Glass Guide Uk

UK GLASS MANUFACTURE
A MASS BALANCE STUDY
Biffa programme on sustainable resource use

Objectives
This report forms part of the Biffaward Programme on Sustainable Resource Use. The aim of this programme is to provide accessible, well-researched information about the flows of different resources through the UK economy based either singly, or on a combination of regions, material streams or industry sectors.
Background
Information about material resource flows through the UK economy is of fundamental importance to the cost-effective management of resource flows, especially at the stage when the resources become 'waste'. In order to maximise the Programmes full potential, data will be generated and classified in ways that are both consistent with each other, and with the methodologies of the other generators of resource flow/ waste management data. In addition to the projects having their own means of dissemination to their own constituencies, their data and information will be gathered together in a common format to facilitate policy making at corporate, regional and national levels.
Contents
Executive summary
1.
Introduction
1.1 1.2 1.3 Glass a sustainable material. Objectives of the Report Scope of the Report 7 7 8
2.
An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

2.1 2.2 2.3 History of Glass Common Types of Glass The Glass Making Process 2.3.1 Batch Preparation 2.3.2 Glass Melting 2.3.3 Glass Forming 2.3.4 Annealing 2.3.5 Inspection 2.3.6 Packing and Dispatch 9 10 13 13 15 16 17 17 17
3.
Industrial Glass Manufacture

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 An Overview The Container Glass Sector The Flat Glass Sector The Fibre Glass Sector The Domestic Glass Sector The Special Glass Sector The Availability of Import and Export Data 18 19 20 21 21 22 22
4.
The Glass Recycling Industry

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Glass Recycling in the UK The Recycling Industry The Glass Reprocessors The Bottlebank System The Packaging Waste Act and Compliance Schemes Local Authorities 24 25 26 27 28 29
5.
Environmental Legislation
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 The Environmental Protection Acts (1990 and 1995) Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive (IPPC) Packaging Waste Regulations Aggregates Tax Climate Change Levy End-of-life Vehicles (ELV) Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Heavy Metal Content Security Tags 32 33 33 35 36 37 37 38 39
6.
The Mass Balance Model of Glass

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Background Mass Balance Boundaries The Container Glass Sector The Flat Glass Sector The Fibreglass Sector The Domestic and Special Sectors Industry Totals 40 41 42 46 51 55 59
7. 8.
Data Collection Conclusions and Observations

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 The Quality of Available Data The Regulation of Industry The Mass Flow of Glass The Environmental Impact of Glass Manufacture
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65 66 66 67
9.
Recommendations
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Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3
UK Glass Manufacturing Sites Glass Reprocessors Approved Compliance Schemes
Executive Summary
Environmental issues resulting from governmental initiatives or customer concerns are increasingly influencing the activities of major manufacturing industries. The objective of this report is to provide the reader with accurate data upon which sound policy decisions relating to the glass manufacturing industry can be based. The glass industry produces a unique product that has the great advantage of being completely recyclable. Why then will over 70% of the 3.6 million tonnes of this material flowing through the UK economy find its way to the landfill site? In 2001 the UK glass industry produced an estimated 2.8 million tonnes of glass. Whilst glass has many uses in practice food packaging and glazing applications account for around 90% of all the glass manufactured in the UK. The UK is a net importer of glass mainly in the form of containers for food and drink. These imports increase the total mass flow of glass through the UK economy to some 3.6 million tonnes per year. The majority of this glass could be reused, recycled or put to an alternative use. The report reveals that the amount of glass being reused, typically returning a bottle to be refilled is almost negligible. The return of the glass to the melting furnace is the option favoured by the glass container industry but concerns over contamination limit returns to other sub-sectors. Approximately 740,000 tonnes of glass was remelted in 2001 reducing the industries use of virgin raw materials by over 900,000 tonnes. The majority of the glass destined for return to the furnaces is collected by the established bottle bank system. Increasingly recovered glass is finding its way into alternative uses. Glass finds many diverse uses ranging from coloured gravel in fish tanks to filter mediums to dissuading worms from emerging onto the golfers putting greens. However the great majority of the glass reused in non-melting applications is pressed into the more mundane use of substitute aggregates. Typically this glass will have been collected directly from commercial outlets. Despite all the potential options to reuse, recover, send to alternative uses the simple fact remains that over 2.5 million tonnes of valuable material was discarded to landfill in 2001. The glass industry has always been subject to some form of regulatory control. Until recently regulations were designed to cover the activities that occurred within the factory, safety, airborne emissions etc. The thrust of much of the new regulations concerns the impact that products have in the wider environment and the industry must now consider such issues as sustainability and producer responsibility.
Governmental polices in the form of the packaging regulations; aggregates tax and recovery targets for local authorities are beginning to have a marked influence on the recycling activities. The widespread adoption of kerbside collection schemes will impro ve the recycling rate for glass although much seems destined for the one time use of the aggregates market. Of concern to all interested parties is provision of reliable data. Governmental regulations based on recovery targets are now the principal drivers being employed in an attempt to achieve a more sustainable lifestyle. Realistic targets can only flow from the correct interpretation of good data. At a lower level those obligated to recycle need accurate data to determine their obligations and later to demonstrate their compliance. A major conclusion of the report is that the data collection systems currently in place are inadequate for these purposes. The requirement for material specific data
will soon be extended beyond the container sub-sector as legislation focused upon producer responsibility is enacted. Consequently benefits would accrue if the data collection process were undertaken by a single organisation. The most obvious choice for this task would be the relevant trade associations, who could bring material specific expertise to bear and whose use would largely overcome any concerns relating to confidentiality. Finally, the report recommends some simple actions to increase the volume of glass recovered from the domestic waste stream. Increasing UK bottle bank density to match that of our European neighbours would significantly increase the glass take. A disappointingly large proportion of newly launched kerbside collection schemes is not targeting glass. The glass industry should address this problem by funding a study into the economic and other benefits of glass collection within a kerbside scheme.
Chapter 1: Introduction
1 Introduction
1.1 Glass a sustainable material.
The glass industry is justifiably proud of its products. Glass is a unique material having a myriad of uses but finding particularly useful applications in the food packaging and glazing industries. One of the many virtues of glass, often repeated by industry managers, is that the material is infinitely recyclable. Sadly, whilst this may be true in theory, in practice the level of glass recycling achieved in the UK falls well short of this potential. Domestic UK glass production from all sources is estimated at 2.8 million tonnes, container and flat glass accounting for approximately 90% of this total. The UK is a net importer of glass principally in the form of wine bottles, flat glass, televisions, computer monitors and motor vehicles. Accurate data on imports and exports of glass do not exist as most of the material is in the form of packaging. Based on information provided fro m a variety of sources it is estimated that the net inflow of glass into the UK is some 0.78 million tonnes per year. Total glass flow within the economy is thus estimated at some 3.6 million tonnes. A newly produced glass item entering the system initially adds to the existing stock. As glass is not a degradable material it remains essentially unchanged after its intended use. At this point several options are available for the end-of-life glass including: reuse in its existing form, recycling to the glass melters, alternative uses or discard to the waste stream. Unfortunately current UK practices still appear to favour the waste option. In common with its EU partners the UK is committed to policies which promote sustainable development. The UK government has opted for a range of measures to promote this outcome, including obligating legislation, tradable permits and state aid. Whilst not the principal culprit in the apparent inexorable rise of waste, glass still makes an unnecessarily large contribution to the total. It is hoped that this glass-specific mass balance study will itself play some small part in promoting the ideal of sustainable development.
Glass is made primarily of sand and is infinitely recyclable.
1.2 Objectives of the Report

The aim of this report is to provide reliable information on the UK glass industry with respect to volumes of production, use of primary raw materials including energy and the ultimate fate of end-of-life glass. The report also gives an overview of relevant legislation and some insight into the practical difficulties encountered by the industry in its attempts to improve its environmental credentials. It is hoped that this information will assist the glass industry, government, regulators and other policy makers in their deliberations on the issue of sustainable development and the role of glass. Whilst this glass study constitutes a stand alone analysis of a specific material it also forms part of a much
Chapter 1: Introduction
larger study whose aim is to quantify all the major material flows through the UK economy. As such the methodology employed [mass balance] is consistent with the other studies thereby facilitating the eventual consolidation of individual reports into a meaningful overarching study.
through the production facilities to the end-users. The issue of recycling and/or reuse is considered in detail. Finally the boundary extends to the waste stream and an attempt is made to reconcile the studys predicted arisings of glass waste with the data reported in various waste analysis surveys. The report also gives an overview of the UK glass industry, its size and its diversity. Environmentally driven legislation has an ever-growing influence on the industry, particularly the packaging sector. The effect of these drivers on the present and future direction of the industry is covered in some detail. Finally, the study makes recommendations which it is hoped will receive some consideration from the policy makers for whom this work is principally intended. In addition to the preparation of this report the project was tasked with production of some educational material. The final product is a short video. The novel aspect of this video is that it will be viewed in a flight simulator, the motion of which will move in sympathy with a glass bottle as it progresses through the recycling loop. It is hoped that this medium will make more impression on the target audience of young adults than the rather more staid workbook and CD-Rom.
1.3 Scope of the Report

This study considers the mass flow and associated issues as they affect the industrial production of glass. The boundary to the study encompasses all large-scale domestic manufacture including the imports and exports of glass products, including wherever possible those items having a significant glass content e.g. motor vehicles and computer monitors. Raw material use including energy has been included for domestic production but the boundary falls short of considering the energy associated with the production of these raw materials. The boundary extends
Natural gas is the main source of energy used in the Glass Industry
Chapter 2: An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking
2. An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

2.1 History of Glass
Glass is one of the oldest of all materials known and used by mankind. Obsidian, a form of glass, was used by man thousands of y ears ago to form knives, arrow tips, jewellery etc. Exhibits on display at the Corning Museum reveal that glass artefacts were being produced in the Mesopotamian region as early as 2,500 BC. By the year 1,500 BC glass vessels were in widespread use for cooking and drinking.
Glass artefacts have been in existence for 1000s of years.
The large-scale production of flat glass was originally achieved by pouring the glass onto tables and rolling the plates to the required thickness before grinding and polishing each side. Continuous plate production using water-cooled rollers was introduced in 1925 by the Fourcault process. The flat glass process was revolutionised in 1959 when Pilkingtons introduced the float process in which the molten glass is floated onto a bath of tin thus removing the need to grind and polish the glass plates.
After 1000s of years of development, glass is used in all walks of modern life. Applications range from very simple to hi-tech.
All the major civilisations including the Venetian, Phoenician and Roman empires produced ornate glassware. The Venetian empire relocated its glass industry onto the island of Murano (circa 1000 AD) partly for fire safety reasons but principally to protect its glassmaking secrets. To this day the island remains a world-renowned centre for fine glassware. Large-scale glass manufacture began with the industrial revolution. Soda ash, an important raw material, became available at an affordable price with the invention of the Solvay process. The Siemens brothers developed the modern day regenerative furnace in Germany around 1867. The mass production of glass containers began at the beginning of the 20 th century and the modern automated bottle and jar making (IS) machine made its appearance in 1925. Glass light bulb production was automated with the development of the ribbon machine in 1926.
Todays furnaces owe much to these early designs and the basic regenerative furnace is still at the heart of large-scale glass manufacture. The major advances since those early days have been essentially confined to improvements in the refractory materials resulting in longer furnace lifetimes and in achieving much improved thermal efficiencies. Today a typical container furnace would operate continuously for a period of 8 years producing 300 tonnes per day of molten glass at a thermal efficiency of around 4GJ/tonne. The cost of such a furnace would be of the order of 5 million.
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2.2 Common Types of Glass

Glasses can be produced in an almost infinite variety with specialist properties to match. However the vast majority of common items are manufactured from a few relatively simple glasses. Soda-lime glass is by far the most common, finding use in the manufacture of flat glass, most containers and electric light bulbs, and many other industrial and art objects. More than 90 percent of all glass produced is soda-lime glass. The basic composition of the glass comprises approximately 72 percent silica (fro m sand), 13 percent sodium oxide (from soda ash), 11 percent calcium oxide (from limestone), and about 4 percent minor ingredients. All glass container manufacturers use the same basic soda-lime composition and generally only employ 3 basic colours. This greatly simplifies the recycling process and allows the different manufacturers to recycle one anothers products without difficulty other than the need to practice colour segregation. Borosilicate glass is heat-shock resistant and better known by such
trade names as Pyrex. It contains about 80 percent silica, 4 percent sodium oxide, 2 percent alumina, and 13 percent boric oxide. Glasses with this composition show a high resistance to chemical corrosion and temperature changes and as such finds uses in such products as ovenware and beakers, test tubes, and other laboratory equipment Lead glass, commonly called crystal glass, is made by substituting lead oxide for calcium oxide and often for part of the silica used in soda-lime glass. Lead glass is easy to melt and has such beautiful optical properties that it is widely used for the finest tableware and art objects. In addition, lead oxide increases the electrical insulation
The light bulb is one of the myriad of uses for soda-lime glass. UK households hold an estimated 460,000,000 light bulbs of varying size and shapes.
properties of glass. Glasses with even higher lead oxide contents (typically 65%) may be used as radiation shielding because of the wellknown ability of lead to absorb gamma rays and other forms of harmful radiation. Fibreglass comprises fine but solid rods of glass, each of which may be less than one-twentieth the width of a human hair. These tiny glass fibres can be
Pyrex is one of the many trade names for heat resistant Borosilicate glass.
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Cathode Ray Tubes

Cathode ray tubes, familiar in televisions and computer monitors, are essentially made from 4 different glass component parts. Each part has a different function and the required properties can only be achieved by using glasses of different compositions. A typical CRT tube comprises the screen, the funnel, the neck and a glass frit or solder used to join the component parts together. The screen is the largest item and glass composition will include high levels of barium, strontium, and zirconium. The screen is however lead free. The other glasses are all of similarly complex compositions but these do contain varying amounts of lead.
Fibreglass has many properties that make it attractive for uses ranging from thermal insulation to fibre optics.
loosely packed together in a wool-like mass that can serve as heat insulation in house construction. Alternatively they can be used like wool or cotton fibres to make glass yarn, tape, cloth, and mats and as such have a huge number of uses including: electrical insulation, chemical filtration, and fire-fighters suits. Fibreglass can also be combined with plastics to extend its usefulness to such items as aeroplane wings and bodies, automobile shell and boat hulls. Whilst apparently having very different physical properties fibreglass is not that chemically different from normal glass and the manufacturers are able to accommodate some common glass (typically window glass) in with their raw
Optical Glasses
Glasses can be designed to almost any specified combination of optical properties of which the most important are the refractive index (representing the deviation of a ray of light striking the glass at an oblique angle) and the dispersion (the dependence of the refractive index on wavelength resulting in colour separation). Glasses with high dispersion relative to refractive index are called flint glasses while those with relatively low dispersions are called crown glasses. Typically flint glasses are lead-alkalisilicate compositions whereas crown glasses are soda-lime glasses.
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Sealing Glasses
Another application for which a large variety of glass compositions are used is sealing to metals for electrical and electronic components. Here the available glasses may be grouped according to their thermal expansions, which must be matched with the thermal expansions of the respective metals so that sealing is possible without excessive strain being induced by the expansion differences. For example, sealing to tungsten in making incandescent and discharge lamps, borosilicate alkaline earthsaluminous silicate glasses are suitable. Sodium borosilicate glasses may be used for sealing to molybdenum or the iron-nickel-cobalt (Fernico) alloys that are frequently employed as a substitute, the amount of sodium oxide permissible depending on the degree of electrical resistance required. Glasses designed to seal Kovar alloys require relatively high contents of boric oxide (approximately 20%) which keeps the transformation temperature low and in this case the preferred alkali is
Special glass can be designed and made to meet almost any requirement.
potassium oxide which ensures high electrical insulation. Where the requirement for electrical insulation is paramount, as in many types of vacuum tube and for the encapsulation of diodes, a variety of lead glasses (typically containing between 30% and 60% lead oxide) can be used.
Special Glasses
Glasses with specific properties may be devised to meet almost any imaginable requirement, the main restrictions normally being the commercial considerations, i.e. whether the potential market is large enough to justify the development and manufacturing costs. For many specialised applications in chemistry, pharmacy, the electrical and electronics industries, optics, the construction and lighting industries, glass, or the comparatively new family of materials known as glass ceramics, may be the only practical material for the engineer to use.
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2.3
The Glass Making Process
The basic (large-scale) manufacturing process and individual stages of glassmaking are illustrated below:
OK
Prepare Batch Melt & Condition Form Anneal Inspect & Pack Store & Dispatch
2.3.1
Batch Preparation
The composition of all commercially produced glass is very carefully controlled. This is achieved by purchasing relatively pure raw materials and ensuring that they are well mixed in precise proportions before being fed to the melting furnace. The major raw materials used in large-scale container and flat glass manufacture and their typical purchase costs are:
In addition to these basic ingredients several other items may be added in order to bring colour or to impart improved chemical or physical properties. Common additions include:
Additive
Iron Chromium Cobalt
Sodium Sulphate
Effect on Basic Glass

Brown or green colour Green colour Blue colour Improved refining Refractive index Improved durability Improved thermal
Lead
Raw Materials
Sand Sodium Carbonate Limestone
Raw materials are precisely weighed and mixed before being melted.
%
60 21 19
/tonne
20 100 30 The cost of minor ingredients can be substantial. Selenium used to whiten clear glass costs in the order of 2,800 per tonne. Fortunately only very small additions of these materials are required so their effect on the overall batch cost are low. The typical batch costs of a commercial container glass are of the order of 40 per tonne of glass produced. Soda ash (sodium carbonate) being the most expensive ingredient and also subject to the greatest price fluctuations. Alumina Boron
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Recycled glass (cullet) is also added to the melt. The cullet may arise from within the factory as a result of breakage or rejected ware. Cullet from this source is termed domestic and has the advantage of having an identical composition to the glass being melted. Typically a container plant will reject or lose around 10% of its output and all of this will be recycled as domestic cullet. Cullet brought into the factory from external sources (e.g. bottle banks) is termed foreign. The exact composition of this cullet will be unknown and cannot be readily determined. However, as most manufacturers use similar compositions, mixing this foreign cullet into the local glass composition of the same colour should present few problems. Unfortunately this foreign
cullet is often found to contain unwanted items such as metals, ceramics and pyrex type glass. These items can either discolour the glass, pass unmelted through the furnace and cause a defect in the final glass product or, can even damage the lining of the furnace. Dependent upon the level of contamination a furnace could operate at cullet (recycling) levels of over 90%. An occasionally contentious point that can limit the level of cullet addition is the customer colour specification. Many customers insist on colour specifications that the glassmakers feel is unnecessarily exacting with respect to the final application. As the foreign cullet is the inevitable source of any trace contamination the effect of this policy of over-specification is a reduction in the recycling capacity of the glass plant.
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2.3.2
Glass Melting
The raw materials and recycled glass are fed to the glass-melting furnace. In large-scale operations the furnace is basically a refractory box-like structure which operates at temperatures up to 1,600C. The furnace operates continuously providing glass 24 hours a day 7 days a week and all activities within the factory are entirely dependent upon its output. A furnace is designed to operate a campaign lasting typically 10 years before it is demolished and rebuilt. The cost of a furnace is obviously related to its size but a typical 300 tonne per day container furnace would cost in the order of 6 million. It is estimated that there are currently 45 such furnaces operating in the UK varying in size from < 50 to > 700 tonne per day. Small-scale operators may melt the glass in pot furnaces which typically hold less
than 1 tonne of glass which is melted overnight ready for working the following morning. The high temperatures required to melt the glass requires a lot of fuel and consequently the furnace is the main energy centre in any glass plant accounting for around 60% of the total plant demand. Most furnaces are fired with natural gas but can also be fired on oil as a standby fuel. An efficient furnace will require 4 GJ of energy for each tonne of glass melted. Thus a furnace melting 300 tonnes per day will consume around 32,000 cubic metres of natural gas each day. Once melted the batch material must be allowed time to thoroughly mix and allow any bubbles to rise. The furnace thus has a large capacity and the batch material takes around 16 hours to pass through the melting stage.
Typical End Fire Furnace showing the melting bath, gas burner ports, regenerator chamber, distributor and fore hearth. Gas is ignited as it enters the melting chamber through one of the burner ports. The hot exhaust gases exit through the other burner port, heating the chimney blocks as they go. The burning cycle is alternated between the two burner ports at regular intervals in order that the hot chimney blocks pre-heat the combustion air and thus save energy.
Burner Ports
Melting Bath
Regenerator Chamber
Distributor
Fore Hearth
Illustration courtesy of SEPR
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The furnace is also the source of the majority of the airborne pollution that results from the factory. The pollutants and the emission levels produced by a typical glass furnace are shown below.
On leaving the furnace the glass can be either blown into moulds to form bottles and jars, draw or floated to make flat sheets or forced at high speed through tiny holes to form fibres. Bottle and jar production is achieved by streaming the molten glass down several feeder channels called forehearths, which lead to the glass forming machines. The glass drops
Pollutant
Dust (particulate) Sulphur oxides Chlorine (as HCl)
Fluorine (as HF)
Typical Emissions
80-140 500-750 10-50 1-15 1000-2000
Nitrogen oxides
2.3.3
Glass Forming
though a hole at the end of these forehearths and is then directed into a series of iron moulds. Compressed air is then used to blow the glass to the required shape. The speed and scale of operation is impressive. The forming machines serving a 300 tonne per day furnace must convert 12.5 tonnes of glass each hour into bottles and jars. Considering that the average bottle weight is some 284 grams the machines are producing in excess of 44,000 bottles per hour or over 7 million per week. The melting furnaces producing flat glass for windows are much similar in design but much larger than those used in container manufacture and typically
A great advantage of the glass manufacturing processes is that the finished article is produced immediately, as opposed to the production of an intermediate product that then requires transport to another factory for conversion e.g. steel sheets made for can manufacture.
Glass gobs fed to moulds
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The flat or float glass furnace produces a continuous sheet of glass that annealed before being cut to lengths for further processing.
produce 700 tonnes per day of molten glass. Once molten, the glass is formed into a single ribbon by floating it on a bath of molten tin. The bath is
severe internal stresses within the glassware. These stresses must be removed before the item is safe to handle. The stresses are removed by the process of annealing, which involves reheating the glass followed by a controlled cooling cycle during which the stresses are relieved. The length of the annealing cycle is determined by the thickness of the item and can be of up to 40 minutes in duration. The annealing process is performed continuously with the glassware on a conveyor belt being fed through a long tunnel kiln.
2.3.5
connected to the melting furnace and produces sheets with a perfect surface finish. 700 tonnes of glass will produce 70,000 m2 of standard window glass. Fibre glass is produced by either drawing the glass through a bushing containing dozens of tiny holes to form flexible fibres used for textile type applications or by using the centrifugal force of a spinner to form short fibres intended for insulation products.
Inspection
All products leaving the factory are subject to some degree of inspection. Originally a few items were sampled and tested in the laboratory. The process is now highly automated and each item is subjected to a range of tests. A simple beer bottle may have been through as many as 10 different checks before it is allowed to leave the factory.
2.3.6
Packing & Dispatch
2.3.4
Annealing
The forming process for rigid glass items involves some very rapid temperature changes and induces
With the very high production rate packing and dispatch is highly automated. Many container customers operate a just in time policy so job planning throughout the factory is essential. All plants have some warehousing but the container sector has such a diverse product range that it is impracticable to carry large stocks.
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Chapter 3: Industrial Glass Manufacture
3. Industrial Glass Manufacture

3.1 An Overview
The UK glass industry produces an estimated 2.8 million tonnes of glass per year from all sectors. The saleable value of this glass is approximately 1,500 million. The Industry may conveniently be divided into 5 sub-sectors as follows: 400,000 tonnes per year of bottles and jars. Production of containers for the food industry and glazing for construction and automotive industry accounts for around 90% of the all glass produced in the UK. These large-scale manufacturing operations are centred in the Yorkshire region (containers and flat), St Helens in Lancashire (flat and fibre) and Scotland (container). A single plant in Harlow, Essex represents the only large container melting facility south of the Yorkshire region. A single, newly opened container plant serves Northern Ireland. The plant became operational during 1999 and, with the closure in 2002 of the only container plant in the Republic of Ireland, currently represents the only facility on the Irish mainland. No container or flat glass manufacturing facility is located in Wales. The principality is however host to 2 fibreglass plants and one of only 2 UK plants producing screens for televisions and computer monitors.
Container Flat Glass Fibre Special Domestic

The number of production sites and relative size of each sub-sector are shown below. In excess of 70 sites operate some form of commercial glass melting activity. These manufacturing sites range in output from studio glass blowers producing less than 10 tonnes per year of high value items to the largest container facility site melting around
Number of Manufacturing Sites
UK glass production by manufacturing sites. A full list of major manufacturing sites is given in Appendix I.
25 20 1 5 10 5
Container
Flat
Fibre
Special
Domestic
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3.2 The Container Glass Sector

Container glass, mainly in the form of bottles and jars, accounts for approximately 60 % of glass production in the UK. The 1990s saw some rationalisation of the industry with 2 plant closures, 1 of the larger operators selling a facility to an overseas manufacturer and two of the smaller operators being bought out by their larger rivals.
container industry has fared poorly by comparison to its European competitors. UK production has essentially remained static over the course of the last 20 years whilst that on mainland Europe has risen by over 30%. By 2002 the UK container industry comprised seven manufacturers operating 30 furnaces on 14 sites. Individual furnace capacity ranges from under 100 tonnes/day to in excess of 650 tonnes/day. Annual site output also varies widely, with single furnace sites producing perhaps 11,500 tonnes/ year and large multi-furnace sites over 400,000 /year. Actual production in 2002 was 1.70 million tonnes. The total (melting) design capacity of this sector of the glass industry in 2002 was 7,000 tonnes/day (2,500,000 tonnes/year). The UK is a net importer of container glass. The majority of these imports arrive in the form of filled products e.g. bottled wine and beers and include a large but unknown quantity imported by the public via duty-free and crosschannel shopping. A smaller trade exists in empty containers. No formal system exists for the collection of statistics from the filled products. The most recent data (2001), submitted by the trade organisation British Glass, estimated a net inflow of 465,000 tonnes of container glass per year. Total container glass flow into the UK was thus estimated at 2.23 million tonnes. However data collected during the compilation of this report suggests that the net imports are somewhat higher and a revised net import figure of 629,000 tonnes has been adopted for the purposes of this report.
Spirit bottles are produced in large quantitiesmany for the export market. Spirit producers demand exceptionally high standards of clarity in the clear flint glass.
1999 saw the opening of the first new container plant in the UK for over 30 years. The new facility located in Northern Ireland is equipped with 2 furnaces having a joint capacity of around 280,000 tonnes/annum, and represents the first venture into the glass industry for the operating company. Despite this new venture the UK
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The global market for flat glass has been buoyant, with applications in building, computer and automotive industries.
4mm float glass accounts for the bulk of this glass [~80%]. Other, higher value flat products including laminated, coated low-emissivity, silvered and fireresistant glasses account for the balance. As with container glass the UK is a net importer of this material. Commercial sensitivity results in the suppression of accurate data on the actual import/ export tonnages of flat glass. However some data is available on the value of this trade and some more limited data is available on the volume of the trade in terms of glass areas [m2]. From this data it is estimated that the net in-flow of flat glass into the UK is approximately 150,000 tonnes. The trade in motor vehicles is also responsible for a net in-flow of flat glass into the UK. Data from the DTI [2001] recorded UK car production at 1.63 million units compared with new registrations of 2.22 million units suggesting a net import figure of 0.59 million units. Using a typical value of 33 kg of glass per vehicle a net import of approximately 20,000 tonnes of glass can be derived.
3.3 The Flat Glass Sector

Globally the demand for flat glass has been buoyant. Fuelled by the demand for building and automotive glass the industry has, over the last 20 years, achieved an average growth rate of approximately 5% per annum. Since the introduction of the float process Pilkington plc had been the sole operator of such plants in the UK. However, in 1999 Saint Gobain built the first new float plant in the UK for over 40 years. The new facility began production by late 1999 and has a production capacity of 185,000 tonnes/ year. Further expansion is anticipated in this sector with the announcement in 2002 that the US operators Guardian intend to construct a new UK plant that should be operational in mid-2003. Domestic production from this sector is currently estimated at 760,000 tonnes per year. The production of standard
The motor industry is a major user of glass.
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3.4 The Fibre Glass Sector

There are five fibreglass manufacturers in the UK, operating 8 sites and producing two main products. Production from this sector is estimated at 150,000 tonnes.
UK is a net exporter of textile glass fibre however the closure of a major site at the end of 2002 will greatly reduce the imbalance. The fortunes of the insulating fibre operators are tied to those of the building industry. Stricter regulations governing building insulation should see increased production in this sector although competition from foamed plastics is a growing concern.
3.5 The Domestic Glass Sector

Domestic glass production covers ovenware, drinking glasses and giftware. Throughout the 1990s domestic demand for tableware was able to support 2 large-scale manufacturing operations. Sadly a combination of under-investment and cheap foreign imports has led to a serious decline in this sector and arrival of the new century was marked with the Overall sales of glass fibres rose throughout the latter part of the 1990s and were valued at 250m in 1998. Continuous fibre has over 40,000 different applications including reinforcement of plastics and rubber, electronics blinds and wall coverings. Demand for reinforcement glass fibre soared in the late 1980s and capacity was increased substantially leading to chronic over-capacity and price reductions in the early 1990s. The sector appears to have recovered by the late 1990s and a 3-4% growth is forecast for the European market. The
Dartington Crystal
Photo courtesy of Scandiahus
Scandinavian and other European building regulations require that new homes are insulated to very high standards.
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demise of both these large tableware facilities. The UK currently has no volume producer of items such as pint pots and mass-pro duced tableware. The giftware sub-sector, which includes lead crystal melters, comprises around 20 manufacturers who typically operate small pot furnaces melting a few tonnes per week. Production for this sector is estimated at 6,000 tonnes. The operations are relatively labour intensive and produce high value ware. Energy costs constitute a much lower proportion of overall costs than for the larger melters. The early 1990s saw this sub-sector also challenged by cheap imports, notably from Eastern Europe, and domestic production fell. The sector has responded, and by the late 1990 with the benefits of some innovative designers, a small resurgence was evident. The value of the sales from this sector (1998) was 95m of which some 10m went for export; imports were valued at 38m.
Cathode ray tube (CRT) production used in televisions and computer monitors is of particular significance to this sector. The disposal of these items is soon to be regulated by the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive, which will result in a total ban on the landfilling of CRTs. UK production of CRTs was 4.6 million units in 2001. Computers and to a lesser extent televisions are not yet considered a mature market and thus tracking CRTs through the economy is complicated by the tendency of the public to store redundant items rather than dispose of them.
3.7 The Availability of Import & Export Data

Compiling accurate data on the imports and exports of glass is fraught with difficulties. Whilst glass is the component part of many items including beers, wines, automobiles, and computers it is not accounted as a separate item for the purposes of customs data and general manufacturing returns. Added to this is the significant, but by its very nature clandestine, trade in smuggled wines, beers and spirits entering the country through the Channel ports. Fortunately glass containers, which constitute the largest (legal) movement of glass, are regulated by a system of permits which obligate importers/exporters to account for their trade. Data on other glass streams has been estimated from a variety of sources including customs end excise data. Wherever practicable these estimates have been crosschecked with waste arising data to ensure a degree of consistency.
3.6 The Special Glass Sector

The special glasses group is the most diverse in terms of production processes and capacities. Products encompass lighting, television tubes, oven hobs to specialist optical products. Production capacities range from large 200 tonne per day furnaces to specialist melters producing a few kilograms per week. The sector comprises some 13 operators with a combined output of around 120,000 tonnes/year having a sales value of approximately 200M.
CRTs are an important part of the special glass sector.
23
UK glass production by output

Special 6% Flat 27% Container 61%
Domestic 1% Fibre 6%
Container Flat
Glasgow Edinburgh
Fibre Special
Belfast
Leeds
Liverpool Sheffield
Locations of Major Glass Manufacturing Facilities
Cardiff
London
24
Chapter 4: The Glass Recycling Industry
4. The Glass Recycling Industry

4.1 Glass recycling in the UK
Throughout the 1990s environmental issues steadily moved up the political agenda of the developed world. Sustainable development and recycling are now major issues that receive much attention from governments and the general public. Glass recycling to some extent mirrors this increased interest. Glass has always been a recyclable material in the sense that bottles have been refilled and reused. Recycling is not a new concept in the UK. Our returnable system for home delivered milk is often cited as being amongst the best ever operated.
Over 4.5 million bottles of milk are delivered to 20% of households in England, Scotland & Wales every day. In 1989 over 70% of households received home delivered milk.
Country
Switzerland Finland Norway Belgium Germany Sweden Austria Netherlands Denmark France Italy Ireland UK Portugal Spain Greece Turkey
Recycling Rate %
(Container Glass)
92 91 88 88 87 84 83 78 65 55 55 40 34 34 33 27 24
European glass recycling rates.
Photo courtesy of The Dairy Council
Several arguments can (and are) advanced to explain why local circumstances in the UK contribute to this apparent poor performance. The principal causes of the UKs current under performance are usually attributed to:
The demise of the returnable

The deposit system for beer and pop bottles was in widespread use until the 1970s and was able to deliver good rates of returns to locally based fillers. The first UK bottle bank was established in 1977. container - a result of more centralised beverage distribution chains.
The low density of bottle banks and

other recycling facilities.
The reluctance of local councils to

include glass in their kerbside collection schemes.
Unfortunately, despite our pioneering commitment to recycling, the current rate achieved in the UK compares very unfavourably with our European neighbours.
The absence of statutory targets. The absence of compulsory deposit

scheme on beverage containers.
Lack of education and awareness.
25
Several, mainly governmental initiatives in response to EU directives, are now in place which should result in a large increase in the volume of glass collected and recycled or reused. The measures are designed to promote a more sustainable use of resources and comprise a mixture of legal obligations and economic instruments. The measures include:
The Packaging Waste Regulations. The Aggregates Tax. The Integrated Pollution and
Prevention Control [IPPC]
The glass recycling industry essentially comprises the cullet reprocessors who process the recovered glass into a useable form, and the collecting organisations that provide the glass. Typically the reprocessors sort and wash the glass to remove unwanted materials such as metals, paper, plastics and various stones and other ceramic matter. Glass destined for remelting at container plants will undergo some form of colour separation. Finally the reprocessors crush the glass to the desired size. Until recently glass collection was an activity confined to an arrangement between the reprocessors and the local council through either the bottle bank system or their waste disposal service. With the increase in awareness in the benefits of recycling, and with the availability of funds from central government paid to schemes that are able to divert material from landfill, many more organisations including charities are now in the business of collecting glass. Historically the glass container manufacturing plants, and to a lesser extent the fibre plants, were the sole end-users of the reprocessed glass. Consequently their locations had a significant influence on the economics of the recycling process. The great majority of glass available for recycling arises from either local council initiatives bottle banks, kerbside collection or other waste separation process or the glass is collected via the drinks trade from pubs and clubs. In either case the glass is effectively spread evenly across the country. Thus
Waste Strategy 2000 incorporating

Best Value Performance Indicators
Waste Minimisation Act Waste Resources Action Programme End-of-Life Vehicle Directive [ELV] Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment [WEEE]
Removal of Hazardous Substances [RoHS
4.2 The Glass Recycling

Industry
Colour sorting adds value to the recycled glass.
26
Recycled glass contains many impurities such as plastics and metals that must be removed before the cullet is re-melted.
the concentration of glass manufacturing plants in the north of the country was a significant factor in the economics of glass c ollection in the southern counties. The arrival of the Packaging Waste Regulations with the attendant obligations to achieve a target rate of recycling has had a significant effect on the established industry. The regulations have spawned a number of so called compliance schemes that take on companies recycling obligations. VALPAC is the largest and perhaps best known of these compliance schemes. In order to meet their members obligations these schemes have not only been instrumental in increasing the volume of glass collected but also in diversifying the ultimate end uses of the glass. The growth in the use of mixcoloured glass for aggregate use has been the largest beneficiary from this new source. It is estimated that approximately 100,000 tonnes per year of glass is currently being used as road making aggregate substitutes.
The rapid growth of large-scale alternative uses is leading to a reevaluation of glass recycling economics as the transport costs to northern based factories is no longer an automatic inclusion in the equation. Currently a London based plant is licensed to produce around 50,000 tonnes per year of pulverised glass for use as a sand substitute and has the in-house capacity to expand on this should demand arise.
4.3 The Glass Reprocessors

Approximately 20 companies are registered by the Environment Agency as accredited glass reprocessors. An accredited reprocessor can convert glass into a new product and is able to issue Packaging Waste Recovery Notes [PRN]. These notes are only associated with glass used for packaging i.e. container glass. For the purposes of the Regulations all the container manufacturing companies are classed as accredited reprocessors by virtue of their ability to remelt the glass and produce new items. Many of the container manufactures either own or have a commercial link with a cullet reprocessing facility.
27
The principal cullet reprocessors include:
Reuse Collection Ltd

(formerly Berryman) S. Yorks & London
Day Aggregates Glass Recycling UK Midland Glass Processing MacGlass Recycling Richardson Limited
London S. Yorks Notts Dalkeith Merseyside
4.4 The Bottlebank System

Commercial collection of glass, intended for recycling by the container manufacturers, began when the first bottle banks were introduced in Barnsley in 1977. The driving force and main beneficiaries of this recycling initiative were the glass container companies. The recovered cullet provided a cheap raw material that also gave significant savings in furnace melting energy. The bottle bank system was steadily expanded to cover most of the UK. A franchise agreement between the 3
major container companies (United Glass, Rockware and Rexam) effectively divided the country into 3 areas for the purposes of cullet collection. The collection infrastructure was in turn served by 3 or 4 reprocessing plants; some owned by the glass manufacturers and some independent, the largest of these being operated by Berryman. The 1000 th bottle bank site was commissioned in 1982. Whilst at this time there was no legal obligation to achieve recycling targets, the UK government ever mindful of the growing demand from the European legislators for various statutory limits, actively encouraged the recycling effort.
Growth in Bottle Bank Sites

30
Sites (thousand)
20 10 0
1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002
Year
28
Commercial organisations such as pubs & clubs produce approximately 25% of the UKs waste glass. Colour separation of this glass is a major issue for the melters.
4.5 The Packaging Waste Act and Compliance Schemes

The Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste) Regulations [1997] set recovery and/or recycling targets on those companies using more than 50 tonnes of packaging per year and whose turnover exceeds 2 million per year. Unlike the targets set for household waste recycling and recovery the packaging targets are mandatory. Companies with obligations under these regulations may choose either to meet their targets by their own efforts or may join a recognised "compliance scheme" which then takes on the companys legal obligations. Evidence that the compliance schemes have fulfilled their assumed obligations is provided in the form of Packaging Recovery Notes (PRNs). Both obligated companies and compliance schemes purchase PRNs from accredited reprocessors. The scheme is designed to generate income from the sale of PRNs that will in turn be used to develop the necessary recycling infrastructure. A total of 14 compliance schemes have been registered with the Environment Agency and collectively they have a huge responsibility to ensure that recycling targets are met. The schemes have increased the amount of glass recovered and have also been instrumental in encouraging new outlets for the collected material. However, their success has not been greeted with universal approval by all sections of the
In 1986 the British Glass Industry made a firm commitment to the British government that it would double the number of existing sites and reach a total of 5,000 by the year 1991; a target that was actually achieved in 1990. The bottle bank scheme was then expanded rapidly until by the year 1997 a total of 22,074 sites were in operation. Since that time the rate of expansion has ceased and the latest returns show an actual fall in the number of established sites. At the beginning of 2002, some 20796 bottle bank sites were established throughout England, Scotland, and Wales. Glass collection from these banks total 736,000 tonnes, equivalent to a recycling rate of 34% (of container manufacture). The number of bottle bank sites in place obviously bears some relation to the volume of glass that can be collected. In terms of bottle banks the UK is a poor performer when compared to our European neighbours. The figure of 20796 sites equates to a density of around 1 bank per 2,860 head of population: values of 1 per 1000 are not uncommon on mainland Europe. A study by the Dutch organisation [Stichting Promotie Glasbak] concluded that a ratio 1:650 constituted the optimum collection efficiency.
29
established glass recycling community. Whilst some of this new glass has followed the traditional route back to the container manufacturer via the cullet reprocessor, the majority is directed into the arguably less environmentally beneficial option of ro ad making. The new collection schemes have been sold to participating organisations on the basis of ease of collection. Removing the need for customers to colour separate is a crucial factor in this strategy. The schemes thus collect mixed glass that cannot easily be reused by the primary melters. Valpac are the largest operators and they typically offer free collection from licensed premises. Currently they are recovering around 10,000 tonnes per
year of glass from the London area and nationally have in excess of 6,000 agreements and anticipate collecting over 20,000 tonnes of glass in the coming year. An indication of the potential of these schemes comes from the Brewers and Licensed Retailers Association who estimated that some 350,000 tonnes of glass could be recovered from their members premises. Local Authorities have a duty to collect
4.6 Local Authorities

household waste. They also must collect commercial waste if asked and, at their discretion, can collect industrial waste. All the waste collected by local
Kerbside Collection is increasingly seen as one of the most effective methods of achieving recycling targets. Colour separation of the glass at source adds significant value and saleability.
30
authorities is collectively termed municipal waste and currently amounts to some 30 million tonnes each year. Since 1996/7, the amount of municipal waste collected has been growing at an annual rate of 3.4% per year. 60% of municipal waste comes from regular household collections, a further 15% from civic amenity sites. Most of this waste goes to landfill. Local Authorities are also duty bound to prepare and publicise a waste recycling plan which details the arrangements made for recycling household and commercial waste. Most local councils have in place a bring system of recycling banks collecting such items as glass, paper, metal cans, plastic and even textiles. Many councils recognise the limitations of these traditional bottle or can banks and are increasingly introducing kerbside collection schemes as a method of increasing their recycling rates. A number of councils have introduced different kerbside collection systems. A recent study, commissioned by the Waste Resources Action Programme (WRAP) and undertaken by British Glass, aimed to determine the number of kerbside collection schemes
in operation and to quantify the resultant increase in glass collected by participating authorities. The study estimated that 19% of collecting authorities were operating a kerbside collection scheme that included glass and that these schemes gave around 10% of households access to kerbside glass recycling. The report concluded: If all 21.1 million UK households were offered kerbside collection then approximately 650,000 tonnes would be collected annually through kerbside schemes. Bottle bank collection would be reduced but still contribute a further 230,000 tonnes. Total glass collection would thus be estimated at 880,000 tonnes per year. British Glass routinely collects data [quarterly] from councils on the amounts of glass recovered by bottle banks and other methods including kerbside collections. The potential for increased glass collection from the introduction of a kerbside scheme is illustrated below. The chart shows the typical increases in glass take with the introduction of a kerbside scheme; the data is taken from the British Glass database.
Glass (tonne s/ye ar) [rolling average by qua rter]
British Glass data on Recycling in Local Authority Areas typically shows a significant increase in glass take after the introduc tion of a kerbside collection scheme.
3000 2000 1000 0

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001
Kerbside Collection Starts
31
Schematic Representation of Glass Recycling Flows (k tonnes)
Filler/Packer
1698
Manufacturer
1698
Cullet Processor
549
549
2327 629
1727
Retailer Public
526
586 Collector
35 Export
Net Imports
Bottle Bank
Kerbside Collection
60
600 1141
Pub/club/ commercial
450
Local Authority
1591
150
150
Landfill
~2
Aggregates
Compliance Scheme
32
Chapter 5: Environmental Legislation
5. Environmental Legislation

Climate Change Levy End-of-Life Vehicles Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Removal of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Heavy Metals Security Tags
A brief analysis of how each may influence future developments in the glass industry is given below. The increased political emphasis on sustainable development has been accompanied by a plethora of environmental legislation. Much of this legislation has a direct or indirect effect on recycling. The container sector, which essentially supplies packaging to the food industry, has witnessed the most regulation to date. However, as the principle that the responsibility for the environmental impact of an item should rest with its producer is increasingly translated into domestic legislation, other glass sectors will find their activities subject to greater environmental regulation. Legislation and related issues that have or will have the greatest influence on the activities of the glass industry are discussed below and include:
Climate change has many unknown consequences. As the climate warms swallows are expected to arrive earlier, taking nesting site s from other birds.
5.1 The Environmental Protection Acts (1990 & 1995)

The Environment Protection Act (1990) was partly designed to comply with the requirements of the EU Waste Framework Directive. The act introduced a duty of care on operators who produce or handle waste. The 1990 act was amended by the 1995 Environment Act that introduced the concept of producer responsibility, which made producers responsible for the ultimate fate of their products. The Act also brought into being the Environment Agency whose responsibilities included the regulation of waste in England and Wales.
Environment Protection Acts 1990 and 1995 Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive (IPPC) Packaging Waste Regulations Aggregates Tax
33
5.2 Integrated Pollution Prevention & Control Directive (IPPC)

The Pollution Prevention and Control Act (1999) represents the UKs implementation of EC Directive 96/61/ EU. The directive applies to all glass manufactures with melting capacities in excess of 20 tpd. IPPC promises to take a holistic view of the environmental effects of glassmaking. There is a specific requirement to include waste management and energy efficiency in process considerations. Of concern to industrial operators is that IPPC espouses the principles of BAT [Best Available Technique] rather than the BATNEEC [Best Available Technique Not Entailing Excessive Costs] associated with IPA. The directive was intended to be adopted (by all member states) by October 1999 and existing installations given 8 years to meet the requirements. In the event the UK missed the deadline and the act was adopted in England and Wales in July 2000 and Scotland in September. Failure to transpose the act to Northern Ireland eventually resulted in the European Court of Justice initiating legal proceeding against the UK.
packaging material, including glass, which must be recovered and recycled. The regulations currently apply to companies that produce (or handle) more than 50 tonnes per year of packaging and have a turnover in excess of 2 million per annum. The regulations set overall recovery and recycling targets and identify a packaging chain with each link in the chain being allocated a percentage of the responsibility to meet statutory targets. The waste chain and associated responsibilities comprise raw material suppliers [6%], converters [9%], packers and fillers [37%] and the retailers [48%]. The intention of the UK act was that domestic targets would be progressively increased until they matched the EU Directive targets by the year 2006. However, the UKs recently announced targets for 2003 show no increase on the previous year and are set at a 59% recovery target and a 19% materialspecific recycling target. The proposed EU targets are listed below but are themselves subject to (upward) review: Between 60% and 70% by weight of packaging waste to be recovered Between 55% and 70% by weight of packaging waste to be recycled Minimum recycling targets by material by weight: glass [60%], paper and board [55%], metals [50%], plastics [20%].
5.3 Packaging Waste Regulations

The Packaging Waste Regulations represents the UKs implementation of EC Directive 94/62/EC. The regulations came into effect in March 1997 and set statutory targets for amount of
The UK system allows companies to meet their obligations without actually
34
practising any form of recycling. This is achieved by a system of tradable permits called Packaging Recovery Notes [PRNs] and Packaging Export Recovery Notes (PERNs). These notes provide evidence that material has either been recycled PRN or exported PERN and companies must purchase sufficient notes to cover their obligations.
practice the results have been mixed. 2002 saw significant increases in the amount of glass, plastic and wood packaging reprocessed in the UK. In 2001 some 697,000 tonnes of glass were reprocessed: an increase of 99,000 tonnes [16%] on the previous year. However, growth in paper and board reprocessing has been achieved entirely through export, with domestically reprocessed material recording an actual 2% fall on the previous year. Perversely, with the PRN system subsidies, UK paper packaging waste is being exported but in order to keep the paper mills running at economic levels the operators are being forced to import a near identical volume of waste paper. The actual EU targets are currently being revised. The revision process has witnessed some often acrimonious exchanges between the various factions. New targets should be announced in the spring of 2003. The probability is that glass packaging will receive a material specific recycling target of 60% but a delay to 2008 is gaining favour. The implications for the UK container industry could be profound. The current UK glass-recycling infrastructure could not deliver this volume of glass. The managing director of one of the UKs leading companies was of the opinion that: It is unlikely the glass industry would be able to recycle 60% of glass packaging by 2006. It would require "massive additional support", with over 200 million needed to support the necessary kerbside collection schemes and a tripling of the number of bottle
Typical PRN prices November 2002
Material
Glass Paper Aluminium Steel Plastics Mixed Wood (recovery)
Price/tonne
()
(energy recovery)
26 26 32 24 25 25
33 30 45 29 33 30
23 - 29
The UKs market driven approach to implementing the Waste Directive is very different from that of all our European partners. The European model typically empowers a single body to be responsible for investment in recycling, funding for which comes from packaging levies. A frequent criticism of the UK system is that its avowed intention was merely to meet the minimum requirements of the EU Packaging directive at the lowest possible cost. When the UK system was devised it was envisaged that the reprocessors would use the revenues from sales of PRNs to invest in the extra capacity that in turn would be needed as higher recycling and recovery targets were introduced. In
35
banks to around 66,000. Container manufacturers have the capacity to achieve a 50% recycling rate leaving the remaining 10% to aggregates and other applications . However the likelihood is that the growth in the infrastructure will be directed to the aggregates market. The compliance schemes are actively cultivating their links with local authorities and the road-making aggregate suppliers with a view to acquiring the glass that will become available with the widespread adoption of kerbside collection schemes. In simple terms the compliance schemes and aggregates companies will receive the glass from the local authorities, the glass will then be used to repair local roads and the resultant PRN revenue will help subsidise the whole process. This being the c ase the flow of recycled glass to the container manufacturers will be greatly reduced with resultant increases in both the uses of virgin raw materials and energy, as recycled glass is much easier to melt. The PRN system may thus, in the case of the glass, deliver a mechanism that technically achieves the set targets. However, in terms of sustainable use of materials, many view a c losed-loop re-melting option as being preferable to the one-off road-fill route; an option often disparagingly referred to by the glass industry as horizontal land fill. For their part the aggregate lobby points to the UKs lacklustre performance to date in its efforts to increase the glass take. The existing arrangements are inadequate and are the cause of the
UKs lowly position in the European recycling league. Furthermore, they contend, the aggregates glass that will be collected w ill come principally from the licensed trade and will thus be an addition to the traditional glass.
5.4 Aggregates Tax

This tax is designed to encourage the recycling of aggregates and reduce the impact of quarrying. The levy took effect on 1 April 2002 and applies at rate 1.60 per tonne of virgin aggregate. The glassmakers have managed to negotiate an exemption for their limestone and sand use. However their principal concern with this regulation is that it provides an additional incentive to place glass into the aggregates market rather than back to their furnaces.
Recycled glass reduces the need for quarrying of virgin aggregates.
36
5.5 Climate Change Levy

The climate change levy seeks to reduce the emissions of the greenhouse gas CO2 by imposing a levy on industrial and commercial use of fossil fuels (excluding oil). Many sectors, including the glass industry, have negotiated an 80% rebate on the levy in exchange for accepting energy efficiency targets. The target for the glass industry is to achieve a 9.2 % energy efficiency improvement by the year 2010. As recycled glass is between 20 - 30% easier to melt than virgin raw materials, its contribution to the glass industrys target is significant. If the industry cannot get the increasing levels of cullet that formed the basis for much of their proposed energy savings then they risk the prospect of missing their climate change targets and forfeiting their tax rebate at a cost of several millions of pounds.
Curiously direct savings of CO2 by the substitution of cullet for raw materials do not count towards the industrys targets. Every tonne of glass made from recycled materials saves 200kg of CO2. The climate change process does however introduce the concept of CO2 trading. This trading scheme could benefit the re-melting route for recycled glass as CO2 credits would accrue if the glass were re-melted but would be lost if the material were to be directed into the aggregates market. The price of CO2 peaked at just over 12 per tonne in October 2002 but by the end of November had fallen to around 5 per tonne and showed no sign of recovery as of early January 2003. Details of the price movement of CO2 are given below.
CO2 - Price per tonne ()
Se pt
ay
No
02
Ju l
n Ja
03
CO 2 Tradingprice movements JanNov 2002
37
5.6 End-of-life Vehicles (ELV)

Approximately 1.9 million motor vehicles are scrapped each year in the UK. The vehicles contain around 60,000 tonnes of glass equivalent to 3% of the vehicles weight. The EU End of Life Vehicle (ELV) Directive 2000/53/EC places the responsibility for these materials back with the original manufacturers and requires materials (including glass) to be removed from the vehicle to encourage recycling. The Directive came into force in the UK in April 2002.
which could not be returned to the furnace. The option favoured by the car wreckers is to crush or shred the vehicle with the glass in-situ. The glass ultimately emerges from the shredding process mixed with crushed stones and concrete (the same shredders are used for washing machines that contain a concrete ballast, also vehicle owners tend to fill the old car with rubbish for its final trip to the scrap yard). The final dense media fraction contains approximately 30% glass and has been shown to be potentially useful as either trench backfill for the utility companies or as road making aggregate.
5.7 Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment (WEEE)

Waste electrical and electronic equipment accounts for around 4% of the municipal waste stream and is the fastest growing form of waste. The regulations for dealing with this waste will take two forms. The first, on WEEE, deals with the management of waste and targets the collection and recovery of the material and sets a collection target of 4kg per capita. The second [The Removal of Hazardous Substances (RoHS)] restricts the use of certain heavy metals including lead and brominated flame-retardants that can be used in the manufacture of most new products.
As well as metal, glass, rubber and plastic, ELVs contain an average of 2.66 in loose change!
Whilst it is comparatively easy to remove the glass prior to any shredding or crushing activity it is extremely labour intensive. Unfortunately even carefully recovered glass has little attraction to the original suppliers. Much of the glass is 2-ply laminated and contains a PVB filler and increasing numbers of vehicles have integrated heating elements or radio antenna within the windscreens
38
Cathode ray tubes (CRT) comprise a significant proportion of this waste stream. The Industry Council for Electronic Equipment Recycling (ICER) estimates that there could be 100,000 tonnes of CRTs entering the UK waste stream each year, some 10% by weight of total WEEE.
As glass accounts for over half the weight of TVs, a recycling route for this material must be found if the proposed targets are to be met. Returning the tubes to their original manufacturer for reuse or re-melting is not considered a viable option. A WRAP funded project has been commissioned to investigate potential alternative uses for the glass fraction. A UK company Nulife [www.nulifeglass. com] have developed a process for extracting the lead content from the CRTs and is currently seeking partners to exploit the technology.
5.8 Heavy Metal Content

The heavy metal content of glass is of particular interest to the container sector whose concern is principally centred on lead. The problem stems from the packaging regulations, which seek to limit the permissible heavy metal content of all packaging materials. Whilst lead is not an intentional inclusion in container glass, trace amounts do get into the system via the recycling chain. Fortunately the glass melting process safely assimilates lead and other metals into the glass. However the regulations set a limit of 100 ppm for the heavy metals content [sum of lead, mercury, cadmium and hexavalent chrome] for all packaging materials.
An estimated 250,000,000 CRTs are produced globally each year. This number will decrease as plasma screen technology develops.
The main hazard associated with CRTs is their heavy metal content. The funnel and neck glasses contain between 8-25% lead oxide, while the screen glass, which has a high barium content but is virtually lead-free, is coated with a cadmium-based material. Inside a CRT are a range of coatings containing selenium, strontium, arsenic and phosphorus. Current disposal practice in the UK is to crush and landfill the tubes leading to a risk of heavy metals leaching into groundwater.
39
The glass industry has managed to negotiate derogation to this limit until the year 2006. Had this derogation not been forthcoming the implications for glass recycling would have been severe, as there is no easy way to screen out the offending lead glasses at the recycling facilities. Full implementation of these regulations may eventually lead to a major reduction in the closed-loop route for recycled glass.
will remain with the glass throughout the recycling crushing and sorting process. The problem for the glassmaker is that the metals, particularly cobalt, are very strong colourants and the tags are most likely to be returned to a furnace melting clear glass.
5.9 Security Tags

Whilst not an environmental issue the use of security tags serves to highlight how conflicting commercial considerations can have significant effects on the glass manufacturers ability to conform to legislation.
These tags are typically added to high value items such as spirit bottles to prevent theft. The tags comprise 2 wafer thin strips of nickel and cobalt and are designed to activate a radio alarm sited at the exit of a store. By necessity the tags will be tightly affixed to the item so
40
Chapter 6: The Mass Balance Model of Glass
6 The Mass Balance Model of Glass

6.1 Background
Domestic UK production of glass from all sectors can be very accurately determined from factory output. Some 2.8 million tonnes of glass was produced in 2001. Accurate data is also available for the import and export of certain glass items. Unfortunately most of the glass imported into or exported out of the country is in the form of packaging or as an integral part of a complex item e.g. television or motor vehicle. Information on this flow of glass is less precise and relies on data typically collected by trade organisations. Fortunately most of the uses to which the great majority of the glass is employed can be described as mature in the sense that new items are replacing old ones. This being the case then the waste stream should provide a mechanism against which the input values should tally.
Imports
Exports
The flow of glass through the economy is depicted in simple terms in figure 6.1. Essentially imported glass adds to the volume of domestically produced glass, exports reduce this total and the balance progresses into the economy. A small, and ever reducing, amount of product is refilled or reused, the remainder is simply split between that reclaimed for recycling (all uses) or is destined for landfill. Figure 6.2 is a simplified representation of the various recycling loops that operate within the industry. Virgin raw materials are mixed with recovered glass arising either from within the factory, recovered from within the same glass sector or recovered from other sectors. The raw materials and recovered glass are reprocessed in the melting furnace, losing some mass in the form of CO2. The glass then enters the economy as the domestically produced stream depicted in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1 Simplified representation of the flow of glass through the UK economy.
UK Glass Production
Glass Products
Reuse
m Co
me rc ial
t ic
Landfill
Do m es
Glass Reprocessors
Recycling
Alternative Uses
41
Emission to Air
Glass from other Sectors
Landfill
Raw Materials
Sand, Soda Ash Limestone etc.
Glass Products
Reuse
Internal Recycling
Alternative Uses
or Re c ect ycled wi thin S

Figure 6.2 Simplified representation of the various recycling loops operating within the industry.
6.2 Mass Balance Boundaries

This study has been commissioned to consider the mass flows that are the result of the industrial production of glass. The boundary of this study encompasses all large-scale UK domestic manufacture and includes the imports and exports of glass and, wherever possible, those items having a significant glass content e.g. motor vehicles and computer monitors. The use of raw materials, including energy, required for domestic production has been included. However,
the boundary does not encompass the energy associated with the production of these raw materials and their transport and nor does it include the transportation energy of the finished products. The boundary is extended to consider to the end-users of glass with particular reference to the issue of recycling and/ or reuse. Finally the boundary is extended to the refuse stream where data from waste analysis surveys is compared with that derived from the mass balance process.
42
6.3 The Container Glass Sector

The container sector is the largest of the glass manufacturing industry in the UK. The sector produced 1.70 million tonnes in 2001, which accounted for approximately 60 % of all glass production in the UK. The great majority of this glass finds use as packaging material for the food and drinks industries and as such a significant amount of the glass is exported; the spirits market being the most significant. Similarly large quantities of container glass are imported into the UK as packaging for imported foodstuffs and drinks. Overall the UK is a large net importer of container glass. Unfortunately no formal system exists for the collection of statistics from the filled products. The most recent data, collected by the glass trade organisation and submitted to UK governmental agencies, estimated imports at 990,000 tonnes and exports at 525,000 tonnes
giving a net inflow of 465,000 tonnes of container glass per year. However this total would seem to be at variance with detailed waste surveys which estimate some 1.73 million tonnes of glass in the domestic stream. The commercial waste glass stream, that going to hotels, restaurants and the licensed trade, accounts for a further 600,000 tonnes producing a total container glass flow into the UK is thus estimated at 2.33 million tonnes. The most unreliable element of the balance is the value ascribed to imported glass. This figure includes an estimate of the glass imported by the public from duty-free and cross channel shopping and is inherently difficult to calculate. For the purposes of this report the value of 990,000 tonnes of imported glass will be revised to 1,154,000 tonnes. Net imports are thus set at 629,000 tonnes. The majority of container glass produced in the UK is clear. The colour distribution of glass produced is given below in Figure 6.3.1
Amber 15%
Green 18% Other 1%
Clear 66%
Figure 6.3.1
UK Container Glass Manufacture By Colour
43
Unfortunately for the container industry there is a large disparity between the colour of glass that it manufactures and the colour of glass that it recovers through the bottle bank system. The reasons for this mismatch are mainly due to the fact that our exports tend to be in the form of clear bottles for the spirits market whilst our imports consist largely of coloured wine and beer bottles.
The colour distribution of the recycled glass that is returned to the container manufactures is given below in Figure 6.3.2
Amber 11% Green 48%
Clear 41%
Figure 6.3.2
UK Recycled Glass By Colour
44
The mass flow rates of container glass are detailed below in Tables 6.3.3, 6.3.4 and 6.3.5. Table 6.3.3 is confined to the flow of glass through the economy. It simply considers the quantities of container glass in circulation and identifies its final destination. As such the glass is considered to flow from the glass manufacturing facility to the waste stream.
Inputs
Domestic Glass Melted Glass Imports Glass Exports Net Inputs
Mass K tonnes
1698 1154 -525 2327
Outputs
Domestic stream to landfill Domestic stream for recycling Commercial stream to landfill Commercial stream for recycling Net Outputs
Mass K tonnes
1141 586 450 150 2327
Tables 6.3.3 Flow of Container Glass through UK Economy
45
Table 6.3.4 Container Glass Factory Inputs
Factory Inputs
Raw Materials Sand Soda Ash Limestone Dolomite Saltcake Nepheline Syenite Chromite Calumite Iron Oxide Pyrites Cullet External (container) External (plate) Total Feedstock Combustion Natural Gas Gas oil HFO Combustion Air Water Refractories
Furnace rebuilds/repairs
Total
Ktpa
Flint
Green
K tonnes per annum
Amber
729 215 149 54 8 31 0.3 34 0.04 0.4
568 167 110 49 7 31 0 34 0 0
17 6 1 5 0.6 0 0.3 0 0.04 0
144 13 38 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0.4
629 65 1915
256 65 1288
305 0 335
68 0 293
222 0.2 13 3985 1200 4
149 0.1 9 2679 807 3
39 0.03 2 70 210 0.7
34 0.03 2 610 184 0.6
Total Factory Inputs
7339
4934
1282
1123
Tables 6.3.4 and 6.3.5 provide a more detailed analysis giving information on the mass flows within the factory and include raw materials, fuel and
combustion air on the input side and air emissions and factory waste on the output side.
46
Table 6.3.5 Container Glass Factory Outputs
Factory Outputs Factory Outputs

Packed Products Packed Products Emissions to air Emissions to air
CO2 N2 NOX SOX
Total Total Ktpa tpa

1698 1698267
Flint Green Amber Flint Green Amber per tpa K tonnes tpa annum tpa
1140 1140208 300 299527 259 258533
CO2 N2 H 2O NO x SO x
832989 832 3068690 3069 501982 502 5314 5 2553
560064 559 2063249 2063 337510 337 5373 4 1717
145479 145 535936 536 87669 88 928 0.9 446
127446 127 469506 470 76803 77 813 0.8 391
Water
3 1200000 1200 25081 25 4 4200
2 806826 807 16863 17 3 2824
0.4 209576 210 4380 4 0.7 734
0.4 183599 184 3837 4 0.6 643
Water Landfill (ex rebuilds) Landfill
Refractories
(excl. rebuilds)
Furnace rebuilds/ Refractories repairs Furnace rebuilds/repairs
Total Factory TotalFactory Outputs Outputs
7338 7339077
4932 4932833
1285 1284674
1122 1121570
6.4 The Flat Glass Sector

Flat glass manufacture represents the second largest sector in the UK glass manufacturing industry. Currently only 2 companies produce flat glass in the UK and annual domestic production is estimated at 750,000 tonnes. Of this tonnage, around 70 per cent is used as glazing products for buildings, 10 per cent for automotive applications and 20 per cent used in furniture and other interior applications.
Some data is produced relating to imports and exports but that relating to tonnage is usually suppressed on the grounds of commercial sensitivity. Where data is published it is usually presented in the form of sales value or in glazed area (m 2). This latter format provides some insight into the tonnage of glass involved as most flat glass is produced at a thickness of 4mm and with a density of 2.5 tonnes per cubic meter. Thus 1 m2 of 4mm flat glass will have a mass of approximately 10kg.
47
Production of clear float constitutes the single largest product and one for which trade data has not been fully suppressed. Trade statistics reveal that in 2001 domestic production of this product was 72.4 million m2 equivalent to 724,000 tonnes. The statistics also provide details of imports and exports of majority of the flat glass products and from these it is estimated that net imports of all these products are the equivalent of 130,000 tonnes. UK flat glass consumption is thus estimated at 880,000 tonnes per annum. Unlike container glass most flat glass is used in long term applications. However despite the longevity of the applications waste flat glass is continuously arising as windows and car windscreens are replaced, buildings are demolished and motor vehicles are scrapped. Reliable data on waste flat glass arisings is somewhat sparse. As around 70% of flat glass is used by the construction industry it follows that window replacement and the eventual demolition of buildings must provide the principal source of waste glass. Building demolition work is currently producing some 70 million tonnes of waste annually. The glass content of this waste is not accurately known. The current demand for flat glass from the construction industry is approximately 620,000 tonnes i.e. 70% of 880,000 tonnes. Buildings being demolished today represent an older stock with generally less glazing. A rough estimate of 500,000 tonnes would suggest that glass comprises 0.7% of construction waste.
Window replacements consume 7,200,000 m2 (72,000 tonnes) but will generate less waste as double-glazing is often replacing the older single glazed units. Whilst the glass content from this source is much higher than that from demolition it is usually mixed with window frames so invariably destined for landfill For its part the construction industry is keen to recycle or reuse its waste products. The concept of building deconstruction is being promoted to replace that of demolition. The industry has, through its trade organisation, the Building Research Establishment launched several projects designed to recycle or reclaim waste. One such (WRAP funded) project is specifically designed to stimulate the recovery of flat glass from buildings prior to their demolition or refurbishment. The objective of the project is to recover a minimum of 20,000 tonnes of noncontaminated glass for high value end uses and a further 50,000 tonnes of lower grade glass for other, less quality dependant outlets. Motor vehicles account for another significant source of waste flat glass. Glass from replacement windscreens provides a source relatively clean waste. Unfortunately much of this glass is 2-ply laminated and contains a PVB filler also increasing numbers of vehicles have integrated heating elements or radio antenna into the windscreens. The glass therefore does not find its way back to the original melter but may find an outlet in container or fibreglass production.
48
Figures from the DTI show that approximately 1.9 million vehicles are scrapped each year. On average a motor vehicle contains 27kg of glass giving rise to an annual figure of approximately 50,000 tonnes. In common with building demolition industry traditional methods of ELV disposal have made no attempt to recover the glass. Currently the glass accompanies the vehicle through a shredder to emerge mixed with other crushed stone and rubble as a low or even negatively valued waste stream. The end-of-life directive should in due course change this situation as car manufacturers are forced to assume responsibility for recovery of their products. Returning flat glass back to the original melters is problematic. The great majority of all internally produced sc rap glass, which arises as part of the normal production process, is recycled back to the furnaces and accounts for around 15% of production. However, as most float glass is destined for use in glazing it is subject to very high quality specifications. A blemish that would be tolerated in a beer or wine bottle would be completely unacceptable in a car windscreen or building window. Consequently the flat glass melters are loathe to use externally recovered glass although a small quantity (< 5,000 tonnes) arising from trusted sources is used. A larger quantity of externally sourced cullet (~ 20,000 tonnes) is accommodated in the production of rolled and wired glass which has lower specifications for inclusions.
Other large-scale uses of recycled flat glass are the container, fibreglass and reflective paint industries that are estimated to take 65,000, 30,000 and 20,000 tonnes respectively. A hidden outlet for flat glass will be as a secondary aggregate. Increasingly the practice when demolishing a large building is to crush the concrete and masonry to produce a secondary aggregate for use in roads or other construction projects. Assuming that glass comprises 0.7% of a typical building it must therefore contribute to this market. An estimated 24 million tonnes of building waste finds reuse as aggregates; the glass content of this material would thus total 168,000 tonnes. The actual stock of glass is growing as the material is being incorporated into a growing number of both buildings and motor vehicles. Increased car ownership (+2.65% pa) is adding around 600,000 vehicles and thus 16,000 tonnes of glass per annum to existing stocks. Additions to the building stock are much harder to quantify but based on current consumption of 620,000 tonnes and an estimate of 500,000 tonnes in demolition waste a figure of 120,000 tonnes per year can be derived. The mass flow rates of flat glass are detailed below in Tables 6.4.1, 6.4.2 and 6.4.3. Table 6.4.1 is confined to the fow of l glass through the economy. It simply considers the quantities of flat glass in circulation and identifies its final destination. As such the glass is
49
considered to flow from the glass manufacturing facility to the waste stream. Tables 6.4.2 and 6.4.3 provide a more detailed analysis giving information on the mass flows within the factory and include raw materials, fuel and combustion air on the input side and air emissions and factory waste on the output side.
Inputs
Mass K tonnes
756 260 -130 886
Outputs
Outputs
Mass Mass Kk tonnes tonnes

- motor vehicles 120 120
16
Growth in Stock - construction Growth in Stock - construction

- motor vehicles Recycled to flatflat sector Recycled to sector
16
25 25
Recycled to container sector Recycled to container sector Recycled to fibre sector Recycled to fibre sector Recycled to paints sector
Recycled to paints sector Landfill Net Outputs Recycled as building aggregates Landfill
65 65 48 48
20 424
20
168 418
Net outputs
880
886
Tables 6.4.1 Flow of Flat Glass through UK Economy
50
Factory Inputs
Raw Materials
Total K tonnes per annum

560 158 37 130 6 25 916
Table 6.4.2 Flat Glass Factory Inputs
Sand Soda Ash Limestone Dolomite Saltcake External cullet
Total Feedstock Combustion Natural Gas Gas oil Combustion Air Water Refractories Total Factory Inputs
109 20 2163 502 0.8 3712
Factory Outputs

756
Table 6.4.3 Flat Glass Factory Outputs
Packed Products Emissions to air CO2 N2 H 2O NO x SO x Water Landfill Refractories Total Factory Outputs
(excl. rebuilds)
508 1664 264 5 1 502 13 0.8
3715
51
6.5 The Fibreglass Sector

Glass fibre is an extremely versatile material. Drawn as a continuous thread it can be manufactured into fabric yarn and used to produce thousands of items. It is especially useful in the reinforcement of plastic products and as a fire resistant material. Woven into mats it finds use as a filter medium for paint spray booths. Produced in the form of discontinuous fibres it has excellent insulating properties and is very widely used in the construction industry. The glass fibre manufacturing process gives rise to more airborne emissions of particulate matter than does the flat or container processes. Consequently the processes are more closely regulated and have to adopt more rigorous abatement technology than their counterparts in other sectors. A typical large fibre furnace will be oxy-fuel fired and may also be fitted with some form of dust filter. UK production of textile fibre had, until late 2002, been centred on 2 facilities with a joint output of approximately 100,000 tonnes per year. The closure of the smaller plant was announced in November 2002 reducing UK capacity to around 60,000 tonnes. 2 smaller companies produce approximately 10,000 tonnes of fibre matting. The matting is treated with a binder and can be used as a filter medium or in a more compressed form to reinforce various plastic-based items. Thermal insulation is the other major use for fibreglass. In this application it
competes with stone wool which is made from basalt rock and which has superior fire resistant properties to those of fibreglass. 3 factories currently produce around 150,000 tonnes fibreglass insulation per year. The combined UK production of fibreglass is thus approximately 220,000 tonnes per annum. The latest trade figures for this sector relate to 1999 and reveal that at this time the UK was a net exporter of textile fibreglass with approximately 50,000 tonnes being exported. With the closure of the textile facility in late 2002 the export gap will have been significantly reduced and a value of 20,000 tonnes net export has been assumed for the purposes of this report. Insulating fibre is bulky and not particularly economic to ship. Around 10% of the demand for stone wool is imported but the import market for glass wool is considered to be negligible. As with flat glass the actual stock of the insulating material will be increasing as newer buildings are constructed to higher standards with respect to thermal insulation. A value of approximately 15% was derived for the annual growth in the flat glass stock in the building sector. Applying a similar factor to fibre produces a growth in stock of 25,000 tonnes per year. Once produced and despatched from the factory, fibreglass is difficult if not impossible to recycle. The production process coats the material with a resinous binder, which would give rise to unacceptable emissions if, returned
52
to the furnace. The textile fibre is usually incorporated into some other article and the insulating fibre is bulky and difficult to handle. Some attention has been given to the waste that occurs within the factory as a part of the production process. Much of the factory waste arises after the coating process so a return to the furnace is technically difficult, however a WRAP-funded project is currently exploring reuse of factory waste including the re-melting option. The fibrous nature of the waste material does lend itself to filler applications and some of the waste is added to ceiling tiles.
Fibre plants do however provide a market for recovered glass from other sectors. Richardson Ltd is perhaps the largest reprocessor of plate glass. The company has contracts to supply the fibre sector and has announced its intention to create a reprocessing facility in South Wales to meet the demand. Traditionally the insulation fibre sector has used large quantities of flat glass. Flat glass is better suited to fibre recycling than container glass, as the latter tends to pick up a small amount of organic matter which can produce unwanted foaming activity in the furnace. However if a site does use container glass cullet it is then eligible to claim revenue from the packaging waste notes generated when container glass is recycled.
Inputs
Mass K tonnes
220 10 -30 200
Outputs
Recycling to alternative use Growth in Stock - construction Landfill Net Outputs
Mass K tonnes
3 25 172 200
Tables 6.5.1 Flow of Fibre Glass through UK Economy
53
Factory Inputs
Raw Materials Sand Soda Ash Limestone Dolomite Saltcake Steetley Clay Ulexite Colemanite Etibor Granite Cullet External (plate) cullet
108 28 22 22 0.1 23 2 9 9 4 48
Total Feedstock Combustion Natural Gas Oxygen Combustion Air Water Refractories
276
57 54 755 770 0.3
1913
Table 6.5.2
Fibre Glass Factory Inputs
54
Factory Outputs
Packed Products Emissions to air CO2 N2 H 2O NO x SO x Water Landfill Refractories
(excl. rebuilds)

220
158 604 159 0.2 0.4 770 12 0.3
Total Factory Outputs
1924
Table 6.5.3
Fibre Glass Factory Outputs
55
6.6 The Special & Domestic Sectors

The domestic sector produces drinking glasses and other glassware for home and catering uses. UK domestic demand was able to support two medium sized factories until 2000 when a combination of cheap imports and under-investment caused the closure of both plants. With the loss of these plants the domestic sector has been reduced to a single medium sized operator and several small manufacturers producing giftware from either lead crystal or common soda-lime glasses. Prior to the closures imports were estimated at 10,000 tonnes per year. As the combined production capacity of the 2 plants was around 40,000 tonnes per year it is now estimated that some 50,000 tonnes per year of domestic glass is imported into the UK. The special sector is very diverse and includes some relatively large operators notably those producing cathode ray tubes, lighting, frit and heat resistant ovenware. Combined production from these operators is currently 152,600 tonnes per year. The smaller, mainly crystal glass manufacturers have a combined output of less than 1,500 tonnes. Total domestic production for this sector is thus estimated at 153,800 tonnes per year. The provisions of the Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and the Removal of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) are of particular concern to the larger operators in this sector. The Acts target a wide range of products,
grouping them into ten broad categories: large household appliances, small household appliances, IT and telecommunications, consumer goods, lighting, tools, toys and leisure equipment, medical devices, monitoring and control instruments and vending machines. More than one million tonnes of waste electrical equipment and appliances are generated in the UK each year from domestic and commercial sources and is the fastest growing of all the waste streams. The Industry Council for Electronic Equipment Recycling (ICER) estimates that glass accounts for approximately 100,000 tonnes of the 915,000 tonnes of post -consumer equipment which was discarded in 1998. The glass, principally in the form of cathode ray tubes and lighting is also associated with some of the heavy metals covered by the RoHS directive. The glass industry is aware that it will ultimately have some obligations under t hese directives and is currently participating in some trial schemes designed to recycle or reuse the glass. The reoccurring problem of the effects of trace contamination on the quality of the final article is perceived as the major barrier to remelting any recovered glass. Notwithstanding this concern the lighting industry are piloting a scheme to remelt the waste glass arising fro m the estimated 55 million fluorescent tubes that are presently destined for landfill each year in the UK. The remelting option is only possible when the discarded lamps have first been depolluted by a recycling company that is able to remove and reclaim the
56
mercury content of the tubes. Cathode ray tubes present a much more complex problem as the front screen and rear funnels are manufactured from chemically different glasses. Currently the UK glass industry, represented by its trade association, is working on the problem with the Industry Council for Electronic Equipment Recycling (ICER). The investigations to date have been concerned with the removal of the lead content of the glass and/or on alternative use for glass or the residue after any separation process.
Current uses for cathode ray tube glass are limited. At least 1 company is producing attractive architectural tiles. Another waste management company is exporting the glass to Belgium where it is added to lead smelting furnaces. The glass helps the smelting process by forming a useful slag and also acts as feedstock by virtue of its lead content. Efforts to recycle or reuse these items may however be short-lived as advances in plasma screens technology will see these items replace the traditional telly tube within the next 10 years.
Inputs
Mass K tonnes
154 50 -5 199
Outputs
Recycling to alternative use Landfill Net Outputs
Mass K tonnes
5 194 199
Tables 6.6.1 Flow of Special & Domestic Glass through the UK Economy
57
Factory Inputs
Raw Materials Sand Soda Ash Limestone Saltcake Nepheline Syenite Calumite Total Feedstock Combustion Natural Gas Gas oil Combustion Air Water Refractories
117 34 31 1 2 4 190
47 6 814 561 0.6
1618
Table 6.6.2
Special & Domestic Glass Factory Inputs
58
Factory Outputs
Packed Products Emissions to air CO2 N2 H 2O NO x SO x Water Landfill Refractories
(excl. rebuilds)

154
130 627 106 0.2 0.4 561 12 0.6
Total Factory Outputs
1591
Table 6.6.3
Special & Domestic Glass Factory Outputs
59
6.7 Industry Totals

Total mass flows through the UK glass industry are presented in the following tables. The data reveals a net flow of 3.6 million tonnes of glass within the UK economy. Some 2.8 million tonnes is domestically produced with net imports contributing a further 800,000 tonnes. Approximately 1.1 million or 30% of this glass is currently being recycled either within the industry or increasingly finding alternative uses as aggregates or in some cases more exotic and value added products. Sand, limestone and soda ash are the principal virgin raw materials used by the industry. Approximately 2.5 million tonnes of these minerals were used by the industry in addition to the 850,000 tonnes of recycled glass that is actually remelted. The industry is not a large user of water, average consumption being slightly in excess of 1m3 for each tonne of glass produced. Gas oil 4% HFO 2%
Glass manufacture is an energy intensive process and the UK industry consumes approximately 8.6 TWh of energy. 80% of this fuel is in the form of natural gas, the majority of which is used to fire the high temperature furnaces. By virtue of the industrys ability to recycle almost all of its own rejected ware, very little solid waste is produced. Furnace rebuilds produce a large amount of refractory waste but with a typical furnace life in excess of 10 years the net contribution to waste from these events is relatively insignificant. Airborne emissions constitute the single largest output from the industry. Essentially 11 volumes of air are required to burn a single volume of natural gas. Following combustion these waste gases are discharged to atmosphere from tall stacks. The combustion process converts the fuel gas into water and carbon dioxide. Some of the raw materials used also
Electricity 14%
Natural Gas 80%
UK Glass Industry Fuel Mix [delivered basis]
60
contain carbon dioxide, which is liberated during the glass making process. In total approximately 1.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide is produced directly by the glass industry. A further 350,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide is produced by proxy at the power stations as a result of the electrical consumption of the industry. This total, including the power station contribution, is the subject of the climate change agreement that the industry has negotiated with the UK government. In return for a firm
commitment to improve energy efficiency the industry receives an 80% rebate on the climate change levy. The glass making process also produces other airborne emissions including sulphur dioxide (4,600 tonnes), nitrogen dioxide (10,600 tonnes), particulate matter (1,500 tonnes) and small quantities of the acid gases HCl and HF. All these more noxious emissions are monitored and are regulated by the appropriate compliance authority.
Total UK Glass Flows
(including import/export) Container Flat 756 260 -130 886 326 560 Fibre 220 10 -30 200 3 197 Special 154 50 -5 199 5 194 Total 2828 1474 -690 3612 1070 2542
Domestic production Imports Exports Net inflow Recycled Landfill/stock increase
K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes
1698 1154 -525 2327 736 1591
UK Domestic Glass Production
Fuel Consumption (Delivered) Container Flat 1680 100 260 0 Fibre 1092 261 0 0 Special 728 231 73 0 Total 6915 1211 335 151
Natural Gas Electricity Gas oil HFO
GWh GWh GWh GWh
3415 618 2 151
61

(tonnes material per tonne good ware)
Glass flowsinputs by weight Container 1698 350 665 1034 Flat 756 192 25 731 Fibre 220 47 48 172 Special 154 103 0 154 Total 2828 691 738 2091
Glass Packed Internal Cullet External Cullet Virgin Glass
K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes
Factory inputs by weight Container Flat 891 25 109 20 0 0 2163 502 0.8 3712 Fibre 228 48 57 0 0 54 755 770 0.5 1913 Special 190 0 47 6 0 0 894 561 0.6 1698 Total 2555 738 436 26 13 54 7796 3033 6 14658
Batch materials (excl. cullet) External Cullet Fuel- Natural Gas Gas Oil HFO Oxygen Combustion Air Water Refractories Total
K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes
1246 665 222 0 13 0 3985 1200 4.2 7334

Container Products Air Emissions Water Landfill Rebuilds Total
K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes K tonnes
Factory outputs by weight Flat 756 2437 502 13 0.8 3708 Fibre 220 847 770 6 0.5 1843 Special 154 975 561 7 0.6 1698 Total 2828 8661 3033 51 6 14580
1698 4403 1200 25 4.2 7331
62

Factory inputs by weight per tonne good ware Container 0.73 0.39 0.13 0.00 0.01 2.35 0.71 0.002 4.32 Flat 1.18 0.03 0.14 0.03 0.00 2.86 0.66 0.001 4.90 Fibre 1.04 0.22 0.26 0.00 0.00 3.43 3.50 0.002 8.70 Special 1.23 0.00 0.31 0.04 0.00 5.81 3.65 0.004 11.04 Weighted Av. 0.90 0.26 0.15 0.01 0.00 2.76 1.07 0.00 5.18
Batch materials (excl. cullet) External Cullet FuelNatural Gas HFO Gas Oil Combustion Air Water Refectories Total

Factory outputs by weight per tonne good ware Container 1.00 2.59 0.71 0.01 0.002 4.32 Flat 1.00 3.22 0.66 0.02 0.001 4.90 Fibre 1.00 3.85 3.50 0.03 0.002 8.38 Special 1.00 6.34 3.65 0.05 0.004 11.04 Weighted Av. 1.00 3.06 1.07 0.02 0.002 5.16
Products Air Emissions Water Landfill Rebuilds Total
63
Chapter 7: Data Collection
7.
Data Collection
7.1 Data Collection
The preparation of the report has involved the collation of data from many diverse sources. A brief description of those sources and some of the problems associated with access to and interpretation of the data follows. The author of the report was able to gain very precise details on the manufacturing processes; mass flows, energy and waste and effluent emission streams. This was in part due to the willingness of the manufacturers to cooperate and was further aided by the authors privileged position as an officer of the relevant trade association. This level of access may not be afforded to other researchers, as questions of business confidentiality will tend to restrict the free flow of information. UK trade associations are often a valuable source of information on matters of production output and energy use. For its part British Glass collates data from its members relating to that glass that is returned to the factories for remelting, but they do not have automatic access to data covering any glass sent for alternative uses e.g. aggregates. Individual container manufactures cooperate with their customers in order to determine their obligations under the Packaging Regulations. Their aim is to determine the proportion of glass packaging that is to be exported and thus exempt from the recovery quota. Again this data has commercial significance and is not publicly available. British Glass does have a role in this area by helping set industry norms with various governmental agencies. The UK government collects a range of data relating to waste and industrial production. Customs and Excise collect UK trade data for all visible and invisible commodities whilst the Office for National Statistics collect data of domestic industrial production (PROCOM), the later being collected on a voluntary basis. The requirements of the packaging regulations at least ensure that data is generated on container glass. This data is in the form of submissions to the relevant environmental agency relating to obligations and in the form of PRNs, which are purchased by companies or more often compliance schemes as one method of demonstrating compliance with these obligations. Data on the total issues of PRNs can be obtained from DEFRA. Alternatively individual reprocessors may be persuaded supply their data, although commercial considerations often block this avenue. The environmental agencies are less cooperative in releasing the data gathered on obligations. This information would be of great benefit to the glass manufacturers who must establish how much of their product has gone for export and is thus exempt from the requirements. In the absence of this information the glass manufacturers are forced to lobby their customers. Their customers however are under no legal obligation to supply the data.
64
Chapter 6: Data Collection
Data relating to the volume of glass collected by local authorities can be obtained from at least 3 sources. British Glass canvasses all local authorities to determine the amount of glass collected via the bottle bank and increasingly via kerbside collection schemes. Local authority participation in this particular data gathering exercise is on a voluntary basis and currently a better than 60% response rate is achieved. Data on waste (including glass) is also collected by DEFRA in an annual Municipal Waste Statistics survey. This survey is very comprehensive and it elicits an impressive return rate but the compilation of the report takes around 9 months and it excludes Scotland and Northern Ireland. The Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy (CIFPA) also survey local authorities. This survey provides details, by material type, of the amounts collected by the various recovery schemes i.e. bring or kerbside collection. Data on other forms of glass i.e. noncontainer is not readily available. British Glass is given privileged access to most production-related data but are obviously bound by considerations of commercial confidentiality. For example as there are only 2 flat glass manufacturers the release of an accurate sector output value would allow each company, by simple difference, to calculate the output of the other. PRODCOM does provide some data on glass products but again is subject to
data suppression on the grounds of commercial sensitivity. In general the best source of information for non-container glass applications is the relevant trade association. Much of the producer responsibility legislation that has or is about to be adopted in the UK has required some form of material audit. Typically a trade organisation will have carried out the audit. Thus this report was able to benefit from the data collected by the Industry Council For Electronic Equipment Recycling (ICER) relating to cathode ray tubes and the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) for data relating to endof-life vehicles. Several good sources of information can be accessed via the Internet. Of these perhaps the most useful to this study was www.letsrecycle.com which provides details of commodity and PRN prices and also a wealth of other information.
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Chapter 8: Conclusions and Observations
8.
Conclusions and Observations

8.1 The Quality of Available Data
The principal objective of this report is to collate mass balance data on the flow of glass through the UK economy. The preparation of the report has served to highlight the poor availability and consistency of data relating to waste arisings in the UK. Reliable details on the manufacturing processes: mass flows, energy and waste and effluent emission streams are available at company level. Access to this data is constrained by commercial confidentially considerations but in general the industry will release aggregated data. However, once outside the factory the audit trail rapidly deteriorates, as the description of the glass item typically changes to that of spirits or merely a minor component of a motor vehicle. In excess of 60% of UK glass production is used by the packaging industry and it is this sector that is faced with the most difficult audit challenge. The container manufacturers typically sell their wares to the food and drinks sector at which point the containers enter a complex chain of packer/fillers and retailers, all of whom are to some extent involved in import and exports. Any UK produced packaging destined for export will gain exemption from the obligation, whereas any company importing foreign made packaging will inherit an obligation. The lack of a robust audit trial is of major concern to all companies involved in the use of packaging as they have a mandatory obligation for recovery and recycling. However this common obligation does not necessarily translate into co-operation in data gathering. The division of responsibilities between various governmental departments only adds to the complexity of the system. DEFRA have the ultimate responsibility for the administration of the packaging directive but the system is policed by the Environment Agency in England and Wales, by SEPA in Scotland and by the Environment and Heritage Service in Northern Ireland. Customs and Excise collect UK trade data for all visible and invisible commodities whilst the Office for National Statistics collect data of domestic industrial production (PROCOM), the later being collected on a voluntary basis. Having disappeared into the realm of the consumer, the glass ultimately reappears in the w aste or hopefully the recovered materials stream. Once again the quality of the data is patchy. On one hand glass reprocessors dealing daily with a single material are able to give accurate and timely data whilst data on the waste stream relies on an annual survey which takes almost a further year to compile. The Byzantine nature of the current data collection systems ensures that the resulting information is inconsistent and late in delivery. This in turn has serious implications for an industry, as data of somewhat questionable accuracy is being used to set year-on-year increases to statutory recycling targets The glass industry is not alone in voicing its opinion that the current data collection systems do not meet the needs of the users. The recent DEFRA
66
consultation document on the packaging waste recovery targets for 2002 elicited the following responses: The accuracy of the data on which you base your proposals continues to be a cause of serious concern. It is disappointing that after these regulation have been in force for s several years, you still have major problems with the data on which you base your proposals. British Frozen Food Federation In spite of frequent concerns expressed in the past about poor data availability to manage the PRN system, the CPI is again disappointed that DEFRA is basing its proposals for 2002 on data, which is still incomplete, and which should have been available in April 2001. Confederation of Paper Industries Unsurprisingly then this report concludes, in common w ith most other studies into the materials auditing, that the current data collection systems are inadequate.
legislation was designed to limit pollution of the environment from the glass making process; much of todays regulation seeks to promote a more sustainable use of natural resources. An historical overview of the legislation is informative. Early legislation began with the Public Health act of 1875 and was followed by the Alkali Act of 1906. The Clean Air Acts of came into being in 1956 and 1968 and the Control of Pollution Act of 1974 marked perhaps the first coherent body of environmental law. Thus the industry was essentially regulated for a century by a handful of acts. The influence of the EU in environmental matters began to be felt in the 1990s and within 10 years has become a true growth industry. Whilst legislation designed to improve the wellbeing of the general populace must be supported the broad consensus of glass industry managers is that the regulatory pendulum has swung too far.
8.3 The Mass Flow of Glass

In 2002 the UK produced some 2.83 million tonnes of glass products. In order to produce this glass the factories consumed 2.56 million tonnes of virgin raw materials mainly in the form of sand and limestone. Most sub-sectors of industry are able to recycle and 0.74 million tonnes of glass was returned to the furnaces for remelting, thereby reducing raw material requirements by over 0.9 million tonnes. The UK is a net importer of glass, mainly in the form of food containers. Adding
8.2 The Regulation of Industry

The report gives an overview of the many environmental regulatory constraints that are brought to bear on the industry. The number and complexity of environmentally based legislation that the modern glassmaker must take heed is daunting. Whilst early
67
net imports to domestic production produces a total glass flow through the UK economy of 3.6 million tonnes per annum. Increasingly, recycled glass is being used in other non-melting applications e.g. substitute aggregates. Whilst this trend has resulted in a reduction in glass lost to landfill it does not have the wholehearted support of the glass manufacturers who contend that repeated remelting of the glass constitutes a better environmental option than that of aggregate replacement. Irrespective of the merits of either application the alternative market for recycled glass will be the growth area in the short to medium term. Disagreements over applications should not however be allowed to disguise the fact that over 2.5 million tonnes of this eminently recyclable material are condemned to landfill each year. The UK is a net importer of glass, mainly in the form of food containers. Adding net imports to domestic production produces a total glass flow through the UK economy of 3.6 million tonnes per annum.
energy user although in practice no formal definition for the term exists. Glass production essentially involves melting sand. This can only be achieved at the very high temperatures produced by burning large amounts of fuel. Combustion of fossil fuel pro duces carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Combustion at high temperatures also produces unpleasant oxides of nitrogen, known as NOx. Carbon dioxide and some oxides of sulphur (SOx) are also produced from the basic glass making raw materials as they undergo chemical transformation within the melting furnace. In 2002 the glass industry consumed a total 8,611,000,000 kWh of energy including electricity. Carbon dioxide emissions totaled 1.8 million tonnes from the fossil fuels burnt in the factory and from the raw materials. A further 0.5 million tonnes was produced by proxy at the power plants in order to generate the electrical needs of the industry. NOx and SOx emissions totaled 10,600 and 4700 tonnes respectively. In all other aspects the large-scale manufacture of glass places little demand on the environment. The process produces no solid by-products and, with the exception of the small fibre sub-sector, is able to reprocess all its reject ware. Water consumption is also relatively low and the returned effluent puts little strain on the downstream receptors.
8.4
The Environmental Impact of Glass Manufacture
The principal environmental impact of the glass manufacturing process results from its combustion of fuel and the subsequent releases to air. The industry is generally classed as an intensive
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Chapter 9: Recommendations
9.
Recommendations
9 Recommendations
data. Again the relevant trade organisation would seem best placed to gather this data. The current collection infrastructure is inadequate to handle a large increase in glass take. The bottle bank system is able to collect good quality glass at reasonable costs. The current limiting factor to the amount of glass being collected by this method is simply the bottle bank density w hich has stagnated in recent years and now stands at around 1 site per 2,860 head of population. Good practice amongst our European colleagues is for a density of a least 1 site per 1000 head. Glass collection would thus benefit if some form of incentives to install more bottle banks were introduced. Additionally the restriction on the use of bottle banks by commercial users such as pubs and restaurants should be lifted particularly in rural areas where free collection by compliance schemes is not always a viable option. Large numbers of councils are adopting kerbside collection schemes as a means of meeting their recycling targets. Unfortunately many of these councils have indicated that glass collection will be excluded from their scheme. Reasons cited for exclusion usually include fears over health and safety or the concern that the paper fraction will be devalued if contaminated with glass fragments. Glass is a valuable (and heavy) fraction of the domestic waste and ought to be
As stated the principal objective of this report is to collate mass balance data on the flow of glass through the UK economy: the quality of much of the data being the main obstacle to overcome. Much of the data that is currently collected by a variety of agencies relates to packaging and is required on a material specific basis. Improvements would result if the relevant trade organisations were charged with the task of data collection and collation. Using such organisations brings a material specific expertise to bear and largely overcomes any concerns relating to confidentiality Of specific benefit to those involved in glass industry would be: An on-line system to record local authority glass recovery rates. An on-line and electronic system to reconcile PRN system that would include inputs from all the accredited reprocessors. A system to reconcile retailers 1st party exports to the container manufactures 3rd party obligations.
As forthcoming legislation increasingly focuses on producer responsibility so will the need for material specific data grow. The End-of-Life (ELV) and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directives are the first to be enacted and will require glass specific
69
included in any kerbside scheme. Prior to launching any kerbside scheme a local authority obviously must complete a detailed evaluation of all aspects of the scheme. Readily available information concerning health and safety, PRN and commodity prices relating to glass would be beneficial to authorities at the planning stages. A short kerbside study commissioned by WRAP went some way to providing this data. However as glass industry has a vested interest in encouraging councils to include glass the industry should consider commissioning a more comprehensive study, funding for which could legitimately be drawn from PRN revenue. Without public support the majority of initiatives are ultimately destined to fail. Improved education at all levels is the key to gaining and maintaining this support. The glass industry, in common with many other sectors, seeks to improve its image by the provision of educational material. This material is typically in the form of CD ROMs supplied freely to schools and nominally targeted at a particular key stage in the childs development. Unfortunately the reality within the current school system is that unless subject matter actually forms part of a specific curriculum it is unlikely to be used by the teaching staff. The new citizenship curriculum includes sustainable development within its remit. The glass industry should therefore ensure that its educational aids are compatible with this new curriculum.
widen its target audience and not simply equate educational needs to provision of school aids. The influence of the attitudes of young adults must be recognised and innovative vehicles developed to deliver the message. The short video that was produced in conjunction with this study, and designed to run on a flight simulator is one such example. It is hoped that the glass industry will be successful in the promotion of this new venture.
Additionally industry must seek to
Appendix 1 UK Glass Manufacturing Sites

Operator of facility Allied Glass Ltd Allied Glass Ltd Beatson Clark Plc Beatson Clark Plc Beatson Clark Caithness Glass Plc Caithness Glass Plc Caithness Glass Plc Corning Limited Cumbria Crystal Dartington Crystal Derwent Crystal Edinburgh Crystal Ltd ESCOL Products Ltd Grantley of Yorkshire Heron Glass Lancaster Glass Fibre Langham Glass Ltd Nazeing Glassworks Newell Limited Nippon Electric Glass Owens Corning Phillips Components Pilkington Special Pilkington UK Ltd Pilkington UK Ltd Pilkington UK Ltd Plowden & Thompson PPG Quinn Glass Ltd Rexam Glass Ltd Rockware Glass Rockware Glass Rockware Glass Rockware Glass Royal Brierley St Gobain Stolzle Flacconage SLI Glass United Glass United Glass Dudley Port Lighting Tyrone Crystal Ltd Location W Yorkshire Leeds, Kent Rotherham Barnsle y Perth Oban, Wick Sunderland Cumbria North Devon Derbyshire Penicuik Huntingdon Wakefield Cumbria Lancaster Norfolk Broxbourne Sunderland Cardiff Wrexham Burnley St Asaph St Helens St Helens St Helens Stourbridge Wigan County Fermanagh Barnsley Irvine W Yorkshire Doncaster Worksop Dudley Eggborough W Yorkshire Harworth Alloa Harlow West Bromwich County Facility type Container Container Container Container Container Domestic Domestic Domestic Container Domestic Domestic Domestic Domestic Frit Domestic Domestic Fibre Domestic Domestic Domestic Flat Fibre Special Special Flat-Float Flat-Float Flat-Rolled Special Fibre Container Container Container Container Container Container Domestic Flat Container Special Container Container Special Domestic
Appendix 2 Glass Reprocessors
Beatson Clark plc
The Glass Works, Greasborough Road, ROTHERHAM, S60 1TZ Tel: 01709 828 141 Fax: 01709 828476
Beatson Clark plc
Hoyle Mill Road, Stairfoot, BARNSLEY, South Yorkshire, S70 3EU Tel: 01709 828 141 Fax: 01709 828 476
T Berryman & Sons Ltd Dagenham Dock Complex, Chequers Lane, DAGENHAM, Essex, RM9 6QD Tel: 01977 608 020 Fax: 01977 644 021
T Berryman & Sons Ltd 49 Lidgate Crescent, Langthwaite Grange Industrial Estate, SOUTH KIRBY, West Yorkshire, WF9 3NR Tel: 01977 608 020 Fax: 01977 644 021
K G Clark
Industrial Reclamations)
Glass Recycling Depot, Oare Creek, FAVERSHAM, Kent, ME13 7TX Tel: 01580 766 395 Fax: 01580 766 395
Conway Concrete Products Star Trading Estate, Caerleon, Newport
Decocrete
Old Trafford, Skellister, South Nesting, SHETLAND, ZE2 9PP Tel: 01595 890 285 Fax: 01595 890 285
Glass Recycling (UK) Ltd 418 Carlton Road, Carlton, BARNSLEY, South Yorkshire, S71 3HX Tel: 01226 727 298 Fax: 01226 700 369 Gregg & Company (Knottingley) Ltd Hope Glass Works, Fernley Green Road, KNOTTINGLEY West Yorkshire, WF11 8DJ Tel: 01977 672 661 Fax: 01977 607 116
Appendix 2 (cont)
Lax and Shaw Ltd
South Accommodation Road, LEEDS, Yorkshire, LS10 1NQ Tel: 0113 245 1568 Fax: 0113 244 9349
Lewis & Towers Ltd
Fircroft Way, EDENBRIDGE, Kent, TN8 6ER Tel: 01732 863 422 Fax: 01732 866 658
MacGlass Recycling
54 Easthouses Road, Easthouses, DALKEITH, EH22 4EL Tel: 0131 663 1061 Fax: 0131 663 1062
Midland Glass Processing Lane End, Kirkby-in-Ashfield, Nottinghamshire, NG17 8AP Tel: 01623 721 006 Fax: 01623 721 020
Quinn Glass Ltd
Toneymore, DERRYLIN, County Fermanagh, BT92 9AW Tel: 028 6774 8888 Fax: 028 6774 8107
Recycled Glass Company Unit 1 Commerce Way, Walrow Industrial Estate, Highbridge Somerset, TA9 4AG Tel: Fax: The Recycled Bottle Glass Centre Ltd Unit 17 Wolseley Business Park, Wolseley Close, PLYMOUTH, PL2 3BY Tel: 01752 563 638 Fax: 01752 563 663
Rexam Glass Barnsley Ltd (Formerly PLM Redfearn Ltd) Monk Bretton, BARNSLEY, South Yorkshire, S71 2QG Tel: 01226 710 211 Fax: 01226 711 047
Richardson Limited
Lancots Lane, Sutton, ST HELENS, Merseyside, WA9 3EX Tel: 01744 454 444 Fax: 01744 616 096
Appendix 2 (cont) RMC Aggregates (Greater London) Ltd No 8 Jetty, Choats Road, off Chequers Lane, Dagenham Dock Essex, RM9 6RJ Tel: 01992 631 991 Fax: 01992 631 703 Rockware Glass Ltd Headlands Plant, Headlands Lane, KNOTTINGLEY West Yorkshire, WF11 0HP Tel: 01977 674 111 Fax: 01977 635 561
Rockware Glass Ltd
Worksop Plant, Sandy Lane, WORKSOP, Nottinghamshire, S80 3ET Tel: 01977 674 111 Fax: 01977 635 561
Rockware Glass Ltd
Wheatley Plant, Barnby Dunn Road, DONCASTER South Yorkshire, DN2 4RH Tel: 01977 674 111 Fax: 01977 635 561
Rockware Glass Ltd
Portland Plant, Portland Road, IRVINE, Ayrshire, KA12 8JA Tel: 01977 674 111 Fax: 01977 635 561
Stlzle Flaconnage Ltd
Weeland Road, KNOTTINGLEY, West Yorkshire, WF11 8AP Tel: 01977 607 124 Fax: 01977 672 879
United Glass Ltd
Glasshouse Loan, ALLOA, Clackmannanshire, FK10 1PD Tel: 01727 853 666 extn. 2277 Fax: 01727 842 661
United Glass Ltd
Edinburgh Way, HARLOW, Essex, CM20 2DB Tel: 01279 422 222 Fax: 01279 773 156
Appendix 3 Approved Compliance Schemes
BETAPACK
103 Tenter Lane, Warmsworth, DONCASTER, South Yorkshire DN4 7JE Tel: 07831 385408
BIFFPACK
Biffa Waste Services Limited, Coronation Road, Cressex HIGH WYCOMBE, Bucks HP12 3TZ Tel: 01494 556565 Fax: 01494 449841
CLEANAPACK
c/o Cleanaway Ltd, Calder House, Ravensthorpe Road, DEWSBURY West Yorkshire WF12 9EF Tel: 01924 456651 Fax: 01924 459992
COMPLYPACK
Andrew Francis, Complypak Ltd, 63 Elphinstone Road, Hastings East Sussex TN34 2EG Tel 01424 432320 Fax 01424 202983
DIFPAK
19 Cornwall Terrace, LONDON, NW1 4QP Tel: 020 7486 7244 Fax: 020 7487 4734
FIRPAC
Firbank Recycling Ltd, Blackburn Road, Houghton Regis Bedfordshire LU5 5BQ Tel: 01582 475500 Fax: 01582 664117
IMPACT
Biffa Waste Services Limited, Coronation Road, Cressex HIGH WYCOMBE, Bucks, HP12 3TZ Tel: 01494 427271 Fax: 01494 449841
ONYXPAK
PWDS, Tameside Drive, Castle Bromwich, Birmingham B35 7AG Tel: 0121 749 6583 Fax: 0121 749 5324
PAPER COLLECT Hamilton House, Gogmore Lane, CHERTSEY, Surrey, KT16 9AP Tel: 01932 569 797 Fax: 01932 569 749
Appendix 3 (cont)
PAPERPAK LIMITED
Boston House, Grove Technology Park, WANTAGE OX12 9FF Tel: 01235 760011 Fax: 01235 770200
PENNINE-PACK LTD Green Business Network, 5 Town Hall Street SOWERBY BRIDGE HX6 2QD Tel: 01422 316661 Fax: 01422 316 662
S.W.S. LIMITED
Thomlinson Road, Longhill Industrial Estate, HARTLEPOOL TS25 1NS Tel: 01429 276961 Fax: 01429 864320
TaG PACK
Trees are Green Limited, Alderham Bank, Barford, WARWICK CV35 8DA Tel: 01926 625802 Fax: 01926 625805
TODDPAK
F D Todd & Sons Limited, Excelsior Mill, THIRSK North Yorkshire, YO7 1QF Tel: 01845 523131 Fax: 01845 523997
VALPAK LIMITED
Savannah House, 11 - 12 Charles II Street, LONDON SW1Y 4QU Tel: 020 7321 3500 Fax: 020 7321 3599
WASTEPACK
Pishiobury House, Pishiobury Drive, Sawbridgeworth Hertfordshire CM21 0AF Tel: 01279 721721 Fax: 01279 725754 59 Boathouse Lane, Stockton on Tees TS18 3AW Tel: 01642 606 055 Fax: 01642 603726
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UK GLASS MANUFACTURE

A MASS BALANCE STUDY

Biffa programme on sustainable resource use

An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

Industrial Glass Manufacture

The Glass Recycling Industry

The Mass Balance Model of Glass

Data Collection Conclusions and Observations

Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3

UK Glass Manufacturing Sites Glass Reprocessors Approved Compliance Schemes

Glass is made primarily of sand and is infinitely recyclable.

1.2 Objectives of the Report

1.3 Scope of the Report

Chapter 2: An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

2. An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

Chapter 2: An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

2.2 Common Types of Glass

Chapter 2: An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

Cathode Ray Tubes

Chapter 2: An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

Chapter 2: An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

The Glass Making Process

Effect on Basic Glass

Chapter 2: An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

Chapter 2: An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

Illustration courtesy of SEPR

Chapter 2: An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

Glass gobs fed to moulds

Chapter 2: An Overview of Glass and Glassmaking

Packing & Dispatch

Chapter 3: Industrial Glass Manufacture

3. Industrial Glass Manufacture

Container Flat Glass Fibre Special Domestic

Number of Manufacturing Sites

Chapter 3: Industrial Glass Manufacture

3.2 The Container Glass Sector

Chapter 3: Industrial Glass Manufacture

3.3 The Flat Glass Sector

The motor industry is a major user of glass.

Chapter 3: Industrial Glass Manufacture

3.4 The Fibre Glass Sector

3.5 The Domestic Glass Sector

Photo courtesy of Scandiahus

Chapter 3: Industrial Glass Manufacture

3.7 The Availability of Import & Export Data

3.6 The Special Glass Sector

CRTs are an important part of the special glass sector.

Chapter 3: Industrial Glass Manufacture

UK glass production by output

Locations of Major Glass Manufacturing Facilities

Chapter 4: The Glass Recycling Industry

4. The Glass Recycling Industry

European glass recycling rates.

Photo courtesy of The Dairy Council

The demise of the returnable

The low density of bottle banks and

The reluctance of local councils to

The absence of statutory targets. The absence of compulsory deposit

Lack of education and awareness.

Chapter 4: The Glass Recycling Industry

Waste Strategy 2000 incorporating

Removal of Hazardous Substances [RoHS