Under the guidance of

Mr. D M Nathaniel
G&G department, RIL

Submitted By
Manoj kumar maurya
MSc.Tech Geophysics Exploration
BHU, Varanasi

Acknowledgement
 In lieu of all the people in Reliance Industries Limited (E&P) I have in mind, my
first and foremost thanks go to Mr. Anand Binani, HR and Mr. Harish Ghodpade, HR for
arranging this training for M.Tech.and M.Sc. Tech., final year students. I am extremely
grateful to them for their kind support and help rendered during the entire period of this
training.
My sincere thanks go to Mr. D.M. Nathaniel under the supervision we completed
our project. I also would like to give my thanks to Mr. Murali Krishna and Mr. Ravi
Verma for their proper guidance.
I would like to give thanks to Srinivas, Kenneth D’silva, Sreejesh Shreedhar,
Megha Saxena, Chandan Mishra, Shashirekha mahapatra for their cooperation in
completion my project.
Last but not least, I thank my fellow for making this venture memorable.

Manoj Kumar Maurya

Contents
1. Introduction
2. Synthetic Seismogram
3. Seismic attributes
4. Sequence Stratigraphy
5. Interpretation-
a)-Manual Interpretation of seismic sections
b)-Structural intepretation at Work Station
 INTRODUCTION

SEISMIC INTERPRETATION:
The main goal of seismic data interpretation is that to identify the oil and gas
reservoir. In seismic exploration, an acoustic energy source radiates elastic waves into the
earth from the surface; receivers on the surface detect acoustic energy reflected from
geological interfaces within the earth. The recorded data are processed in ways which
ease interpretation. Seismic interpretation is the interface between the exact mathematics
of seismic data processing and inexact geological reasoning. Oil and gas occur in
sedimentary rocks, where source rocks are present and a porous and permeable reservoir
is sealed by an impermeable cap rock to form a trap. The principal uses of seismic
exploration include basin analysis, prospect generation and their evaluation by mapping
geological structures and stratigraphic features. Integration of exploration well data with
seismic data can reduce the ambiguity of the interpretation.

Seismic interpretation techniques include both structural and stratigraphic

methods applied at both basin-scale and prospect-scale based up on the objective of the
given project. As the time period given for this training is about a month, preliminary
interpretation aspects on 2D and 3D seismics are exposed viz., concepts of petroleum
geology, seismic structural and stratigraphic analysis, synthetic seismogram and hands-on
correlation and mapping techniques on state of art work stations.

Synthetic Seismogram
 Synthetic seismogram is a model of the total seismic earth response of the layered
earth through which the waves pass. It is the result of one of many forms of forward
modeling to predict the seismic response of the Earth. Synthetic seismogram is a direct
one-dimensional model of acoustic energy traveling through the layers of the earth.
The Reflection Coefficient is the ratio of reflected wave to incident wave at point
of reflection. A series of horizontal acoustic impedance (ρ V) contrast at the boundaries
from which reflectivity is computed by the equation,
ρ2 V2 – ρ1 V1
RC =
ρ2 V 2 + ρ1 V 1

where V is the interval velocity.

Synthetic seismogram is generated by convolving the reflectivity derived from

digitized acoustic and density logs with a suitable zero or minimum phase derived from
seismic data.
By comparing marker beds or other correlation points picked on well logs with
major reflection on the seismic section, interpretation of the data can be improved.
The quality of the match between a synthetic seismogram depends on well log
quality, seismic data processing quality, and the ability to extract a representative wavelet
from seismic data.
The acoustic log is generated calibrated with check-shot or vertical seismic profile
(VSP) first-arrival information before combining with the density log to produce acoustic
impedance.
Successful interpretation depends upon the ability to combine the knowledge
gained from seismic data with geological interpretation derived from logs and cores. For
interpretation, a deterministic seismic model of the earth is constructed from the
geological model the seismic trace to reduce discrepancies. An iterative comparison
process continues until a satisfactory fit between synthetic and actual data is obtained.
Theoretical models are prepared by considering acoustic properties.
 FIG: Synthetic Seismogram

Uses of Synthetic seismogram:

1. The identification of geological horizons which give rise to observed reflection.
2. It does not contain multiple reflections. The identification of multiples becomes
easy from the synthetic seismogram. It can also be used for identification of ghost
reflections.
3. It can be used in finding stratigraphic traps. This can be done by checking
“character of reflection” with the velocity to stratigraphic situation in the earth.
4. The relationship between the velocity and the correlated layers give a possibility
of extrapolating velocity distributions of points in the surroundings.
5. The comparison of synthetic record with field records permits better correlation
between the recorded reflection and their cause in the earth.
 6. It is an aid to correlation comparable to electric logs.

Problems in Synthetic seismogram:

Synthetic seismograms are rarely a perfect match to field data. There are many
reasons for this,
1. Frequency- Sonic logging operates in the kilohertz frequency range (high
frequency, short wave length), while seismic data are typically 10-90 Hz (low
frequency, long wavelength). This means the sonic log is influenced by a tiny
volume of rock compared to a seismic wave passing the borehole.
2. Anisotropy- Sonic log measures velocity in the vertical direction, while seismic
waves travel at significant angles away from the vertical. If anisotropy is present,
then velocity depends on the direction the wave is traveling. It is not uncommon
to see a 10-15% difference between horizontal and vertical velocities.
3. Bore Hole- Sonic logging sensitive to washouts and other borehole problems,
while long wavelength seismic waves are not.
4. Wavelet- The user is required to specify the wavelet, and it is very easy to get it
wrong. Some advanced software products can scan the data and attempt to extract
the wavelet. But these scanners involve many user parameters.

SEISMIC ATTRIBUTE
 SEISMIC ATTRIBUTE:
Seismic attribute is a quantitative measure of a seismic characteristic of interest,
usually based on basic information of time, amplitude, frequency, and attenuation, either by
direct measurements or by logical or experience based reasoning. These all the seismic character
can be plot on a map (called as seismic attribute map). And these are all measurable property of
seismic data which are able to describe the properties of the rock strata. These different seismic
attributes has different signature over different geological events, even some of hidden
geological events can also be identify using this attribute analysis.

3.1.1. Reflection Strength:

Reflection Strength is defined as the square root of the total energy of the seismic
signal at an instant of time. It is a measure of the instantaneous value of the amplitude of
the envelope of the seismic trace. It has robust, smoothed, polarity independent measure
of energy in the seismic trace at a given time. It can be thought of as amplitude
independent of the phase.

Reflection Strength = [(Recorded Trace) 2 + (Quadrature Trace) 2] ½

The colour coded reflection strength display provides a measure of reflection

character.It is sometimes helpful in distingushing reflections from massive reflections and
those which are interference composites. Reflections from massive interferences tend to
remain constant over a large region. Reflectons which result from the interference of
several seperate reflections tend to vary along a seismic line as the thichness or contrast
of the individual component reflector changes.Unconformities oftain show changes in
reflection strength character as the sub cropping beds changes.This may be the indicator
for unconformities which are otherwise difficult to detect.Seismic sequence bounderies
tends to have fairly large reflection strength.

3.1.2. Instantaneous phase:

 Instantaneous phase is a quality independent of reflection strength. It is a measure
of the continuity of events on a seismic section. It describes the angle between the phasor
and the real axis as a function of time. Therefore, it is always a number between -180°
and +180°.
Regardless of the amplitude value at the peak or trough, the magnitude of the
instantaneous phase will always be the same. In other words, instantaneous phase tends to
equalize weak and strong events and thus makes it easier to track weak, coherent events.
It emphasizes the continuity of the events. Therefore reveals faults, pinch outs,
angularities, channels, fans, and internal depositional geometries.Phase displays often
reveal sedimentary layering patterns and thus can help in identifying seismic sequence
boundaries.
3.1.3. Instantaneous frequency:
The time derivative of the instantenious phase is called instantenious frequency.
It is a measure of the slope of the phase trace.Instantaneous frequency is given by

Instantenious frequency often characterises a particular sequence of reflectors.It is also

sensitive to changes in bedding sequence and is thus usefull in telling where stratigraphic
changes occur.
Frequency measurement can be smoothed using time windows of varing shape and
length in time .One particularly useful scheme is to use weighting according to reflection
strength which produces “average weighted frequency.”Hydrocorban accumulations often
have low frequencies immedietely beneath them; this is refered to as a “low frequency
shadow” and often a useful hydrocorban indicator. Instantaneous frequency also provides a
means of detecting and calibrating thin–bed tuning effects, which may result from the
constructive and destructive interference
Apparent polarity:
The sign of the seismic trace (whether positive or negative ) at the instant where the
refleciion strength has its maximum value is determined and called polarity.An apperent
polarity display indicates the sign of the reflection coefficient, if a reflection is an isolated
primary reflection and if the wavelet is zero phase.In colour presentation one colour is used
to indicate negative polarity and another to indicate positive polarity and the intensity of the
colour is varied according to the magnitude of the reflection strength.
Apparent polarity can sometimes help you distinguish between different types of
amplitude anomalies. “Bright spots associated with gas accumulations in clastic sediments
usually have lower acoustic impedance than surrounding beds and hence show negative
polarity for reservoir top reflections and positive polarity for reflections from gas-oil or gas-
water interfaces (often called flat spots)”.
In seismic section, the reflection continuity is not good before phase attribution.So, from this
section understanding the depositional environment is very difficult. These seismic section
processed by phase attribution to enhance reflection continuity. In figure phase attributed
section showing the good continuity of prograding facies.

Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy

 Application of seismic stratigraphic interpretation techniques to sedimentary basin
analysis has resulted in a new way to subdivide, correlate, and map sedimentary rocks.
This technique is called sequence stratigraphy. Sequence stratigraphy is defined as the
study of rock relationships within a time-stratigraphy framework of repetitive, genetically
related strata bounded b surfaces of erosion or nondeposition, or their correlative
conformities. The fundamental unit of sequence stratigraphy is the sequence, which is
bounded by unconformities and their correlative conformities. A sequence can be
subdivided into systems tracts, which are defined by their position within the sequence
and by the stacking patterns of parasequence sets and parasequences bounded by marine-
flooding surfaces.
Sequence stratigraphy is essential to our understanding of the marine sedimentary
processes which produce hydrocarbon source rocks, reservoirs, and seals. Sequence
stratigraphy gives us a well-defined methodology for analyzing sedimentary strata and
predicting subsurface lithologies.

The basic premise of seismic sequence stratigraphy is two-fold:

1)-Identify large-scale sequences, covering periods of several million years, on
the basis of seismic reflector geometries;
2)-Correlate these sequences to a global sea level chart.
Depositional sequences correlate throughout sedimentary basins and probably correlate
globally. Particular sets of depositional processes and thus certain depositional
environments and lithofacies are associated with particular systems tracts. Thus, an
identification of systems tracts on seismic data provides a framework for more accurate
prediction of depositional environments and lithofacies. An accurate knowledge of
depositional environments and lithofacies enables improved predictions of reservoir,
source, and seal rocks and migration pathways. Fundamental control of depositional
sequences is, we believe, short-term eustatic changes of sea level superimposed on
longer-term tectonic changes.
Systems tracts also provide a seismic target that is thicker than an individual reservoir
unit, but which has a genetic relationship to that reservoir unit. This genetic relation
between systems tracts and reservoir units makes the seismic prediction of reservoirs
more dependable.

SEISMIC REFLECTIONS AND GEOLOGIC TIME LINES

Three types of relations between seismic reflections and geologic time lines are
identifiable on seismic sections. They are (1) seismic reflections that follow synchronous
geologic time lines within (plus-or-minus) one-half wavelength; (2) seismic
discontinuities, such as unconformities and downlap surfaces, which follow geologic time
boundaries; and (3) rare seismic reflections caused by fluid interfaces and certain
diagenetic changes that follow surfaces that are diachronous to geologic time lines.

Stratal surfaces represent ancient surfaces of deposition and therefore are

essentially time synchronous. The duration of the hiatus associated with a discontinuity
varies, but the discontinuity is, itself, a geologic time boundary because it separates rocks
of different ages and does not cross other chrono stratigraphic surfaces. For example, the
ages of the strata above and below an unconformity will vary if the areal extent of erosion
or non-deposition varies with time, but all the rocks below the unconformity will be older
then the rocks above the unconformity. Although time lines merge along a discontinuity,
none actually cross it. For these reasons, reflections derived from discontinuities are not
diachronous. Diachronous reflections are caused by fluid interfaces, such as gas/water,
Gas/oil, and (in certain cases) oil/water; by gas hydrates; and by certain diagenetic
changes, such as the opaline transition in areas where biogenic silica is plentiful.
FIG: Seismic reflections, lithofacies and major variables affecting stratigraphy

In the figure black lines represent seismic reflections. Notice how they cross
lithofacies boundaries. For example, those near the top of the diagrammatic section pass
from fine-grained marine shales, through nearshore sands, into coastal-plain sediments,
and finally onlap as a fluvial lithofacies. The seismic reflections are following former
depositional (stratal) surfaces, which are the true physical surfaces in the rocks and are
not the time-transgressive lithofacies boundaries. There is no continuous physical surface
at a time-transgressive lithofacies boundary for a reflection to follow. Higher amplitudes
associated with the greater impedance contrasts within the zone of sand/shale
interbedding, for example, typically climb from one reflection to the next as the zone of
maximum impedance contrasts climbs. Because rock formation boundaries commonly
follow mappable lithofacies boundaries, seismic reflections also will cross formation
boundaries where they are time transgressive.
Although seismic reflections closely follow synchronous geologic time lines, bed
spacing can cause the reflection peak to vary by plus-or-minus one-half the seismic
wavelength. Two discontinuities, onlap and downlap are shown in Figure. The lower one,
located near the base of the diagrammatic section, is characterized by regional onlap; it is
a sequence boundary. The upper one, located in the middle of the diagrammatic section,
is characterized by downlap; it is a downlap surface.
Notice that the sequence boundary is located within the sand lithofacies and crosses into a
coastal-plain lithofacies. The downlap surface is located within the fine-grained marine
shales and passes laterally into nearshore sands and coastal-plain sediments. The location
of sequence boundaries and downlap surfaces within lithofacies or formational units is
common.

Seismic Sequence Analysis:

The objective of seismic sequence analysis is to interpret depositional

sequences and systems tracts on seismic sections by identifying discontinuities on
the basis of reflection terminations. The best way to do this is to look for places
where two reflectors converge. Where reflectors converge there will be reflection
terminations. Mark the reflection terminations with arrows. Draw in the discontinuity
surface between the onlapping and downlapping reflections above, and the
truncating and toplapping reflectors below. If the discontinuity becomes conformable,
trace its position across the section by reflection correlation. Identify the type of
discontinuity. If it is characterized by regional onlap above and truncation below, it is
probably a sequence boundary. If it is characterized by regional downlap, it is most
likely a downlap surface.
FIG: Reflection termination pattern and types of discontinuities

Discontinuities are underlined.

In simulated seismic section, within the lower zone of convergence, reflectors

terminate by lapping out in an up dip direction. This is the onlap pattern. Another zone of
convergence at the top of the section is also characterized by onlap. Between these zones
characterized by onlap are zones of convergence characterized by reflectors that
terminate by lapping out in a down dip direction. This is the downlap pattern. On the left-
hand part of the diagram, reflectors terminate upward below the discontinuity and
indicate that a section is missing. Two examples are shown: the eroded top of a structure,
and regional beveling. This is the truncation pattern. On the upper right-hand portion of
the diagram, the reflectors lap out against each other below the discontinuity. This is the
toplap pattern. In the right center, reflectors terminate below the discontinuity by
depositional thinning (sediment starvation). This is the apparent truncation pattern.

SEISMIC FACIES ANALYSIS:

The objective of seismic facies analysis is to quantify and interpret seismic
parameter variations caused by geologic changes within seismic sequences and systems
tracts. The best way to identify reflection pattern geometries is to look for reflectors that
dip at a greater angle than those above and below. In general, these reflectors will
indicate depositional slopes. This pattern is called offlap. The rollover at the top of the
offlap pattern indicates the depositional shelf break. Seaward of the depositional coastal
break is deeper water. Deep water preserves depositional topography. Many seismic
reflection patterns have been identified on seismic data recorded where the sediments
were deposited in deep-water settings. Some of the most important seismic reflection
patterns are offlap, submarine onlap, submarine mounds, channel/overbank complexes,
slumps, slope-front-fill, climbing toplap, and drape. The offlap pattern can be used to
interpret paleowater depths by analyzing the height of the prograding clinoforms. The
onlap pattern helps to interpret submarine topography.
Mounds, channel/overbank complexes (leveed channel deposits), and slumps
indicate lowstand deposits. Slope-front-fill generally indicates distal mudstones.
Climbing toplap is often associated with deep marine current deposits. Drape indicates
sediments derived from suspension. The apparent truncation and downlap patterns
indicate sediment starvation. Landward of the shelf edge, seismic facies interpretation is
much more difficult because sea level and stream gradients tend to level out depositional
surfaces, causing parallel to subparallel seismic reflection patterns. Within this area,
truncation, subtle onlap, and mounded fluvial deposits create most of the stratal
geometries. Sequence boundaries are shown as solid lines and downlap.

FIG: Simulated seismic section with common seismic facies pattern.

 INTERPRETATION
After acquisition and processing has been done the seismic data need to be
interpreted. Seismic interpretation is the process of determining information about the
subsurface of the earth from seismic data. Three seismic sections are manually coloured
according to reflection terminations. The sequence boundaries such as unconformity
surfaces are marked. Then, these sections are interpreted in terms of depositional
environments and tectonics.

EXERCISES: SEQUENCE & FACIES ANALYSIS

Manually Interpreted Seismic Section-1

Seismic section consists of a super sequence comprising of many subsequences.

B1 B2 B3 B B5
B
B
C

D
F
E
Sequence A: This sequence is made of a number of parasequences having same trend of
deposition separated from each other by a number of unconformities. Sediments are
deposited under calm environment condition dipping in SE direction. Upper part of the
parasequence shows onlap reflection pattern, which is lapout against underlying layer. It
is a transgressive sequence due to rise in sea level.

Sequence-B: There are a number of progradational facies indicating deltaic depositions.

These deltas are out-building basinward, indicating that the rate of sediment supply in the
basin is more than the rate of subsidence during period of sea level fall.

Sequence-B consists of six subsequences. Every sub sequence indicates different

geometry of delta. Stretching of deltaic depositions mainly depends on velocity of the
river system, water depth and sediments supply. Subsequence-B1&B2, indicate decreased
velocity of the river system, as indicated by oblique progradations. Seismically it is
possible to identify delta plain, delta front and prodelta. The gradient fall point of a
progradation is the subjacent shelf-edge (deltafront), rich of reservoir quality sands. Both
deltaplain (landward part) and prodelta (basinward part) with reference to deltafront are
expected to contribute organic rich clays/shales.

In sequence-B3, the elongated progradation indicates the velocity of the river system as
on a gradually increased pattern. Whileas sequence-B4, denotes an eroded deltaplain
facies( erosional unconformity) indicated by toplap reflection pattern. However,
Sequence-B5 and B-6, indicate as deposited in overall transgression without erosional
toplap pattern and indicate a general delta out-build towards basin side.

Sequence-C: This sequence shows a numbers of unconformities. Sediments are

thickening in NW- direction and thinning towards SE-direction The SE side of this
sequence is folded due to possible intrusions.

Sequence D: This sequence shows parasequence sets of sediments depositions which

are modified by compressional forces. Consequently, the middle part exhibits anticlinal
structural configuration and SE part is deformed due to intrusion.
Sequence E: Sediment depositions are affected by post depositional tectonics thereby
indicating anticlinal fold. It is interesting to note that the sediment thickness in the middle
portion is more and toward both the sides is thinner in this anticlinal fold (clearly a case
of structural inversion).

Sequence F: This sequence is made up of either salt dome or some magmatic intrusion.

Manually Interpreted Seismic Section-2

This section is consists of a number of sequences which are interpretations are as

follow:

D
Sequence-A:
In this sequence, sediment thickness is more which is indication of the more
supply of sediments from the river system and they are deposited along with subsidence.
Unconformities present in this sequence indicate that the sediments deposited in different
periods. A large number of faults can be seen which are developed due to structural
deformation. Subsequence pattern shows that deposition takes place under high velocity
of the river system.

Sequence-B:
It is consists of a number of subsequences separated from each other by
unconformities. Upper layers are thin due to less supply of sediments from the river
system while thickness of the lower layers increases with depth. This sequence has a
gentle slope going down to basin.
Sequence-C:
:
A number of layers separated from each other by unconformities have variable
thickness which may be due to subsidence and high velocity of the river system. Some
layers are folded due to structural deformation.
Sequence-D:
This Sequence may be basement rock which identified by the chaotic seismic
reflection configuration.
Seismic Section-3:

This section is consists of a number of sequences which are interpretations are as

follow:

Sequence-A: The parallel trend of subsequence boundaries indicate that sediments are
deposited under calm environment. They are onlapping against the upper eroded surface
of sequence-B. The erosion of sediments is due to wave action.
Sequence-B: This sequence consists of a number of sequences, each of which are
separated by major unconformities dipping towards south direction .The thickness of the
sediments increases towards south which shows that rate of accommodation space is
more than the rate of sediments supply.
Sequence-C: This section shows deltaic configuration at the lower portion(?). Here
sediment supply of the river system and velocity is more which causes elongated
prodelta.
Sequence-D: A homogeneous layered sequence of varying thickness, which was
undergone structural deformation. There are many faults observed which are extending
vertically downward with some curved in nature. These faults are of both normal and
reverse type. This structure is very similar to salt dome and presence of constrained fault
making it very prosperous for the accumulation and movement of the hydrocarbons.
Sequence-E:
This sequence indicates that they are made up of either salt dome or of magmatic
intrusion.
 STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION AT WORK STATION
Seismic Horizon Picking:
The process of picking the reflections is pivotal to seismic data interpretation,
because to identify the distribution of sediments. A horizon is a reflection that appears on
seismic section over some geological extent. The reflection identified as representing
some geological formation. Reflections are identified as coming from the tops of the
certain formation which can be interpreted. These horizons are picked from seismic
section throughout the survey area. These horizon picking are nothing but a picking of
time, by reading the reflection time. Generally, horizon picked for preparing the contour
map, isochron map or isopach map. Horizons picked in one of the block in Kerala
Konkan offshore basin. Three horizons such as Oligocene age, Mid-Miocene age and
present age reflectors are picked. The horizon periods are confirmed with help of drilled
wells.

FIG: Uninterpreted seismic section

 FIG: Horizon picked section for Oligocene, Mid-Miocen and Present

Mid-Miocene and Present.

Preparation of Contour Maps:

Contour maps are the two-dimensional surface by connecting equal height or

depth. From this contour map we can visualize the three-dimensional surface. Contour
maps are used to know the structural style, the location of traps and the structural risk in
the prospect. Selection of contour interval should be appropriate to the type of anomaly to
be delineated.
The contour interval depends on the size of the feature. For example basement
maps can be contoured with 100 ms intervals and steeply dipping areas also 100 ms
contour interval can be chosen to avoid clustering of contours. When the feature is small
or requires details, even 19 ms contour is preferred. If the interest lies in the delineation
of small amplitude structures, the contour interval should preferably be double the
accuracy of the data.
In plane surface beds are having equal spaced contour intervals. For widely
spaced contour imply the gently dipping, whereas the dense spaced contours imply the
steeply dipping beds.
The contour maps of sea bottom, Mid-Miocene boundary, and Oligocene
boundary are drawn in the seismic section. Widely spaced contour intervals are indicates
that continental shelf part and where contour intervals start to dense interval is indicates
the continental edge. In continental slope portion the contour interval is more closely
arranged.
In contour maps, near the continental shelf edge we can see the presence of small
patches. These patches are may be isolated carbonate platforms. Isolated carbonate
platforms are formed, when the shallow sea level. From the map, the width of continental
shelf is more in the northern part and narrows down towards southern part.

FIG: Present age contour map

FIG: Contour map of Mid-Miocene age
FIG-5.8: Contour map of Oligocene age Seismic Horizon

Preparation of Isopach maps:

Isopach maps are represents the equal thickness of layers. The thickness variation
(depth) can be made where the unit is defined by seismic horizons at upper and lower
boundaries. The procedure is to determine the difference of reflection depth of the
boundary reflections at each observation point and plot these values on a map and
contour. Isopach map is picking two horizons on well logs, subtracting the depth of one
from that of the other, putting the difference on a map, and contouring.
 The contoured map then shows how the thickness of the zone changes from place
to place. There are refinements, like calculating true thickness where there is dip, rather
than just using vertical distance. An isopach shows differences in amount of material
deposited. For this purpose, the isopach is usually made over a rather thin zone, may be a
single formation. Isopach maps are useful to locate paleohighs, depocentres of several of
stratigraphic units, fault, pinchout zones, etc

Preparation of Isochron maps:

Isochron maps are a contour map represents the thickness between upper and
lower boundaries of layers in terms of time. The use of isochron maps are reduces or
even eliminates near-surface problems that will cause the absolute time to be in error.
Isochron map section made by flattening a horizon and it as showing paleostructure, the
structure of the lower horizon at the time the upper horizon was deposited. That is, the
time interval map is the map you would get if you flattened a horizon on a number of
sections to show paleostructure and then picked some deeper horizon on those sections
and mapped it.
Fig:Isochron map showing sediment deposition between horizon Present day and Mid-
mioscene
Fig: Isochron map showing sediment thickness between horizon Mid-mioscene and
Oligocene