area. Leaking is more likely to occur in systems with a long pot life and low viscosity.

Redesign the Mold/Vents A proper mold design with adequate venting will generally prevent problems with large voids. Use Lower Viscosity Prepolymers Using a lower viscosity prepolymer will make it easier for the air to escape from the mold. Using a polyether prepolymer instead of a polyester prepolymer will also decrease voids, if the application allows for this substitution. In addition, using a system with a lower viscosity and longer pot life, such as a system containing an Airthane prepolymer, will help reduce void formation.

Tilt Mold and Pour Down Its Side to Minimize Splashing Often, tilting the mold upon filling, especially in the case of large rollers, will allow air to escape more easily. Also, pouring down the side of the mold will decrease splashing, another source for air bubbles in the system. Add a Degassing Agent The addition of a degassing aid will reduce the surface tension of the system. With higher viscosity materials, this is often enough additional help to reduce the formation of voids. Typical degassing aids are SAG47 by Witco, and X-Air by Ciba-Geigy. Use levels are typically recommended at 0.2 parts per hundred parts prepolymer.

Sometimes small bubbles are apparent throughout parts. These bubbles may or may not be localized.

Moisture Contamination of Components Moisture (H2O) will react with the isocyanate group in a prepolymer to produce carbon dioxide gas (CO2). CO2 bubbles will manifest themselves as small bubbles in the part. Moisture can come from many sources, including the prepolymer, curative, catalyst, adhesive, primer or additional additives. Of primary concern are polyol curatives (such as 1,4-butanediol, or BDO) and pigments which are hygroscopic, meaning they readily absorb atmospheric moisture. With moisture contamination of the raw materials, the bubbles are seen throughout the part, and when you have moisture contamination of the adhesive or primer, the bubbles are generally seen only at the bond line. Moisture Contamination of the Mold Molds which have not been heated for a sufficient time above the boiling point of water could have atmospheric moisture on their surface. Molds may also have water condensation in humid environments if they are allowed to cool down and are not completely reheated. Also, the improper application of water-based mold release agents can lead to water being on the mold. With water contamination of the mold, bubbles usually appear on the surface of the part, especially on the lower horizontal surfaces. Inadequate Degassing If the prepolymer is not degassed prior to mixing, and the batch is not degassed prior to pouring, small entrapped bubbles will be the result. Poor Pouring Technique Considerable splashing during pouring will introduce bubbles into the batch. This is especially an issue with low-viscosity systems where splashing is more pronounced. Failed Seal in the Processing Machine When using a meter-mix dispensing machine, degassing usually occurs in the component storage tanks. With this system, materials are

pumped from the storage tanks directly to the mixing head, where they are mixed, so there is little opportunity for incorporation of air into the mixture. However, seals in the mix head can fail, which can introduce air into the stream, and thereby negate the effect of the original degassing.

Store All Products Under Dry Nitrogen Storing as many materials under dry nitrogen as possible will reduce the likelihood of the absorption of atmospheric moisture. With some products, there is also the added benefit of potentially reducing oxidation due to the presence of air. Degas All Components Before and After Mixing Degassing all components prior to and after mixing will remove any entrained air in the components and the mixed system. Also, degassing raw materials will distill out any water in the material, which will negate the NCO/H2O reaction which forms CO2. Ensure that the Mold is Properly Heated Heating the mold above the boiling point of water [212F (100C)] will remove moisture that has condensed on the mold, as well as any remnants of water-based mold release left on the mold. Maintain the Mix Head Seals A regular maintenance program for machinery is always a wise practice. Consult your machine supplier for their maintenance recommendations.

Molds usually allow for the shrinkage which occurs in an elastomer when the prepolymer and curative react. Typical shrinkage rates are 1-2% under normal processing conditions. Excessive shrinkage, however, will cause warping or unnatural stresses in the part. Cracking, which can also result, will vary from small internal cracks, to more obvious surface cracks.

Incompatible Resin and Mold Temperatures As a prepolymer/curative mixture begins to react, it generates heat which increases the temperature of the mixture. If there is a substantial difference between the reaction temperature and the mold temperature, there will be stresses placed on the system as it tries to shrink or expand during the reaction. The critical time for these two temperatures to be approximately in balance is when the mixture goes through its "green stage," which is when it changes from a liquid to a solid. Too low of a mold temperature relative to the mixture temperature will cause the gelling reactants to shrink excessively, sometimes to the point of cracking. Too high of a mold temperature is generally less of an issue, though this could lead to excessive warping. Localized Temperature Variation in the Mold Localized hot and cold spots within a mold can also cause internal stresses which may lead to shrinkage, cracking and warping. Low Stoichiometry Low stoichiometry leaves unreacted isocyanate which will increase crosslinking of the system. This additional crosslinking will tighten the elastomer and lead to increased cracking and shrinkage.

Balance the Exotherm and Mold Temperatures Every polyurethane system will have a different peak exotherm, which is the highest reaction temperature reached by the mixture. For a given system, this is a function of the individual components as well as the reaction mass. Larger mass mixtures will have a higher peak exotherm than smaller masses. The ideal case is to balance the mold temperature to within 5C of the peak exotherm. Heat the Mold Adequately

Ensure that the oven is circulating air properly, so that there is a uniform temperature throughout the oven. Also, the mold should stay in the oven long enough to come to a constant, uniform temperature. Monitor Raw Material Temperatures Raw materials can lose heat as they are degassed and mixed, or while they sit before mixing, and therefore, they may need to be reheated in order to maintain the proper temperature. If the temperature of the system is too high, cracking may result. Lower system temperatures and higher mold temperatures are generally recommended.

Several processing conditions can cause surface irregularities in cast parts. This is a concern since many applications for polyurethane parts require aesthetically pleasing surfaces.

Improper Mold Release Application Using either too much or not enough mold release will lead to poor part surface characteristics. Many processors try to push their release agent to get several releases with one application. This will eventually result in parts sticking in the mold and ruined part surfaces. It may also be tempting to try to use a heavy coat of mold release to get several turns from the mold. However, this too can lead to surface quality problems. Not all mold releases work with all systems; wax-based mold releases, for example, may work for MDI systems, but not for TDI systems. Dirty Mold Buildup of elastomer material on the mold will cause poor surface quality on the molded parts. This buildup generally occurs because of inadequate mold release, which in turn continues to allow elastomer material to build up on the mold surface. The molded parts subsequently take the shape of the mold, which now has deposits of polyurethane on it. Excessively Cold Mold Cold molds can lead to shrink marks on the surface of parts. This is particularly true with MDI prepolymer systems. The long "green state" of these systems, combined with excessively cold molds, will lead to shrinkage marks.

Excessive Shrinkage Apply the Proper Amount of Mold Release Evenly Following the manufacturer's directions for mold release application will solve most surface quality problems. Also make sure that the mold release is applied after the appropriate number of turns. Clean Molds Regularly

Sandblasting the mold is one method of cleaning molds whenever a buildup is noticed and part surface imperfections have begun to appear. Heat the Mold Thoroughly Thorough heating of the mold will reduce the likelihood of cold mold marks and will help avoid several other potential problems. The mold should also be removed from the oven as close to pour time as possible. Choose the Best Mold Material Steel molds retain heat better than aluminum; therefore, it is easier to keep the temperature of steel molds uniform versus aluminum molds.

Occasionally, swirls and streaks will show up in a finished part. This generally manifests itself as multicolored swirls throughout the part in a fairly random pattern.

Improper Mixing Even without pigment, the prepolymer and curative are generally different colors, or different shades of the same color. If these two (or more) materials are not completely mixed together, prepolymer-rich or curative-rich pockets will remain in the elastomer. This will lead to poor physical properties since the pockets will alter the stoichiometry of the elastomer. This phenomenon is usually fairly easy to spot when a pigment is in one stream of the mixture. The drastic difference between the colors in the streams is an excellent indicator of poor mixing. Unevenly Dispersed Filler Many softer polyurethane formulations contain fillers which in some instances can be very difficult to mix into the formulation. Insufficient mixing of fillers will cause swirls and streaks in the resulting part. Knit Lines In the production of some parts, most notably vertically cast rollers, one can observe knit lines. These lines occur when material flows around a core or insert and the material is partially cured when it meets at the opposite side of the insert. Depending upon the degree of cure at the point of contact, this knit line area can be a weak point in the elastomer.

Ensure Sufficient Mixing of All Components Use of a pigment will help highlight areas where materials are mixed inadequately. Disperse Fillers in Plasticizers It is often more effective to dissolve or suspend fillers in a plasticizer before adding to the prepolymer.

Use Smaller Size Particles for Fillers Smaller particles are generally more difficult to disperse in the mixture. However, if the problem appears to be particles settling out of the mixture, then going to a smaller particle may help. Use Materials with High Viscosity Again, if settling appears to be the issue, the use of prepolymers with higher viscosities could solve the problem. Use Systems with Increased Pot Life The general way to minimize knit lines is to either pour material into the mold at a higher flow rate or to use a system which has a longer pot life, such as an Airthane prepolymer.

Inferior elastomer physical properties will generally show up in field performance, though testing is possible to confirm abnormal behavior before the part gets to a customer. Repetitive errors, such as incorrect stoichiometry and incomplete cure, are easy to determine through testing. Random errors, such as an overheated drum of prepolymer, are more difficult to spot.

Incorrect Stoichiometry Maintaining the correct ratio of prepolymer to curative, which is called stoichiometry, is critical in producing consistent, high-quality elastomers. The typical ratio used to obtain the best combination of properties is 95%. The table below outlines the effect of stoichiometry on elastomer physical properties.
Effect of Percent Stoichiometry on Elastomer Physical Properties Polyurethane Elastomer Physical Properties Percent Stoichiometry Effects

Hardness Modulus Break Tensile Tear Strength Elongation Compression Set Abrasion Resistance Hysteresis, Dynamic Mechanical Flex Life Resilience

Stable; minor change over the range of 85-100% Stable; minor change over the range of 85-100%; decrease outside this range Maximizes at 90-95%; slight decrease outside this range Maximizes at 100-105%; significant decrease below this range Maximizes at 100-105%; minor decrease below this range Low percent stoichiometry results in low compression set High percent stoichiometry favors good abrasion resistance; 100-105% is optimum range Low percent stoichiometry is preferred; 90-95% is optimum High percent stoichiometry favors good flex performance; 100-105% is optimum range Maximizes at 85-90%; slight decrease above this range

Overheated Prepolymer

Use of an overheated prepolymer will have the same ultimate effect on the elastomer as processing at an incorrect stoichiometry. You will be able to tell that a prepolymer has become overheated because it will have a lower percent NCO than what is indicated on the prepolymer container. Incomplete Cure Post-curing is used to relieve internal stresses and to allow proper alignment of the polymer chains.

Calibrate Balances Regularly Balances must be calibrated regularly. In a production environment, balances can become covered with prepolymer, curative and other materials. If these materials are on the weighing pan, they can force the balance out of calibration. Calculate the Amount of Curative Based on the NCO of Each Lot of Prepolymer Many processors will use an average percent NCO for determining the amount of curative to use with a prepolymer. However, with some prepolymers, this can amount to a stoichiometry error of up to 5%, which can affect properties significantly. Each drum of prepolymer has a specific percent NCO. It is important to use the percent NCO of the particular prepolymer lot that you are using. The amount of curative to use can then be determined with the following equation:

Minimize the System Heat History Follow the manufacturer's guidelines for exposure of prepolymer and curative to heat. Follow Supplier Curing Guidelines Prepolymer suppliers have standard recommendations for the curing of their materials. A typical guideline is to cure the prepolymer for 16 hours at 100C, though please verify this recommendation for each system. Some prepolymer/curative combinations require different conditions. Use an Elemental Analyzer During Production

For Mboca, Lonzacure MCDEA curative or Ethacure 300 curativebased elastomers, an analyzer with an X-ray source can be used to determine the stoichiometry during production.

Hardness measurements are considered statistically the same if they are 3 points from the average of several measurements. If the hardness is outside this range, then there could be a hardness variation concern. For further information on elastomer hardness testing, see Hardness Test Procedure

Overheated Prepolymer Use of an overheated prepolymer will have the same ultimate effect on the elastomer as processing at an incorrect stoichiometry. You will be able to tell that a prepolymer has become overheated because it will have a lower percent NCO than what is indicated on the prepolymer container. Incomplete Cure Post-cure is used to relieve internal stresses and to allow proper alignment of the polymer chains. Incorrect Stoichiometry With gross errors in stoichiometry, the hardness of the elastomer may decrease. Inadequate Mixing Inadequate mixing will leave areas in the elastomer that are rich in prepolymer or curative, which will lead to incorrect stoichiometry, and in turn, will result in problems with part physical properties.

Minimize the Heat History Follow the manufacturer's guidelines for exposure of the prepolymer and curative to heat. Follow the Supplier Curing Guidelines Prepolymer suppliers have standard recommendations for the curing of their materials. A typical guideline is to cure the prepolymer for 16 hours at 100C, though please verify this recommendation for each system. Some prepolymer/curative combinations require different conditions.

Calculate the Amount of Curative Based on the NCO of Each Lot of Prepolymer Many processors will use an average percent NCO for determining the amount of curative to use with a prepolymer. However, with some prepolymers, this can amount to a stoichiometry error of up to 5%, which can affect properties significantly. Each drum of prepolymer has a specific percent NCO. It is important to use the percent NCO of the particular prepolymer lot that you are using. The amount of curative to use can then be determined with the following equation:

Ensure Sufficient Mixing of All Components Use of a pigment will help highlight areas where materials are mixed inadequately. See Swirls/Streaks in Parts for further detail.

Occasionally, the hardness of an elastomer will be acceptable at the time of manufacture, but it will have softened considerably by a later date. This softening may have occurred during storage or field usage.

Contact with Solvents Continued contact with solvents will generally soften a polyurethane elastomer. Most petrochemical-based solvents cause significant softening of most polyether-based elastomers. In addition, water also has a great softening effect on most polyester elastomers after significant contact. It has even been documented that polyester-based elastomers which have been stored at elevated warehouse temperatures with high humidity have softened considerably. Exposure to Excessively High Temperatures Continued exposure to elevated temperatures will begin to break down the urethane bonds within the elastomer, which will cause softening. A typical recommended high temperature for continuous use of common elastomers is 180-200F. This upper use temperature varies with formulation and application. Incorrect Stoichiometry

Shield Elastomer from Solvent In some cases, it is possible to engineer the process such that the elastomer does not come into contact with the solvents. Insulate the Elastomer From the Heat Source In some applications, it is possible to insulate the elastomer from the heat source to minimize its exposure to heat. Choose the Best Prepolymer Polyether and polyester-based elastomers react very differently to solvents. Be sure to choose the correct backbone for the application. Generally, choose polyethers for water environments and polyesters for most organic solvents.

Calculate the Amount of Curative Based on the NCO of Each Lot of Prepolymer Many processors will use an average percent NCO for determining the amount of curative to use with a prepolymer. However, with some prepolymers, this can amount to a stoichiometry error of up to 5%, which can affect properties significantly. Each drum of prepolymer has a specific percent NCO. It is important to use the percent NCO of the particular prepolymer lot that you are using. The amount of curative to use can then be determined with the following equation:

Occasionally, the hardness of an elastomer will be acceptable at the time of manufacture, but it will have hardened considerably by a later date. This hardening may have occurred during storage or field usage.

Soft Segment Crystallization Soft segment crystallization is a phenomenon seen frequently with soft parts (<70 Shore A). The backbone in the polyol in these types of systems is generally a high molecular weight. With a very high molecular weight, the concentration of isocyanate and curative in the elastomer is very low, and the polyester forms concentrated domains in the elastomer. These concentrated domains then tend to solidify or crystallize, which increases the hardness of the elastomer. Insufficient Cure If a part is not sufficiently cured prior to testing, it will continue to increase in hardness as it cures. Low Stoichiometry With a low stoichiometry, the relatively fast prepolymer/curative reaction will occur and hardness will build in the prepolymer rather quickly. The subsequent high concentration of unreacted NCO groups will then react with each other or with moisture, resulting in increased elastomer cross-linking. This will gradually increase the hardness of the system. Plasticizer Leaching Plasticizers do not react in the system. Over time, they can leach out of the elastomer, leading to increased elastomer hardness.

Choose a Mixed Backbone Prepolymer Using a prepolymer with a mixed polyester backbone will disrupt the crystallinity of the elastomer enough to reduce soft segment crystallization. Prepolymers such as the Versathane QM variety should be used for these systems. To test for soft segment crystallization place a softened elastomer

sample in an oven at 100C for several hours. If the sample returns to its original hardness during heating, the cause of the softening will most likely be soft segment crystallization. When this is the case, the part will generally harden again over time. Follow the Supplier Curing Guidelines Prepolymer suppliers have standard recommendations for the curing of their materials. A typical guideline is to cure the prepolymer for 16 hours at 100C, though please verify this recommendation for each system. Some prepolymer/curative combinations require different conditions. Use Stoichiometry Above 90% Using a higher stoichiometry will ensure that there are no unreacted NCO groups left after curing which could increase the hardness over time. Ensure Plasticizer Compatibility Not all plasticizers are compatible with every system. Benzoflex 988SG is the most universally compatible plasticizer. Be sure to use the SG grade of this product, which was designed specifically for polyurethane applications.

Some parts, when improperly processed or used, can take on a permanent deformation.

Softened by Heat Prolonged exposure to heat will have a deleterious effect on elastomers, which can cause them to soften and become distorted by the forces applied to them when in use. Poor Abrasion Resistance In extremely high-wear applications, sections of a part may wear away completely and the part will then appear to be deformed. Elastomer Tendency to be Thermoplastic Some elastomer formulations have a tendency to be slightly thermoplastic. This means that they will actually distort and take on a new shape with the application of heat. In some cases this is a desired property, though in general it is not desired. High Compression Set Some elastomers that have a high compression set will deform because of the forces being continually applied to them. High compression set may be a function of the formulation or it may be the result of poor processing.

Reduce Exposure to Heat Reduction of exposure to heat can sometimes be accomplished through engineering controls. Formulate for Higher Abrasion Resistance Some elastomers are better at withstanding abrasion than others. Consult your prepolymer supplier for prepolymer recommendations based upon the specific application. Additionally, certain additives can be formulated into an elastomer to help improve abrasion resistance.

Reduce the Load/Redesign the Part Through proper part design, it is often possible to reduce the stress on the part to a manageable level. Process at the Correct Stoichiometry Processing at an incorrect stoichiometry will lead to high compression set. This in turn could lead to permanent deformation of the part. Lower stoichiometries are recommended to reduce compression set.

Blowout occurs with parts used in dynamic applications, including wheels, tires and rollers. When polyurethane elastomers undergo cyclic loading and unloading, mechanical energy is transformed into heat energy and the elastomer will heat up. If this heat buildup is too great, then the polyurethane could melt and the part could experience blowout.

Improper Choice of System Some polyurethane elastomers have inherently better dynamic performance than others. High-performance polyether systems are generally preferred for optimum dynamic performance. Within the high-performance class of materials, however, some systems perform better than others. Wrong Hardness Elastomer With dynamic applications, the greater the cyclic deflection of the elastomer, the greater the heat buildup. If the deflection is higher than 5-10%, then the part has a greater chance for blowout. Therefore, specifying a harder elastomer is usually recommended to minimize deflection. However, there are typically other performance attributes that also need to be considered, such as ride comfort or traction, where use of a softer formulation may be desired. Incorrect Stoichiometry The dynamic performance of an elastomer is optimized in the 90-95% stoichiometry range. Performance will decline as a formulation moves significantly away from this stoichiometry. Uneven Loading Even when the correct formulation has been used, the loading on a wheel, tire or roller can be uneven, leading to localized meltdown and blowout in the region of maximum load. This happens frequently with rollers when the ends are tightened down to increase the nip pressure. It also happens with tires and wheels that have an improper crown. Too Great of a Load/Speed Dynamics are a function of load and speed. If either is too great, then the part may not be able to dissipate the heat fast enough to avoid a blowout. This can happen even with a properly designed part.

Choose a System with Improved Dynamics Generally, one will want to use a high-performance polyether-based elastomer. Many applications use TDI/Mboca/PTMEG elastomers with great success. Within that class of materials, some perform better than others. Products such as Airthane prepolymers usually provide the highest performance materials in this class. In addition, alternative curatives have been developed which can offer dynamic improvements over conventional curatives. Consult your supplier for recommendations on the appropriate system. Choose the Correct Hardness Generally, an in-use deflection of 5-10% is acceptable, although a deflection of under 5% is desirable. The table below provides the formula to calculate the deflection. Choose a system that will provide this level of deflection or less, within the other parameters which may constrain your choice of hardness.
Percent Deflection Formula

Where D = deflection in inches L = loading in pounds IR = inside radius of polyurethane in inches OR = outside radius of polyurethane in inches E = compression modulus, psi W = actual width, inches Modulus (psi) Shore A 750 52 1000 62 2200 78 4400 90 9000 95 28000 36000 Optimize Stoichiometry

Shore D 40 50 60 70

With most systems, a stoichiometry of 90-95% is ideal for optimizing dynamic performance, with 90-92% being preferred. Obviously, this is system-dependent. Load Evenly

Proper installation of the part into service is critical. Loading across the face of the part should be as uniform as possible. Crowning of the wheel or roller may be required. Redesign the Part/Application to Conduct Heat Away Sometimes with the existing design, the combination of load and speed may be too great for the required polyurethane. In this case, it may be necessary to redesign the application. This can be accomplished by redesigning the wheel/roller to have a larger diameter, effectively reducing the speed. The part can also be made wider to distribute the load over a wider area. Also, additional wheels/tires can be added to spread the load. In some instances, the part could be redesigned to more readily dissipate heat away from the polyurethane.

In many applications a polyurethane is bonded to a steel or aluminum insert, hub or core. This can be difficult to accomplish, as many variables come into play to ensure a strong bond. Bonding is usually accomplished by the use of an adhesive applied to the insert prior to the casting of the polyurethane system.

Poor Initial Bond In parts which require bonding, precautions must be taken during the application of the mold release. Contamination of the bonding surface with mold release can weaken the bond line. Too Much Stress at the Bond Line Bond strength is dependent on many factors. At times, due to the design of the part, stresses are localized at the bond line, causing the bond to break. Overheating The adhesives generally used in these applications have an upper use temperature limit in the range of 200C to 300C. If the system temperatures exceed these levels, the bond strength may be compromised. Water/Solvent Permeation In some roller applications where the part is immersed in water or another solvent, the water or solvent way eventually migrate through the polyurethane and collect at the bond interface. This may cause degradation of the adhesive, or it may cause enough stress at the bond line to rupture the bond.

Choose the Correct Primer or Adhesive There are many different primers and adhesives that can be used for typical polyurethane applications. Choosing the correct adhesive to withstand the operating environment is critical. Consult your adhesives supplier for the proper recommendations. Prepare the Surface Properly

Be sure the surface of the substrate is properly roughened to help improve the mechanical bonding of the system. Also ensure that the substrate has been properly cleaned after blasting and that all grease and oils have been removed. In addition, make sure that the mold release does not come into contact with the properly prepared substrate surface. Contact your adhesives supplier for additional recommendations. Design the Part to Minimize Stress When designing parts, there are many techniques that can be used to minimize the stress at the bond interface. We recommend the following: avoid sharp corners; design-in fillets and overhangs; and equalize stress profiles. See Elastomer Design for further details. Provide Cooling In cases where overheating of the bond line may be an issue, providing cooling to either the substrate or the polyurethane would be advantageous. Choose the Correct System to Minimize Permeation The correct choice of polyurethane system to minimize heat buildup is essential. See Blowout for further information on how to minimize heat buildup.

Polyurethane elastomers will swell when exposed to certain solvents. This swelling can range from a few percentages in mild cases to several hundred percentages in severe cases.

Exposure to Harmful Solvents The overwhelming cause of swelling is exposure to solvents, materials which are incompatible with the polyurethane system. In addition, solvents used at elevated temperatures further accelerate the problem. The proper specification of polyurethane for the specific solvent is critical.

Choose the Proper Elastomer Generally, polyether-based elastomers are the proper choice for high humidity and water applications. Polyesters, on the other hand, are generally used for applications where there is the potential for exposure to oil-based solvents. Shield the Elastomer from the Solvent In cases where the elastomer is being splashed by the solvent, it may be possible to mechanically shield the part from the solvent. Test the Elastomer Before Field Exposure Testing the elastomer with the correct solvent before field application is recommended. It is a simple testsimply immerse a known weight of elastomer into a container filled with the desired solvent at the desired temperature for an extended period of time. At the conclusion of the test, reweigh the elastomer to determine the uptake of solvent. If plaques of the proper thickness are used, standard ASTM tensile and tear tests can also be performed.

Performing laboratory tests to predict the abrasion performance of elastomers is difficult. Usually field tests are the only reliable means of testing parts. Polyurethane elastomers are generally very resistant to impingement abrasion and slightly less resistant to sliding abrasion.

Incorrect Stoichiometry Tear strength is related to abrasion resistance. In order to maximize abrasion resistance, the tear strength of the elastomer should be maximized. Excessive Heat Buildup Abrasion between the medium and elastomer can generate significant amounts of heat. This excessive heat generation can destroy the polyurethane. Also, as an elastomer increases in temperature, the tear resistance decreases. Since tear resistance and abrasion resistance are directly related, the abrasion resistance also generally decreases as the elastomer temperature increases. Incorrect System Choice As with many other elastomer problems, the correct choice of polyether versus polyester prepolymer will have a large impact on the performance of the finished part.

Choose the Correct Stoichiometry The tear strength of most elastomers is maximized around 100% stoichiometry. Producing elastomers at this stoichiometry should improve the abrasion resistance of the part. Minimize Heat Buildup Heat buildup can be dissipated with the use of a slurry, as is frequently used in mining applications. Choose the Correct System First and foremost, the formulation should be chosen based upon the exposure variables in the application. Polyether formulations are often

chosen for systems exposed to impingement abrasion due to their higher rebound capability. For systems exposed to sliding abrasion, polyester-based formulations should be chosen. This is because polyester formulations typically have better tear resistance. Additives such as Primax surface-modified particles can also be used to lower the coefficient of friction, which results in better sliding abrasion resistance.