VOLUME ONE AN INTRODUCTION TO RIG TYPES AND BASIC DRILLING STRING COMPONENTS

RIG TYPES Overview: Drilling rigs like these bore or drill holes into the earth. Usually they drill to find oil or gas. They work both on land and offshore. Some are big and some are relatively small. Big rigs drill very deep holes, 20000 feet (ft), 3000 meters (m) or more; small rigs may only drill to a few thousand ft or meters. People in the oil land describe groups of rigs into 6 basic types: Land, Jack up, Platform, Submersible, Semi-Submersible and Drill Ship. A land rig drills on dry land. There is the most common rig. Light duty rigs drill holes from 3000-5000ft, or 1000-1500m; Medium duty rigs drill to depth ranging from about 4000-10000ft or 12000-3000m; Heavy duty rigs drill holes from about 12000-16000ft deep or 3500-5000m; Ultra-heavy duty rigs drill holes from about 18000-25000ft or more (5500-7500m or more). Crew members can move land rigs on trucks, tractors, trailers, barges, helicopters, heavy rolling gear, skids and in rare cases, on specialized air-pressurized equipment. Small light duty rigs are pretty simple to move. Ultra-heavy land rigs can be difficult to move.

Jack-Up A Jack up rig, drills offshore wells. It has legs that support deck and hole. When positioned over the drilling site, the bottom of the legs rest on the sea floor. Jack up rigs can drill in water depth ranging from a few feet or meters up to more than 400ft, over 120 meters. Boats to a Jack Up rig to a location with its legs up. Once the rig up crew gets the legs firmly positioned on the bottom of the ocean, they can adjust the level of the deck and the hole-height.

Platform A platform rig is a non-mobile offshore structure, that is once built, it never moves from the drill site. Companies drill several wells from the platform. Platform rigs can be Tender-Assisted Rig. The tender floats next to the rigid platform, which is firmly pent to the sea floor. Many platform rigs do not have a tender; theyre so large that theyre self-contained. Big platform rigs include the Steel-Jacket Platform, the Caisson Type, and the Concrete Gravity Type. In deep water, rig builders have to make platforms that yield to water and wind movements. Two Compliant Platform Rigs are the Guyed-Tower and the Tension-Leg.

Submersible Rig

A submersible rig rests on the sea floor when it is drilling. Workers flood compartments that cause the rig to submerge and rest on the bottom. When ready to move, workers remove the water from the compartments, this makes the rig float. Boats can then tow the rig to the next site. Rig builders design submersibles to drill in shallow water and in water up to about 175 ft deep, a little lower 50 meters. Submersible drilling rigs include the Posted Barge Submersible, Bottle-Type Submersible, and the Arctic Submersible.

Semi-Submersible A Semi-Submersible rig is a floating offshore drilling rig. It has Pontoons and Columns. When flooded with water, the Pontoons cause the unit to partially submerge to a predetermined depth. The working equipment is assembled on deck. On the drill site, workers can either anchor the rig to the sea floor or use a system of thrusters and positioners to keep the rig over the hole. Here, they have it anchored. Crew members mount the wellhead and blow-out preventers on the ocean floor. Special hollow pipe called riser pipe connects the top of the blowout preventer to the rig. In some cases, the crew uses thrusters to keep the rig over the hole, called Dynamic Positioning. The thrusters, which are connected to an onboard computer, keep the rig in position. Some Dynamically Positioned Semi-Submersibles can drill in water depths of more than 7500ft, or over 2200 meters. When keeping a rig over the hole, drilling crews use the term On-Station. Here is a semi-submersible rig loaded on a special carrier. The carrier thus allows moving the rig far distance over the ocean. For shorter moves, the rig owner tows the rig to the drill site, or, some semi-submersibles are self-propelled.

Drill Ship A drill ship is a self-propelled floating offshore drilling unit. It usually uses a sub sea blowout control system similar to the one on the semi-submersible.

KELLY & TOP DRIVES

Making a Hole Many pieces of equipment make up a rotary drilling rig. Part of it is on surface and part of it is underground, or subsurface. All the equipment has one main purpose: to put a bit at the bottom of the hole, or it can drill or make hole. To put the bit on the bottom, rig crew members screw it into a special pipe. The pipe is called the Drill String. Crew members lower the drill string and attach a bit into the hole. For the bit to drill, surface rig equipment has to rotate it, unless it is rotated by a mud motor. Equipment also has to put weight on it to force the bits teeth, or cutters into the formation. As the bit rotates, a circulating fluid has to take the drill cuttings away from the bit, otherwise, the hole will clog up. The fluid which circulates is called drilling mud.

Overview To impart rotary motion to the drill string so that the bit can turn, either a top drive or a Kelly & rotary table system is used. Power is transferred from the surface down hole, via the drill string.

Top Drive Systems Some rigs rotate the drill string with a top drive unit. Top drives are expensive but very efficient. Crew members can add drill pipe and joints to the drill string very quickly and safely and they can drill the well more efficiently with less chance of sticking the drill string in the hole as compared with the Kelly & rotary table. A powerful motor turns the drive shaft which is connected to the top drive. Crew members make up or attach the drill string to the drive shaft. The drive shaft turns the drill string and bit. Notice that the drill string go through an opening in the rotary table, the table does not, however, rotate.

Top Drive Operation A link system suspends the top drive unit from the rigs traveling block. Drill mud enters the unit through the gooseneck to the rotary hose, a flexible line that conducts drilling mud from the pump. A motor and a gear box power the main drive shaft; the crew makes up the drill string to the drive shaft. The built-in inside blowout preventers, IBOP or safety valve keeps fluids from back flowing up the drill string when the driller closes it. The crew uses the Torque Wrench assembly to make up and break out (connect & disconnect) the drill string. The elevator links suspend the elevator; the rig crew latches the elevator around the drill string to allow the top drive unit to lift it up or down.

Kelly Systems A Kelly, a Kelly Drive Bushing, a Master Bushing and a Rotary Table rotate the drill string and bit on some rigs. The Kelly is a heavy tubular device; it usually has either 4 or 6 sides, that is it either has a square or hexagonal cross section. Square kellys are less expensive than hexagonal ones, but the hex kellys are stronger. So rigs drilling deep holes often use them. Whether four or six-sided, crew members attach or make up the Kelly to the top joint of pipe in the drill string.

Kelly Operation The Kelly, four-sided or square as an example, moves through a square opening in the Kelly drive bushing. The Kelly drive bushing meets with the master bushing, which the rotary table turns. This rotates the entire drill string and attached bit. The Kelly moves down as the hole deepens.

DRILL STRING COMPONENTS

Overview Therere many components which make up the drill string as shown in this graphic.

Drill Pipe Drill pipe is strong but relatively light weight pipe. Crew members attach it to a top drive or Kelly. Drill pipe forms the upper part of the drill string. Usually the drill pipe rotates, which also rotates the bit. Each section of pipe is called a joint. Crew members screw together or make up several joints and put them into the hole as the bit drills. Drill pipe as well as other tubulars can be specified according to these characteristics: Diameter, Grades or Strength, Weight of steel, Length. The diameter, weight and strength used depends on the size of the hole, the depth of the well and the well properties. Here is a typical oil field tally book, many of these have sections in them which show standard drill pipe specifications.

DP Spec Drill pipe comes in three ranges of length: range one is 18-22 ft or 5.5-6.7 m; range two is 27-30 ft, or 8.29.1 m; and range three is 38-45 ft, or 11.6-13.7m. The most common length is range two, 27-30 ft, or 8.29.1 m. Since a hole may be thousands of ft deep, crew members may connect together hundreds of joints of pipe. Drill pipe diameter can be as small as 23/8 inches or 60.3 mm. This size weighs 4.85 pounds per foot or 7.22 kg per meter. It can be as large as 65/8 inches, or 168.3 mm. This pipe weighs about 27.70 pounds per foot or 41.21 kg per meter. However, 5 in (127mm) drill pipe is one of the more common sizes. It weighs 191/2 pounds per foot or 29.01 kg per meter. Normal drill pipe grades are E75, X95, G105 and S135. S135 is the strongest.

Box & Pin The rig crew makes up or connects drill pipe using threaded sections at each end of the drill pipe. These threaded sections are tool joints. The female tool joint is the box end at the drill pipe; the male tool joint is the pin end. Tool joints come in several sizes and types.

Drill Pipe Make Up Tool joints threads are rugged because the crew makes them up and breaks them out over and over during the drilling process. But they have to take care not to damage them. Proper care and handling of drill pipe and other oil field tubulars can prevent corrosion later on the life of the well.

Heavy Walled Drill Pipe (HWDP)

Crew members make up a heavy walled drill pipe in the drill string below the drill pipe. HWDP (often called heavy weight drill pipe) is made up between the drill pipe and drill collars. HWDP is used to provide a transition between the limber drill pipe and the drill collars, which are quite stiff. They use a HWDP reduces the stress that stiff drill collars put on the drill string, as a result, HWDP reduces fatigue on the regular drill pipe. It also helps keep the drill pipe in tension and may sometimes provide weight on the bit, just as drill collars do, especially in directional drilling. Heavy walled DP (or Heavy weight DP) has thicker walls and longer tool joints than standard DP. The longer tool joints reduce wear on the pipes body. They keep the body away from the side of the hole. The wear pad also prevents wear; it keeps the middle of the pipes body away from the side of the hole.

Spiral HWDP Spiral HWDP is another type of HWDP. Spiral HWDP has a spiral groove in the pipes body. Regular HWDP has no groove, but spiral HWDP has no wear pad. When spiral HWDP contacts the side of the hole, only a small part of the pipe body actually touches it. In fact, only the part of the pipe body between the spiral grooves touches it. The groove doesnt touch the wall of the hole, thus reducing the surface contact area. Reducing the surface contact area helps prevent the pipe from sticking.

Drill Collars (DC) Crew members make up drill collars at the bottom of the drill string. Drill collars have thick walls and are very heavy. They put weight on the bit to make the bits cutters bite into the rock and drill. Drill collars range in diameter from 3-12 inches (or 76.2-304.8) mm; they range in weight from about 650-11500pounds (or 300-5100kg). This particular 6 inch drill collar weighs about 2700 pounds (1225kg). Since the crew usually installs several DCs, you can see that a bit requires a lot of weight to drill properly. How much weight depends on the type of formation and the size and type of bit, where it can be several thousand of pounds. DCs are normally 30-31 ft (9.4-9.5m) long and have a threaded female connection at on end and a treaded male connection at the other end. It is an interesting observation that in the drilling business tubular equipment diameters and hole-diameters are almost always measured in inches but lengths are usu. measured in meters or ft.

*TOOL BOX+: Lets see how well youve been paying attention. In the section on drill pipe, we told you what the names of the male and female connections record on oil field terminology. Using the mouse, label the photo of the drill collar and then press accept to see if youre right.

Slick & Spiral DCs

[TOOL BOX]: Some DCs are slick. They have a smooth wall; some have spiral groove machined into the wall. The rig uses slick collars under normal circumstances. The rig uses spiral collars when drilling in formations where the collars may stick to the wall of the hole. Large diameter collars are fairly close to the diameter of the well bore. Under certain circumstances, they can contact the wall of the well bore and get stuck. The spiral in the DC helps prevent the DC from sticking to the wall by reducing its contact area.

Crossover Subs Crossover subs go on the drill string between the DP & DCs and other points. A crossover sub has a special box and pin threads. Manufacturers design them to join parts of the drill string that have different thread designs. For example, a drill pipes pin may not screw directly into a drill collars box so crew members make up a crossover sub in the last joint of the DP where joins the first DCs joint. The crossover subs box threads match the DPs pin threads and the crossover subs pin threads match the DCs box threads. These matching treads allow crew members to join the drill pipe string to the drill collar string. Drilling rigs typically have a large variety of crossover subs.

Reamers & Stabilizers Crew members often make up reamers and stabilizers in the drill collar string. Usually they place one or more at various points on the drill collar string near the bottom. Reamers and stabilizers hold the DC off the wall of the hole to prevent wear on the collars,but even more important, reamers and stabilizers help guide the bit in the direction that should drill. Reamers have cutters on rollers that actually cut the rock they contact. Stabilizers have blades that touch the wall of the hole but do not cut it.
Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA) Notice the lower portion of the drill string. It includes the bit, DCs, stabilizers (or reamers), and HWDP. Crew members call this part of the drill string the Bottom Hole Assembly or BHA for short. They can make up many different BHAs, which one depends on the type of formation, whether the rig is drilling straight or directional hole and so on. Pipe Rack The pipe rack is not part of the drill string but plays an important supporting role. The rig crew cannot put drill pipe and collars on the ground or deck due to the debris will ruin them. So they store them on the pipe rack. They also clean and inspect the drill string and other tubulars or pipe on the rack. DRILL BITS Overview As we discussed in the last section, crew members install the bit on the bottom drill collar. Two kinds of bits are Roller Cone Bits and Fixed Cutter Bits. Fixed cutter bits are also called fixed head bits. Roller cone bits usually have 3 cone-shaped devices with teeth or cutters. As the bit rotates, the cone and cutters rotate to drill ahead. Fixed head bits also have cutters, but manufacturers embedded them in the bits head. The bits

head moves only when the bit rotates. It has no moving parts like the cones on the roller cone bit. Both roller cone bits and fixed head bits come in sizes ranging from only 2 or 3 inches (or about 50-75mm) in diameter to more than 36 inches (about a meter) in diameter. Roller Cone Bits Two basic kinds of roller cone bits are available: one has steel teeth and the other has tungsten carbide inserts. Steel Tooth Bit On a Steel Tooth Bit, also called a Milled Tooth Bit, the manufacturer mills or forges the teeth out of the steel that makes up the cone. Steel tooth bits are the least expensive bits. When used properly, they can make hole for many hours. Manufacturers design steel tooth bits to drill soft, medium and hard formations. Tungsten Carbide Bit With tungsten carbide insert bits, the manufacturer presses very hard tungsten carbide buttons or inserts into holes drilled into the bits cones. Tungsten carbide is a very hard metal. Tungsten carbide insert bits cost more than steel tooth bits. However, they usually last longer because tungsten carbide is more resistant to wear than steel. In general, tungsten carbide insert bits drill medium to extremely hard formations, but can also drill soft formations. Soft formation bits usually drill best with a mud of moderate weight and high rotary speeds. Hard formation bits, on the other hand usually drill best with high weight and moderate rotary speeds. Fixed Cutter Bit Three types of fixed cutter bits are available: Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (or PDC bits), Diamond Bits and Core Bits. PDC bit This PDC bit has cutters made from man-made diamond crystals and tungsten carbide. Each diamond and tungsten carbide cutter is called a compact. Manufacturers place the compacts in the head of the bit. As the bit rotates over the rock, the compact shears it. PDC bits are very expensive, however, when used properly, they can drill soft, medium or hard formations for several hours without failing. PDC Compact A compact PDC layer is very strong and wear resistant. Manufacturers bond the diamond crystals to the tungsten carbide backing under a high pressure and temperature. The tungsten carbide backing gives the compact high impact strength; it also reinforces the wear resistance properties of the cutters. Diamond Bit Manufacturers make diamond bits from industrial diamonds; the diamonds are the bits cutters. Diamond is one of the hardest substances. A diamond bit breaks down the rock during drilling by either compressing it, shearing it or grinding it as shown in this edimation Here, the diamond is acting like sand paper wearing the rock away. They embed the diamonds into the metal matrix that makes up the head of the bit. Diamond bits are expensive. When properly used, however, diamond bits can drill for many many hours without failing. Core Bit and Barrel Crew members run a core bit in barrel when the geologist wants a core sample of the formation being drilled. A core bit is normally a fixed head PDC or diamond bit. It has a hole in the middle. This opening allows the bit to cut the core. Diamonds or PDCs line the opening and sides of the bit. The rig crew fix the core to a core barrel, the core barrel is a special tube, usually about 30-90 ft (or 9-27 meters ) long. They run the core barrel at the bottom of the drill string; it collects the core cut by the core bit. Cores allow

geologists to take a look at an actual sample of the formation rock. From the sample, they can often tell whether the well will be productive. SPECIAL DRILL STRING TOOLS Overview Special equipment of the drill string includes the drilling jars, measurement while drilling (or MWD) tools and mud motors. Drilling Jars The rig crew installs a drilling jar in the drill string if there is a concern of becoming stuck. Drilling jars are usually made up on the upper part of the bottom hole assembly with drill collars placed above and below the jars. When activated, a drilling jar provides a heavy blow to the stuck portion of the drilling string below the jar. Often the blow delivered by the jar is enough to knock loose the stuck string. Drilling Jar Operation To create a jarring blow up with a hydraulic jar, the driller lowers the drill string to cock the jar. Then the driller applies an upward pull. The upward pull puts the up jar in tension and allows the jar trip mechanism to slowly bleed. Eventually, the jar trips when the hydraulic oil bleeds past the ports. The drill string contracts, rapidly accelerating the bottom hole assembly above the jars. When it reaches full stroke, the jar mechanism suddenly stops the motion energy of the string. When the motion suddenly stops, it converts the kinetic energy (or energy in motion) into impact force on the stuck point. This heavy upward blow may free the stuck string below the jar. MWD Measurement while drillingMWD tools are a big help to the driller as the bit drills. Crew members usually place the tool in a special drill collar close to the bit. MWD tools send down-hole conditions and transmit them to the surface. There, the driller monitors the conditions in real time. Most MWD tools create pulses in the drilling mud; these pulses carry the down-hole information up to drilling string to the surface. Information collected by an MWD tool includes: Rock Properties, the Direction that the bit is drilling, Torque and Weight on bit. Mud Motor Often, when drilling a directional or a horizontal well, a mud motor is made up at the bottom of the drill string just above the bit as shown here. Its called a mud motor because drilling mud rotates the bit. That is, when using a mud motor, only the bit rotates, not the rest of the drill string. Mud pumped down the drill string enters the top of the mud motor when pressurized drilling fluid is forced between the elastic stator and the eccentric steel rotor. A torque is applied which cause the rotor to rotate. The rotor is connected to a drive shaft which is connected to the bit. Note that all the drill string does not rotate. Directional Wells Sometimes a well is drilled in an angle. This is called a directional well. The well is steered in an angle specified in the drilling program for many different reasons. For example, they may drill directionally sometimes if the oil or gas reservoir does not lie directly under the rig site. Horizontal Wells Horizontal wells are drilled for many different reasons. Certain reservoirs can be produced better if a horizontal portion of the well passes through the formation. The transition to the horizontal segment of the well begins at some point in the vertical portion of the well bore as shown here. This point is termed the

Kick-Off Point. The horizontal segment of the well can extend for several thousand ft. specialized drilling equipment and techniques are required to drill horizontal wells.

VOLUME TWO BASIC BOP EQUIPMENT

PRESSURE CONTROL Overview: Fluids in the formation are under pressure. When drilled, this pressure can escape to the surface if it is not controlled. Normally drilling mud offsets formation pressure, that is the weight or pressure of the drilling mud keeps fluid in the formation from coming to the surface. For several reasons however, the mud weight can become lighter than its necessary to offset the pressure in the formation. When this situation occurs, formation fluids enter the hole. When formation fluids enter the hole, this is called a kick. A blowout preventer stack is used to keep formation fluids from coming to the surface. These are called BOPs. By closing a valve in this equipment, the rig crew can seal off the hole. Sealing the hole prevents more formation fluids from entering the hole. With the well sealed or shut in, the well is under control. Rig crews use a surface BOP system on land rigs, jack-up rigs, submersible rigs and platform rigs. They use a subsea BOP system on offshore floating rigs, like semi-submersibles and drill ships.

[TOOL BOX]: Why do you suppose subsea BOP system are used on semi-submersibles and drill ships? Blowout prevention equipment is very large and very heavy. Semi-submersibles and drill ships are dynamic, that is they float and thus move with wind & waves while in working mode. On floating rigs, it is not practical to mount the BOP stack on top of the long riser pipe. The BOP stack is much too heavy for the relatively thin and flexible walls of the riser pipe. Also because the riser walls are relatively thin, they cannot withstand the high pressures that could develop inside the riser when the wells shut in on a kick. So the rig crew mounts the BOP stack on the well head at the see floor and makes up the riser on top of the stack.

Blowout A blow out is dangerous. Formation fluids like gas and oil blow to the surface and burn. Blow outs can injure or kill, destroy the rig, and harm the environment. Rig crews there for trained and work hard to prevent blowouts. Usually theyre successful, so blowouts are rare. But when they happen, they are spectacular and thus often make news.

Taking a Kick A kick is the entry of formation fluids into the well bore while drilling. A kick occurs when the pressure exerted by the drilling mud is less than the pressure in the formation that the drill string is penetrating. The mud that circulates down the drill string and up the hole is the first line of defence against kicks. Drilling mud creates additional pressure as it circulates. The mud pressure keeps formation pressure from entering the well bore. On the rig, they say mud keeps the well from kicking. Sometimes however, crew members

may accidentally allow the mud level or mud weight in the hole to drop, this drop in weight or level can happen for several reasons. For example, the crew may fail to keep the hole full of mud when they pull the pipe out of it, or they may pull the pipe too fast, which can lower the bottom hole pressure. When the mud level or mud weight drops, the pressure exerted on the formation decreases. If either happens, formation fluids can enter the hole. If they do, the well takes a kick. In other words, when the formation pressure exceeds the weight of the mud column, then the well can kick.

[TOOL BOX]: Liquids and gases exert a force against the container. That is the liquid or gas pushes against the wall of the container. If we measure the amount of push or force being exerted on each unit of area on the container, we have the pressure of liquid or gas. So pressure is defined as Force per Unit Area. Common units that are used to measure pressure are Pounds per Square Inch and Kilopascals. This gauge shows the down hole pressure of the mud column; this gauge shows the reservoir pressure. Change the pressure of the mud column and see what happens. To keep a kick from becoming a blowout, the rig crew uses blowout prevention equipment.

BLOWOUT PREVENTERS

Basic Concepts The blowout preventerBOP stack, consists of several large valves stacked on top of each other. These large valves are called blowout preventers. Manufacturers rate BOP stacks to work against pressure as low as two thousand pounds per square inch or 2000 psi, and as high as 15000psi, thats about 14000 Kilopascals to over 100000 Kilopascals. Rigs usually have two kinds of preventers. On top is annular preventer. Its called an annular preventer because its around the top of the wellbore in a shape of a ring or an annulus. Below the annular preventer are ram preventers. The shown of valves in ram preventers close by forcing or ramming themselves together. The choke line is a line through which well fluids flow to the choke manifold when the preventers are closed. Even though the preventers shut in the well, the crew must have a way to remove or circulate the kick and mud out of the well. When the BOP shut in the well, mud & formation fluids exert through the choke line to the choke manifold. The manifold is made up of special piping and valves. The most important valve is the choke. The choke is a valve that has an adjustable opening. Crew members circulate the kick through the choke to keep back pressure on the well. Keeping the right amount of back pressure prevents more kick fluids from entering the well. At the same time, they can get the kick out of the well and put in heavier mud to kill the well. That is regain control of it. The well fluids leave the choke manifold and usually to a mud gas separator. A mud gas separator separates the mud from the gas in the kick. The clean mud goes back to the tanks; the gas is flared or burned at a safe distance away.

BOP Operation When the well takes a kick and the BOP is open, well fluids force mud to flow up the well bore and into the BOP stack. When the driller closes the annular BOP, flow stops. Usually, drillers close the annular BOP first. The closed annular BOP diverts the flow of the choke line, which goes to the choke manifold. The driller can open a valve on the choke line and safely circulate the kick out of the well through the choke manifold.

[TOOL BOX]: Here is an annular preventer, click on it to see how it works. An annular BOP closes on drill pipe, drill collars or any shape of tubular in the well. It can also close an open hole, a hole with no tubulars in it at all. Its usually the first preventer used to close in the well. Here are four types of Ram-Preventers: Pipe Rams, Blind Rams, Blind-Shear Rams and Variable Bore Rams (VBR Ram). Click on each one to see how the rams work.

Pipe Rams Pipe rams are used when there is drill pipe in the BOP stack. The pipe rams fit around the pipe, closing off the annulars. Pipe rams back up the annular preventer. That is then its likely at the end the annular BOP failed, crew members could shut the pipe rams to seal the well. Also some pipe ram preventers are used to hang off or suspend the drill string and some subsea BOPs.

Blind Rams Blind rams are designed to seal an open hole. If the annular BOP fails and theres no pipe in the hole, the crew could seal the hole by closing the blind rams.

Blind-Shear Rams Blind-shear rams are designed with blades that cut through the drill pipe and then seal the open hole. Theyre used in extremely emergencies, like when an offshore floating rig has to move off a well that theyre drilling because of a hurricane or other such emergency. Blind shear rams allow them to cut the pipe, seal the hole and then move the rig a safe distance away.

VBR Ram Variable Bore Rams or VBR are special pipe rams that can close over a range of pipe sizes such as 5 inch diameter to 3 inch diameter.

BASIC BOP EQUIPMENT

Overview Here are the major parts of a land, jack-up, platform or submersible rigs blowout prevention equipment: the blowout preventer or BOP stack, the drillers BOP control panel, the BOP operating unit accumulator, the choke manifold, the choke control panel, the mud gas separator, the flare line & flare pit, the trip tank and drill string valves.

*TOOL BOX+: Prompt quiz: Youve just learned the names of the equipment used in well control operations. Lets see how well you can identify the equipment. Using the mouse, drag the labels to their correct locations. When youve completed this exercise, click the accept button.

Drillers BOP Control From this BOP control panel, the driller opens and closes or controls the blow out preventers and the line to the choke manifold. Rig builders usually place the control panel on the rig floor, close to the drillers position. Lever and switches allow the driller to quickly open and close the preventers and other valves in the system.

Accumulator The accumulator bottles store or accumulate hydraulic fluid under very high pressure, up to 3000 psi, over 20000 KPa. This high pressure fluid ensures that the preventers close very fast. The BOP operating unit accumulator is installed some distance from the rig floor.

Hydraulic Lines When the driller activates the BOP operating unit, it pumps the hydraulic fluid through the high pressure pipes of lines into the BOP stack. The hydraulic pressure opens or closes the preventers.

Operating Lever on Accumulator Usually, the driller operates the accumulator from a control panel on the rig floor. In an emergency however, crew members can operate the BOPs by using the control valves on the accumulator itself.

Choke Manifold / Chokes Here is a choke manifold. Flow gets to it from the BOP stack via a choke line. The manifold usually has two or more special valves that called chokes. Usually well flow goes through only one of the chokes, the others are back ups or used under special conditions.

Choke Operation By adjusting the size of the opening in the choke, making the opening larger or smaller, the driller adjust the amount of the flow through the choke. The smaller the opening, the less flow; the larger the opening, the more flow. The less flow, the more back pressure on the well; the more flow, the less back pressure on the well. This adjustment of back pressure keeps the pressure on the bottom of the hole constant so that no more kick fluids can enter the well.

Choke Control Panel The driller or another crew member uses the choke control panel to adjust the size of the chokes opening as kick fluids flow through it. By watching the pressure on the drill pipe and casing, and by keeping the mud pump at constant speed, the choke operator can adjust the choke to keep the pressure on the bottom of the hole constant. The choke operator must keep the bottom hole pressure constant to successfully control and circulate a kick out of the hole.
1. VOLUME TWO BASIC BOP EQUIPMENT PRESSURE CONTROL Overview: Fluids in the formation are under pressure. When drilled, this pressure can escape to the surface if it is not controlled. Normally drilling mud offsets formation pressure, that is the weight or pressure of the drilling mud keeps fluid in the formation from coming to the surface. For several reasons however, the mud weight can become lighter than its necessary to offset the pressure in the formation. When this situation occurs, formation fluids enter the hole. When formation fluids enter the hole, this is called a kick. A blowout preventer stack is used to keep formation fluids from coming to the surface. These are called BOPs. By closing a valve in this equipment, the rig crew can seal off the hole. Sealing the hole prevents more formation fluids from entering the hole. With the well sealed or shut in, the well is under control. Rig crews use a surface BOP system on land rigs, jack-up rigs, submersible rigs and platform rigs. They use a subsea BOP system on offshore floating rigs, like semi-submersibles and drill ships. [TOOL BOX]: Why do you suppose subsea BOP system are used on semi-submersibles and drill ships? Blowout prevention equipment is very large and very heavy. Semi-submersibles and drill ships are dynamic, that is they float and thus move with wind & waves while in working mode. On floating rigs, it is not practical to mount the BOP stack on top of the long riser pipe. The BOP stack is much too heavy for the relatively thin and flexible walls of the riser pipe. Also because the riser walls are relatively thin, they cannot withstand the high pressures that could develop inside the riser when the wells shut in on a kick. So the rig crew mounts the BOP stack on the well head at the see floor and makes up the riser on top of the stack. Blowout A blow out is dangerous. Formation fluids like gas and oil blow to the surface and burn. Blow outs can injure or kill, destroy the rig, and harm the environment. Rig crews there for trained and work hard to prevent blowouts. Usually theyre successful, so blowouts are rare. But when they happen, they are spectacular and thus often make news. Taking a Kick A kick is the entry of formation fluids into the well bore while drilling. A kick occurs when the pressure exerted by the drilling mud is less than the pressure in the formation that the drill string is penetrating. The mud that circulates down the drill string and up the hole is the first

line of defence against kicks. Drilling mud creates additional pressure as it circulates. The mud pressure keeps formation pressure from entering the well bore. On the rig, they say mud keeps the well from kicking. Sometimes however, crew members may accidentally allow the mud level or mud weight in the hole to drop, this drop in weight or level can happen for several reasons. For example, the crew may fail to keep the hole full of mud when they pull the pipe out of it, or they may pull the pipe too fast, which can lower the bottom hole pressure. When the mud level or mud weight drops, the pressure exerted on the formation decreases. If either happens, formation fluids can enter the hole. If they do, the well takes a kick. In other words, when the formation pressure exceeds the weight of the mud column, then the well can kick. [TOOL BOX]: Liquids and gases exert a force against the container. That is the liquid or gas pushes against the wall of the container. If we measure the amount of push or force being exerted on each unit of area on the container, we have the pressure of liquid or gas. So pressure is defined as Force per Unit Area. Common units that are used to measure pressure are Pounds per Square Inch and Kilopascals. This gauge shows the down hole pressure of the mud column; this gauge shows the reservoir pressure. Change the pressure of the mud column and see what happens. To keep a kick from becoming a blowout, the rig crew uses blowout prevention equipment. BLOWOUT PREVENTERS Basic Concepts The blowout preventerBOP stack, consists of several large valves stacked on top of each other. These large valves are called blowout preventers. Manufacturers rate BOP stacks to work against pressure as low as two thousand pounds per square inch or 2000 psi, and as high as 15000psi, thats about 14000 Kilopascals to over 100000 Kilopascals. Rigs usually have two kinds of preventers. On top is annular preventer. Its called an annular preventer because its around the top of the wellbore in a shape of a ring or an annulus. Below the annular preventer are ram preventers. The shown of valves in ram preventers close by forcing or ramming themselves together. The choke line is a line through which well fluids flow to the choke manifold when the preventers are closed. Even though the preventers shut in the well, the crew must have a way to remove or circulate the kick and mud out of the well. When the BOP shut in the well, mud & formation fluids exert through the choke line to the choke manifold. The manifold is made up of special piping and valves. The most important valve is the choke. The choke is a valve that has an adjustable opening. Crew members circulate the kick through the choke to keep back pressure on the well. Keeping the right amount of back pressure prevents more kick fluids from entering the well. At the same time, they can get the kick out of the well and put in heavier mud to kill the well. That is regain control of it. The well fluids leave the choke manifold and usually to a mud gas separator. A mud gas separator separates the mud from the gas in the kick. The clean mud goes back to the tanks; the gas is flared or burned at a safe distance away. BOP Operation When the well takes a kick and the BOP is open, well fluids force mud to flow up the well bore and into the BOP stack. When the driller closes the annular BOP, flow stops. Usually, drillers close the annular BOP first. The closed annular BOP diverts the flow of the choke line, which goes to the choke manifold. The driller can open a valve on the choke line and safely circulate the kick out of the well through the choke manifold. [TOOL BOX]: Here is an annular preventer, click on it to see how it works. An annular BOP closes on drill pipe, drill collars or any shape of tubular in the well. It can also close an open hole, a hole with no tubulars in it at all. Its usually the first preventer used to close in the well. Here are four types of Ram-Preventers: Pipe Rams, Blind Rams, Blind-Shear Rams and Variable Bore Rams (VBR Ram). Click on each one to see how the rams work. Pipe Rams Pipe rams are used when there is drill pipe in the BOP stack. The pipe rams fit around the

pipe, closing off the annulars. Pipe rams back up the annular preventer. That is then its likely at the end the annular BOP failed, crew members could shut the pipe rams to seal the well. Also some pipe ram preventers are used to hang off or suspend the drill string and some subsea BOPs. Blind Rams Blind rams are designed to seal an open hole. If the annular BOP fails and theres no pipe in the hole, the crew could seal the hole by closing the blind rams. Blind-Shear Rams Blind-shear rams are designed with blades that cut through the drill pipe and then seal the open hole. Theyre used in extremely emergencies, like when an offshore floating rig has to move off a well that theyre drilling because of a hurricane or other such emergency. Blind shear rams allow them to cut the pipe, seal the hole and then move the rig a safe distance away. VBR Ram Variable Bore Rams or VBR are special pipe rams that can close over a range of pipe sizes such as 5 inch diameter to 3 inch diameter. BASIC BOP EQUIPMENT Overview Here are the major parts of a land, jack-up, platform or submersible rigs blowout prevention equipment: the blowout preventer or BOP stack, the drillers BOP control panel, the BOP operating unit accumulator, the choke manifold, the choke control panel, the mud gas separator, the flare line & flare pit, the trip tank and drill string valves. [TOOL BOX]: Prompt quiz: Youve just learned the names of the equipment used in well control operations. Lets see how well you can identify the equipment. Using the mouse, drag the labels to their correct locations. When youve completed this exercise, click the accept button. Drillers BOP Control From this BOP control panel, the driller opens and closes or controls the blow out preventers and the line to the choke manifold. Rig builders usually place the control panel on the rig floor, close to the drillers position. Lever and switches allow the driller to quickly open and close the preventers and other valves in the system. Accumulator The accumulator bottles store or accumulate hydraulic fluid under very high pressure, up to 3000 psi, over 20000 KPa. This high pressure fluid ensures that the preventers close very fast. The BOP operating unit accumulator is installed some distance from the rig floor. Hydraulic Lines When the driller activates the BOP operating unit, it pumps the hydraulic fluid through the high pressure pipes of lines into the BOP stack. The hydraulic pressure opens or closes the preventers. Operating Lever on Accumulator Usually, the driller operates the accumulator from a control panel on the rig floor. In an emergency however, crew members can operate the BOPs by using the control valves on the accumulator itself. Choke Manifold / Chokes Here is a choke manifold. Flow gets to it from the BOP stack via a choke line. The manifold usually has two or more special valves that called chokes. Usually well flow goes through only one of the chokes, the others are back ups or used under special conditions.

Choke Operation By adjusting the size of the opening in the choke, making the opening larger or smaller, the driller adjust the amount of the flow through the choke. The smaller the opening, the less flow; the larger the opening, the more flow. The less flow, the more back pressure on the well; the more flow, the less back pressure on the well. This adjustment of back pressure keeps the pressure on the bottom of the hole constant so that no more kick fluids can enter the well. Choke Control Panel The driller or another crew member uses the choke control panel to adjust the size of the chokes opening as kick fluids flow through it. By watching the pressure on the drill pipe and casing, and by keeping the mud pump at constant speed, the choke operator can adjust the choke to keep the pressure on the bottom of the hole constant. The choke operator must keep the bottom hole pressure constant to successfully control and circulate a kick out of the hole. .

Mud-Gas Separator Often, kick fluids and mud from choke manifold go through a line to a mud gas separator. Frequently, formation gas is the main part of a kick. However, kick fluids may also contain water, oil, or combination of these fluids. In any case, the mud gas separator removes the gas from the mud. With the gas removed, the pump circulates gas-free mud into the mud tanks and back down the hole. The separated gas goes to a flare line.

Separator Operation In the separator, mud with gas in it from choke manifold enters the top and falls over several baffle plates. The gas breaks out of the mud as it falls over the baffle plates and goes into the flare line. The gas-free mud falls to the bottom outlet where it goes to the mud tanks for circulation down hole.

Flare Line & Flare Pit The flare line conducts gas from the mud gas separator to a flare pit on land rigs. The gas is burned or flared at the flare pit. Notice that the flare line outlet is a good distance away from the rig floor, so even while gas is flaring, the crew can still safely work on the rig floor. Offshore, where there is no flare pit, the flare line conducts the gas over the side of the rig. The line runs over the water, a safe distance away from the rig.

Trip Tank A trip tank is a special mud tank. It is used when they pull drill string from the hole, for example, to change out a dull bit. They also use the trip tank when they run drill string back into the hole. Pulling the drill string and running it back in is called a trip, which is why they call the small tank a trip tank. They use it to keep accurate track of how much mud the drill string displaces in the hole.

Trip Tank Operation When the crew pulls drill string from the hole, the mud level in the hole drops. If they let the mud level drop too far, it wont exert enough pressure to keep formation fluids from entering the hole. So, as the crew pulls pipe, they continually circulate fluid from the trip tank to replace the drill string and keep the hole full. They also watch for unusual changes, and may make sure that the volume of mud they put in exactly replaces the volume occupied by the drill string. Since the volumes are small, the level of mud in the trip tank is calibrated in small increments, such as stands of pipe, or barrels or liters of mud, or both. If the volume they put in is less than the volume occupied by the drill string they removed, then its likely that formation fluids have entered the hole. For example, lets say the crew pulls one stand of drill pipe. In this instance, the stand displaces .7 barrels or 111 liters. There for, they should pump .7 barrels or 111 liters of mud to replace the stand. The mud level in the trip tank should sure drop .7 barrels or 111 liters. If the level in the tank shows less, then formation fluids have entered the hole and the crew must take steps to control the well.

SUBSEA BOP EQUIPMENT

Overview Subsea BOP equipment is similar to a surface stack. There are, however, some very important differences. This section discusses these differences. Subsea stacks attach to the wellhead on the sea floor. Meanwhile, the rig floats on the water, hundreds or thousands of ft or meters above. Major parts include: the Subsea BOP stack, this is a lot like a surface BOP stack; other parts are different, however. Heres the flexible or ball joint. The marine riser with a choke line and a kill line, guide lines, the telescopic joint with riser tensioners, the hose bundle, and two control pods. The driller controls the subsea BOP valves from electric BOP control panel on the rig. The subsea hose bundle carries the control signals and hydraulic fluid from the rig down to the control pod and selected subsea BOP valves.

Marine Riser System Marine riser pipe is special pipe and fittings. It seals between the top of the subsea BOP stack and the drilling equipment located on the floating rig. Crew members run the drill string into the hole inside the riser pipe. The riser pipe also conducts drilling fluid up to the rig. Manufacturers attach two smaller pipes called the choke and kill lines to the outside. Crew members use them to control the well during a kick or special operations. Guide lines guide and help position equipment such as the BOP stack to ocean floor. The flexible joint cuts down on bending stresses on the riser pipe and BOP. The telescopic joint compensates for the vertical motion of the floating rig.

Riser & Guideline Tensioner

Crew members also attach the riser tensioning system to it. Riser tensioner lines support the long riser pipe. The riser and guide line tensioners put constant tension on the riser pipe and guide lines. This tension suspends the riser pipe. It also compensates what the movement of the rig caused by wave action. Riser tensioner systems usually range in capacity from over 300,000 to almost 1,000,000 pounds (that is 135,000 to over 450,000 kg) with 50 ft or 15 meters of wire line travel. They utilize up to 12 compression loaded tensioners that use air pressure for compensation.

DRILL STRING VALVES & IBOPS

Overview Drill string valves stop fluids from flowing up to drill string. Often, if the well kicks with the bit off bottom, formation fluids flow up the annulus, and up the drill string. Crew members close the drill string valves to stop the flow in the string. If the kelly is made up, they can close the upper or lower kelly cock. If the kelly is not made up, then they can install a full opening safety valve on the top of the drill string. An inside blowout preventer or IBOP is a one-way valve, a check valve they can install in the drill string. One side of the IBOP is a float valve that is sometimes made up in the drill string near the bit. It prevents back flow up the drill string. Another type of IBOP is the Drop-in valve or DIV. Its dropped into the drill string and falls to a special landing sub thats usually located near the top drill collar and drill stem. It allows the driller to pump mud down the string. But the check valve wont allow influx fluid to flow up the string. Another type of the inside BOP is the Heavy Duty Check Valve or Gray Type Valve after one company that makes it. Its a plunger check valve that the crew stab it in the drill pipe at the surface. Its usually used during stripping operations. Stripping is when the cerw lowers the pipe in the hole while the BOPs are closed & under pressure.

Upper / Lower Kelly Cocks An upper kelly cock is located above the kelly. The upper kelly cock normally surves as a back up to the lower kelly cock. If the lower kelly cock failed, crew members will use a special operating wrench to close the upper kelly cock. The closed upper kelly cock prevents further flow, it protects the equipment above the kelly from high pressure flow. Usually crew members close the lower kelly cock if a kick puts risk on the equipment above the kelly. They make it up at the bottom of the kelly. A crew member uses a special operating wrench to close it. The crew can also close the lower kelly cock to keep mud from falling out of the kelly when they break out the kelly to make a connection. A cock is another name for a valve. Cock is short for weathercock, which is English term for valve.

Full-Opening Safety Valve Here is a full-opening safety valve. If the kelly is not made up in the drill string and flow occurs. Crew members can insert the safety valve in the drill string. This procedure is called stabbing. A full-opening

valve has as large an inside opening as possible. When fully open, flow from the frill pipe passes through the valve with no additional restriction. This relatively large opening allows the crew to stab the valve against pressure coming out of the drill string.

Safety Valve Usage The crew picks up the safety valve by its lifting handles. They make sure its fully open and stab it into the drill pipe. Then they screw it into the pipe. Finally they use a special operating wrench to close the valve and shut off flow. Driller should make sure the rig has the right crossover subs at hand on the rig floor. Crew members should be able to make up the safety valves and any drilling string member coming out of the rotary. For example, if a drill collar is in the rotary, the safety valves threads may not match the drill collars threads. They will need the right crossover sub to make it work.

[TOOL BOX]: This well is taking a kick. To shut it in, choose one of the two valves you see here: a one-way safety valve and a full-opening safety valve. Click on the valve you wan to use. Hold your mouse button down and drag the valve to drill pipe Good choice! The full-opening safety valve is the correct valve to use in this situation. It can be stabbed on the drill pipe while its open and then close to shut in the drill string. Youre not done yet though, the annulus hasnt been sealed, so the well is still not fully secured. Click on the correct preventer on this BOP stack that should be closed first. Thats right! The annular preventer is closed first. Good job! Youve successfully closed in this well.

Float Valves Float valves also prevent flow up the drill string. Crew members place a float valve in a sub, a special drill string fitting, just above the bit. One type allows mud to be pumped down but shut against upward flow. Under normal conditions, pump pressure moves drilling mud through the open one-way valve, and influx of formation fluids from below causes the float valve to close. This prevents further flow up the drill string. Mud-Gas Separator Often, kick fluids and mud from choke manifold go through a line to a mud gas separator. Frequently, formation gas is the main part of a kick. However, kick fluids may also contain water, oil, or combination of these fluids. In any case, the mud gas separator removes the gas from the mud. With the gas removed, the pump circulates gas-free mud into the mud tanks and back down the hole. The separated gas goes to a flare line.

Separator Operation In the separator, mud with gas in it from choke manifold enters the top and falls over several baffle plates. The gas breaks out of the mud as it falls over the baffle plates and goes into the flare line. The gas-free mud falls to the bottom outlet where it goes to the mud tanks for circulation down hole.

Flare Line & Flare Pit The flare line conducts gas from the mud gas separator to a flare pit on land rigs. The gas is burned or flared at the flare pit. Notice that the flare line outlet is a good distance away from the rig floor, so even while gas is flaring, the crew can still safely work on the rig floor. Offshore, where there is no flare pit, the flare line conducts the gas over the side of the rig. The line runs over the water, a safe distance away from the rig.

Trip Tank A trip tank is a special mud tank. It is used when they pull drill string from the hole, for example, to change out a dull bit. They also use the trip tank when they run drill string back into the hole. Pulling the drill string and running it back in is called a trip, which is why they call the small tank a trip tank. They use it to keep accurate track of how much mud the drill string displaces in the hole.

Trip Tank Operation When the crew pulls drill string from the hole, the mud level in the hole drops. If they let the mud level drop too far, it wont exert enough pressure to keep formation fluids from entering the hole. So, as the crew pulls pipe, they continually circulate fluid from the trip tank to replace the drill string and keep the hole full. They also watch for unusual changes, and may make sure that the volume of mud they put in exactly replaces the volume occupied by the drill string. Since the volumes are small, the level of mud in the trip tank is calibrated in small increments, such as stands of pipe, or barrels or liters of mud, or both. If the volume they put in is less than the volume occupied by the drill string they removed, then its likely that formation fluids have entered the hole. For example, lets say the crew pulls one stand of drill pipe. In this instance, the stand displaces .7 barrels or 111 liters. There for, they should pump .7 barrels or 111 liters of mud to replace the stand. The mud level in the trip tank should sure drop .7 barrels or 111 liters. If the level in the tank shows less, then formation fluids have entered the hole and the crew must take steps to control the well.

SUBSEA BOP EQUIPMENT

Overview Subsea BOP equipment is similar to a surface stack. There are, however, some very important differences. This section discusses these differences. Subsea stacks attach to the wellhead on the sea floor. Meanwhile, the rig floats on the water, hundreds or thousands of ft or meters above. Major parts include: the Subsea BOP stack, this is a lot like a surface BOP stack; other parts are different, however. Heres the flexible or ball joint.

The marine riser with a choke line and a kill line, guide lines, the telescopic joint with riser tensioners, the hose bundle, and two control pods. The driller controls the subsea BOP valves from electric BOP control panel on the rig. The subsea hose bundle carries the control signals and hydraulic fluid from the rig down to the control pod and selected subsea BOP valves.

Marine Riser System Marine riser pipe is special pipe and fittings. It seals between the top of the subsea BOP stack and the drilling equipment located on the floating rig. Crew members run the drill string into the hole inside the riser pipe. The riser pipe also conducts drilling fluid up to the rig. Manufacturers attach two smaller pipes called the choke and kill lines to the outside. Crew members use them to control the well during a kick or special operations. Guide lines guide and help position equipment such as the BOP stack to ocean floor. The flexible joint cuts down on bending stresses on the riser pipe and BOP. The telescopic joint compensates for the vertical motion of the floating rig.

Riser & Guideline Tensioner Crew members also attach the riser tensioning system to it. Riser tensioner lines support the long riser pipe. The riser and guide line tensioners put constant tension on the riser pipe and guide lines. This tension suspends the riser pipe. It also compensates what the movement of the rig caused by wave action. Riser tensioner systems usually range in capacity from over 300,000 to almost 1,000,000 pounds (that is 135,000 to over 450,000 kg) with 50 ft or 15 meters of wire line travel. They utilize up to 12 compression loaded tensioners that use air pressure for compensation.

DRILL STRING VALVES & IBOPS

Overview Drill string valves stop fluids from flowing up to drill string. Often, if the well kicks with the bit off bottom, formation fluids flow up the annulus, and up the drill string. Crew members close the drill string valves to stop the flow in the string. If the kelly is made up, they can close the upper or lower kelly cock. If the kelly is not made up, then they can install a full opening safety valve on the top of the drill string. An inside blowout preventer or IBOP is a one-way valve, a check valve they can install in the drill string. One side of the IBOP is a float valve that is sometimes made up in the drill string near the bit. It prevents back flow up the drill string. Another type of IBOP is the Drop-in valve or DIV. Its dropped into the drill string and falls to a special landing sub thats usually located near the top drill collar and drill stem. It allows the driller to pump mud down the string. But the check valve wont allow influx fluid to flow up the string. Another type of the inside BOP is the Heavy Duty Check Valve or Gray Type Valve after one company that makes it. Its a plunger check valve that the crew stab it in the drill pipe at the surface. Its usually used

during stripping operations. Stripping is when the cerw lowers the pipe in the hole while the BOPs are closed & under pressure.

Upper / Lower Kelly Cocks An upper kelly cock is located above the kelly. The upper kelly cock normally surves as a back up to the lower kelly cock. If the lower kelly cock failed, crew members will use a special operating wrench to close the upper kelly cock. The closed upper kelly cock prevents further flow, it protects the equipment above the kelly from high pressure flow. Usually crew members close the lower kelly cock if a kick puts risk on the equipment above the kelly. They make it up at the bottom of the kelly. A crew member uses a special operating wrench to close it. The crew can also close the lower kelly cock to keep mud from falling out of the kelly when they break out the kelly to make a connection. A cock is another name for a valve. Cock is short for weathercock, which is English term for valve.

Full-Opening Safety Valve Here is a full-opening safety valve. If the kelly is not made up in the drill string and flow occurs. Crew members can insert the safety valve in the drill string. This procedure is called stabbing. A full-opening valve has as large an inside opening as possible. When fully open, flow from the frill pipe passes through the valve with no additional restriction. This relatively large opening allows the crew to stab the valve against pressure coming out of the drill string.

Safety Valve Usage The crew picks up the safety valve by its lifting handles. They make sure its fully open and stab it into the drill pipe. Then they screw it into the pipe. Finally they use a special operating wrench to close the valve and shut off flow. Driller should make sure the rig has the right crossover subs at hand on the rig floor. Crew members should be able to make up the safety valves and any drilling string member coming out of the rotary. For example, if a drill collar is in the rotary, the safety valves threads may not match the drill collars threads. They will need the right crossover sub to make it work.

[TOOL BOX]: This well is taking a kick. To shut it in, choose one of the two valves you see here: a one-way safety valve and a full-opening safety valve. Click on the valve you wan to use. Hold your mouse button down and drag the valve to drill pipe Good choice! The full-opening safety valve is the correct valve to use in this situation. It can be stabbed on the drill pipe while its open and then close to shut in the drill string. Youre not done yet though, the annulus hasnt been sealed, so the well is still not fully secured. Click on the correct preventer on this BOP stack that should be closed first. Thats right! The annular preventer is closed first. Good job! Youve successfully closed in this well.

Float Valves

Float valves also prevent flow up the drill string. Crew members place a float valve in a sub, a special drill string fitting, just above the bit. One type allows mud to be pumped down but shut against upward flow. Under normal conditions, pump pressure moves drilling mud through the open one-way valve, and influx of formation fluids from below causes the float valve to close. This prevents further flow up the drill string. VOLUME THREE INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING CLUIDS

OVERVIEW Drilling fluid or drilling mud as many people call it is a vitality in a rotary drilling process. The term drilling fluid includes air, gas, water and mud. Mud refers to the liquid that contains solids and water or oil. The mud is made up with clay and other additives that give it desirable properties.

MUD TYPES

Water Based Mud Often, water is the base of drilling mud. Water makes up the liquid part or phase of a water-based mud. Crew members put clay and special additives into the water to make a mud with the properties needed to do its job well. For example, clays give it thickness or viscosity. The water in the mud may be fresh water, sea water or concentrated brine (salt water). The one used depends on its availability and whether it gives the mud the needed properties to drill the hole efficiently.

Oil Mud At times, down hole drilling conditions require the crew to add oil to the mud, or in some cases, crew members use oil instead of water as the base of the mud. This is called oil-based mud. Oil based mud has many advantages. It can stabilize the formation and reduce downhole drilling problems. However, it is harder for the crew to work with because it can create slippery conditions and environmental precautions must be used. From an environmental standpoint, mud with oil is more difficult to handle because the oil clings to the drill cuttings. The oil must be cleaned off the cuttings before theyre disposed of.

Drilling with Air Sometimes drilling fluid is dry air or natural gas. Here, dry air is coming out of the rigs Blooey Line, carrying very fine drilled cuttings. Air drilling uses very large air compressors instead of mud pumps. Drilling with air or gas can prevent formation damage and can overcome severe lost circulation problems. And it allows the bit to drill very fast. Down hole conditions have to be just right for air or gas to be usable. For example, the bit cannot drill through formations containing large amounts of water. The water mixes with the cuttings and the air or gas and clogs up the hole.

Foam Drilling If small amounts of water are present in the formations being drilled, special equipment can inject a foam agent into the air stream. The foam helps separate the cuttings and remove water from a hole.

Aerated Drilling In some cases, the rig operator may use aerated mud, which like foam drilling, helps prevent clogging of the well bore. Aerated drilling uses both mud and air pumped into the standpipe at the same time.

DRILLING FLUID FUNCTION

Overview When circulated down the drill string and up the hole, drilling mud serves many functions. For example, mud cleans the hole, cools and lubricates the bit & the drill string, lifts cuttings to the surface, carries information about formations being drilled, stabilizes the well bore, controls formation pressure and suspends cuttings when pumping stops.

Cleaning the Hole One function of mud is to clean the hole. A clean hole allows the bit to drill into uncut formation rock. Here is an example of what can happen when cuttings are not moved off bottom. Mud jets out of the bit and moves cuttings away from the bottom of the hole. The mud then carries the cuttings up the annulus and to the surface for disposal.

Cooling / Lubrication Heat is encountered down hole. Deep formations can be very hot and friction from rotating drilling components generates a lot of heat. High temperatures increase drill string and bit wear. Drilling fluid helps to reduce the temperature in the drill string down hole while drilling. In addition, drilling fluid provides lubrication to the drill string and bit that helps prevent wear.

Protecting Wellbore Walls Mud stabilizes the hole, keeps it from caving in. As mud moves up the hole, it usually flows by permeable formations. Permeable formations although allow the fluid to flow, when the mud is next to a permeable formation, pressure forces the liquid part of the mud, the filtrate, into tiny openings or pore spaces in the formation. This leaves behind a thin sheet of solid particles, known as mud cake. These solids plaster the

side of the hole, much like the plaster on the wall of a building. The wall cake helps keep the well from caving in.

Controlling Formation Pressure The column of mud in the well creates pressure down hole, called hydrostatic pressure. The hydrostatic pressure of the mud column offsets formation pressure. Mud is the first line of defence in well control. As long as the hole is full of mud, that is the right weight, the well cannot kick and perhaps blowout. A kick is the entry of formation fluids into the well bore. The kick forces drilling mud out of the hole. If crew members fail to control a kick, a blowout can occur. A blowout is the uncontrolled flow of drilling mud and formation fluids out of the hole.

Obtaining Downhole Information Mud is also used to obtain information about formations down hole. Mud loggers, by examining cuttings at the surface, can gather important information about the formation being drilled and the conditions down hole.

MUD PROPERTIES & ADDITIVES

Bentonite In water, or oil based drilling mud, crew members usually add clay, called bentonite, or similar mineral. Bentonite swells in water, therefore thickens the mud, gives viscosity, to help clean the cuttings from the hole and provide other desirable properties.

[TOOL BOX]: Viscous fluids are more resistant to flow. Honey is a good example of a viscous fluid, pure water is not viscous.

Barite Barite is a heavy mineral. The crew adds barite to mud to make it heavy or dense. Barite is over four times heavier than water. Dense mud exerts more pressure than light mud. Weighted mud controls formation pressure. This is called Primary Well Control.

[TOOL BOX]: Primary well control is using the density or weight of the drill fluid to provide sufficient pressure to prevent the influx of formation fluid into the well bore. If sufficient mud pressure is not used while drilling, the pressurized formation fluid forces the mud up the well bore where it blows out of

control. When the hole is full of mud that weighs the right amount, the pressure of the mud equalizes the pressure of the formation, so formation fluids cant enter the well bore.

PH The control of many mud properties depends on its PH. The PH of mud is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. The PH scale runs from 0 to 14. If the mud is neutral, neither acidic nor alkaline, it has a PH of 7. Mud with a PH below 7 is acidic, a PH above 7 shows that the mud is alkaline. Most drilling muds require a high PH, at least 9, or higher. [TOOL BOX]: Prompt quiz: Weve said that most drilling mud should have a PH of 9 or greater. Will the mud be called acidic or alkaline?

Caustic Soda Because mud needs to have a high PH, another common mud additive is Caustic Soda or Sodium Hydroxide. Caustic soda is often called caustic. Crew members add caustic soda to the mud to control PH. Caustic soda increases the PH value, it makes the mud more alkaline. In general, caustics are the most dangerous chemicals that youll handle on the rig. High strength solutions can seriously burn your skin. Be very careful when handling it to avoid injury, wear the proper personal protective equipment, also remember to always add caustic soda to water, never add water to caustic soda. If you do, the caustic soda will boil up, splatter and cover you with a burning chemical.

Gelled Mud When drilling stops, say let the crew make a connection (add a joint of drill pipe to the string), the driller normally stops pumping mud. When pumping stops, the mud stops moving. At rest, mud gels, that is it becomes a semi-solid like gelatin. Gelled mud suspends the cuttings. Gelling keeps the cuttings from falling down hole and piling up around the bit. The ability of a gel to keep the cuttings suspended is measured by its gel strength. When the driller starts the pump and resumes muds circulation, the muds gel strength reduces, which allows the drilling fluid to flow easier.

MUD TESTS

Overview Weve just covered a few key points about mud additives and the properties that mud should have to allow a successful drilling. On the rig, it is important for crew members to constantly monitor and maintain these properties. An important member of the drilling team is the mud engineer. The mud engineer runs tests on the drilling fluid. The mud engineers job is to monitor and maintain the muds properties to the

specifications of the well operator. He may also recommend changes to improve drilling, such as adding more caustic soda to increase the muds PH. In this section, we will learn about tools thatre used to monitor mud properties.

Mud Balance The density, or weight per unit volume of the drilling mud determines how much hydrostatic pressure the mud column exerts on the formation. It is therefore important to know the muds density at all times. To determine mud density, the mud engineer or helper uses a mud balance. The person weighing the mud puts a small amount of mud in the mud container at left on the balance. He then slides the adjustable counterweight to the right or left until the arm balances on the fork room. The person then reads the mud density at the point on the arm next to the counterweight. In many areas, mud density is read in pounds per gallon but can also be reported in pounds per cubic foot, milligrams per liter, and other units. Mud density is usually called mud weight by the rig crew.

[TOOL BOX]: Calculate the density of mud by adjusting the counterweight on the mud balance. Click on the correct density when youve finished.

Marsh Funnel The viscosity of the mud is thickness or resistance to flow, is also an important factor. The muds viscosity determines how well it can carry cuttings up the hole. One measure of a muds viscosity is its funnel viscosity. That is how many seconds does it take exactly one quart of mud to flow out of a special funnel called a Marsh Funnel. A Marsh Funnel has a hole in the bottom thats the standard size. The mud engineer or helper pours one quart of mud into the funnel and records the time that it takes to run out into a pitcher or beaker. In this example, one quart of mud flows out of the funnel and into the beaker in 35 sec, so this mud has a funnel viscosity of 35 sec. A less viscous or thinner mud would flow through the funnel faster; a more viscous or thicker mud would flow through the funnel slower.

Rotational Viscometer This device also measures muds viscosity. It is a more scientific viscosity measure than the Marsh Funnel. A Fann V-G Meter measures the muds viscosity in centipoises. A centipoise is a unit of measure for viscosity, just as an inch is a unit of measure for length. The Fann V-G Meter works by spinning a rotor or bob in a sample of mud at two different speeds. In addition, a Fann V-G Meter is used to determine a muds yield point, which is a measure of the muds resistance to flow. Combined with a timer, the Meter also measures the muds gel strength. Gel strength is the muds ability to temporarily solidify or gel when its not flowing.

*TOOL BOX+: Heres a mud with high gel strength. Click the button labeled lower gel strength to see what would happen if the gel strength wasnt this high.

Filter Press This is a Filter Press. Inside the white container is a piece of porous paper called filter paper. Also inside the container is a mud sample. The mud engineer puts the mud sample under 100 pounds per square inch of pressure for 30 minutes. The pressure forces the liquid part of the mud, the filtrate, through the filter paper and into the graduated cylinder. By measuring the amount of the filtrate, the mud engineer can get an indication of the amount of filtrate that will be lost to down hole formations and the amount of solids or wall cake build up on the wall of the hole.

Chloride Test Mud engineers may run other drilling mud tests. One common test is for salt or chloride in the mud filtrate. By adding Potassium Chromate and other chemicals, the engineer can determine if the hole has penetrated a salt formation. It can also determine whether salt water has entered the well bore, which may be a sign of a kick. VOLUME FOUR MUD CIRCULATION & TREATING EQUIPMENT

MUD SYSTEM OVERVIEW Overview The rig uses many pieces of equipment to circulate and treat or condition the mud.

Mud Tanks Mud circulation begins here, in the mud tanks, sometimes called pits. Crew members prepare the mud in these tanks and make it ready for circulation

Mud Pumps The heart of the circulating system is the mud pump. Often, rigs have two pumps, one primary pump and one for back up. Or, if hole conditions required, the driller can compound or combine the two pumps to circulate large volumes of mud. In fact, on deep wells, the rig may have three or four compound pumps. The powerful pump, or pumps, pick up mud from the mud tanks and send it to the drill string and bit. The pump moves the mud into the discharge line, up to standpipe and into the rotary hose.

Standpipe & Rotary Hose The standpipe takes the mud about half way of the mast. The rotary hose is attached to the standpipe. The rotary hose is strong, flexible hose that moves with the swivel as it goes up and down in the mast. From the

rotary hose, the pump moves mud through the swivel and then down the kelly and drill string. On rigs with a top drive, the mud moves through a passage in the top drive and then into the drill string.

Bit & Annulus The pump moves the mud down the drill string to the bit. At the bit, the mud jets out of the openings or nozzles in the bit. The jets of mud move cuttings away from the bit. Mud then continues up the annulus, carrying the cuttings with it.

Return Line, Shaker & Mud tanks From the annulus, the mud with the cuttings in it goes through the return line, sometimes called the Flow Line, to the shale shaker. The shale shaker removes the cuttings from the mud. The mud then falls into the mud tanks, where the mud pump can pick it up and continue the circulation process.

[TOOL BOX]: Arrange this circulating equipment in proper order, place the mouse around the component, click and hold on it and move it to its proper position. The mud pump is in position, what comes next?

MUD STORAGE, TANKS & RESERVE PIT Overview: Mud is made up at the rig location. Most rigs have several steel mud tanks. Mud and additives are mixed and held in the tanks. Some land rigs also have a reserve pit dug out of the ground. Mud tanks are also called mud pits, a carrier over from the days of earthen pits, mud tank is the preferred term. The rig does not necessarily use all the mud tanks at once, although it does use several. The active tanks hold mud the pump actively circulates.

Mud House Often, mud components come to the rig in sacks. Normally, the crew stores the sacks in a special compartment called the mud house or sack room. The house or room keeps the sacks dry and allows them to be stored with care.

Bulk Tank These silo-like tanks are bulk tanks or P-tanks. They hold mud additives like barite and bentonite. Crew members use some additives in such large quantities that suppliers load them into the bulk tanks to save time and money. Bulk tanks usually have their own hopper or pneumatic system for transferring the additives to the mud system.

Active Tank The pump takes the mud out of the active mud tanks and circulates it through the system. Crew members connect the mud tanks with the piping and manifold. The number of active mud tanks depends on the amount of mud needed to keep the hole full, and the volume required on the surface to keep the mud in good condition for circulating.

Sand Trap The sand trap is the tank directly below the shale shaker. The shale shaker removes most of the cuttings from the mud, but some are so small the shaker cannot trap them. These fall into the sand trap. The sand trap is the first settling tank. Crew members have to clean it regularly to remove the built-up solids.

Settling Tanks Some small or old rigs may have two or more settling tanks in the tank system. They allow solids in the mud to settle out, but settling tanks do not do a very good job as compared with newer generation solidsremoval equipment. So, today, most rigs use a dessander and desilter.

Reserve Tanks Reserve tank is not a part of the active mud tank system, instead, the crew uses them to hold excess mud, or they may use them to mix a different type of mud in the pumps currently circulating. They may also store heavy mud for emergency well control operations.

Slug Tank A slug tank is a relatively small separate tank, or it may be a small separate part of a larger tank. The crew uses the slug tank to mix a slug. A slug is a small amount of heavy mud that is pumped down the string. Crew members may also use the slug tank to mix a small amount of mud for a special purpose. For example, the driller may need place or spot a small quantity of high viscosity mud, also called a pill, at some point down hole.

Suction Tank The suction tank is where the mud pump picks up mud ready to circulate down hole. Mud in the suction tank should be clean, free of solids & gas, and be properly formulated or conditioned.

Chemical Tank

Crew members use the chemical tank to make special chemicals, such as caustic, that they will put into the active mud tanks.

Reserve Pit On some land rigs, the rig owner digs a large pit next to the rig. This pit is called the reserve pit. The crew puts waste mud and run-off from the rig site in the reserve pit. In an emergency, they can also use it as a place to put more mud than the tanks can hold. Often, the rig operator lines the reserve pit with a thick plastic sheet to prevent liquids from leaching into the soil. And if the rig is on a migratory bird fly way, the operator covers it with a netting to keep the waterfowl from landing in it. Land rigs drilling in environmentally sensitive areas will not have a reserve pit. Instead, waste & run-off of a hole to an approved waste disposal area.

[TOOL BOX+: Here is your chance to be the drillers assistant and carry out task to keep the mud system operating properly. For each task the driller gives you, click the location where the task will be carried out. When you select the right location, youll get your next instructions. See if you can carry out all five tasks before the timer runs out. Click begin when youre ready to start.

MUD PUMPS Over View Powerful mud pumps pick up mud from the suction tank, and circulate the mud down hole, out the bit, and back to the surface. Although rigs usually have two mud pumps, and some times three of four, normally they use only one at a time. The others are mainly used as back up in case one fails. Sometimes however, the rig crew may compound the pumps. That is, they may use two, three or four pumps at the same time to move large volumes of mud when required. Rigs use one of two types of mud pumps: triplex pumps or duplex plumps. Triplex pumps have three pistons that move back & forth in liners; Duplex pumps have two pistons that move back & forth in liners. Triplex has many advantages: they weigh 30% less than a duplex of equal horsepower or kilowatts; the lighter-weighted parts are easier to handle, and therefore easier to maintain. The other advantages include: they cost less to operate, their fluid end is more accessible, and they discharge mud more smoothly, that is the triplexs output does not surge as much as duplex. One of the most important advantages of triplex over duplex pumps is that they can move large volumes of mud at the higher pressure required for modern deep hole drilling. Triplex pumps are gradually phasing out duplex units.

Triplex Pump In a triplex pump, the pistons discharge mud only when they move forward in the liner. Then when they move back, they draw in mud on the same side of the piston. Because of this, theyre also called singleacting. Single-acting triplex pumps pump mud at relatively high speeds. Input horsepower ranges from 220 to 2200 (from 164-1641 KW); large pumps can pump over 1100 gallons per minute (over 4000 liters per

minute). Some big pumps have a maximum rated working pressure of over 7000 psi (over 50000KPa) with 5 inch (137 mm) liners.

Triplex Pump Operation Heres a schematic of a triplex pump. It has 3 pistons, each moving in its own liner. It also has 3 intake valves and 3 discharge valves. It also has a pulsation dampener in the discharge line. Look at the piston at left, it has just completed pushing mud out of the liner and through the open discharge valve. The piston is at its maximum point of forward travel; the other two pistons are at the other positions in their travel, also pumping mud. But right now, concentrate on the left one to understand how the pump works. The left piston has completed its back stroke, drawing in mud through the open intake valve. As the piston moved back, it lifted the intake valve off its seat and drew mud in, a strong spring holds the discharge valve closed. The left piston has moved forward, pushing mud out through the now open discharge valve, a strong spring holds the intake valve closed. The left piston has completed its forward stroke, the full length of the liner, completely discharging the mud from it. All three pistons work together to keep a continuous flow of mud coming into and out of the pump. Crew member can change the liners and pistons, not only can they replace worn-out ones, but they can also install different sizes. Generally they use large liners and pistons when the pump needs to move large volumes of mud at relatively low pressure; they use small liners and pistons when the pump needs to move smaller volumes of mud at relatively high pressure.

[TOOL BOX]: You can control the position of the piston with your mouse to see how the triplex pump operates at any given point in this cycle.

Duplex Pump In a duplex pump, the pistons discharge mud on one side of the piston and at the same time, taking in mud on the other side. Notice the top piston and liner. As the piston moves forward, it discharges mud on one side as it draws in mud on the other. Then, as it moves back, it discharges mud on the opposite side and draws in mud on the side where it earlier discharged. Duplex pumps are therefore double-acting. Doubleacting pumps move more mud on a single stroke than a triplex, however, because theyre double acting, they have a seal around the piston rod. The seal keeps them from moving as fast as triplex. Input horsepower ranges from 190 to 1790 (or from 142-1335KW). The largest pumps max. rated working pressure is about 5000psi (almost 35000KPa) with 6 inch (152 mm) liners. [TOOL BOX]: Triplex and duplex pumps are called reciprocating pumps because of the back & forth motion of their pistons. Use your mouse to move this duplex pumps piston back & forth so you can study the pumps operation.

Pump Components

A mud pump has a Fluid End, Power End and Intake & Discharge Valves. The fluid end of the pump contains the pistons with liners, which take in and discharge the fluid or mud. The pumps pistons draw in mud from the intake valves and push mud out through the discharge valves. The power end houses the large crankshaft & gear assembly that moves the piston assemblies in the fluid end. Pumps are powered by a pump motor. Large modern DC electric rigs use powerful electric motors to drive the pump. Mechanical rigs use chain drives or power bands (belts) from the rigs engines and compound to drive the pump.

Bladder-type Pulsation Dampener A pulsation dampener connected to the mud discharge line smooth out surges created by the pistons as they discharge mud. This is a standard bladder-type dampener. The bladder in the dampener body separates pressurized nitrogen gas above from mud below. The bladder is made from synthetic rubber and is flexible. When mud discharge pressure presses against the bottom of the bladder, nitrogen pressure above the bladder resists it. This resistance smoothes out the surges of the mud leaving the pump.

[TOOL BOX]: Here is a pump without a pulsation dampener. See the surges or pulses of high pressure mud leaving the pump. These surges can cause vibrations and damage or wear equipment. Add the pulsation dampener to see the difference it makes. Using your mouse, click on the pulsation dampener and drag it into place.

Non-bladder Type Pulsation Dampener Here is the latest type of pulsation dampener. It does not have a bladder. It is a sphere about four ft (1.2 m) in diameter. It is built into the mud pumps discharge line. The large chamber is full of mud. It has no moving parts, so it does not need maintenance. The mud in the large volumes sphere absorbs the surge of the mud leaving the pump.

Suction Dampener A suction dampener smoothes out the flow of the mud coming into the pump. Crew members mount it on a triplex mud pumps suction line. Inside the steel chamber is an air-charged rubber bladder of diaphragm. The crew charges the bladder about 10-15 psi (50-100KPa). The suction dampener absorbs surges in the mud pumps suction line caused by the fast moving pump pistons. The pistons constantly start and stop the muds flow through the pump. At the other end of the suction line, a charging pump sends a smooth flow of mud to the pumps intake. When the smooth flow meets the surging flow, the impact is absorbed by the dampener.

Discharge Line Relief Valve Workers always install a discharge pressure relief valve. They install it on the pumps discharge side in or near the discharge line. If for some reason, too much pressure builds up in the discharge line, perhaps the

drill bit or annulus gets plugged, the relief valve opens. The open valve protects the mud pump and system against damage from overpressure.

Suction Line Relief Valve Some rig owners install a suction line relief valve. They install it on top of the suction line, near the suction dampener. They mount it on top, so it wont clog up with mud when the system shut down. A suction relief valve protects the charging pump and the suction line dampener. A suction relief valve usually has a 2 inch (50 mm) seat opening. The installer normally adjusts it to a 70 psi (500KPa) reliving pressure. If both of the suction and discharge valves failed on the same side of the pump, a high back flow or a pressure surge would occur. The high backflow could damage the charging pump or the suction line dampener.

Pump Discharge Line The discharge line is a high pressure line through which the pump moves mud. From the discharge line, the mud goes through the standpipe, and rotary hose, to the drill string equipment.

Mud Conditioning Over View: The shale shaker mechanically takes out the large cuttings from the mud. It does not, however, remove very fine cuttings and other small solid particles. These solids can be fine sand particles and other very fine materials, often called silt. Good drilling practice requires removing these undesirable solids. If not removed, the solids can increase the weight of the mud more than required, reduce the bits penetration rate and significantly increase the rate of wear on circulating equipment. The rig uses mechanical solidsremoving equipment, such as hydrocyclones and centrifuges to remove the fine solids. Sometimes the hole penetrates a formation that has small amount of gas. This gas gets into the mud, becomes entrained in it and must be removed before the pump re-circulates the mud back down hole. A degasser removes entrained gas from the mud.

Shale Shaker The shale shaker has rapidly vibrating screens. The mud and cuttings from the return line fall onto it. The vibrating screens catch the larger cuttings. These cuttings fall into the reserve pit, the sea, or other container for disposal. The liquid mud goes into the sand trap, which is a special mud tank. Shale shakers look simple, in fact, though, manufacturers carefully design them to make the screens vibrate in a verycontrolled way.

Degasser

Sometimes, the crew sends mud through a vacuum degasser. The degasser removes gas from the mud. If the gas were not removed, it could make the mud too light, not dense enough. As a result, the well could kick, formation fluids could enter the well bore and have to be controlled to prevent a blowout. Another problem, if the driller recirculates gas-cut mud, the gas could cause the mud pump to gas-lock. Gas-locked pumps pump gas and mud instead of just mud, which is highly inefficient. So to remove gas, crew members use a degasser.

Vacuum Degasser Operation In a vacuum degasser, mud with gas in it enters at the top and spills out over special baffle plates, a spreader. Spreading out of the mud presents a large surface area for the gas to break out. Also the vacuum pump creates a vacuum, pressure lower than the surround atmosphere inside the degasser. This vacuum makes it very easy for the gas to escape from the spread-up mud. The removed gas leaves through a vent, which sends the gas a safe distance away from the rig. The gas-free mud falls to the bottom and goes back into the mud tanks down stream from the degasser.

Hydrocyclone A hydrocyclone system consists of several cones. Mud enters through a side opening at the large end of each cone. It swirls around inside the cone. This centrifugal force or cyclone motion throws the larger particles to the side of the cone. There the particles move to the bottom of the cone and drop out. Clean mud goes out the outlet at the top. A desander has large cones, it removes particles as small as about 40 microns. A micron is one millionth of a meter, which is very small. A desilter has smaller cones than a desander. Disilters remove particles down to about 20 microns. A mud cleaner has steel smaller cones, it removes particles down to bout 7 microns. Since barite, the desirable solid, which gives weight to the mud, is also about 7 microns, screens are included on mud cleaners to retrieve the barite so that it can be returned to mud system.

Hydrocyclone Operation Inside the cone, mud enters from the side and spirals down. This movement flings the solids to the side. The spiraling action creates a vortex in the center, somewhat like a tornado. It is an area of lower pressure, so the vortex sucks the liquid mud up through the center and out through the top of the cone. Meanwhile, the solids slide down the side and out of the bottom of the cone. The smaller the cone, the smaller is the particle it can remove, but more cones are needed to handle a given volume of mud.

Centrifuge A centrifuge spins mud at high speed. This creates centrifugal force. Centrifugal force throws the particles to the side of the centrifuge, where theyre removed. A centrifuge removes particles as small as 2-5 microns, which includes barite. Sometimes, crew members run a centrifuge at a specific speed to remove

barite so the rig can use it again on a next tool. Occasionally, the rig owner runs two centrifuges, the first removes the barite, and the second the finer particles. Crew members then re-add the barite to the mud system.

Agitator Crew members mount agitators on one or more of the tanks. Agitators stir the mud in the tanks to keep solids from settling and to maintain uniform mud properties. One popular agitator is the paddle-type, an electric motor rotates paddle to stir the mud.

Pit Volume Totalizer A Pit Volume Totalizer, or PVT, alerts the driller to changing the level of mud in the tanks. A float in each tank rises or falls if the mud level rises or falls. For example, if the level rises, the rising floats send a signal to a recorder and to a digital panel on the rig floor. The panel alerts the driller of the rise. This device is called a pit volume totalizer, or PVT, because it measures the gain or fall in each of the tanks or pits, totals the gain or fall and sends this information to the driller on the rig floor. If the mud level in the tanks fall, the PVT also alerts the driller. This float in a mud tank is part of a pit volume totalizer. Usually, crew members install a float in each active tank. The floats rise or fall with the mud level in the active tanks. Mud level in the tanks is vital information. If the mud level rises, it often means that the well has kicked, formation fluids have entered the hole and forced mud out. The kick fluids replace mud in the hole and cause the mud level in the tanks to rise. On the other hand, if mud begins going into a formation, if mud is lost to the formation, the mud tank level drops. Lost circulation can also be a serious problem. The decrease in height of mud in the hole could lead to a kick, because hydrostatic pressure is reduced. Also drilling without mud returning to the surface is like drilling blind, no communication between the bottom of the hole and the surface exists.

Centrifugal Pump The mud system normally has several centrifugal pumps. A centrifugal pump puts out relatively low pressure but it can move a large volume of mud. Crew members therefore use them in several ways. One job a centrifugal pump often does is supercharge the mud intake of the main mud pump. The small pump takes the mud from a suction tank, moves it through a line connected to the main pump suction line and keeps the suction line full of mud at all times. If the system does not use a charging pump, the force of gravity alone feeds the pumps suction line. Sometimes, gravity cannot keep the pumps intake completely full of mud. The pumps pistons suck in the mud so fast that gravity cannot keep the suction line full of mud. The crew also uses a centrifugal pump to make some mud components.

Hopper A hopper is like a big funnel. Crew members put sacks of mud material into it. They do not, however, use the hopper to mix caustic soda. The hopper can blow dry caustic back into the face of the worker mixing it.

In addition to being dangerous, adding caustic through the hopper can flocculate the mud, cause it to clog up. [TOOL BOX]: It takes special personal protective equipment to handle caustic soda. When working with caustic, one must wear goggles, a face shield, rubber gauntlets, safety boots, coveralls, and a hard hat. Caustic soda should be mixed using the chemical tank, not the hopper.

Jet Hopper A crew member opens the sack of material at the top of the hopper and feeds the material into the funnel. At the same time, a jet of mud from a centrifugal pump goes through a nozzle at the bottom of the funnel. This jet creates suction. The suction pulls the material into the mud stream and thoroughly mixes it.

*TOOL BOX+: Lets see how well youve learnt the names of mud conditioning equipment. For each piece of equipment you see, click on its name.