TOURIST INFORMATION CENTRES IN ENGLAND AND INFORMATION PROVISION

A STUDY OF THE STRATEGIES ADOPTED OVER THE LAST DECADE

Submitted by Benedicte Le Bris 2802499

For the Master of International Tourism Marketing

London South Bank University Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences Department of Urban, Environment and Leisure Studies

March 2012

This dissertation may be made available for consultation within London South Bank University and may be photocopied or lent to other libraries for the purposes of consultation.

Abstract
Research shows that destinations benefit from hosting informed visitors who stay longer and spend more. More than 10 years ago, tourism literature pointed out that advances in technology will impact the way tourists search for information. In England, a network of almost 600 tourist information centres (TIC) funded by local government started to be challenged by these technological changes. This dissertation looks in more details at how these TICs have evolved since.

To complete the findings from the literature review, new information was gathered from 76 online surveys with English TICs and 6 in-depth interviews with TIC managers conducted by telephone. The results of the study show that a variety of strategies have been adopted by TICs. Although some may be considered minimal and probably having little impact, others are quite innovative. Findings reveal the frustration of TICs managers in the lack of public funding and the constant pressure to find new ways to save money. The most successful TICs have adopted a commercial-orientation strategy with an increase in the range of products and have also developed new sources of funding releasing the restraint of budget pressure. The respondents also acknowledged the importance of their unique service provided by skilled, local and knowledgeable staff. However, TICs have not fully embraced the advances of new technology and will probably need to re-evaluate this opportunity in order to survive in the future. Recommendation is given to look at other sources of funding and better use of the online services to attract more visitors back into these centres.

Table of contents

Abstract .....................................................................................................................................................i Table of contents ..................................................................................................................................... ii List of Figures .........................................................................................................................................iv List of Tables ..........................................................................................................................................iv List of Appendices ...................................................................................................................................v List of Abbreviation .................................................................................................................................v Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................................1 I. II. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................1 Aim of the research ......................................................................................................................3

III. Objectives of the research.............................................................................................................4 Chapter 2: Literature review .....................................................................................................................5 I. 1. 2. 3. II. 1. 2. 3. III. 1. 2. 3. 4. Understanding Tourists ................................................................................................................5 From Grand Tour to new tourism age ...................................................................................5 Reviewing the decision-making theory.....................................................................................7 Defining vacation information and information search........................................................... 10 Delivering tourist information in England: a closer look at TIC ................................................. 14 Understanding public involvement in tourism ........................................................................ 15 Tourist information centres: roles and challenges ................................................................... 17 Impact of TIC on service quality ............................................................................................ 20 Information Communication Technology (ICT) in tourism .................................................... 22 Use of ICT in tourism by the public sector ............................................................................. 23 Latest advances in technology ................................................................................................ 25 Rise of social network ............................................................................................................ 27 Retail industry ........................................................................................................................ 28

Chapter 3 Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 31 I. II. 1. 2. 3. 4. Research approach ...................................................................................................................... 31 Research Strategy ....................................................................................................................... 33 Secondary data ....................................................................................................................... 33 Primary data ........................................................................................................................... 33 Data Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 39 Ethical issues .......................................................................................................................... 40

Chapter 4 Analyse of the results ............................................................................................................. 41

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I. II. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. III. IV.

Footfall as a base to measure the success of the strategy ............................................................ 41 Marketing Mix: Product, promotion, price, place and people ..................................................... 43 Products .................................................................................................................................. 44 Promotion ............................................................................................................................... 45 Price ....................................................................................................................................... 46 The Place ................................................................................................................................ 46 The people .............................................................................................................................. 47 The effectiveness of the marketing mix .................................................................................. 47 Change of the source of funding ............................................................................................. 50 Limitations of the study .......................................................................................................... 52

Conclusion and Recommendations ........................................................................................................ 53 References .............................................................................................................................................. 56 Appendix 1: Lancaster DMS flow diagram ............................................................................................ 65 Appendix 2: Manchester new Visitor Information Centre ...................................................................... 66 Appendix 3: traditional and modern TIC ................................................................................................ 67 Appendix 4: Val de Garonne new TIC ................................................................................................... 68 Appendix 5: Online survey, question 7 on social media presence .......................................................... 69 Appendix 6: List of online survey respondents classified by DPUK ...................................................... 70 Appendix 7: Destination Performance UK (DPUK) Categories ............................................................. 71 Appendix 8: Map of England showing the location of the respondents .................................................. 72

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List of Figures
Fig 2.1 Three-dimensional cascade model of tourist decision making Fig 2.2 Types of information sources Fig 2.3 A general framework of travel information search and processing Fig 2.4 A framework of tourist information search Fig 2.5 The Visitor Journey Fig 2.6 The evolution of consumer and the drivers Fig 4.1 The evolution of the number of Visitors over the last ten years Fig 4.2 Relationship between Footfall and DPUK Fig 4.3 Relationships between footfall and product: Retail Fig 4.4 Relationships between footfall and product: Service Fig 4.5 Relationships between footfall and promotion: Use of social media Fig 4.6 Relationships between footfall and price: Renegotiation with supplier Fig 4.7 Relationships between footfall and place: Building renovation Fig 4.8 Relationships between footfall and funding

List of Tables
Tab 3.1 Types of research Tab 3.2 Type of research approach and strategy according to objectives Tab. 3.3 Difference between contacts and number of survey invitation Tab 3.4 List of TIC for in-depth interviews

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List of Appendices
Appendix 1 Lancaster DMS flow diagram Appendix 2 Manchester new Visitor Information centre Appendix 3 Traditional and modern information centres Appendix 4 Val de Garonne information centre Appendix 5 Online survey, question 7 on social media presence Appendix 6 List of online survey respondents classified by DPUK Appendix 7 Destination Performance UK (DPUK) Categories Appendix 8 Map of England showing the location of the respondents

List of Abbreviation
DMO Destination Organisation Management DMS Destination Management System DPUK Destination Performance United Kingdom ICT Information and Communication Technologies NTO National Tourism Organisation RTO Regional Tourism Organisation SME Small and Medium Enterprises TIC Tourist Information Centre VIC Visitor Information Centre WTO World Tourism Organisation

Chapter 1: Introduction
This first chapter presents the background of the research and the rationale for it. It is divided into three parts: the introduction that place the topic in a broader context and describes the research problem, then the aim and objectives of the dissertation will be given.

I.

Introduction
Tourism has become over the years a thriving industry. It is a complex set of services

produced by an important range of companies. It generates revenue, creates jobs and it has indirect financial impacts to other important industries. Hotels impacts on the construction industry, the catering of overseas visitors connects to the agriculture, the delivery of tourism service also impacts on the transportation and communication industries. Every industry in England is influenced by tourism at some level of their business. In England, direct and indirect tourism revenue count for almost 100 billion and support 2.2 million jobs (Deloitte, 2010). Although domestic tourism represents about 80 % of the total revenue of tourism in England, inbound visitors generate even more revenue. London and the South East together generate over 70% of the visitor volume and value. In 2010, London alone was visited by 14.6 million foreigners, 11.6 million British and received more than 200 million day trippers (Visit England, 2010). At the same time, travelling became more affordable and could be enjoyed by more people every year. Although the number of tourists is growing, places are facing increasing global competition in both the external and domestic market. The World Tourism Organisation ranked 133 country destinations in 2009. As more tourism destinations emerge and competition for visitors becomes more intense, a destinations ability to project itself on the world stage and differentiate itself from others is even more important than ever. Thus an overwhelming amount of marketing articles with theories and models for tourism have emerged in the literature. A lot of studies have been conducted to understand tourists behaviours and attitudes. Yet new trends and new ideas find a rational for new research. Tourism is probably one of the most inexhaustible topics in the academic literature.

The literature often refers to the intangibility of the tourism product, which cannot be sampled before the purchase. For that reason, the World Tourism Organisation states that tourism only exists as information (Doolin et al., 2002). Hence the provision of information is crucial for the destination.
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Tourist Information Centres (TIC), or Visitor Information Centres (VIC) as they are also known, have always been a valuable source of information for visitors as well as local communities (Robinson, 2009). TICs are an instrument for marketing a destination. However the role of traditional TIC in the digital world is increasingly questioned (British Tourist Authority, 2010). In fact, an alarming article earlier last year suggested that recent government cuts in England might mean the end of TICs altogether (Davies, 2011). According to the author of the article, councils now prefer to fund websites to attract visitors. She adds that councils need to take decisions within a constrained budget. Indeed, not long after the government announcement to reduce the public budget, several TICs started to closed down, like Penzance in Cornwall (The Cornishman, 2011), Minehead in Somerset three years after it opened (BBC News, 2011) or Richmond in London (Kilvington, 2011). The British Tourism Authority (2011) described 2010-2020 as a decade of challenge for English tourism. Challenges include financial constraints with less and less readily available public sector support. After all, local councils do not have a statutory duty to provide the services of a TIC (Holloway, 2009). Traditionally, TICs were something of a status symbol, if the destination had one, it was on the map and therefore important enough for people to visit. The service provided visitors with impartial, accurate advice, generally free of charge, about the local area, its businesses and services (Tourism Insights, 2008) In the mid nineties a report from the English Tourist Board, named TIC 2000, reviewed some of the challenges that English TIC would be faced with in the future. The main challenges described at the time were funding being constantly cut, the need to raise revenue and develop a more user friendly service (Connell & Reynolds, 1999). There is a significant cost in compiling and managing information, as well as in staffing and operating a TIC. Hence the development of new technologies, which improve visitor access to destination information via the Internet, directly threatening the existence of TICs in the same way that the online intermediaries challenged the high street travel agents (Guthrie, 2004). More Destination Management Organisation (DMO) and local government see online information as the future. Yeoman and McMahon-Beattie (2006) imagined a scenario where Maria, a 35 year old Spanish lady books her holidays in Scotland in 2015 in a free information society. The interesting point is how the authors imagined Maria, in Edinburgh walking in a new model of TIC, a mega store run by Tesco who sells Scottish products and treasure hunts downloadable
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on her 8th generation Blackberry. The authors also emphasised that paper maps are a thing of the past and that this TIC are only commercially viable as a shop. However, others argue that the information provided at a TIC need to remain unbiased and therefore TICs should not be profit-orientated; retail is the role of the private sector rather than public sector (Holloway, 2009, Yeoman and Mc, 2006).

While reviewing the literature review, it was clear that some research had been conducted over the year about the rationale for the existence of TICs. A much wider range of articles and reports looks at the changes in the gathering of information with the advances in technology. However no studies about the development of the English TICs were found. If local government are willing to keep a TIC, it is important for them to understand how the network has evolved in the last ten years and how it can evolve in the new digital age. Furthermore there is a clear need for the tourism industry to look at the roles of TICs. Suppliers have much more choice in how to distribute information to visitors.

After revealing the aim of the research and the objectives, this dissertation will be divided in three different chapters. The first chapter will review the related literature and research reports and consumer behaviour, information search and TIC. It will also highlight the increasing presence of technology in tourists daily life. The second chapter will reveal the methodology selected to conduct the field research and explain the reason behind it. Then the final chapter will present the findings of the research and interpret them in relation to the objectives of this dissertation. Eventually recommendations for TICs will be given in the conclusion.

II.

Aim of the research

In the recent months, local councils have been forced to look closer at the role of TICs

and potentially close them down or reduce their scale in order to save money. As mentioned previously, some local councils prefer to fund a website - information of the future - than to keep a TIC. Indeed, there are now lots of competition for information provision. The aim of this dissertation is to present and re-evaluate the role of TICs in the tourism industry, considering the importance of digital technology and analyse if they have managed to adopt successful strategies to adapt to new demands and the needs of the travellers. At the

same time the researcher wants to understand if what was done will be enough to overcome the challenges of the future.

III.

Objectives of the research

This dissertation has four main objectives that will be answered with a literature

review and a field research. The fifth objective is the recommendations that will be given in the conclusion.

123-

Examine the role of TICs in marketing a tourist destination. Assess the contribution of Information and Communication Technology in tourism. Measure and evaluate the development of TICs services and strategy over the last decade.

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Identify and analyse the reasons for closures/scaling down or openings/extensions. Formulate recommendations regarding a marketing strategy that can be utilised by TICs.

Chapter 2: Literature review

This chapter will deal with the review of the literature relevant to the topic of this dissertation. Some academic and business research has already been written about TICs. Furthermore, it is important to look at some of the concepts and theories in relation to information provision. The main aim of this chapter is to lay a foundation for the current research. The chapter is divided in three parts. The first part presents the concepts and models of consumer behaviour and information search. The second part looks in more detail at the roles of TIC and the role of public sector in tourism. Finally, the third part relates to the changes in technology and how it affects other industries such as retail.

I.

Understanding Tourists
Holidays have probably become one of the favourite discussion topics within modern

society. Going on a city break, planning a ski trip in the French Alps, summer vacation with families in Europe, from the last minute to the one planned well in advance, holidays are on everybodys lips. However, the international Tourism market is a very competitive place. Marketers are faced with ever greater challenges to influence consumers to choose one destination over another. 1. From Grand Tour to new tourism age It is recognised by historians that modern tourism was already present in Europe in the 18 century, with the elite class going on the Grand Tour to visit particular places of interest (Page & Connell, 2009). However, it is only from the 1930s and after the Second World War that tourism, in Western societies, became really accessible to more people. This was due to a period of prosperity with better transportation, disposable income, low price of fuel and paid holiday (Fayos-Sola, 1996). By the 1970s a holiday had almost become a standard. Yet the evolution of Western holidaymakers over the last three decades has been the most important. Not only has tourism activity developed new features, the tourists themselves have developed new demands, new motivations. In the last three decades, the tourism industry has grown at an unbelievable pace. Poon (1993) was already acknowledging a New Age of Tourism in the eighties. The main causes are the changes in technology: the improvements in transportation especially in the airline industry; plane capacity increased, journey time and price reduced; economy of scale, new
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routes and therefore new destinations. Also, the advances in communication technology helped to develop international tourism, and especially the more recent internet boom has facilitated purchases and bookings and has encouraged changes in consumers habits. At the same time, the tourists themselves have evolved. According to Poon (1993) the new consumers are more experienced, more independent and flexible, with different motives and lifestyles and changed demographics. Indeed, as previously mentioned, a vacation was a luxury type of service, only a few could afford the time and money to travel. Nowadays, a majority of Westerners have been or will be tourists. Tourism has become an accepted and accustomed, even expected part of the lifestyles of a large and growing number of people (Mathieson & Wall, 1982, p.1). A recent Mintel (2008) survey publication showed that 23% of British adults saw a major foreign holiday as a priority outlay for the coming year and 22% a short break holiday. Also according to the survey, a vacation is not a necessary spend but it is still regarded as a high spending priority. Travellers start their holiday experience from a younger age and carry on travelling further into their life than before. In a family, even if the parents take the final decision about a holiday, children know how to express their wishes and have a direct and conscious impact on the decision (Gram, 2007). They know what they want and do not want. They expect great choice, flexibility and instant information (Mintel, 2008). They do not only look for sun, relaxation and escape, peoples preferences for diverse type of experiences are now more important and their travel types and motivations more specific. Plus, as the industry moves away from mass tourism, the need for information of travellers is becoming more specialised and more diverse. In other words, customers want to know more, not only general information but specialised information. At the same time, they are already becoming more knowledgeable about what exists (Mintel, 2011a). Not only has the number of tourists increased, the number of destinations too, therefore the competition. People are now spoilt for choice for potential holiday destinations (Pike, 2004). It is getting harder and harder for a destination to attract customers. Marketers cannot simply look at the traditional family cycle but segment and re-segment the market. Hence it has become ever more crucial for marketers to understand the new needs of customers and their behaviour.

2. Reviewing the decision-making theory Consumer behaviour is the study of the processes involved when individuals, or groups select, purchase, use, or dispose of products, service, ideas or experiences to satisfy needs and desires (Solomon, 2011 p.154). Therefore understanding the consumer or in this case tourist behaviour is a crucial marketing tool for destinations to try to satisfy consumers needs. Marketing research will try to understand what motivates people to choose their destination and how they make their decisions between alternative offers.

Consumers make decisions every day from regular products such as toiletries and groceries, to extended problem solving decisions such as choosing a car or holiday. As seen in the previous part, some could argue that nowadays tourists are more spontaneous. They can book a holiday or short break at the last minute. Sometimes they book on a Wednesday, their trip for the week-end. Using internet and a credit card, they can in a few clicks book their holiday. Very little investment seems to be made in the process; it appears almost like a routine. Although going on holiday has indeed become part of the consumers lifestyle and is more common, especially within developed societies, it still only happens occasionally with some amount of time between each purchase and remains an expensive product. Indeed, holiday products are associated with a perceived monetary risk. Furthermore unlike other goods, a tourism product is an experience that has to be consumed where the tourism facilities and services are produced. It cannot be transported or stored (Mathieson & Wall, 1982). Tourism is intangible; it simply cannot be sampled or touched (Swarbrooke & Horner, 2007). Eventually there are other risks related to tourism. They can be emotional or even physical if travelling to unfamiliar places (Solomon, 2011).

For a high risk product, a basic individual decision making process follows five stages. The first is the recognition of the problem; the consumer has a need that he wants to satisfy. The second stage is the search for information. Thirdly, the consumer will evaluate the alternatives. Eventually he will choose the product. The final stage is the outcome. However, this general consumer behaviour theory appears too simple and hardly suitable for tourism. Based on the particularity of the tourism product, it is clear that the decision making process is more complicated than these five stages.

Various researchers have attempted to develop a tourist decision making model. Most of the models are similar in the way that the process is a functional activity influenced by a number of psychological and non-psychological variables (Sirakaya & Woodside, 2004). All research agrees that travel decision-making involves a complex and multifaceted decision process (Hwang et al., 2006, p.17) based on a rational step by step process evaluating various options (Bargeman & Van der Poel, 2005). Above all, one of the most important and common stages of these various models from Schmoll (Pizam& Mansfeld, 1999), Mathieson & Wall (1982), or Moutinho (2000) is described as the information search and processing of the information (Hwang et al. 2006). Ultimately, travel decision-making is an on-going process that never ends (Decrop & Snelders, 2005).

However, most research focuses on the decisions made prior to the trip, such as choice of destination. Very few look at decisions made later on during the trip, such as the study done on the use of the guide book by Japanese tourists (Nishimura et al., 2007). Still, a recent study on tourists going to New Zealand concentrated on decisions made at the destination (Moore et al., 2012).

Fig 2.1 Three-dimensional cascade model of tourist decision making (Moore et al.,2012)

The findings are that decisions about daily activities and purchases were expected to be left open until arrival. These decisions were likely to be made through a mix of information found at the destination like signs, brochures, maps, information given by a social encounter (at a restaurant, the hotel, while doing other activities). Also previous potential decisions made prior to the trip could then be followed through or not. Based on their findings, the authors created a new model for the tourist decision-making process (Fig 2.1).

In this model, the decision making process is described with three dimensions; flexibility, social composition and the geographic location at the time of decision (off site: before travel / on site: at the destination). The model shows that some decisions like the duration of the holiday, the budget or even the type of holidays are taken before the trip, while others are taken at the destination like daily activities, purchases or even accommodation.

Unlike package or group holidays when most of the activities are planned, independent travellers need to do a lot more planning. Independent travel is more and more common, especially in Europe. It has developed thanks to the ease of use of transportation, the absence of boundaries and of course an easier access to information. Hyde and Lawson (2003) realised a study on independent tourist while they were travelling in New Zealand. The authors concluded that the decisions making process at the destination ware complex. Decisions were taken throughout the journey using a variety of sources.

Reviewing the various tourist decision-making models, it is clear that a lot of research has been put into understanding how tourists choose one destination over another. More recent studies have looked at how decisions change over time (Decrop & Snelders, 2004) and how they were made at the destination (Moore et al. 2012). It is important to point out that all these models identify the search for information as a core base of the decision. It can be applied to decisions taken before and during the trip. Indeed during the trip, tourists again use various information sources, such as maps, guidebooks and TICs to organise their visit. They now not only have to find the information but turn the information search into an activity (Brown et al. 2002).

3. Defining vacation information and information search The British Tourist Authority (2010) defines information as a collection of facts or knowledge from which decisions can be made. Unlike other industries, information is crucial for the daily operation of tourism. It extends from its generation and communication by the various marketing channels to its gathering and processing by travellers. Information has often been called the lifeblood of the tourism sector (Mintel, 2011a).

As previously seen, tourism products represent a degree of perceived risk. According to marketing research, the bigger the perceived risk is, the more information the consumer will seek before buying a product (Solomon, 2011). Especially in Western society, for many customers going on holiday is an important emotional and financial investment that cannot be replaced if something goes wrong. Therefore, travellers seek as much information as they can to minimise the gap between expectations and experience (Mintel, 2011a). Visitor information provides an opportunity to influence decision making: the choice of destination; the length of stay; what to see, do and experience during a visit; and whether to visit again or recommend to others. It plays a key role in converting the marketing inspiration into the planning and booking stages (British Tourist Authority, 2010). When a tourist realises he needs to make a decision, he will probably search for information first (Gursoy & Umbreit, 2004). Travellers need information before going on a trip to help them plan and choose between options. They also increasingly require more detailed information during the trip itself as the trend towards more independent travel increases. Independent travellers mean they have to organise their own accommodation, transportation and sightseeing. This is often organised directly at the destination (Mintel, 2011b).

While searching for information, holiday seekers can use two types of information: internal and external. As illustrated in the following chart (Fig 2.2) the internal information is the information stored in s persons mind. Internal information is gained from past experiences or through passive learning stimulated by repetitive marketing messages (Hwang et al. 2006). External information is derived from four basic external sources; personal (advice from friends, relatives), marketer (brochures, advertising), neutral (travel clubs, guides) and experiential (pre-purchase visit). The Internet can be linked either to the marketer or another source because of its unique interactivity (Crotts, 1999).

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Information Sources

Internal Information

External Information

Actively Acquired

Passively Acquired

Actively Acquired

Past Information Searches

Personal Experiences

Lowinvolvement learning

Personal Sources

Marketer Sources

Neutral Sources Internet

Experiental Sources

Fig 2.2 Types of information sources (adapted from Crotts, 1999).

The next model includes the two types of information (Fig 2.3). After a need is recognised, travellers first use their internal search. If the internal information is satisfactory, the evaluation stage can begin. However, if the information is not sufficient then external sources are used to collect substantive information. According to this model, the different alternatives are selected only when a sufficient amount of information is available.

However, according to Kerstetter and Cho (2004), research on the use of tourist information use shows contradictory findings. The authors point out that some studies reveal that repeat visitors, as they have more experience, use internal more than external information. Other studies show opposite results. Other findings on repeat/first time visitors come to different conclusions.

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Fig 2.3 A general framework of travel information search and processing (Crotts, 1999)

Many models of information seeking exist. Some like Crotts model indicate a series of events. Others are more fully developed and refer to relevant variables that come in the process (Case, 2008). The framework from Cai et al. (2004) tries to incorporate all variables attached to information search as discovered in previous research (Fig 2.4).

The tourist information search is an intense process. Travellers use different types of information sources (Fodness & Murray, 1999) and the amount of searching varies according to the type of holidays, demographics of tourists or the length of the vacation (Hyde, 2008). Besides several studies show that the choice of channel of information used is influenced by the national culture of travellers (Gursoy & Umbreit, 2004). Tourists also have different behaviour in front of information. Some can be described as sharks, aggressively foraging information or on the opposite others are similar to spiders, nibbling on information than come along (Murphy & Olaru, 2009).

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Fig 2.4 A framework of tourist information search (Cai et al. 2004)

While on holiday, tourists have access to an even wider range of information channels as shown in the chart below (Fig 2.5).

Fig 2.5 The Visitor Journey illustrating the range of interactions and methods of information provision at each stage (British Tourist Authority, 2010).
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This chart shows some of the information sources available. The number of sources used varied depending on the stage of the trip. Still, it is quite a restrained display of availability. The last Visit Britain (2008) survey on information sources used by visitors in Britain listed no fewer than twenty one alternatives, ranging from cutting edge technology like video sharing website such as You Tube, to travel programmes on TV or transport companies.

To conclude, all consumer behaviour models agreed that information is a core component of the consumer decision. It is clear from the various studies and theories reviewed that tourists use a variety of information sources. Their search for information will expose them to various advertising messages. Access to current, timely, accurate and relevant information is therefore very important to help them make an appropriate choice. Now the challenge for the different destinations in England is to create a clear message that differentiate them from the competition and more importantly choose the communication channels that will be seen as reliable and trustworthy (McCartney et al., 2008).

II.

Delivering tourist information in England: a closer look at TIC

Nations, councils and local governments have created various tourism agencies and

organisations in order to promote tourism in their region and increase tourism revenue. Most of their effort goes into developing awareness and influencing the travellers decision before their trip (Tierney, 1993). During a trip, promotion can be achieved by the operation of a TIC. A TIC or visitor centre is a physical location that provides tourist information to the visitors who tour the place or area locally (Collins, 2010). In more details, Pearce (2004, p.8) describes a TIC as a clearly labelled, publicly accessible, physical space with personnel providing predominantly free of charge information to facilitate travellers experiences. Here the author emphasises on the provision of a free service open to all kind of customers. The development of a network of TICs in England funded by local government has appeared in the seventies to retain domestic tourism (Davies, 2011). At the time, package holiday, falling air fares and an increase of English family leisure income and revenue made near and cheaper countries like Spain increasingly attractive (Barnes & Smith, 2010). Forty years later, it could be asked if TICs still make sense in the tourism industry.

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The next chapter will look at the role of the public sector in tourism and the role of TICs with a special interest in their aid to service quality.

1. Understanding public involvement in tourism Governments have understood well the economic benefits of tourism in terms of income and employment. Tourism also generates indirect revenue for other industries such as agriculture, construction, transportation, communication or insurance to name a few. In England, direct and indirect tourism revenue accounts for almost 100 billion and supports 2.2 million jobs (Deloitte, 2010). Although some claim the necessity of a free market, tourism is often described as a highly complex and fragmented industry where no tourism business can survive on its own. Most businesses are dependent on the quality of surrounding attractions, infrastructure, the absence of market failure and need a framework to work within (Robinson, 2000). The key role of the government is to provide this framework. Moreover, the evolution of tourism over the last three decades due to evolution of technology, a wider range of tourists markets as well as intense competition, has forced governments to step in for more marketing efforts.

The government can intervene in tourism in different ways and with different structures. According to Page and Connell (2009) the public sector is a grouping of organisations operating at different geographic levels: national governments, such as ministries, government funded agencies, such as National Tourism Organisations (NTO) and local authorities. These organisations are linked together in a complex set of working relationships to benefit the industry that it serves (p.254).

Hall (2008) identifies eight roles played by government. Some of these roles include legislation, coordination, stimulation, and marketing. Legislation and policy are often realised by departments and ministries. Although Page and Connell (2009) state theses activities are not an active form of intervention, Goeldner and Ritchie (2006) argue that tourism policies provide a framework directly affecting long-term tourism development and the daily activities within a destination. Some other roles formulated by Hall, coordination, stimulation and marketing, are mostly undertaken by the NTO. Mill and Morrison (1992) separate stimulation activities in three ways: provide financial incentives, sponsor research and marketing and promotion. On the

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other hand, Inskeep (WTO, 2001) differentiates national tourism administration functions in four sections: marketing services, statistics and research, planning and development, education and training and adds that many countries have established a separate autonomous entity for marketing services (often referred as tourism board or NTO). Even if the role and effectiveness of NTOs have been discussed since the eighties (Jeffries, 2001), more than thirty years later it appears that government have not disengaged from tourism. The NTOs are the key bodies for researching and identifying demand possibilities in different markets. They need to undertake a long-term monitoring of the market to analyse destination strengths and weaknesses, to understand the competition and to identify market trends (Elliott, 1997).

In England, a network of Regional Tourist Boards was established through the Development of the Tourism Act 1969. They were core funded by the then English Tourist Board which has since gone through a number of name changes but currently, as a consequence of the 2009 Tourism Review exists as Visit England (Tourism Insights, 2009). Visit Englands aim is to increase the value of tourism in England. The board works with the industry and deliver marketing campaigns based on a strong market research to both domestic and international visitors (Visit England, 2011a). One of Visit Englands objectives of its tourism strategy is to facilitate greater engagement between the visitor and the various experiences available. In other terms, it means, amongst other things, to guarantee an easy access to information to visitors. Furthermore, it is important that information provision is modernised and keeps pace with the advance in technology (British Tourist Authority, 2011).

To sum up, the public sector has many roles in tourism; coordination, planning, legislation and also marketing and promotion aimed at increasing consumer interest in the local destination to achieve set objectives to satisfy all stakeholders. It is important to add that government and government-based tourism organisations, such as Visit England, are not commercially oriented but with budget constraints and limited resources they are increasingly looking at commercial orientation to become more efficient (Page and Connell, 2009).

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2. Tourist information centres: roles and challenges An important goal of tourism marketing is to change travellers behaviour by using information, for example increase the length of stay or level of expenditures (Fensenmaier, 1994). A series of various studies in USA from the seventies to the beginning of the nineties were made on visitor/welcome centres to understand who stopped there, why and how it affected their trip (Tierney, 1993, Fensenmaier et al., 1993, Fensenmaier et Vogt, 1993, Fensenmaier, 1994). The results showed that these centres acted as one of the most important communication channels and had a significant effect on travel decision. In some cases, the visit to the centre influenced up to 66% of visitors, for example like staying longer (21%) and visiting places the traveller overlooked during their own research before the trip (29%).

Nowadays, there is still a recognition in the industry of the benefits of TICs in the overall marketing of a destination (Guthrie, 2004). In Australia, a study conducted in 2008 around 18 VICs found out that the VICs had a direct impact on the economy of the destination, as well as the social and leisure success of the region (Ballantyne et al., 2009). More recently, surveys were released by Tourism South East in 2008 at 62 TICs in England (TSE, 2009). The main focus of the study was to evaluate the financial gain for the destination by having a TIC. Results showed that 46% of tourists made positive changes after their visit to a TIC. Changes include visiting more attractions than those planned and increase the length of their stay. It resulted in spending more money at the destination. Eventually, the total of these extra expenditures was estimated to be 170.2 million. The study also provided some figures about TIC visitors in England. About 25 million people visited a TIC in England in 2008. Visitors were a mix of local residents and travellers from outside the area (88% UK nationals), with a higher proportion of tourists and foreigners in London TICs. Demographic statistics showed that 72% of visitors were over 35 years old and the largest proportion was in the 55-64 years old age group (19%). Eventually, the study highlighted two dominant segments in visitors: the cosmopolitans and the functionals. The cosmopolitans are described as active visitors who want a lot of information about what to see and do and who are generally big spenders, so quite attractive for TICs in term of revenue makers. The other group, the functionals, tend to look for information to get the best value for money out of their trip, very price-focused.

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Pearce and Moscardo (cited in Pearce, 2004) conducted various researches on visitor centres in Australia. From their research four main functions of the centres were drawn. The first two functions are the promotion and the orientation functions that stimulate and shape the visitor demand. Here the authors highlighted the fact that the information needs to remain unbiased. The third function is control and filtering. The centre can regulate the flow of tourists, suggesting alternative locations which are less crowded, at different times of the day. Resources at the destination would be under less pressure. This is particularly important in more fragile sites, like Venice for example. Finally the centre has a substitution function. This means the centre becomes an attraction on its own. Another research carried across Scottish TIC in 2003 also showed four important functions of a TIC. Firstly, the TIC has a marketing and promotional role; it encourages visitors to spend time and money at the destination. The TIC is a first point of contact for visitors, it is also a source of local knowledge and eventually a source of bookings Brown et al. (2002) wrote that the job of TIC staff is to help the tourist using the information they found to take a decision on what to do and what to visit. In other words, the staff also helps turning information into action. Besides, they help visitors understand information they might have found difficult to interpret or use. TICs also need to build a strong relationships with local tourism businesses by supporting and encouraging the quality of the visitor offer (Psarros, 2010). Support can be illustrated by the sale of local products and the work of local artists (Davies, 2011).

On one hand, many TICs, especially those located in small towns and rural locations may create significant social benefits by operating as an important community facility (TSE, 2009). Indeed, Pearce (2004) later on added a fifth function to the visitor centre: community function. He recognised that centres can act as a community facility and used for example for local cultural or social events. One the other hand, TICs are mostly staffed by local people. Often, recommendations made by local habitants are highly valued by visitors (Walls et al., 2008). In the Australian VIC research, 66% of respondents admitted that the availability of friendly and knowledgeable staff was essential to their visit to the centre (Ballantyne et al., 2009). Many visitors look for local and real knowledge.

Moreover, TICs provide a real opportunity to learn more about the visitors. The face to face contact provides unparalleled opportunities for collecting data. The centres record statistics like visitor profile, patterns and booking habits. They run surveys on a regular basis. They
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play a key role in supplying detailed visitor data and therefore help e-marketing and all sorts of promotional campaigns (British Tourist Authority 2010).

However, findings of the survey cited previously (Tierney, 1993, Fensenmaier et al., 1993, Fensenmaier et Vogt, 1993, Fensenmaier, 1994) also indicate that TICs are expensive to run in a public sector with budgetary constraints. All authors, including from the seventies research, already pointed out that an alternative strategy and more effective way, should be considered to meet the travellers information needs and reach a wider audience. Indeed VisitEngland, who always maintain to be supportive of TICs, recognises the funding challenge and suggests alternative ways to provide information with more modern service adapted to new consumer needs and behaviours (VisitEngland, 2011b). For example, Tamesides tourist information centre costed 140,000 a year to run. It included four full time staff. The local council decided to close it down last year. It was decided that information could be given out by alternative venues like museums and libraries as well as bookings made at the bus/train stations or travel agent (Rowley, 2011).

A visitor survey by South West England was released in 2009 (Southwesttourism). One part of the survey looked at the source of information accessed during the holiday. Printed information from a TIC came as the most useful source for 62% of respondents. However, the verbal recommendation by TIC staff was a less useful source (13%) than the Internet (19%). The British Tourist Authority (2010) recognises that dedicated TICs with a high footfall and a clear service will continue to play a key role in marketing tourism destinations because of their professional staff that are skilled in customer care and have a wealth of product knowledge. However, in some cases, a TICs inability to make recommendations and the poor location of some centres can create a barrier. Finally, limited opening hours are also a major issue in an era when consumers expect to be able to access information 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

A recent study by VisitBritain lead to the interview of TIC managers on issues and challenges perceived for the foreseeable future. It appeared that reduction in the public sector budget, economic downturn, staff training and retention and poor weather issues were given more often than changes in technology or the need to retain visitor numbers (Robinson, 2009). It is difficult to persuade budget-conscious local councils to fund tourism when other statutory services have to be delivered and leisure industries are not statutory. Though
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originally funded by the government, there is no statutory requirement on local authorities (Davies, 2011). Local authorities are aware of the importance of creating a network of excellent TICs as well as investment in marketing campaigns. What is important is to make sure the right information is available at the destination when many visitors take their final decisions and bookings (Northwest Regional Development Agency, 2007). Moreover, right information also means quality.

3. Impact of TIC on service quality The various stakeholders involved in the tourism make it a fragmented industry where coordination is difficult and limited. Businesses are more likely to promote their own product rather than the place or area. A report by Deloitte (2008) on the UK tourism economy recognised that there was a lack of relevant information for visitors. Their trip decisions suffer from these information gaps. Deloitte argues that it is a market failure that needs to be adjusting by the public sector. The British Tourist Authority (2010) is well aware of it. According to them, the provision of high quality visitor information plays a key role in enhancing the overall visitor experience by creating a positive image of a destination, providing a hospitable and friendly welcome and by creating a genuine sense of place.

As seen previously, according to vacation decision making process model, one step is to evaluate alternatives. Narayana and Markin (1975) divide destination alternatives into three choice sets. The evoked set relates to places the vacationers are familiar with and will be actively considered. The inert set describes places that the consumer is not aware of or feels indifferent to. Finally, in the inept set the destinations are known but not considered because of bad previous experiences or bad images. Because of the intangible nature of destination, decisions to travel to places is made based on images. According to Crompton (1979, p.18), a destination image is the sum of beliefs, ideas, and impressions that a person has of a destination. Therefore destination image plays a crucial role in the city tourism marketing.

In addition, visitors form an image about a destination on the quality of the welcome they receive. The welcome is made by the contact with people at attractions, when receiving a service or when they seek advice. In any case, the Internet cannot really deliver this welcome. On the other hand the staff in the TIC that will be able to add a personal touch to the visitor

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experience, suggesting places to visit and things to do, many of which may be small, niche and not promoted through the Internet (Robinson, 2009) and enhance the service quality.

Service quality represents the difference between the service provided and the expectation from the customer. Therefore, it is important to achieve service quality by minimising differences or gaps between expectation and experience (Zeithmal, Parasuraman & Berry, 1994). This will help to ensure customers satisfaction. As services become a commodity, it is what the customer experiences that matters the most (Pine & Gilmore, 1998).

Zeithmal et al (1990) have formulated different gaps between the service delivered and the expectations of the customer. According to the authors, the gap between expectations and service standard is the primary indicator of overall service quality. One of these gaps is when promises do not match reality of service delivery. The authors suggest that the gap is created when the external communications are unrealistic and therefore the customers expectations are not met, leading to disappointment. Customer satisfaction is especially important in tourism because it will increase customer loyalty and good word of mouth (Spinelli and Canavos, 2000). Besides, dealing with complaints is expensive, time consuming and give the destination a bad reputation. Quality and tourist satisfaction are linked to one another (Swarbrooke & Horner, 2007).

If a city website is of a very high quality giving out a lot of interesting information, visitors might expect the same kind of information service at the destination. If there is no TIC or a limited service at the TIC, visitors will be dissatisfied. For example one of the key objectives of the London Tourism Action Plan 2009-2013 was to deliver a high quality destination information network. London was to create lasting improvements in visitor information provision and coordination for 2012 and beyond. One goal was to continue to support the Britain and London Visitor Centre and the network of TICs (London Development Agency, 2009). A recent survey by Visit Britain (2008) revealed that TICs were seen as the third most reliable source of information for visitor to England, after conversation to friends and relatives, and a travel guidebook. However, the Britain and London Visitor centre, the biggest TIC in London, has closed down in December 2011 leaving only one TIC remaining in central London.

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In addition to this, it has been said by many researches that cultural orientation had an impact on delivering service quality. Recent studies pointed out that national culture not only influence consumer decision making process but also their expectations and satisfaction (Weiermair, 2000, Crotts & Erdmann, 2000, Liu et al. 2001). Culture has been defined in many ways. It is an interrelated set of elements, comprising of knowledge, beliefs, values, laws, morals and other behaviours acquired by a person as a member of a particular society (Usunier & Lee, 2005). Some speak of it as social glue or collective programming of the mind that guide behaviour (Patterson & Mattila, 2008). In marketing it is also defined as the accumulation of shared meanings, rituals, norms and traditions among the members of an organisation or society (Solomon, 2011). In service quality cultural orientation is a concept that explains consumers behaviour and perception of the service encountered via cultural values particular to groups of people they belong to. It can be for example a cultural orientation depending of the country they come from. TIC staff have the skills and knowledge to adapt their service according to the culture of the visitors while digital technologies are very standardised and not as flexible.

To conclude, the marketing of destinations is mainly done by the public sector. In that way they have created TICs. But more than promoting the place, TICs appear to have other role, like monitoring, influencing visitor behaviour and enhance a sense of community for local residents. Furthermore, it helps reducing the gap between reality and expectation. The service quality is enhanced. All these particular functions are not available with digital technology.

III.

Information Communication Technology (ICT) in tourism

Almost all societies around the world have entered a digital age where information is

accessible at any time of the day from Internet via a ever wider range of devices. By the end of the seventies, modern societies have seen the birth of the Net Generation who have been surrounded by computers since before they could speak (Tapscott, 2009). It is a generation characterised by their necessity to use technology. Tapscott wrote that almost 80% of them read interactive blogs daily, leaving comments and adding links. Technology is an important component of their life.

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The provision of visitor information has changed dramatically over the last 10 years. Information is communicated to visitors in many different ways. More and more tourists and often potential visitors use the Internet to plan their visit. Visitor information provision has been revolutionised over the past 15 years. Technological advances, which have enabled web applications and social networking, are rapidly evolving (British Tourist Authority, 2010). More and more people use smart phones to access information on demand (Visit England, 2012).

1. Use of ICT in tourism by the public sector As discussed previously, tourism cannot be sampled before the purchase. For this reason the decision to purchase is purely based on the information that is available. Although there are many information sources at the consumers disposition, it is increasingly the one found on the Internet that is used. In 1996, Walle published an article about the increasing impact of electronic innovations for the travel industry. He pointed out that the Internet was already an incredible source of data for the traveller to find information and will soon be used as a way to make and facilitate any transaction. Hence, the Internet was destined to be a great opportunity for direct marketing. More than 10 years later, Yeoman (2008) went in the same direction stating that the tourist of tomorrow will be better informed. He will have more choice and will be completely independent to purchase every step in holidays on demand helped by innovative technology.

In the UK, it is estimated that 70% of the population are regular Internet users, with only 17% who have never use the Internet. This last share of the population tends to be the older, disadvantaged or disabled consumers (Mintel, 2011b). Nevertheless, this figure is decreasing as the UK government aim to be the first nation in the world where everyone can use the internet. The Race Online 2012 campaign supports and encourages more people to be online (BBC News Technology, 2011). As more and more services and businesses only have a presence online, it is important that some people are not left behind. The trend is similar in the rest of Europe, with Germany, France, Italy and Spain the biggest EU internet users. Similarly the European Social Fund is prioritising to tackle digital illiteracy and incompetence (Euromonitor International, 2011). It is important to highlight that the European countries listed previously are in the top ten markets of England inbound tourism (Barnes & Smith, 2010).

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Nowadays, one of the most popular searches on the Internet is for tourism information (Zhou & Desantis, 2005). Indeed, in the context of information search and provision, the importance of the Internet as a marketing channel has been acknowledged in various studies (Marcussen, 1997, Boon et al. 1998, as cited in Cai et al., 2004). The studies draw the conclusion that DMO have to include the Internet in their marketing plan. Already in 1999, the World Tourism Organisation stressed that if you [destinations] are not online then you are not on sale (Drakopoulos, p.4).

Indeed, as discussed previously, an important part of the marketing role of NTOs is promotion. This involves road show, marketing materials such as brochures, photos, branding, visitor centres, etc. According to Page and Connell (2009), the public sector responsible for tourism has long recognised the importance to develop a presence on the Internet to enhance the tourist experience. Thus the development of Destination Management System (DMS) that coordinate, develop and facilitate the delivery of the tourism product by distributing the information across the industry and by helping SMEs like small hoteliers or attractions distribute their product electronically. An example of a DMS can be seen in the annexes (Annexe 1). Even if such development comes at a high cost, DMS contains the most comprehensive source of product information across all sectors of the visitor economy including accommodation, attractions, events and food & drink establishments (Lancaster City Council, 2012). The advantage of the DMS is that it enables information to be collected once and then each partner in the DMS-public website, guides, brochures, etc can use some of the data for their own websites and guides (Visit Cornwall, 2012). In 2001, Doolin et al. (2002) evaluated the various functions performed by 26 New Zealand RTO websites. They divided the functions into layers of complexity. Some are very simple website with only their name and contact details. Others are highly sophisticated websites with newsletters or secure online transactions. The results show that most websites had developed standard functions with description of regional tourism attractions with the use of images and email contact details. Only one website showed a higher level of sophistication with secure online booking offers for travel and accommodation. However, the authors noticed that it is not unusual to have a simple website. After all the primary role of these websites is to offer information.

Indeed another survey conducted in 2005, demonstrated that City tourism websites in Europe lack of user-centred design and interactivity like local information such as weather, time and
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digital interactive maps amongst other things (Zhou & Desantis, 2005). Constant innovations in technologies mean that if a destination wants to stand out from the online competition, they need to be dynamic and continue investing in their digital tool. Therefore, the Internet communication channel is not as cost-efficient as it at first seems. Obviously destination websites are not the only information source accessible on the Internet, some are probably more sophisticated and attractive than the public one. However, the tourist information available on internet is almost growing at an uncontrollable pace. Travellers are often overwhelmed by the quantity of information. Studies show that an online search can be frustrating as the consumer cannot find what he was looking for (Pan & Fesenmaier, 2006). It is evident that once a destination has been selected, it filters automatically the range of information available. Still, there will be a lot of websites about the place giving out information on activities, attractions, restaurants and blogs of travellers who visited the location, etc. The extensive amount of information leads to overload. Having information is not the same as being well informed (Case, 2008).

In parallel, the development of information technology has also meant an improvement of the overall tourism service. Airline companies and hotels can now liaise directly with consumers. It enables them to access the live database and book products instantly. The use of ICT in TICs has become considerably more widespread. ICT is incorporated directly into the daily work of the TICs to handle enquiries, brochure request and to book accommodation amongst other things (Guthrie, 2004, DAmbra & Mistilis, 2010). Overall, TICs have a positive attitude towards technology. However, reviewing the literature, very little is suggested as to an extended use of technologies in TICs, like touch screen, 24 hours info kiosk, etc. So the level of this ICT in use in England is still vague.

2. Latest advances in technology Multimedia is developing fast and is used more and more often on tourism websites. To counter the intangibility of the tourism product, a lot of photos and graphics have always been used both online and on prints. This is made even easier with new technologies that can use animations, video clips or virtual characters presenting attractions (Buhalis & Law 2008). Tours, websites and maps in three dimensions are all now adopted online by marketers to better visualise the information (Fiore et al., 2005).

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Probably one of the most recent advances is the mobile phone and wireless technologies. By definition, the tourist has high mobility and until recently Internet was mainly used before the visit, at home for example. During the visit, the access to Internet was restricted to places like Internet cafes. However, access to this mobile information while on the move is becoming more and more viable (Brown et al. 2002). ICT now allows Internet services to be accessed via mobile accessories such as PDAs, smartphones, ipads, etc, by using Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. These connections are extensively offered at places like airports, hotels and cafes (Buhalis & Law, 2008). These mobile devices are more flexible and interactive forms of provision, thanks to the various multimedia opportunities (Page and Connell, 2009). It is estimated that almost 80% of Internet users in the UK have a laptop at home, but most importantly 54% own an electronic device like smartphone, fifty percent more than the previous year (Mintel, 2011b).

Moreover, the internet has many advantages, such as reaching a large audience. One of its important roles is its growing capacity to offer a flexible and personalised service to customers. Tracking systems, like cookies, are now widely used by search browsers and webmasters to record Internet users previous search, preferences or purchase habits. It allows, in turn, the provision of a more accurate service to customers, leading to an increase of online sales and potential loyalty (Postma & Brokke, 2002).

A new system, SAMAP, was imagined by Castillo et al. (2008) to facilitate the activities undertaken by a tourist while visiting a city. It would be used as an app on a mobile phone with access to the Internet. The system uses a set of information such as knowledge of the city like places to visit and transport links. Then it draws a profile of the user based on his preferences like type of activities, use of public transport or taxis. These preferences have been collected from previous visits to other cities. Finally, the system incorporates preferences from other users that have a similar profile to the current user. The information gathered and compiled give out a plan containing various elements like a selection of suggested places to visit, transportation links and even bars and restaurants. Tourism has not only benefited the Internet from a commercial perspective but also from a social point of view.

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3. Rise of social network The recommendations by friends and relatives are perceived as the most important source of information (Visit Britain, 2008), mainly because it is necessary to make choices without sufficient information or knowledge of the alternatives (Fensenmaier et al., 2006). Furthermore, Brown et al. (2002) released a survey in Glasgow on the behaviour of tourists during their travel. It appeared that an important part of the trip was the opportunity to meet new people. According to the authors, these social contacts happen in part due to the opportunity to receive new advice about places to visit. Their survey showed that such word of mouth had greater value than a guidebook or the staff from a TIC. The importance of social recommendations is emphasised by a trend described as resistance to marketing (Yeoman et al., 2007). According to the authors, consumers are overloaded with unwanted advertising while marketers have to work harder to overcome a trend of mistrust. More and more consumers turn to either close networks or independent sources. Relevant information or suggested products can be found in recommendation systems, like expedia.com, orbitz.com and Travelocity.com. These systems copy the social process of giving and receiving information from others (Fensenmaier et al, 2006).

Lots of recommendations also now exist online. Websites like tripadvisor.com or many accommodation sites allow users to leave a comment about their experiences. Online recommendations influence greatly the travellers in the making of their choice. According to Senecal and Nantel (2004), products are chosen twice as often if they are recommended. Moreover, the authors indicated that this kind of recommendation, from other unknown users, has a greater impact on the decision than traditional recommendations from friends and relatives. This can be explained by consumers relying on information that is easy to process (Sparks & Browning, 2011). The consumer looks at a list of hotels at the destination and picks the one that has the best recommendation rate.

Because of the greater importance of electronic social media, a larger number of tourism businesses and organisations now feel the need to have a presence on such sites. They are for example creating their Facebook page or a similar type of online social presence. However it does not seem to impact directly on the decision of tourists whether to visit the place or not. Indeed, Jacobsen and Munar (2012) conducted a study that showed that the conventional

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word of mouth from non commercial sources remain a decisive factor in the destination choice, for both domestic and international holidays.

4. Retail industry As seen in the previous part, one of the challenges faced by TICs is to increase their revenue. TICs generate money with their retail division, by selling souvenirs, books, postcards, t-shirts, etc. They also receive commission on the sales of train tickets, entertainment tickets and accommodation bookings. For that reason, it makes sense to have a look at what is happening in the retail industry between the traditional form of retailing, a physical shop, and online trading.

Like in the tourism industry, technological advances over the last decade have made the world of retail a multi and cross channel market place. The emergence of a multitude of new channels has played directly into consumers hands giving them the opportunity to shop how, when and where they want. Different views exist on the real impact of e-commerce on high street shops. E-commerce or e-shopping is the search or purchase of consumer goods and services via the Internet (Mokhtarian cited in Weltevreden, 2007, p.192). Some argue it has a limited impact and others believe physical retailing will soon no longer exist (Burt & Sparks, 2003).

Verdict Consulting (2011) has looked at the evolution of the consumer since 1990 (Fig 2.6). The first change to the shopper came from the Internet. Consumers gained confidence in the channel from the nineties. Internet then became an effective tool for research and information gathering. Consumers became even more confident in the channel and used more and more Internet services to make their purchases. It eventually redefined the meaning of convenience and choice in retail. Today, however Internet is more than a convenient channel; it is also an important source of inspiration and ideas with interactive websites that include social features from other websites such as Twitter or Facebook. Latest studies in the retail industry say that retailers who embrace digital strategies perform better (Forbes, 2011). It is also important to point out that e-shopping cannot only replace a trip to the physical shop but it can also alter it. In fact, many consumers use the Internet to find information relevant to products or services before going to the shop. Because customers are better informed, their selection and purchase at the shop take less time (Weltevreden, 2007). Besides, a study from Hernandez et al. (cited

28

in Weltevreden, 2007) showed that viewing products or services online, like travel, and then buying at a physical commercial place, created on average three times more revenue than direct online purchases.

The boundaries between online and offline retailing are blurring. With the right technology in place, digital goods, such as high-quality movies and media content could be sold in physical stores to bypass lengthy download times. Meanwhile, retail shops could become a showroom where purchases are made only online for home delivery or in-store pick-up at a later time. Billboards and newspaper ads could become virtual shops through the use of barcodes and QR codes (Mintel, 2011b). Without a doubt the retail industry will need to enhance their physical spaces in many ways to attract customers (Burt & Sparks, 2003).

Fig 2.6 The evolution of consumer and the drivers (Verdict Consulting, 2011)

Some public leaders have been looking at using ideas from the private sector to improve the public sector (Joyce, 2011). In that sense some TICs have already started to create a more commercial environment, sometimes by looking at what has been done in the high street. For example, Manchester has completely reinvented its visitor centre (Annexe 2). It was often
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described in the press as a copy of an Apple store. The idea was to build a centre with technology at its heart, to make discovering information about the city both fun and useful. Maybe the Manchester model is the future of all VIC. At the moment it is true to say that most TICs are a visual nightmare with endless racks of brochures and staff stuck behind an impersonal desk (Thompson, 2010) (Annexe 3). Besides, by embracing this kind of technology, the staff will be able to leave recurrent jobs like refilling the brochures shelves. The staff can remain at the heart of the sharing process to enhance the experience (Galy, 2011).

Of course such modern look might not suit all TICs, for example the one located within historical buildings. Other solutions could be to create a boutique style, for example, the Val de Garonne region in France has renovated one of its TIC into a boutique style (Annexe 4). It has three themed rooms to present the various attractions of the region and a patio where visitors can relax and access Internet. Each room includes interactive technology (Boulin, 2011). This type of TIC is similar to the trend observed in the high street. Shops become unique and innovative with a boutique style look (Verdict Consulting, 2011).

To conclude ICT plays an important role in tourism. It helps deliver a better service and enhance the provision of information. Government have long recognised it and have invested in DMS but the lack of further investments often lead to a loss of real opportunities to make a difference. A comparison to the retail industry show that similar trends exit in both industries. Eventually, some examples from TICs reveal that the use of ICT, physical space and staff can create a truly exciting offline experience.

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Chapter 3 Methodology
A research involves making a discovery about something previously unknown and entails advancing industry knowledge (Brunt, 1997). This research is trying to understand, explain or even predict the evolution of TICs. As expressed in the introduction of this dissertation, there is a lack of information and research on the development of TICs, particularly in England. More over it seems that there is a lack of interest in this marketing channel. Therefore, this research is looking for new important insights for the tourism industry. The goal of this chapter is to provide a clear and complete description of the specific steps that were followed. It will present the approach used for each of the objectives. Then it will discuss the method chosen for the data collection and sampling and how the results will be analysed.

I.

Research approach
Three types of research are used for this study; descriptive, explanatory and

evaluative. Descriptive research refers to the discovery of a pattern of behaviour not previously studied. It helps to observe what is happening, to seek new insights (Saunders et al. 2012). Explanatory research on the other hand helps to understand the relationships between cause and effect, it explains the patterns and trends observed. Eventually, the evaluative research judges the effectiveness of policies or programmes, for example if a promotional campaign has been cost-effective. The following figure summarises the three different types of research.

1. Descriptive research 2. Explanatory research

Finding out, describing what is Explaining how or why things are as they are

3. Evaluative research

Evaluation of strategies

Tab 3.1 Types of research (adapted from Veal, 2006)

To answer the first objective, a descriptive research was carried out by using secondary data. The results were presented in the literature review.

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Explanatory research was used to answer the second objective. In order to examine the contribution of ICT in tourism, it was important to explain how ICT affected both the industry (secondary data from articles) and TICs. The third objective was about the success of the strategies, hence an evaluation so the evaluative research was preferred. For the fourth objective, the best option was an explanatory research to understand the reasons behind the survival or the closing down of some the information centres. Eventually, the recommendations were made from the answers of the other objectives so all approaches were used for the last objective. The following table (3.2) summarises the research approach and strategy for each objective.

Objective 1. Examine the role of TICs in marketing a tourist destination

Approach Descriptive research

Strategy Secondary data

2. Assess the contribution of Information and Communication Technology in tourism

Explanatory research

Secondary data Primary data: online survey

3. Measure and evaluate the development of TICs services and strategy over the last decade

Evaluative research

Primary data: online survey and interview

4. Identify and analyse the reasons for closures/scaling down or openings/extension

Explanatory research

Primary data: interview

5. Formulate recommendations regarding a marketing strategy that can be utilised by TICs

Descriptive, Explanatory and evaluative research

Secondary data Primary data: online survey and interview

Tab 3.2 Type of research approach and strategy according to objectives

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II.

Research Strategy
The research strategy represents the plans and actions that will be used to answer the

objectives. It refers to the use of secondary data, in other words published data that already exists, and primary data that was collected for the purpose of this paper.

1. Secondary data Brunt (1997) stressed that whatever the scale or nature of the research, an important first part is the gathering of data related to the topic, such as a literature review. In fact, the researcher needs to have knowledge of previous studies in the field to make sense of its own research. It also justifies the rationale for the research; if the information is already available then there is no point in collecting new one. For the purpose of this dissertation, the secondary data was collected using a wide range of resources by accessing articles from tourism and marketing journals, statistic reports from NTO and RTO, books and business presentations. After reviewing the literature, it appears that a few studies had already been conducted on TIC visitors, allowing the researcher to gather some relevant data. However, lots of the studies were quite dated or from other parts of the world. Only one of the studies found had data about England: the national TIC project run by Tourism South East. Some other studies done in Scotland seemed relevant too and were added to the literature review.

2. Primary data The primary data is, on the contrary, the new information that was collected throughout the study. There are two types of primary data: quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative research mostly uses numbers and large samples to test theories, while qualitative research use words and meanings in smaller samples to build theories (EasterbySmith et al., 2008). Although quantitative research is more reliable because of the size of the sample, it does not ascertain deeper meanings and explanations. Qualitative methods are used to uncover hidden motives (Pizam & Mansfeld, 1999). It was decided earlier on in the research process that a quantitative study will be carried out first to obtain valuable insights of the topic.

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a) Quantitative data Data collection: Online survey Surveys are a way of collecting data widely used in the tourism industry. It is often used to collect information about tourists and their activities. Numerous tourism surveys are taking place in the UK like the regular International Passenger Survey.

Because of the time-scale and financial limits of the researcher, the online survey method was chosen for the gathering of the quantitative data. Online surveys have many advantages. Some suggested by Dillman (2007) and Pan (2010) are ideal for this academic survey. First is the speed of response. Compared with traditional mail survey, online surveys are delivered almost instantly to recipient and the response time is also much quicker. Besides, if the address is wrong the sender will know it very quickly and allow the individual to take some time to check the contact details. Second is the cost. Online surveys are cost effective with no paper or mailing cost. Although most professional online survey website like QuestionPro (www.questionpro.com), Zoomerang (www.zoomerang.com/), or SurveyMonkey (www.surveymonkey.com/) ask for a subscription fee, some are completely free. The researcher had used Kwik Survey (kwiksurveys.com) in the past and knew the different features so it was decided to carry on with the same website. Furthermore, another advantage of online survey is the tracking feature. The results can show response behaviour, such as time of response or the exact page where one gave up the survey. This kind of information allows researchers to understand response patterns and modify survey to increase response rates.

However, apart from the fact that it is assumed that the consumer had the technological infrastructure to access the survey (Dillman, 2007), it is important to note that the rate of response for online survey has declined as Internet users receive more and more emails including a lot of junk and malicious emails (Sheehan, 2001). Pan (2010) suggests using precontact email to improve the response rate.

The online survey was designed with fourteen questions divided in different parts. The researcher used mostly closed questions with multiple answers so the data could

34

automatically be recorded and stored, ready for analysis. A few questions were open because the possible answers were not known. One TIC manager known by the researcher agreed to take part first to test the language and clarity of the questions in order to avoid any ambiguity. After some modifications, an invitation was then sent to the contacts. Annexe 5 is an example of what one question looks like on the respondents screen.

Population and sample According to Holloway (2009) there were about 600 TICs in England. Finding an official list of TICs proved to be a challenge. Eventually, the researcher was able to access a public list updated by Enjoy England in 2011 (available at www.enjoytic.org). The list includes TICs who are members of the Enjoy England Official Partner programme. This programme provides a basic level of national support from Visit England for all, but who also seeks to engage with information partners who wish to achieve consistently excellent standards of tourist information provision. Some initial work was done on the list. Some TICs within the same region had the same contact name. In order to avoid sending the survey several times to the same person, a deeper research was needed to get a specific contact details for each TIC. In total the list included 450 contacts. A first email was sent out to explain the purpose of the research to all. This initial email served as a precontact to improve response rate as suggested previously. It also served ethical issue that will be discussed later. The email presented the researcher and the survey and was also a way to check the validity of the contact details. Further to this email, more work was carried out to recover some email addresses, but even when checked some never worked. Further emails were sent to local governments to verify whether the TIC was still in operation. Eventually, 399 contacts received an invitation to complete the survey online. The difference between the number of invitations sent and the initial 450 contacts on the list is detailed in the table below (3.3). Out of 399 invitations, 76 contacts completed the online survey. The list of respondents can be found in Annexe 6.

35

Total of contacts from database Invitation sent Contact did not wish to participate, after precontact email Email address failure, even after further attempt TIC closed down, and no one was available to participate Seasonal TIC, closed at the time of the survey

450 399 8

14

22

Tab. 3.3 Difference between contacts and number of survey invitation

The results of the survey were used to generalise about the TICs, therefore it was important that the sample was representative of all English TICs. The respondents were classified into different groups based on the Destination Performance United Kingdom (DPUK, 2012) categories: London, City 1, City 2, City 3, coastal, rural. The explanation of each category is given in annexe 7. Another group was added for this paper, City 4 which represents cities of more than 30,000 citizens in a rural area. The location of each respondent was then added to a map of England (Annexe 8) to visualise the geographical representation of the sample. Apart from some small geographical gaps, the respondents location covers most part of England.

Furthermore, some questions from the survey helped to get more information on the profile of the sample. On average the respondents employed a very small number of full time and part time employees as well as casual paid staff. The mean or the average was simply calculated by the sum of staff on a full time equivalent (F.T.E.) divided by the number of respondents. The calculation shows a mean of 3.1 F.T.E. ranging from 1 to 7 employees. Also, two other averages were calculated: the median, the middle number, and the mode, the value which occurs the most. Both are 2.5 F.T.E. Also, it is important to note that 12 TICs receive help from volunteers.

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It is necessary to point out that the sample may not be completely representative of all TICs, as a lot of them did not take part in the survey. It is hard to explain the reasons why some did and others did not. The researcher can only make some assumptions. Maybe some simply did not have time. Also, as the overall situation of many TICs is uncertain, some might have felt the need to participate to somehow express their disappointment. The opposite could be that some are doing very well and wanted to share their experience. Therefore the researcher is aware that the sample might by be biased by personnel motivations.

b) Qualitative data Data collection: In-depth Interviews In order to reveal information about perceptions, attitudes, experiences and beliefs of the strategies developed by TICs, a small-scale qualitative research was then found appropriate. Qualitative data is clearly the research method that collects non quantitative information. The data collected is richer and from fewer people rather than limited information from a large group of people (Brunt, 1997). Many techniques are used in leisure and tourism research, such as group interviews, focus groups and in-depth interviews (Veal, 2006). The in-depth interview method was considered the most appropriate and was conducted by phone. Due to the geographical location of the various respondents and the lack of funds for this research, it would have been complicated to organise a group interview or for the researcher to travel to each TIC. The interviews lasted on average twenty minutes. Although some important topics were listed, the interviewees were encouraged to speak freely on any topic they wanted without having to reply to any formal questions. As the respondents already completed the online survey, they already had an idea of what subject the researcher wanted to talk about.

It is important to note that the researcher did not have any previous experience in conducting an interview. As Veal (2006) points out a good in-depth interview requires specific skills. It is important for the interviewer not to take part in the interview, not to lead the answers or agree/disagree with the response. In order to remain objective, the researcher used a probing technique. It consists of picking up on a sentence or term used by the interviewee and repeating it in a questioning manner (Connell and Reynolds, 1999).

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The telephone interviews were carried out online using Skype, an internet base communication software. This allows the researcher to use Skype with another software, Total recorder, to record the conversation, which, in turn, were transcript.

Population and sample The last question of the online survey asked whether the respondent agreed to be contacted for further questions. A little more than half agreed. From the list, a sample was selected based on two different variables: DPUK and the evolution of the number of visitors. The DPUK categories were divided into three groups: urban (City 1, 2 and 3), rural (including city 4) and coastal. Then for each group, two TICs were chosen; one who recorded an increased and one who recorded a decrease in the number of visitors. In total 6 managers agreed to do the in-depth interview. A system of letter and number was indexed in front of each respondent to facilitate the analysis (tab 3.4). The researcher wanted to understand why, depending on the type of destination, the evolution in the footfall varied.

Index

DPUK

Number Visitors

of

A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3

Urban (City 1, 2 and 3) Rural (including City 4) Coastal Urban (City 1, 2 and 3) Rural (including City 4) Coastal

Increased Increased Increased Decreased Decreased Decreased

Tab 3.4 List of TIC for in-depth interviews

It is important to note that some respondents contacted did not wish to participate in the interview but nevertheless sent some extra thoughts by email on their own initiatives. This data was though relevant and then used in the analysis.

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3. Data Analysis The data analysis was probably the most complicated part of this dissertation. The following paragraphs will explain the process by which the data was analysed. However the results of the analysis will be presented in the next chapter.

a) Quantitative data One of the advantages of the online survey and closed question is that the data are easily summarised and analysed using computers. One of Kwik survey feature enabled the data to be downloaded into a worksheet from the Excel Office software. Filter and ranking operations onto the worksheet allowed the researcher to visualise results into graphs to help understand the trends and the relationships between variables.

b) Qualitative data The framework method was preferred to analyse the interviews as the number of transcripts were not excessive. Others methods like using computer software were considered. However these methods are particularly of interest for lengthy documents to analyse (Veal, 2006). Besides, learning how to use such software takes quite some time not available to the researcher.

The framework method involves a five step process: familiarisation, identifying a thematic framework, indexing, charting and mapping and interpretation. Familiarisation refers to the process during which the researcher listened to the recordings and read the transcripts to become familiar with the data collected. From this some recurrent themes already emerged like how technologies have helped delivering a better service and the importance of staff. Using the key themes drawn from the first step, the researched could then form a thematic framework to classify the data. This leads on the indexing stage. The researcher used number annotation on the margin of each transcript to identify which part corresponded to a particular theme. The next step, charting, allowed the researcher to place the findings in a table in relation to a theme with headings and subheadings. The final stage involved the evaluation and discussion of the data. By looking at the different tables, the researcher was then able to look for pattern or connection.

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4. Ethical issues Openness and honesty are important consideration in any research. The precontact email sent, clearly explained who the researcher was, the purpose of the survey, both academic and personnel, behind the research as well as how the results would be used. From this first email, it was also clearly expressed that the person contacted could refuse to take part. Some did not wish to participate and the survey was simply never sent to them. It was also made clear that respondents and interviewees had the right to withdraw at any time. It was also stated that the identity of respondents would remained confidential. That is why at no point in the dissertation, the data gathered refers to any TIC in particular. Eventually when designing the questionnaire, it was also important to make sure that the use of language did not lead to intimidation, challenge or threat to the respondents (Brace, 2008).

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Chapter 4 Analyse of the results

The researcher made the assumption that over the last decade, TICs must have had a range of strategies to develop their service in order to adapt to new demands and needs and in order to survive budget cuts. The results of the study show that various types of strategies have been adopted by TICs. Although some may be considered minimal and probably had little impact, others are quite innovative. According to Chisnall (1995), three main strategies are considered in business; innovation, communication and market segmentation. Innovation is a vital function of any successful marketing strategy. In other words, it is characterised by a frequent development of new products and services. Also, organisations need an effective and integrated strategy of communication that uses all communication channels available. Eventually the market segmentation strategy targets different customers depending on several criteria such as location, demographics, life-style, etc. In order to evaluate how TICs have developed any or all of these strategies, the analysis of the data will look at the development of their marketing mix. In order to measure the success of TICs, the researcher will look at the relationship between an increase or decrease of the number of visitors and the marketing mix as well as funding source.

I.

Footfall as a base to measure the success of the strategy

One way to measure a business success is to look at the revenue generated. The

literature review pointed out that TICs were under greater pressure to increase their sales turnover. This was confirmed in the survey; 61% of respondents agreed that they felt a pressure or encouragement to increase revenue. In fact, a better income could cover some or all of last years big national public budget cuts. Most of the TICs managers interviewed mentioned the fact that the aim was to become cost neutral; not generating profit but making enough sales to cover the running costs of the place. TICs are a public service therefore they are not profit-orientated. The respondent who accepted to test the online survey did not want to comment on the revenue made and also suggested to avoid a revenue question in the survey; it was thought to intimidate further respondents.

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Another way to measure the success was the evolution of the number of visitors. All TICs have some system in place, such as automatic footfall counters, to record the number of visitors that come through their doors. This is an important statistic that is often used by Visit England for their annual reports (Tourism Insights, 2008). Plus it is understood that more visitors mean more revenue. As seen in fig 4.1, 36% of TICs declared that the number of visitors decreased over the last 10 years. On the other hand, almost the same percentage of TICs saw an increase in visitors. This could mean that 35% of TICs have developed successful strategies. However, the variation in the number of visitors at the TIC can also be partially explained by a variation in the number of visitors at the destination.

Unchanged 8% Varied 21% Increased 35%

Decreased 36%

Fig 4.1 The evolution of the number of Visitors over the last ten years

The growth of more accessible air travel and cheaper fares, has contributed to more overseas travel and tourism visits of shorter duration, especially city breaks (Barnes & Smith, 2010) as opposed to more rural or coastal trips. Likewise, two thirds of domestic trips are made in urban areas (Visit England, 2010). While the revenue from inbound tourism has increased at a greater rate, domestic trips, on the contrary, have constantly decreased over the last two decades, with a few exceptions like in 2009, when weakened sterling and stranded flights resulted in a lot of English tourists preferring to stay in the country (Visit Britain, 2010). This appeared to be true when looking at the relationship between the evolution of the number of visitors and the DPUK of the TIC (Fig 4.2 ).
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70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% City 1 City 2 City 3 City 4 rural coastal Footfall increase Footfall decrease

Fig. 4.2 Relationship between Footfall and DPUK

The results show that there are fifty percent more TICs in urban areas recording an increase than a decrease in the number of visitors. While in coastal areas there are more TICs recording a decrease in footfall. Unchanged or varied number of visitors is not included in this graph.

Also, due to the decrease in funding, some TICs had to reduce their opening hours or change location to save money. One manager interviewed mentioned they had to move into another public facility, the library, to share some of the costs. Hence they are now opened only 6 days a week instead of 7 at the previous location. Besides, the location of the library is slightly outside of the main tourist track. It might not represent much difference in the total number of visits; nevertheless it is important to bare this in mind. The next part will look in detail at the strategies put in place in the marketing mix and then compare them to the footfall.

II.

Marketing Mix: Product, promotion, price, place and people

The 4 Ps is a well known model in the marketing field to define the marketing mix.

The 4 Ps are: Product, Promotion, Price and Place. It is common to have a fifth P for People. They are parameters or variables that can be controlled at some extent by the marketing manager.

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In the context of the TIC the Product refers to the retail side and the service of giving out information. The Promotion is the various advertising and media used by the TIC to promote its products and services. The Price refers to the potential savings the tourists can make at the centre compared to the competition. The place is the environment within which the customers make the enquiry or buy tickets. Finally, the People are the staff that handle the enquiries and make the sales.

1. Products The products offered by TICs can be classified in two categories: retail and service. The retail includes the range of souvenirs, postcards, local arts as well as the tickets for attractions, entertainment, transport and booking for accommodation. The service is the act of giving out information; it can be material like leaflets or verbal like offering advice.

a) Retail TICs have made a lot of changes on the retail side. All TICs interviewed said they have increase the space dedicated to retailing. From the online survey, the results show that 74% have increased the range of product and 64% have diversified their product.

b) Service The main service of the TIC is to provide information. A traditional TIC has a certain amount of leaflet racks at the disposition of the travellers. Leaflets can be about attractions, theatres, plays, museums, walking tours and sport activities. Visitors can also make enquiries directly to the staff usually situated behind counters. Seventy four out of the Seventy six respondents said they still have leaflet racks. Even if it was mentioned in the interview that some attractions are reducing the number of leaflets they print because they are looking at alternative and more affordable ways of advertising. Most of the TICs have included technology at their centre to be used by the staff. Many interviewees said this enable staff to deliver more information than previously. Within the TIC itself, staff now use the computers a lot more to find out information for visitors. Many attractions have chosen to no longer print leaflets and we therefore research online for customers instead of just handing them a leaflet. The staff are able to check updated information like train timetables as well as access accommodation availability instantly, as opposed to calling every hotel. Other technologies have slowly been put at the disposition of

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the customers. Such technologies were described as self-service computer (31%), screens (35%) and more recently apps or maps available for download by the visitor (32%). All TICs agreed that these technologies were an expensive investment but enhances greatly the visitor experience at the centre.

Both retail and service results highlight innovation strategies at TICs, especially in retail. As pointed out in the interviews, increasing and diversifying the range of product is an easy strategy that needs a little bit of time and careful consideration but is not a big financial investment.

c) Segmentation One of the survey questions asked was if the TICs had changed their range of products to focus on particular segment of their market. More than 23% said they had but the questionnaire failed to provide more information, like what types of products were chosen and the audience who were targeted. One of the interviewees mentioned the fact they now specifically look at the walking industry and changed their products and services accordingly. Another one said they were slowly shifting their offer to better serve the local community. For instance, they added a Paypoint system so local residents could come and pay their utility bills; they also handle parcels through the Collect+ system.

2. Promotion Traditionally, TICs could advertise with sign on the streets, an i on the local maps or in guidebook and travel magazines. Now they can communicate to all type of visitors via the Internet. Ninety eight percent of respondents declared having a presence on the Internet. They either had their own website or pages on the main council or regional websites. Eighty eight percent saw an increase in the number of visitors on their website. Although the survey asked them to quantify the increase, very few were able to give an answer so the results will not be mentioned as the researcher does not think they are representative. Moreover, an interesting 71% said they also had a presence on online social media. Half of the TICs have a Facebook page, 43 % have a Twitter account and 6% also used some other form of online social media. However, only 54% said they were updating their own online information themselves. The rest said it was done by another department or an external company. Nevertheless, all of the interviewees mentioned that they would like to be 100% in

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charge of their Internet presence, dealing with updates and uploading their own pictures. One interviewee acknowledged that meeting customer needs and expectations meant ensuring their website was up to date with relevant information. Unfortunately, it was also said that with council and TIC loss of staff, the online information could not be kept up to date: We would consider moving into social networking if we had the staff to support this provision we signed up for a Twitter account several years ago but it is not currently active.

Very few TICs use technology to the extent of the Manchester centre, which is often described like an Apple-store style. Using the latest Microsoft technology, it now attracts an average of 1,000 people a day and is one of England's most sophisticated visitor centres (Davies, 2011). TICS have not yet used the cable high street opportunity. With increasing number of smart phones users, more and more retailers use location technology to send targeted offers and discounts for customers who stroll along the streets (Verdict Consulting, 2011).

3. Price Forty two percent of TICs said they have renegotiated with suppliers and attraction managers to be able to offer discounted tickets and/or receive a better commission. It appeared that TICs are often able to sell discounted tickets for a lot of local attractions as well as train tickets and last minute theatre seats. This was discussed during the interview and clearly TICs have a competitive advantage over other marketing channels.

4. The Place The survey asked TICs if they had moved the location of their TIC or made any renovation to the actual building. This question also had an open box where the respondent could explain the reasons. According to the survey, 15% of TICs changed location. Most had to change to a more affordable location due to budget constraints. Only one TIC changed location to be more visible and attract more visitors. Regarding the renovation of the building, 39 % of TIC had made some sort of changes to the building over the last 10 years, including increasing the size of the building (17%). Renovations were described from simple most needed refurbishments of the premises, solar panel additions, to major changes that reflect new demand in information provision.

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Fortunately, the latest made an effort in the renovation process by reconsidering entirely their working space. Improvements made the centres looked more modern. It gave them a fresher and more inviting look. Besides a reconfiguration of the floor space allowed more room for retail, hence increasing sales turnover. One TIC manager said that We removed about 75 % of our counter, freeing up additional floor space which can be used for additional retail and information and the staff now work predominantly away from the counter, meeting and greeting the customers as they arrive and taking them around the TIC to the relevant literature. This change has proved extremely successful providing better customer service and generating additional income. This last comment also underlines the importance of staff.

5. The people The importance of the presence of friendly and knowledgeable staff was recognised in the literature review. While some TICs have reduced the number of staff and replaced them with technology, others have on the other side make special investment to ensure they provide excellent customer service. For instance, some hired more employees to ensure a one to one service, others invested a lot in customer service and language training and regularly organised away days and familiarisation trips. However, when savings needed to be made, staff were the first to go. One interviewee commented that they could still provide an excellent information service but it was getting very difficult with only half the staffing level they had a few years ago. Another TIC manager said it was expected to run with unpaid volunteers in the future. A few TICs already received help from local residents. Volunteers are proud to share their knowledge of the area and want visitors to appreciate even more what the place has to offer. However, finding volunteers, especially in rural areas is not easy. Furthermore, volunteers do not stay very long, so it also involves a lot of training (Smith and Holmes, 2012). As one manager mentioned, they have good intentions but they do not always have the skills for the job.

6. The effectiveness of the marketing mix Different strategies have been adopted throughout the marketing mix. In order to measure the success of the 4 Ps, the number of TICs who developed strategies or not were compared to the evolution of visitors numbers (Fig 4.3-4.7).

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Product: Retail
70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Increased Decreased Increase range Diversify Varied Both Unchanged None

Fig 4.3 Relationships between footfall and product (Retail)

Product: Service
45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0%
Increased Computer Decreased screen Varied product to download Unchanged None

Fig 4.4 Relationships between footfall and product (Service)

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Promotion: Use of social media

50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Increased Decreased Facebook Varied Twitter None Unchanged

Fig 4.5 Relationships between footfall and promotion (use of social media)

Price: renegotiation with supplier

60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Increased Decreased Varied Unchanged

Fig 4.6 Relationships between footfall and price (renegotiation with supplier)

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Place
50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Increased Decreased Renovation Varied Unchanged Unchanged

Fig 4.7 Relationships between footfall and place (building renovation)

Looking at the results shown on the graph, some strategies have clearly had a greater impact on the number of visitors than others. Indeed, strategies developed on the product were successful. According to the results, TICs who innovate with new, cheaper products and new ways of delivering information, especially products to download, have a better chance to increase their footfall. Surprisingly, the TICs who did not undertake any renovation of the building show a better percentage in the increase footfall. It seems that the appearance of the building did not really contribute to the survival of TICs. Also, the use of social media has not been very rewarding either. This can be explained by the fact that most of the online information is not up to date.

III.

Change of the source of funding

As seen in the literature review, the English government is well aware of the benefits

of tourism and puts a lot of investment into marketing the country and every region. Apart from finance constraints, local government also had to look at sustainable ways to promote even small businesses. A lot of literature has been written on the growing role of partnership between the private and public sector in tourism, in particular at the local destinations (Middleton and Hawkins, 1998). There are many advantages to such collaboration. It is important for all tourism businesses to promote the area. An obvious advantage of such partnership is the ability to raise a bigger budget. Other industries, like the transport or film industry, often get involved too.
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Other advantages of partnership are the standardisation of the marketing campaigns throughout the industry or the potential to develop city-wide reservation system amongst others (Fyall & Garrod, 2005). Unfortunately, common issues arise with the implementation of public-private partnership. First of all, the lack or the inadequacy of members, are they really representing the industry? Second, some stakeholders argue that they pay for a campaign that will profit others who do not contribute. Even if the local council wish to organise a partnership the feasibility of such project is sometimes very complicated.

One of the questions in the survey asked the respondents whether they had changed the way they receive funding over the last 15 years. More than 75% continued to receive 100% public funding. On the other hand, just under 25% said they moved to a public-private partnership or received some sort of private funding. The DPUK did not seem in that instance to have any special relationships with the source of funding. What is more interesting is to compare these results with the footfall figures (fig. 4.8).

Public/Private 47% 41%

Public

27%

24% 18%

24% 12% 8%

increased

decreased Footfall

varied

unchanged

Fig 4.8 Relationships between footfall and funding

The results clearly show that by changing the source of funding, a TIC has more chance to increase its number of visitors, hence eventually its revenue. Interviews reveal that the extra or same level of funding, due to an injection from the private sector, allow the centre to renovate its building and look at other ways to improve their services. The interviewees
51

mentioned that public funding was constantly being reduced and the centres could not develop properly as it was only looking at quick ways to reduce costs. It is clear that TIC managers were often frustrated over budget concerns. Most of them had great ideas on how to develop their service but the tight financial situation meant they often had to go backwards rather than forwards. As one manager said: We strive within our limits to provide the best possible service and reflect the wishes of our customers.

Even if the study did not obtain information from the TICs that had closed down, most of the interviewees felt the need to explain the closure of the others. All agreed that it was only due to council decisions and even if some TICs had fewer visitors than the previous decade, they were still an important asset for the tourism industry. Similarly, the reason why some TICs were able to get bigger, changed to a better location, renovate their building and include modern technology was because the local government invested and believed in them. This emphasizes the importance of having a consistent budget and maybe the solution of getting some revenue from the private sector.

Eventually, it is important to say that if the TICs were able to answer the survey it is because their centre had managed to survive even with the recent budget cuts initiated in 2011. Therefore to some extent, whatever they have done has been successful.

IV.

Limitations of the study

Various limitations in the research were pointed out throughout the previous and

current chapter. The main concern is the way the success of the strategy was measured. Because no revenue figures were available, each strategy was compared with the evolution of visitor numbers. However, while designing the survey it appeared that a detail record of visitor numbers per year was complicated to gather, therefore the question just asked for a general trend. Furthermore, the measurement did not take into account other variables. For example, the modernisation of the information provision might have been very successful but because the TIC had to relocate, fewer visitors were passing by. The results would in turn show that the modernisation was not successful.

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Conclusion and Recommendations

Tourism is a complex product, but reviewing the literature review it appears that the decision making itself is a complicated process involving a set of variables. The face of the tourism industry has evolved considerably over the last three decades and tourists themselves have changed greatly. The greatest changes can be seen over the last decade with fast changes in technology. Nevertheless, all authors agree that the key to the success of tourism is the information. Tourist Information centres is one way communication channel that has been used in England for over 40 years. They have many roles in not only promoting the place but in enhancing the sense of pride for the local community and the overall delivery of the service quality. Over the last decade, online technologies have increasingly been used to market destinations. Technologies also have many benefits to help improve the service delivery of the TICs. Examples from the literature review revealed that some TICs have managed to create an exciting offline experience. However, the results of the survey and the interviews show that most TICs have only tried to develop simple strategies to survive. No real major innovation, communication or segmentation strategies have been put into place. The in-depth interview revealed a frustration from TIC managers to not be able to do more. It is understood that they have done whatever they could within their financial limits. So why are councils not investing more into TICs? From the introduction it was already said that councils in England see the online information as the future. Reviewing the literature and conducting the survey clearly show that indeed most of the local governments do not have much faith in TICs. Apart for some exceptions, little is done financially to ensure their survival. It is almost as if TICs have already lost the battle but councils are a little bit reluctant to let them go away so soon because they have been on the landscape for so long. It is like the next cut backs could be the finishing stroke.

However, these councils are wrong for at least one thing: Internet should not be a replacement channel but a complimentary channel to what already exists. There should always be a need for specialist knowledge and advice, regardless of the information available on the Internet (Robinson, 2009). Furthermore, for many vacationers, holidays have always been a way to escape their daily life, to escape urbanisation, routine (Poon, 1988). Nowadays, some want to take a break from their digital routine too.

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Face to face information and advice will continue to be important. Businesses such as retailers, restaurants, travel agents, transport operators, car rental companies, public houses, village shops, petrol stations and post offices already understand that they can increase their business and increase customer satisfaction by providing visitor information as part of their service (VisitEngland, 2012). Going back to Maria, the fictional Spanish lady presented in the introduction, Yeoman and McMahon-Beattie (2006) also imagined a second scenario in a real information society where Maria, who also books her holiday on internet, walks in one of the 7000s TIC in Scotland on her arrival to get some brochures. She thinks paper information are a reliable and convenient source of information, but most of all she acknowledged the high level of customer service from the TIC staff. This scenario underlines the fact that technology and personal information work together rather than the first replacing the second. TICs have various roles. They are mainly here to promote the area, but they can also be used to educate visitors and they can become an attraction in their own right. The centre can become an exciting place to visit, not just another information source, like the examples given of Manchester and the Val de Garonne information centres. This relates to Pearce and Moscardo (in Pearce, 2004) fourth function of substitution. The centres are attractions in their own right. They can become a must see on the guidebook list.

On the other hand are TICs really looking for a solution? It is true to say that the effectiveness of government involvement is partly due to the availability of public funds. However, many examples show that other sources of funding are possible as well as new cost-effective technology. It seems that TICs have spent more time adapting a cost-effective attitude than trying to adapt their service or communicate better. The changes in information seeking were highlighted more than 15 years ago in the literature, but TICs have only seen it as a threat rather than an opportunity. Very few have been proactive in developing strategies that would incorporate new ways of looking for information. But the majority have clearly not done enough.

Some recommendations naturally came from the research. In-destination information has already seen a growth in the use of smart phones to access information on demand. TICs should try to exploit the benefits of both an online and offline presence (Weltevreden, 2007). These two types of channels have different advantages for different types of travellers. Each channel can offer a unique service to meet the different
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customers requirements and contribute to the satisfaction of all (Kollman et al., 2012). The results of the study show that TICs were not using the online technology to attract more visitors. Most of their websites was not updated on a regular basis; nothing exciting on the website gives the online users the wish to visit the TIC. It appears that technology is used to enhance the visitor experience, but not really used to attract visitors into the centre. In the literature review, a study highlighted two dominant segments in visitors: the cosmopolitans and the functionals. TICs can get much more out of these two segments. The cosmopolitans are interested in this specific local knowledge that is not available on internet and are big spenders. Efforts need to be made to attract them by highlighting the skills of the staff. The functionals are looking for the best value for money. TICs are the best place to buy discounted tickets. They should better advertise this unique selling point.

One of the most successful strategies shown in the survey is the change in the source of funding. If TIC managers have concerned about how to do it, it is the role of local government to give them support to engage with businesses associations and tourist attractions. Although it is understood that such partnership is hard to put in place, many have already happened, so experiences from other TICs should be shared.

Both the literature review and the interviews revealed that TIC managers were more concerned about reduction in the public sector budget, staff retention and poor weather issues than the need to retain visitor numbers (Robinson, 2009).

TICs should keep in mind that attracting more visitors to the centre will eventually increase the revenue and take some pressure off the restraint budget. If they manage to have an updated and interactive website, attracting online users will also increase revenue. Many retailers use simple affordables technique to get more online traffic. For example, TIC could have a QR code on their map or on their door so visitors could access the online information outside of opening hours. So much more needs to be learnt from the private sector. Further research should look at this more specifically and come up with affordable and online strategies to attract visitors back into tourist information centres.

55

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Appendix 1: Lancaster DMS flow diagram

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Appendix 2: Manchester new Visitor Information Centre

Technology is at the heart of the centre

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Appendix 3: traditional and modern TIC

A traditional TIC or visual nightmare

A modern and airy TIC

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Appendix 4: Val de Garonne new TIC

Four rooms and a patio: local attractions are staged with interactive display and video from the some stakeholders of the region who promote their products.

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Appendix 5: Online survey, question 7 on social media presence

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Appendix 6: List of online survey respondents classified by DPUK

City City of london Coventry Gateshead Newcastle Plymouth Porsthmouth Salford Solihull Bolton Bury st Edmunds Chester Chichester Durham Oxford Winchester York Birmingham Carlisle Chesterfield Leicester Chippenham Doncaster Newbury Hull yorkshire Bournemouth Christchurch Falmouth Felixstowe Fowey Ilfracombe Looe Maldon Porlock South Tyneside Southamtpon Weymouth Bakewell DPUK Category London city 1 City 1 City 1 City 1 City 1 City 1 City 1 City 2 city 2 City 2 City 2 City 2 city 2 city 2 City 2 city 3 City 3 City 3 City 3 City 4 City 4 City 4 City 4 coastal coastal coastal coastal coastal coastal coastal coastal coastal coastal coastal coastal rural 70 Battle Bourton-on-the-Water Bradford on avon Broughton in furness Dorchester Ely, Cambridgeshire Faringdon, Oxfordshire Great torrington Hawes Haworth, west yorkshire Hexham Holmfirth Honiton Hoveton Leek, Staffordshire Leominster Malvern Melksham Moreton cotswold Newark Oswestry Penrith Ringwood Rothbury Rye Sandy Sevenoaks Shaftesburydorset Sherwood heath Somerset axbridge Stamford, lincolnshire Taunton Todmorden Totnes Winchcombe Windermere City DPUK Category rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural rural

Appendix 7: Destination Performance UK (DPUK) Categories

City One Renaissance cities: post-industrial cities (not obviously historic or traditional) using tourism marketing and development for regeneration. City Two Small historic cities with a strong emphasis on heritage, culture, shopping and year-round tourism and small regional hub locations with populations of 80,000 - 150,000. Majoring on historic, rural and industrial attractions. Very active in tourism, all with TIC's. City Three Large, mainly urban. Towns and cities with populations over 200,000. Historically, economies have tended to be based upon heavy industry and manufacturing. Geographically, tend to be in Midlands or North. Coastal Coastal resorts of all sizes with a significant stretch of urban or rural coastline and possibly a rural hinterland. Will comprise a main seaside town or several small resorts which generate the majority of tourism activity and economic wealth. Rural Destinations that are rural in nature but may have coastline. Districts tend to have low populations and contain small, little-known market towns with few major attractions. They promote themselves as a mix of countryside pursuits, arts, literature and heritage.

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Appendix 8: Map of England showing the location of the respondents

(using Internet mapping by Google Maps)

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