STRENGTHENING MECHANISM IN METALS

Background Knowledge Yield Strength Metals yield when dislocations start to move (slip). Yield means permanently change shape.

Slip Systems
Slip plane: the plane on which deformation occurs, possess the highest atomic density. Slip direction: the direction within the slip plane and is always along a line of the highest atomic density Slip systems: a crystal deforms by motion of a dislocation on a slip plane and in a certain direction slip system = slip plane + slip direction

[110] [011]

Example: Slip systems in FCC

Slip planes: {111} plane family in FCC possesses the highest atomic planar density Slip directions: <110> direction family in FCC possesses the highest atomic density [101]

{111}: eight octahedral planes in a cube, only 4 of them need be considered (the other 4 are parallel planes). <110>: total six, but, only three lie in each of the {111} slip plane. Ex: (111) slip plane contains the [011], [101], &[110]

Therefore, 4 {111}planes x 3 <110>directions = 12 slip system

Slip in Single Crystals

Macroscopic slips in a single crystal

Slips in a zinc single crystal

Deformation of polycrystals
Slip occurs in well-defined crystallographic planes within each grain, but more than one slip plane is possible and likely. In different grains, the slip planes will have different orientations because of the random nature of the crystal orientations.

Microscope photograph of actual shear offsets in different grains, on surface of a copper bar.

Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals

Before, undeformed equiaxial grains

The plastic deformation has produced elongated grains

Slip in Single Crystals: Resolved Shear Stress

Angle : between F & slip direction : between F & the normal direction of slip plane The resolved force in slip direction Fs Fs = F cos The area of the slip plane As = A/cos Resolved shear stress

Fs F cos = = = cos cos As A / cos

 Metal single crystal a number of potential slip planes exists One generally orientated most favorably largest resolved shear stress

JR(max) = F(cos N cos8)max Slip occurs when JR(max) = Jcrss (critical resolved shear
stress) Concomitant applied normal stress

crss = (cos cos ) max

Minimum stress to introduce yielding occurs when N = 8 = 45o Fy = 2Jcrss

Example 1: Given: Single Crystal BCC iron Tensile stress applied along [010] direction Required: Compute the resolved shear stress along the (110) plane and [1 11] direction when a tensile stress of 52 MPa (7,500 psi) is applied. If slip occurs on (110) plane and in a [ 111] direction, and resolved shear stress is 30 MPa (4,500 psi), calculate applied tensile stress to initiate yielding.

Solution:

N- angle between (110) plane normal and the [010] direction is 450

From triangle ABC 8 = tan-1 (a 2 / a) = 54.70

= F cosN cos8 = (52MPa)(cos 45)(cos 54.7) = 21.3 MPa (3,060psi

30 MPa y= = 73.4 MPa (10,600 psi ) 0 0 (cos 45 ) (cos 54.7 )

Example 2

Problem: A FCC crystal yields under a normal stress of 2MPa applied in the [123] direction. The slip plane is (111) & slip direction is [101]. Determine critical resolved shear stress. Solution:

cos = cos =

[1 2 3] (1 1 1) (1) + 2 + 3 1 +1 +1
2 2 2 2 2 2

= =

1 + 2 + 3 14 3 1+ 3 14 2

= 0.617

[1 2 3] [1 0 1] (1) + 2 + 3
2 2 2

(1) + 1
2

= 0.756

c = y cos cos = 2 0.617 0.756 = 0.933MPa

Mechanisms of Strengthening
The ability of a metal to plastically deform depends on the ability of dislocations to move Reducing or inhibiting mobility of dislocations enhances mechanical strength

These can be used for increasing the material strength, but ductility may be lost.

When Slip is Inhibited ? When Slip is Inhibited ?

Dislocation motion may be inhibited by:
Other dislocations (entangling) Grain boundaries Point defect (solution hardening) Other phases - Precipitates
Dislocation forest

Strengthening of Metals
There are 4 major ways to strengthen metals, and all work because they make dislocation motion more difficult. They also reduce the ductility: 1) Cold work (Strain Hardening) 2) Reduce grain size (Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction) 3) Add other elements in solid solution (Solid Solution Strengthening) 4) Add second phase particles (Precipitation or Age Hardening) These mechanisms may be combined. For example, the worlds strongest structural material (with some ductility) is steel piano wire. It combines all four strengthening mechanisms, and can have a yield strength of 500,000 psi. One wire, 0.1 in diameter, can hold up a 4,000 lb Ford Explorer.

STRAIN HARDENING
Ductile material becomes harder and stronger as it is plastically deformed The dislocation density expressed as total number dislocation length per unit volume mm/mm3 increases from 105 to 106 mm-2 for a heat treated metal to 109 to 1010 mm-2 for a heavily deformed metal. Dislocation strain field interactions Dislocation density increases with deformation or cold working Dislocations are positioned closer together On average, dislocation-dislocation strain fields are repulsive

= K

n T

n ~ 0.5 (FCC) ; n ~ 0.2 (BCC) n ~ 0.05 (HCP)

n = strain hardening exponent measures the ability of a metal harden

flow = 0 + k disl
Where disl: dislocation density

crss versus density

Cold Working
Cold working: plastic deformation of a metal or alloy at a temperature where dislocations are created faster than they are annihilated

A0 Ad % CW = A 0

100

Where, %CW: percent of cold work A0: original cross-sectional area Ad: area after deformation

Influence of Cold Working on Mechanical Properties

As the yield strength and the tensile strength increases with increasing amount of cold working, the ductility of the metal decreases.

Example: Given : Copper rod is cold worked such that its diameter is reduced from15.2 mm to 12.2 mm. Determine its tensile strength and ductility
2 2

12 . 2 15 . 2 2 2 % CW = x 100 = 35 . 6 % 2 15 . 2 2
From Figure TS vs CW From Figure ductility vs CW TS = 340 MPa % EL = 7 %

Effects of plastically deformed polycrystalline metal at temperature less than Tm:

Change in grain shape Strain hardening Increased dislocation density Stored energy

When metals are plastically deformed about 5% of deformation energy is retained internally associated with dislocations. The properties of the cold worked metal (partially or totally) can be restored by: Recovery Recrystallization and Grain Growth

Recovery
Some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of dislocation motion as a result of enhanced atomic diffusion at elevated temperature. Effects of recovery in cold worked metals: Ductility increases Yield and tensile strength decreases slightly Hardness decreases slightly. Metal toughness increases. Electrical and thermal conductivity of the metal is recovered to their precold-worked states. There is no apparent change in the microstructure of the deformed material.

Recrystallization
process

Cold worked material high dislocation density lot of stored energy very strong not very ductile

Recrystallized material low dislocation densit no stored energy weak ductile

After recover grains remain at relatively high energy states Recrystallization formation of a new set of strain-free and quiaxed grains, low dislocation densities Driving force difference in internal energy between strained nd unstrained material New grains form as small nuclei grow and replace parent material short range diffusion The process is a heat treating process called annealing.

4s at 580oC

8s at 580oC

33%CW Brass

ain Growth after 15 min; d after 10min at 700oC

Recrystallization Temperature Temperature at which recrystallization just reaches completion in one hour. 450oC for the above example Typically between 0.5 to 0.33 the melting point of the metal.

Depends on the amount of cold work and of the impurity level of the alloy. There is a critical degree of cold work below which recrystallization can not be made to occur.

Notes on Recrystallization: The amount of cold work controls the initial recrystallized grain size. More cold work more stored energy easier nucleation more nucleation sites smaller grain size. The temperature and time of annealing controls the final grain size, if there is substantial growth after recrystallization. Grain growth requires diffusion, and diffusion is faster at higher temperatures. The time at temperature controls the total amount of diffusion. A fine grain size has many benefits beyond strength. In general, finer grain sizes are more resistant to fatigue and fracture failures, and have more reproducible and homogeneous mechanical properties. Finally, in general, metals with fine grain size are also more easily formed in metalworking operations than metals with

Grain Growth
Grains continue to grow following recrystallization at elevated temperatures Energy is reduced as grains grow in size As large grains grow small grains shrink Boundary motion short-range diffusion of atoms from one side of the boundary to the other. At a constant temperature

d d = Kt
n n 0

d0 initial grain diameter at time (t) = 0 K and n are time independent constants n is generally $2

STRENGTHENING BY GRAIN SIZE REDUCTION

Dislocations cannot penetrate grain boundaries, because the crystal planes are discontinuous at the grain boundaries.

Therefore, making a smaller grain size increases strength

 This can be quantified by the so-called Hall-Petch Equation:

where y is the yield strength, d is the grain size, and o and ky are material constants. The increases in strength at very small grain sizes can be enormous. One are of current research is on so-called nanostructured metals, which have grain sizes from 20 to 200 nm. They can have very high strength.

Influence of grain size on yield strength (brass)

100 m 5 m

Strength triples as grain size goes from 100 m to 5 m.

As d, ys and the ductility or or it is constant

SOLID SOLUTION STRENGTHENING

Impurity atoms that go into solid solution impose lattice strains on surrounding host atoms Lattice strain field interactions between dislocations and impurity atoms result in restriction of dislocation movement This is one of the most powerful reasons to make alloys, which have higher strength than pure metals.

Example: 24k gold is too soft. If we put in 16% silver and 9% copper, we get an alloy that looks just like pure gold, but is much more strong and durable. We call this 18k gold. (18/24 = 75% gold)

Why it works
Too small atoms like to live here. (they reduce lattice strain caused by the dislocation). Too big atoms (or interstitials) like to live here (there is more space.)

Atoms of either type diffuse to dislocations during high emperature processing, then exert forces on the dislocation ater to keep them stuck.

Small impurity atoms exert tensile strains (see figure below) Large impurity atoms exert compressive strains Solute atoms tend to diffuse and segregate around dislocations to reduce overall strain energy cancel some of the strain in the lattice due to the dislocations

Compressive Strains Imposed by Larger Substitutional Atoms

Add nickel to copper, strength goes up, ductility goes down for the same reason: dislocation mobility is decreased. Note: trade-off in properties

DISPERSION STRENGTHENING

The strength and hardness in some metal alloys may be enhanced by the presence of extremely small and uniformly dispersed particles within the original phase matrix. Whether introduced as insoluble particles in powder compaction (dispersion strengthening), or as precipitates in a solid state reaction (precipitation or age hardening), second phase particles are generally the most potent strengthening agent in practical high strength engineering materials. Ironbase, aluminum, nickel, titanium alloys all employ second phases to achieve high strength. The size, shape, and amount of second phase particles controls the mechanical properties of the alloy.

Second phase particles in the form of very small uniformly distributed particles are added to the matrix. These will block dislocation motion extremely well, and strengthen the material. This is the basis for all high strength metal alloys. Example: Put fine particles of Al2O3 in aluminum: slip plane

Dislocations in Al cannot penetrate into alumina, they get stuck, and the strength goes up.

Precipitation Hardening
Precipitation hardening - process in which small particles of a new phase precipitate in matrix which harden material by forming impediments to dislocation motion. Also known as Age Hardening because hardness often increases with time (even at room temperature!) Requirements: System must have: an appreciable maximum solubility of one component in the other (several percent) a solubility limit that rapidly decreases in concentration of major component with decreasing temperature

can heat it up, without melting, to one phase at high temperature two phases at low temperature

Solvus - solubility limit of B in . Beyond this concentration second phase will form.

 Precipitation hardening is accomplished with two separate heat treatments Co to To until all B atoms dissolved into ( i.e. phase is removed) and one phase is obtained. Then the alloy is quenched (rapidly cooled) to T1 so as to prevent precipitation of any phase. A metastable situation occurs but diffusion rates are often too slow at T1 to allow phase precipitation for long periods of time.

Step I :Solution heat treatment: heating composition

Step II : Precipitation heat treatment: Supersaturated

a solid (i.e. has more B in it that it should have) heated to T2 where kinetics allow for controlled diffusion of B to form phase. Forms finely divided phase. Finally, alloy is cooled to stop precipitation.

Solution heat treatment Quench

(Grain growth) Overaging

Precipitation hardening Precipitation hardening

Discs of Cu atoms 1 or 2 monolayers thick

Concerns:
Precipitation sometimes occurs at room temperature. Overaging - if particles are allowed to grow too large strength of alloy can diminish as particles grow. Why?

Example: Precipitation Hardening & Overaging in Al alloys

luminum - low density, high ductility, high reserves (8% of earth crust), asily recycled, high corrosion resistance, high luster, high conductivity, but ow strength for a metal. Applications include automotive, aerospace, whenever low weight is desirable. Strengthened by precipitation hardening!

Example Al(ss) (i.e. phase) matrix with CuAl2 (i.e. phase) precipitates

Precipitation occurs in two stages

Supersaturated a solid solution

Formation of small, coherent, particles of phase called GuinierPreston Zones. Stress field associated with lattice strain impedes dislocations more effectively than

Overaging - continue to grow and become incoherent with matrix. Phase now becomes phase Lattice strain reduced. Dislocations motion not as restricted as in phase

The most quoted age hardening curve is that for Al-Cu alloys performed in he late 40s. Keep in mind hat age hardening was known empirically (Alfred Wilm) as a technologically useful treatment from the early days of aluminum alloys.

Higher Cu contents result n higher maximum hardness because larger volume fractions of precipitate are possible.

After solution annealing, Al-Cu alloy is at its softest. Immediately after quenching, final shaping and machining are conducted before age hardening begins. Age hardening may require heating (artificial aging) although many Al-Cu alloys age harden at room temperature (natural aging). Some alloys experience precipitation hardening at room T. These have to be refrigerated to prevent hardening. Example: Al 2024 Al-Cu rivets and wing plates for aircraft construction. solution treated, quenched and refrigerated at suppliers plant, shipped in dry ice. rivets are driven (deformed) in cold state. Wing sections shaped (deformed) in cold state

Application

Micrograph of precipitation hardened Al alloy aircraft wing segment. GP zones are typically only a few atoms thick and 25 atoms across

Natural aging curve for 6061 Al alloy

20 Yield strength, ksi

10 1 day 1 month 1 week 0 1 year

0.1

10

102

103

104

105

Aging time (after quench), hrs (log scale)

Al-Cu and Al-Cu-Mg alloys Al-Cu model alloy, not used much in practice Al-Cu-Mg Duralumin (Al-3.5Cu-0.5Mg-0.5Mn) first widely used age hardening alloy (discovered accidentally in 1906 by Alfred Wilm) Widely used for aircraft construction 2618 Al-2.2Cu-1.5Mg-1Ni-1Fe developed for Concorde skin to withstand elevated temperature operation (T=130oC at Mach 2) Normally roll clad with pure Al or Al-Zn to protect against corrosion

Strength and ductility during precipitation hardening (Precipitation hardening characteristics of a 2014 aluminum alloy (0.9%Si, 4.4%Cu, 0.8%Mn, 0.5%Mg}

Strengthening of Aluminum Yield Strength ksi 2.5 %elongation 60

Material

Pure annealed Al

Solid solution strengthened with 1% Mn

45

Highly cold worked pure Al

22

15

Precipitation hardened alloy 7075

80

10