The Basic Principles of OFDM

The Basic Principles of OFDM
Gwo-Ruey Lee
CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
Outlines
The Basic Principles of OFDM [1-7] FFT-based OFDM System Serial and Parallel Concepts [1,7] Modulation/Mapping [10,11] M-ary Phase Shift Keying M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation IFFT and FFT [8,9] Signal Representation of OFDM using IDFT/DFT Orthogonality [1-7] Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension [1-7] Advantages and Disadvantages [1,4,7]
CCU CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab. Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
FFT-based OFDM System

x bits Serial Data Input Serial-toParallel Converter
1/3
d0
s0
d1
Signal Mapper IFFT
s1
d n 1
sn1
Parallelto-Serial Converter
Guard Interval Insertion
D/A & Low pass Filter
UpConverter
s(t )
Fast Fourier Transform Guard Intervals Symbols
Subchannels
Frequency
Channel
Time
x bits Serial Data Output Parallelto-Serial Converter
d0 d
Signal Demapper One-tap Equalizer
s1
FFT
s0
Serial-toParallel Converter Guard Interval Removal A/D DownConverter
dn1
sn1
FFT-based OFDM System OFDM Transmitter

d1
Signal Mapper (QPSK)
2/3
Serial Data Input
x bits x1
Serial-toParallel Converter
s1
IFFT
x2 xn 1
d2
s2 sn 1
dn1
D/A & Lowpass Filter
01
x1=[0,0] x=[0,0,0,1,1,0,1,1,.] x2=[0,1] x3=[1,0] x4=[1,1]
10
00
11
d1=1
I
. .
10
Q
01
00
.
. .
10
d2=i d3=-1 d4=-i

11
01
00
11
. .
10
Q
01
00
11
..
FFT-based OFDM System OFDM Transmitter

d1
Signal Mapper (QPSK)
3/3
Serial Data Input
x bits x1
s1
IFFT
x2 xn 1
d2
s2 sn 1
dn1
D/A & Lowpass Filter
1 i d i = 1 1
0.2
s = [ -0.09,
-0.003-0.096i,
0.1 0.05
0.15
, 0.01+ 0.247i,
-0.035-0.0472i ]
0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1
0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.15 -0.2
CP CP CP
0 10 20 30
0.2
CP
0.15 0.1 0.05
DATA
40 50 60
CP
70
0 -0.05 -0.1
-0.15 -0.2
80
-0.15 -0.2
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Series and Parallel Concepts

In OFDM system design, the series and parallel converter is considered to realize the concept of parallel data transmission.
1/3
Serial data
Parallel data
0 Tb 2Tb
Ts = NTb

Series
In a conventional serial data system, the symbols are transmitted sequentially, with the frequency spectrum of each data symbol allowed to occupy the entire available bandwidth. When the data rate is sufficient high, several adjacent symbols may be completely distorted over frequency selective fading or multipath delay spread channel.
2/3

Parallel
The spectrum of an individual data element normally occupies only a small part of available bandwidth. Because of dividing an entire channel bandwidth into many narrow subbands, the frequency response over each individual subchannel is relatively flat. A parallel data transmission system offers possibilities for alleviating this problem encountered with serial systems.
3/3
Resistance to frequency selective fading
Modulation/Mapping
The process of mapping the information bits onto the signal constellation plays a fundamental role in determining the properties of the modulation. An OFDM signal consists of a sum of sub-carriers, each of which contains M-ary phase shift keyed (PSK) or quadrature amplitude modulated (QAM) signals. Modulation types over OFDM systems
Phase shift keying (PSK) Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
1/1
Mapping - Phase Shift Keying

M-ary phase shift keying
1/2
Consider M-ary phase-shift keying (M-PSK) for which the signal set is
2 ( i 1) 2Es cos 2 fct + si ( t ) = 0 t Ts , i =1,2,..., M Ts M

where Es is the signal energy per symbol, Ts symbol duration, and f c is the carrier frequency. This phase of the carrier takes on one of the M possible values, namely i = 2 i 1 M , where is the
i = 1, 2,..., M
Mapping - Phase Shift Keying

An example of signal-space diagram for 8-PSK .
2
Es
m3
2/2
Decision boundary
m4
m2
Decision region Es
m1
Es
m5
M M
m6
m8 message point Es
m7
Mapping Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
1/2
The transmitted M-ary QAM signal for symbol i can be expressed as
sn ( t) =
2E 2E an cos( 2 fct) bn sin( 2 fct) , 0 t T, T T
where E is the energy of the signal with the lowest amplitude, and E = a 2 , an and bn are amplitudes taking on the values, and, where M is assumed to be a power of 4. The parameter a can be related to the average signal energy ( Es ) by
a = 3Es 2 (M 1)
an , bn = a, 3a,, ( log 2 M 1) a ,
Mapping Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
2/2
An example of signal-space diagram for 16-square QAM.
IFFT and FFT

Inverse DFT and DFT are critical in the implementation of an OFDM system.
1/1
1 IDFT x[ n ] = N
D F T X [k ] =
X [k ]e
k =0
j
N 1
2 kn N
x [ n ]e
n=0
N 1
2 kn N
IFFT and FFT algorithms are the fast implementation for the IDFT and DFT. In the IEEE 802.11a, the size of IFFT and FFT is N=64. CCU CCU
Wireless Access Tech. Lab. Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
Signal Representation of OFDM using 1/2 IDFT/DFT
Signal representation of OFDM using IDFT/DFT

Now, consider a data sequence X = ( X0, X1, , Xn , , XN 2 , XN1 ) , and X k = Ak + jBk ,
1 xn = N
X ke
k =0
N 1
j ( 2 kn / N )
1 = N
X k e(
k =0
N 1
j 2 f k tn )
n = 0,1, 2
N 1,
where f k = k / ( N t ) , tn = nt , and t is an arbitrarily chosen symbol duration of the serial data sequence X k .
Signal Representation of OFDM using 2/2 IDFT/DFT
sn = Re ( xn ) 1 N 1 = ( Ak cos2 f k tn Bk sin 2 f k tn ), N k =0 n = 0,1,2 N -1.
If these components are applied to a low-pass filter at time intervals
1 s(t ) = N
( A cos 2 f t B
k =0 k k
N 1
sin 2 f k t ),
0 t N t .
Orthogonality
Digital communication systems
In time domain In frequency domain
* j
2/2
1 , x i ( t )x ( t ) dt = 0 ,
* j
i= j i j
1 , i = j X i ( f )X ( f ) df = 0 , i j
OFDM
Two conditions must be considered for the orthogonality between the subcarriers. 1. Each subcarrier has exactly an integer number of cycles in the FFT interval. 2. The number of cycles between adjacent subcarriers differs by exactly one.
ts +T
ts
j 2
k ( t ts ) N 1 T n=0
dn e
j 2
n ( t ts ) T
dt = dn
n=0
N 1
ts +T
ts
j 2
nk ( t ts ) T
dt = dkT
Orthogonality
Time domain
2/2 Frequency domain
Example of four subcarriers within one OFDM symbol
Spectra of individual subcarriers
Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension

OFDM symbol
OFDM symbol duration
1/7
Ttotal = T + Tg
OFDM symbol duration
Guard Interval
DATA
Guard interval Tg
FFT integration duration T
Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension2/7

Two different sources of interference can be identified in the OFDM system.
Intersymbol interference (ISI) is defined as the crosstalk between signals within the same sub-channel of consecutive FFT frames, which are separated in time by the signaling interval T. Inter-carrier interference (ICI) is the crosstalk between adjacent subchannels or frequency bands of the same FFT frame.

Delay spread
Environment Home Office Manufactures Suburban Delay Spread < 50 ns ~ 100 ns 200 ~ 300 ns < 10 us

For the purpose to eliminate the effect of ISI, the guard interval could consist of no signals at all. Guard interval (or cyclic extension) is used in OFDM systems to combat against multipath fading. Tg :guard interval Tdelay spread :multi path delay spread In that case, however, the problem of intercarrier interference (ICI) would arise. The reason is that there is no integer number of cycles difference between subcarriers within the FFT interval.
T g > T d e la y sp re a d

If T
g
< T
d e l y -s p re a d
Tg
Sym bol 1
Tg
Sym bol 2
Tg
Sym bol 3
Tg
Sym bol 4
Tg T d e ly - s p r e a d
Sym bol 1
Tg
Sym bol 2
Tg
Sym bol 3
If
Tg > T
de ly - sp r e a d
Tg
Sym bol 1
Tg
Sym bol 2
Tg
Sym bol 3
Tg
Sym bol 4
Tg T de ly - sp r e a d
Sym bol 1
Tg
Sym bol 2
Tg
Sym bol 3

To eliminate ICI, the OFDM symbol is cyclically extended in the guard interval. This ensures that delayed replicas of the OFDM symbol always have an integer number of cycles within the FFT interval, as long as the delay is smaller than the guard interval.
Guard Interval
(Cyclic Extension)

Effect of multipath with zero signals in the guard interval, the delayed subcarrier 2 causes ICI on subcarrier 1 and vice versa.
Part of subcarrier #2 causing ICI on subcarrier #1 Subcarrier #1
Delayed subcarrier #2 Guard time FFT integration time=1/carrier spacing OFDM symbol time Guard time FFT integration time=1/carrier spacing OFDM symbol time CCU CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab. Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Time and frequency representation of OFDM with guard intervals. Subchannels 1/T
Tg
Fast Fourier Transform

T
Guard Intervals
Frequency
Symbols
Time
Advantages and Disadvantages 1/3

Advantages
Immunity to delay spread
Symbol duration >> channel impulse response Guard interval

Resistance to frequency selective fading
Each subchannel is almost flat fading

Simple equalization
Each subchannel is almost flat fading, so it only needs a one-tap equalizer to overcome channel effect.
Efficient bandwidth usage
The subchannel is kept orthogonality with overlap.


Disadvantages
The problem of synchronization
Symbol synchronization
Timing errors Carrier phase noise
Frequency synchronization
Sampling frequency synchronization Carrier frequency synchronization
Need FFT units at transmitter, receiver
The complexity of computations


Sensitive to carrier frequency offset
The effect of ICI

The problem of high peak to average power ratio (PAPR)
Problem 1. It increased complexity of the analog-todigital and digital-to-analog converters. Problem2. It reduced efficiency of the RF power amplifier. The solutions
1.Signal distortion techniques,which reduce the peak amplitudes simply by nonlinearly distorting the OFDM signal at or around the peaks. 2.Coding techniques using a special forward-error-correction code 3. It is based on scrambling each OFDM symbol with different scrambling sequences and then the sequence that gives the smallest PAP ratio is selected.
References
[1] Richard van Nee, Ramjee Prasad, OFDM wireless multimedia communication, Artech House Boston London, 2000. [2] Ahmad R. S. Bahai and Burton R. Saltzberg, Multi-carrier digital communications - Theory and applications of OFDM, Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow, 1999. [3] Ramjee Prasad, OFDM based wireless broadband multimedia communication, Letter Notes on ISCOM99, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, Nov. 7-10, 1999. [4] L. Hanzo, W. Webb and T. Keller, Single- and multi-carrier quadrature amplitude modulation Principles and applications for personal communications, WLANs and broadcasting, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2000. [5] Mark Engels, Wireless Ofdm Systems: How to Make Them Work? Kluwer Academic Publishers. [6] Lajos Hanzo, William Webb, Thomas Keller, Single and Multicarrier Modulation: Principles and Applications, 2nd edition, IEEE Computer Society. [7] Zou, W.Y.; Yiyan Wu, COFDM: An overview Broadcasting, IEEE Transactions on, Vol. 41, Issue 1, pp. 1 8, Mar. 1995. [8] Emmanuel C. Ifeachor & Barrie W. Jervis, Digital signal processing A practical approach, AddisionWesley, 1993. [9] Blahut, R. E., Fast Algorithms for digital processing. Reading, Ma: Addison-Wesley, 1985. [10] Simon Haykin, Communication Systems, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 3rd edition, 1994. [11] Roger L. Peterson, Rodger E. Ziemer, David E. Borth, Introduction to spread spectrum communications, Prentice Hall International Editions, 1995.

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The Basic Principles of OFDM

CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

FFT-based OFDM System

Guard Interval Insertion

D/A & Low pass Filter

Fast Fourier Transform Guard Intervals Symbols

x bits Serial Data Output Parallelto-Serial Converter

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

FFT-based OFDM System OFDM Transmitter

Serial Data Input

Guard Interval Insertion

D/A & Lowpass Filter

x1=[0,0] x=[0,0,0,1,1,0,1,1,.] x2=[0,1] x3=[1,0] x4=[1,1]

d2=i d3=-1 d4=-i

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

FFT-based OFDM System OFDM Transmitter

Serial Data Input

Guard Interval Insertion

D/A & Lowpass Filter

0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1

0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.15 -0.2

0.15 0.1 0.05

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Series and Parallel Concepts

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Series and Parallel Concepts

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Series and Parallel Concepts

Resistance to frequency selective fading

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Mapping - Phase Shift Keying

2 ( i 1) 2Es cos 2 fct + si ( t ) = 0 t Ts , i =1,2,..., M Ts M

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Mapping - Phase Shift Keying

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Mapping Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

The transmitted M-ary QAM signal for symbol i can be expressed as

2E 2E an cos( 2 fct) bn sin( 2 fct) , 0 t T, T T

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Mapping Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

An example of signal-space diagram for 16-square QAM.

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

IFFT and FFT

Wireless Access Tech. Lab. Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Signal Representation of OFDM using 1/2 IDFT/DFT

Signal representation of OFDM using IDFT/DFT

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Signal Representation of OFDM using 2/2 IDFT/DFT

sn = Re ( xn ) 1 N 1 = ( Ak cos2 f k tn Bk sin 2 f k tn ), N k =0 n = 0,1,2 N -1.

If these components are applied to a low-pass filter at time intervals

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

2/2 Frequency domain

Example of four subcarriers within one OFDM symbol

Spectra of individual subcarriers

Wireless Access Tech. Lab.

Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension

OFDM symbol duration

FFT integration duration T