JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY M.E.

( ILLUMINATION ) ,YEAR :2011 -12 BY KAMALIKA GHOSH

SUBJECT : OPTICAL RADIATION AND HEALTH SYLLABUS

PART I 1. Optical Radiation-UV 6.Germicidal UV Radiation 2. Visual -IR 3. IR- Source 4. UV- Source 5. Effect on Micro organization 10.Maximum Lighting & Terarium Lighting

7. Green House

8. Growth Room Photo Period Lighting

9. Maximum Lighting

PART II 1.UV,IR-Effect on Human Eye 6. Shift Work PART III 1. Light Photo Therapy 5. Plant Lighting 2. Effect on egg production 6. Green House and growth room photoperiod lighting 3. Chicken Growth & Development 7.Maximum Lighting and Terrarium Lighting 4. Effect on plant plant response 2.UV,IR-Effect on Human Skin 7. Jetlag 3.Vitamin D 8.Insect Response 4. Calcium Metabolism 9.Decoy Lamp 5.Biological Rhythm 10. Insect Trap

LIGHT POLLUTION

New York City

Light Pollution ( also known as Photo Pollution , Luminous Pollution , etc .) is excess or obtrusive light created by humans .Like other pollutions , it is a side effect of careless industrial civilization .It comes from sources of poorly designed crude lighting of offices , factories , street ,sporting venues , domestic ,etc. Among other effects , it can obscure all but a few stars to city dwellers , render astronomical observatoris , disrupt ecosystem etc. Types of light pollution Light pollution is a broad term that refers to multiple problems, all of which are caused by inefficient, unappealing, or (arguably) unnecessary use of artificial light. Specific categories of light pollution include light trespass, over-illumination, glare, clutter, and sky glow. A single offending light source often falls into more than one of these categories. Light trespass Light trespass occurs when unwanted light enters one's property, for instance, by shining over a neighbour's fence. A common light trespass problem occurs when a strong light enters the window of one's home from outside, causing problems such as sleep deprivation or the blocking of an evening view.

OVER-ILLUMINATION

Nijmegen, the Netherlands Over-illumination is the excessive use of light. Over-illumination stems from several factors:

Not using timers, occupancy sensors or other controls to extinguish lighting when not needed Improper design, especially of workplace spaces, by specifying higher levels of light than needed for a given task Incorrect choice of fixtures or light bulbs, which do not direct light into areas as needed Improper selection of hardware to utilize more energy than needed to accomplish the lighting task Incomplete training of building managers and occupants to use lighting systems efficiently Inadequate lighting maintenance resulting in increased stray light and energy costs

Most of these issues can be readily corrected with available, inexpensive technology; however, there is considerable inertia in the field of lighting design and with landlord/tenant practices that create barriers to rapid correction of these matters. Most importantly public awareness would need to improve for industrialized countries to realize the large payoff in reducing over-illumination. GLARE Glare is often the result of excessive contrast between bright and dark areas in the field of view. For example, glare can be associated with directly viewing the filament of an unshielded or badly shielded light. Light shining into the eyes of pedestrians and drivers can obscure night vision for up to an hour after exposure. Caused by high contrast between light and dark areas, glare can also make it difficult for the human eye to adjust to the differences in brightness. Glare is particularly an issue in road safety, as bright and/or badly shielded lights around roads may partially blind drivers or pedestrians unexpectedly, and contribute to accidents.

Glare can also result in reduced contrast, due to light scattering in the eye by excessive brightness, or to reflection of light from dark areas in the field of vision, with luminance similar to the background luminance. The degree of Glare may be subdivided as follows : (i) Blinding Glare describes effects such as that caused by staring into the Sun. It is completely blinding and leaves temporary or permanent vision deficiencies. (ii) Disability Glare describes effects such as being blinded by an oncoming cars lights, or light scattering in fog or in the eye reduces contrast, as well as reflections from print and other dark areas that render them bright, with significant reduction in sight capabilities.

(iii) Discomfort Glare does not typically cause a dangerous situation in itself, and is annoying and irritating at best. It can potentially cause fatigue if experienced over extended periods. CLUTTER Clutter refers to excessive groupings of lights. Groupings of lights may generate confusion, distract from obstacles (including those that they may be intended to illuminate), and potentially cause accidents. Clutter is particularly noticeable on roads where the street lights are badly designed, or

where brightly lit advertising surrounds the roadways. Depending on the motives of the person or organization who installed the lights, their placement and design may even be intended to distract drivers, and can contribute to accidents. Clutter may also present a hazard in the aviation environment if aviation safety lighting must compete for pilot attention with non-relevant lighting. For instance runway lighting may be confused with an array of suburban commercial lighting and aircraft collision avoidance lights may be confused with ground lights. SKY GLOW

Mexico City at night, with a brightly illuminated sky. Sky glow refers to the "glow" effect that can be seen over populated areas. It is the combination of all light reflected from what it has illuminated escaping up into the sky and from all of the badly directed light in that area that also escapes into the sky, being scattered (redirected) by the atmosphere back toward the ground. This scattering is very strongly related to the wavelength of the light when the air is very clear (with very little aerosols). Sky glow is of particular irritation to astronomers, because it reduces contrast in the night sky to the extent where it may even become impossible to see any but the brightest stars. CONSEQUENCES Energy waste Lighting is responsible for one fourth of all energy consumed worldwide and case studies have shown that several forms of over-illumination constitute energy wastage including non-beneficial upward direction of night-time lighting. Effects on human health and psychology Medical research on the effects of excessive light on the human body suggests that a variety of adverse health effects may be caused by light pollution or excessive light exposure use human health as an explicit criterion for proper interior lighting. Health effects of over-illumination or improper spectral composition of light may include: increased headache incidence, worker fatigue, medically defined stress, increase in anxiety/excitment etc. Common levels of fluorescent lighting in offices are sufficient to elevate blood pressure by about eight points. In USA, there is evidence that levels of light in most office environments lead to increased stress as well as increased worker errors. Several published studies also suggest a link between exposure to light at night and risk of some types of cancer, due to suppression of the normal nocturnal production of melatonin. OF LIGHT POLLUTION

Disruption of various ecosystems Life exists with natural patterns of light and dark, so disruption of those patterns influences many aspects of animal behavior. Light pollution can confuse animal navigation, alter competitive interactions, change predator-prey relations, and influence animal physiology. Effect on astronomy Due to sky glow Astronomers are unable to visualise star , planet etc . That is the reason REDUCING LIGHT POLLUTION

Reducing light pollution implies many things, such as reducing sky glow, reducing glare, reducing light trespass, and reducing clutter. The method for best reducing light pollution, therefore, depends on exactly what the problem is in any given instance. Possible solutions include:

Utilizing light sources of minimum intensity necessary to accomplish the light's purpose. Turning lights off using a timer or occupancy sensor or manually when not needed. Improving lighting fixtures, so that they direct their light more accurately towards where it is needed, and with less side effects. Adjusting the type of lights used, so that the light waves emitted are those that are less likely to cause severe light pollution problems. Evaluating existing lighting plans, and re-designing some or all of the plans depending on whether existing light is actually needed.

OPTICAL RADIATIONS Life has evolved under the influence of radiation from Sun . As a result Men , Animals , Plants have developed a variety of complex physiological responses to Solar Radiations . Light is an Electromagnetic Radiation .

Optical Radiation divided into three parts : OPTICAL RADIATION Ultra Violet (UV) Radiation UV - C UV - B UV - A Visible Radiation ( Light ) Infra Red Radiation ( IR ) IR - A IR - B IR - C n( nano) = 10 Exp(-)9 ; m ( micro) = 10 Exp(-)6 ; m( mili) = 10 Exp(-)3 Light by definition is visible radiation , hence it is incorrect ( but common ) to speak of "Ultra violet Light " or "Infra Red Light ". Ultra violet , Visible and Infra Red Radiation collectively known as Optical radiation .The spectral region of wave lengths shorter than approximately 100 nm is termed ionizing radiation , and wave lengths longer than 100nm are placed in the non-ionizing radiation spectrum .These terms are useful for those who wish to distinguish between the Biological Effects of different types of radiation . 100 nm 1mm 100 nm 380 nm 100 nm 280 nm 280 nm 315 nm 315 nm 380 nm 380 nm 780 nm 780 nm 1mm 780 nm 1.4 mm 1.4 mm 3.0 mm 3.0 mm 1.0 mm

From the whole optical waveband , the portion for which the atmosphere of the earth is transparent ,i.e., 0.29 - 1.4 mm (i.e., UV-B and IR - A ) plays the most important part . The optical radiation is a prerequisite for life on the Earth .It meets the demand of energy for the organic substances and is therefore the basis of our nutrition . LAWS RELATED TO OPTICAL RADIATION

Actinic effects of optical radiations considering its absorption can be primarily classified as follows : a) Active absorption : It effects a photochemical change within an essential part of the absorbing medium , i.e., it acts actinically . b) Passive absorption : It exists when the absorbing material acts only as a filter as a consequence of which its temperature rises . Some laws , which optical radiation obeys are discussed below : 1) Law of Grotthus - Draper : This law states only such radiation can act photo chemically when it is absorbed by the substance . This law sounds self evident but it is often disregarded when effects of electromagnetic radiation are discussed . For instance radio waves or cosmic radiation are harmless for men or animals , because all organic tissue is penetrated without absorption . 2) Law of Van Kreveld : A second law which is valid for many photochemical and photobiological processes is the law of Van Kreveld .The effects of single wavelength bands can be added to an overall effect , as far as the single effects turn out to be independent from each other .This means at the same time there should not exist conductive , i.e. catalytic or hindering (antagonistic ) effects .

The Van Kreveld law is not more than a sum (additive ) law and as expression for the existence of an integral of the form : S * s( ) d Where S is the relative spectral power distribution of the radiation , and s( )is the spectral power sensitivity of a photochemical , photobiological or a photo-voltaic receiver for a certain effect. As the law always refers to the same degree of a certain effect (e.g., to the same degree of erythema of the skin ) the characteristic of the sensitivity does not matter , i.e. it has not to be a linear function . 3) Law of Bunsen Roscoe : Photochemical and photobiological effect depend on the number of influencing photons on their energy on the degree of their absorption as well as on the sort of their relesed effect . Therefore they depend on : the irradiance E, the exposure time t the spectral power distribution S and the spectral power sensitivity , s( ) (action spectrum) . As the exchange of reaction in the first sight depends on the number of influencing photons it does not matter whether the same number of photons is absorbed within a shorter or within a longer time .Therefore in many actinic reactions the released effect is only dependent on the product of irradiance E and the exposure time t, this means on the exposure H e or the dose . So for the present the Bunsen Roscoe law is valid , which means that the actinic effect is the same , when the exposure H e is constant and if S does not vary with time . 4) Absorption ,Transmission , Depth of penetration and Spectral sensitivity (action spectrum): As already discussed only absorbed radiation can become effective actinically .The depth of penetration ,the degree of absorption or transmission of radiation may strongly depend on the wave length . Considering a cross section of the human skin with its various layers and depth of penetration as a function of the wavelength ,one recognizes that UV C does not penetrate into the epidermis , it is absorbed in the outer horny layer which consists of dead horny cells .UV B on the contrary penetrates into the epidermis and UV A even into the underlying tissue .

The spectral sensitivity or the action spectrum s( ) , as known for several photochemical and photobiological effects is not but the reciprocal value of the exposure within a small wavelength band to obtain a certain degree of a certain effect inmost cases normalised to the wavelength of maximum sensitivity , max. ORGAN WHICH IS MOSTLY RESPONSIBLE FOR ACCEPTING LIGHT IS EYE . STRUCTURE OF HUMAN EYE

Fig . Cross Section ( Sagittal Section ) Eye ball is located at the orbital cavity of skull . More than 80% embedded within the skull about 20% exposed outside . Eye consists of two parts : 1) Light transmitting part / Dioptric System 2) Light receiving part Retina The wall of Eye-ball consists of three coats Sclera , Choroid and Retina from outside to inward . Sclera :Thickness -1mm . It is a fibrous coat .Its anterior 1/6th portion called Cornea , is transparent so that light can enter through it . Cornea is convex anteriorly and is devoid of blood vessels .The posterior 5/6 th portion of Sclera is opaque .The part of Sclera exposed outside the orbit is covered by a thin mucous membrane , called conjunctiva .

10

Choroid : Thickness - 0.05mm . The middle coat of eyeball is choroid .It is highly vascular and pigmented .Due to presence of melanin pigments in the cells of the choroid it is dark in colour and makes the interior of the eye ball a dark chamber .It has a rich supply of blood vessels and nourish the retina . Iris : The anterior part of choroid lying behind the cornea is called iris which looks like a dark coloured disc in frontal view .The diaphragm , governs the colour of eye, e.g., black . At the centre of the iris there is a small aperture called pupil , thorugh which light enters in side eye ball Ciliary Muscle : It adjust the curvature of the lens ; increases the curvature of lens during close work and decrease when intense light fall on eye.. Retina : It is the innermost coat of eyeball made up of nervous tissues .It contains light sensitive layer Nervous system containing photoreceptors Rod and Cone . Both Rod ( 120 million ) and Cone ( 5 million ) contain visual pigments which are capable of absorbing incident light and converting it into small electrical potentials.Light entering Rod and Cone cell produces electric pulses through nerve systems , it goes to Cerebral cortex of the Brain . Rod --- Rod cells are more Photo sensitive and spread through out the retina but predominates at peripheral region of eye ball . Rods are sensitive to dim light and hence responsible even for night vision .

Cone --- Cone cells are more colour sensitive and dominated at Fovea region . It is responsible for Day / bright light vision as they are excited by bright light only but sensitive to colour .Cone Cells are of three types as follows : Red corpuses -sensitive to light wave length 575 nm , Green corpuses - sensitive to light wave length 540 nm , Blue corpuses - sensitive to light wave length 430 nm

11

The part of retina at the posterior pole of eye ball is yellowish in colour is called yellow spot or Macula Lutea . At the centre of the Macula Lutea , there is a small depression called Fovea Centralis , which contains cone cells only and no rod cell .It is very important considering its visual acuity ( or accuracy of vision ) and colour vision . A little medial to the fovea (15o) there is a small zone of retina called optic disc , through which optic nerves pass out of the eye-ball , and blood vessels also passes in and out .

12

The optic disc is totally devoid of photorecptors , so it is not capable of arousing any visual sensation called Blind Spot . Concentration of Rod and cone is zero here . It is 15 degree off from central line . Rod cell is usually predominated in the retina except at Yellow and Blind spot . . The space between cornea and iris is called anterior chamber whereas that between iris and lens is called posterior chamber .These two chambers are interconnected through the pupil and they contain a slight alkaline - watery fluid , called Aqueous humor . Behind the lens there is a large cavity , the vitreous chamber which is filled with a transparent jelly like material called vitreous humor .

PROCESS OF VISUAL SENSATION When the light reflected from an object falls on the eye , it passes through the refraction media of eye ball , namely ---cornea , aqueous humor , lens and vitreous humor and is finally focused on the retina to form an image . The human eyes works as a Pin hole camera in which the pupil serves as a Pin hole .As the light falls on retina , the rods and cones becomes excited and generate nerve impulse that are passes through the optic nerves to the brain .These impulses are finally transmitted to the visual centre in the occipital lobe of Cerebral Cortex and the visual sensation is arosed . Although the image formation in the retina is inverted one , the brain learns to see it as non inverted .Rods and Cones contain photosensitive visual pigments called Rhodopsin and Iodopsin , respectively.

13

When light falls on the retinal receptors , the visual pigments are broken down into their components (Retinene and Opsin ) and thus bleached . This helps in generation of visual impulses in the receptors and the optic nerve .In dark (i.e., when eyes are closed ) the pigments are resynthesized for being reused .The breakdown and resynthesis of the visual pigments in light and dark is referred to as the photochemical cycle of retina (or Photo Chemistry of Vision). The concentration of Rod and Cone cells in Retina is not evenly distributed .Concentration of Cone cell is highest at the Fovea .Rod is almost zero there .Concentration of Rod cell is high at the peripheral zone , ie closed to iris and concentration of cone cell is almost zero . Midway region consists of both rod and cone .

14

When a person enters inside a dark room from a bright one initially he can not see at all , after sometimes he can able to see because in bright room light falls in the fovea portion of retina and person is capable of visualizing the object clearly as well as with its colour due to presence of cone cell at fovea . When he more to dark room initially inadequate light falls at fovea .But rod cell in the outer periphery become active after a short a short white and person can visualize but due to absence of cone cell (colour sensitive ) colour of the object can not be properly visualized .

STRUCTURE OF THE CORNEA Although the cornea is clear and seems to lack substance, it is actually a highly organized group of cells and protein. The cornea receives its nourishment from the tears and aqueous humor that fills the chamber behind it. Unlike most tissues in the body, the cornea contains no blood vessels to nourish or protect it against infection. It must remain transparent to refract light properly, and the presence of even the tiniest capillaries would interfere with this process. HOW IMPORTANT IS THE CORNEA TO GOOD VISION ? The cornea is essential to good vision. As the eye's outermost tissue, the cornea functions like a window that controls the entry of light into the eye. For example, the cornea filters out some of the most damaging ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths in sunlight. Without this protection, the crystalline lens and the retina would be highly susceptible to injury from UV radiation. If this "window" is curved too much, as is the case in some nearsighted people, faraway objects will appear blurry because distant light waves will refract imperfectly on the retina. If this "window" has imperfections or irregularities, as is the case in people with an astigmatism, light will refract unequally, causing a slight distortion of the visual image. But, if this "window" is of normal shape and curvature, light will refract with exquisite precision to the crystalline lens. LIGHT ADAPTATION Our vision may be classified as Photopic , Scotopic and Mesopic , according to the process of adaptation takes place . Photopic vision : This operating state of the visual system occurs at luminance higher than approximately 3Cd / m2 at 555nm wavelength with Photo sensitivity of 100% At these luminances , the retina response is dominated by the cone photo receptors . The retina contains three different (LMS) type of cone each contains different combination of opsin and retinene .Each combination has a maximum absorption of light of different wave length .This means colour is perceived and fine details can also be resolved in the fovea .

15

Scotopic vision : This operating state of visual system occurs at luminances less than 0.001 Cd / m2. For these luminances only the rod photoreceptors respond to stimulation , so that Fovea of the retina is in operative . There is no perception of colour . Mesopic vision : This operating state of the visual system is intermediate between the Photopic and Scotopic visionary states . In mesopic state both cone and rod photoreceptor are active .As luminance decline through the mesopic region , the fovea , which contains only cone photoreceptors , slowly declines in absolute sensitivity without significant change in spectral sensitivity , until vision fails altogether , as the Scotopic vision is reached .In the periphery , the rod photoreceptors gradually come to dominate the cone photoreceptors , resulting in gradual detoriation in color vision and resolution and a shift in spectral sensitivity to shorter length . The change between sensitivities of the light adopted and dark adopted eyes is referred to as the Purkinje Shift . VISUAL THRESHOLD Visual Threshold is the minimum amount of light energy required to evoke the visual sensation . In the dark adopted eye (Scotopic vision) the peak sensitivity occurs at wavelength of 505nm .Peak sensitivity of normal eye for light adopted ( Photopic vision ) of 555nm . The level of visual threshold is influenced by : a) the wavelength of the light stimulus b) the state of adaptation of the eye c) that part of the retina which is stimulated d) the size of the light stimulus , and e) the duration of the light stimulus

16

SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY OF EYE The eye contains rod and cone cells . Rod cells being used for low luminance , i.e., night time vision . The relative sensitivity of Rods and Cones is given below :

Retina contains three different types of cells each containing a different combination of Opsin and Retinene .Each of the combinations has a maximum absorption of light of a different wavelength .Detection of intermediate colors is achieved by utilizing a combination of the three types of cones . For example : Red + Green = Yellow 1-1 Red + 1 Green = Orange Spectral sensitivity of Rod Cell is about 10 times more than that of cone cell. VISUAL DISCRIMINATIONS The term given to the ability of the retina to distinguish between certain visual stimuli. Three types of visual discrimination a are under consideration : 1) Light discrimination 2) Spatial discrimination 3) Temporal discrimination 1) Light discrimination : is the term given to the ability of the eye to detect a very weak / fible light source. 2) Spatial discrimination : To recognize the space of an object , e.g., A

3) Temporal discrimination : Ability to detect sensation produced as a consequence of time varying stimuli , e.g., The flickering of the picture on a television screen is so fast that the visual system detects this as one continuous picture .

17

ROLE IN MAKING THE EYES TO SEE THE TARGET Eye movement can take several different forms , more important are : 1) Saccades : High velocity movements , usually generated to move the line of sight from one target to another .e.g., Black cat security guard 2) Pursuit : Smooth eye movements called pursuits and are used to follow a smoothly moving target . For these movements , two eyes make equal movements in their angle of convergence . 3) Vergence movement : Movement of the two eyes that keep the primary lines of sight converged on a target or that may be used to switch fixation from a target at one distance to a new target at a different distance . Vergence movements play a major role in making the eyes to see the target . PERSISTANCE OF VISION Temporal summation of eye is 1/10 second . If flicking is below that man can not distinguish. Flicker : If the retina is stimulated by flushes of intermitted light a particular rate of stimulation , a sensation of flicker will be arosed .(For single brief flashes of light less than 100ms ) any combination of Luminance (L) and flush duration (t) with the same . Light object produces the same perception .This characteristic is known as Blocks Law : L * t = Constant The value of frequency at which the flicker becomes an apparently continuous. Signal is referred to as the CFF Critical Fusion Frequency CEF varies with : 1) Light Intensity 2) Size of stimulus , and 3) Wave length The approximate range of CFF values is between : 15 Flushes / Second , for low intensity simulation , at periphery of eye to 60 Flushes / Second , for high intensity simulation , at fovea This is the reason Florescent lamp with Electronic Ballast is preferred . STROBOSCOPIC EFFECT If the rate of flicker reaches a value which coincides with the angular velocity of rotating machinery , the stroboscopic effect is likely to be produced and the shaft of the rotating machinery will appear to be stationary when it is actually moving . This can have disastrous consequences . Disc rotating at a speed which coincides with pulse rate output of light from stroboscopic source and therefore cross appears to be stationary . Fortunately there are some simple methods of preventing the stroboscopic effect from occurring , including:

18

1) Connecting adjacent single lamp luminairs to different phases of the electrical supply . 2) Using Lead lag circuitry in the control gear of the luminaire which Phase shifts the electrical supply between adjacent lamps in the same luminaire. 3) Introducing a non pulsating light source in the vicinity of the rotating equipment .

Typically this is achieved with a Tungsten filament lamp which is unlikely to give rise to flicker in the lamp output since the filament has considerable thermal inertia , which leads to good stability in the luminous output . Daylight is also a nonpulsating light source and the stroboscopic effect is much less problematic in workshops which have windows admitting natural light to the interior . Uses : 1. Adjusting and setting of the tunning of the engine of a motor vehicle. 2. Remote measurement of the speed of a rotating shaft .

OPTICAL

PERFORMANCE

OF

EYES

When the lens system is normal the eye should recognize detail of angular size 0.5 minute of arc or less. Angular size is the size as seen and is a function of both size and viewing distance .The above figure illustrates using a standard test symbol called a Landolt Broken Circle . An optician will test a persons sight by his ability to recognize letters on a standard test chart . A person who has vision 6:6 can recognize an 8.75mm letter at a distance of 6m and 6:12 means he can only read at 6m what a 6:6 person can read at 12m ,i.e., the eye sight is substandard .

19

In experiments on vision and visual performance the process of recognition is normally described in terms of visual acuity , where , 1 Visual Acuity = --------------------------------------Angular size (in minutes) Therefore the starting point in understanding lighting is to appreciate that the eye must be functioning properly. DEFECTS AND ANOMALIES OF VISIONS

Glare :is a development of contrast . Normally the eye adapts to whatever it is viewing , but if the task or background are too bright or the contrast is too great , vision suffers either by the situation becoming visually uncomfortable or by the task becoming different to see or both . Thus Glare occurs due to excessive high luminance contract . It can be classified as : a) Disability Glare & (b) Discomfort Glare a) Disability Glare or Induction If a high luminance source is suddenly introduced into the field of view , the adaptation level of the eye will tend to raise , more so in the retina area of the image of the source (of glare ) and as a consequence the smallest detectable difference in luminance will be higher than that applied before the introduction of the glare source .It will be evident that much of the field of view which could previously be seen clearly will now become invisible . Disability Glare can come directly from a light source , or window , or by reflection off a glossy surface (veiling reflection ).The modern office with its array of visual display units (VDU) is a common situation where this problem must be considered . Contrast Sensitivity Function (CSF) is one aspect of design where veiling glare is recognized and accounted for in the design process . VARIOUS REFLECTIVE ERRORS

a) MYOPIA (Near sighted ness) Myopia , nearsightedness is a vision problem experienced by upto about 1/3 rd of the population. Myopic people suffers from long distance visionary problem but no complain for close work .

20

Cause : Myopia Occurs either when the refractive index of lens is higher compared to normal or the eyeball is slightly longer than usual from front to back . This causes light rays to focus at a

21

point before the retina , rather than directly on its surface. Good students suffer from myopia due to stress on the eyes for excessive reading . Both genetic and environmental factors play a role in the presence and progression of myopia . Treatment : Myopia can be corrected with concave ( Minus power )glasses , contact lenses or refractive surgery , LASIK- Laser Assisted in Situ Keratomileusis . Myopia Affects between 10 40 yrs. And after 45 yrs. It tends to decrease . B) HYPERMETROPIA : If the eye ball is smaller or refractive index is poor the image is focused behind the eyeball making blurred image on the retina . In this case near vision is more affected than the distance vision and so these people are known as farsighted . These patients need convex (plus ) lenses in front of eye to make a clear image .

C) PRESBYOPIA : The eye deteriorates with age .Any one born with normal eyesight can expect to be wearing glasses by the time they reaches at the age of 40 years . This is mainly due to weakening of the ciliary muscles and quality of lens a difficulty is being able to focus at short distances . Causes : Hardening of the crystalline lens as well as weakening of the ciliary muscles due to aging causes difficult for ciliary muscles to alter the focus of the lens properly. Presbyopia occurs in addition to any existing vision defect and the usual symptoms associated with Presbyopia include : 1.Blurred vision at the usual reading distance . 2. A necessity to hold reading material progressively further away . 3. Headaches 4. Visual fatigue when performing closure task. Ready : Use of Convex Lens . Most of theses refractive errors can be corrected by the use of spectacles or contact lens .

22

D ) ASTIGMATISM : Definition : Astigmatism usually occurs when the front surface of the eyes , the cornea , has an irregular curvature . Astigmatism is one of a group of eye condition known as refractive errors . Refractive errors cause a disturbance in the way that light rays are focused within the eye . Astigmatism often occurs with nearsightedness and farsightedness , conditions also resulting from refractive errors . Astigmatism is not a disease .It simply means that you have a variation or disturbance in the shape of cornea .

23

Causes : Astigmatism occurs when the front surface of the eye , the cornea , has an irregular curvature . Normally the cornea is smooth and equally curved in all directions and light entering the cornea is focused equally on all planes , or in all directions .In Astigmatism the front surface of the cornea is curved more in one direction than in the other .This abnormality may result in vision that is much like looking into a distorted , wavy mirror .The distortion results because of an inability of the eye to focus light rays to a point . If the corneal surface has a high degree of variation in its curvature , light refraction may be impaired to the degree that corrective lenses are needed to help focus light rays better .At any time , only a small proportion of the rays are focused and the remainder are not , so that the image formed is always blurred .Usually Astigmatism causes blurred vision at all distance . Astigmatism is very common .Some experts believe that almost every one has a degree of Astigmatism, often from birth , which may remain as it is throughout life .The exact reason for differences in corneal shape remains unknown but the tendency to develop Astigmatism is inherited . Treatment : The corrective lenses needed when Astigmatism is present are called Toric lens And have an additional power element called a cylinder .They have greater light bending power in one axis than in others . Refractive surgery may be able to correct some forms of Astigmatism . Fan Line Test for Astigmatism : An individual with Astigmatism will see some lines of the fans as distinctly black and other lines as grey .In this condition individual will also simultaneously interpret equal length radial lines as having different lengths . This information will allow an optometrist to orient a cylindrical lens in order to correct the fault . NOTE : Although when the eye is perfectly corrected for refractive errors , a residual blur can remain due to Spherical and Chromatic Aberration . LASIK - LASER ASSISTED IN SITU KERATOMILEUSIS Photorefractive Keratectomy (PPK)-a surgical technique using lasers to sculpt the cornea of the eye and thus altering its refractive power , has been developed to correct refractive errors , .e.g .Myopia and Astigmatism.

ABERRATIONS

1. CHROMATIC ABERRATION : Shorter wave length are refracted more than longer wavelengths. The result of different foci cause blur.

24

NOTE : The above two aberrations are mainly of theoretical interest . They are partially compensated by the image processing of the visual system and usually can be neglected in practical lighting design . These are important in certain specialized application , e.g. work under reduced illuminance when pupil is enlarged .

2. SPHERICAL ABERRATION : The rays that enter through the periphery of the cornea are refracted more than those that enter through the central zones. Thus light in the retinal image is partially redistributed over a large retinal area than would be the cause in an aberration free system .The amount and type of Spherical Aberration varies with the state of accommodation .

DIPLOPIA :Good vision necessarily required the ability of both eyes to aim at the same target simultaneously .Essentially both eyes work as a team , and if this is not achieved , double vision ( diplopia) will exist or the brain will attempt to block out the image of one eye ( suppression ).In many of the cases of double vision , the cause is an a consequence of some malfunction in the muscle or its nervous control .Each of the two eyes has six extraocular muscles , and if they are not all functioning correctly , improper alignment will occur . Double vision is a consequence of faulty alignment , is often very uncomfortable and the brain will attempt to block off one image of the two present , in order to restore some degree of visual comfort .In some cases extra muscular effort will be required in order to maintain correct alignment which can lead to headaches and general visual discomfort. COLOUR DISCOMFORT 1. Monochromats exhibits a total absence of colour appreciation and so the individual is totally colour blind . 2. Dichromats shows an absence , but not an abnormality of one factor in the cones , three(3) forms: a) Protanope Red factor is absence b) Deuteranope Green factor is absence

25

c) Tritonope

Blue factor is absence

3. Trichromats One factor has abnormality but not absence .Three(3) forms:
a) Protanomalous b) Deuteranomalous c) Tritono malous Red factor is weak Green factor is weak Blue factor is absence

Anomalous trichromats exhibits a colour difference rather than a colour blindness . There are various methods to test colour blindness , among them ISHIHARA Test is the most popular .

PARTIAL SIGHTEDNESS 1. CATARACT : The most common type of disorder occurs due to age when people reaches about 65 years. The lens is made mostly of water and protein . The protein is arranged to allowe to allow light to allow light pass through and focus on the retina . Sometimes some of the protein clu the protein clumps together and starts to develop Cloud (opacity develops) in a small area of the lens . It may be that the protein in the Lens just changes as it ages .It is also related to vitamins and minerals . Effect : It absorbs and scatters more light passing through the lens . It reduces contrast sensitivity over the entire visual field because the scattered light degrades the contrast of the retina image causing disability glare . Causes : 1) Age related 2) Over exposure to IR radiation 3) Congenital cataract Some babies are born with cataracts or develop in childhood , often in both eyes . 4) Secondary Cataract - Cataracts are more likely to develop in people who have some health problems , e.g., Diabetes , hypocalcemia , use of steroid , etc. 5) Traumatic cataract : Cataracts can develop soon after an eye injury , or years later .

26

TREATMENTS : Cloudy lens are removed by surgery and substitute artificial lens to implant in the following methods . Extra capsular Surgery ( PHACO) : Doctors opens the front of the capsule and remove the lens , leaving the back of the capsule in place .Sound waves (Ultra sound ) may be used to soften and break up the cloudy lens so that it can be removed through a narrow hollow tube . This is called phaco emulsification or Phaco. Intra Capsular Surgery : The entire lens is removed including the capsule . Although extracapsular surgery has largely replaced this technique in the USA.It is safe and effective and may be used in some cases , e.g., if the lens is too hard for Phaco surgery . Currently , LASERs are still unable to remove a cataract . Although scientists are working on ways to use LASERs in cataract surgery .

2. MACULAR

DEGENERATION :

This occurs when the macular photo receptor (s) and neurons become inoperative due to bleeding or Altrophy . The fovea is at the centre of the macula lutea and any less of vision implies a serious reduction in visual acuity , colour vision and contrast sensitivity at high spatial frequencies . Typically these changes make reading difficult , if not impossible . However peripheral vision is largely unaffected so way finding remain unchanged . Providing more light , usually by way of task light , will help people in the early stage of macular degeneration to read , although as the deterioration progresses , additional light is less effective . Increasing the visual size of the retinal image by magnification or by closure is helpful at

27

all stages , because this can increase he size of the retinal image sufficiently to reach parts of the retina beyond the macular . Treatment : LASER ( YAG - Yttrium Aluminium Garnet ) at wave length of 537.5 nm can be used as a Photo Dynamic Therapy to block further degeneration but can not revive the lost part .

Fluorescein angiography, or fluorescent angiography, is a technique for examining the circulation of the retina using the dye tracing method. It involves injection of sodium fluorescein into the systemic circulation, and then an angiogram is obtained by photographing the fluorescence emitted after illumination of the retina with blue light at a wavelength of 490 nanometers. The fluorescein dye also reappears 12-24 hours in the patient urine, causing a yellow-green appearance. Fluorescein angiography is one of several health care applications of this dye, all of which have a risk of severe adverse effects. See fluorescein safety in health care applications.

3. GLAUCOMA : The normal field of vision for eye is as follows :

28

In many people, increased pressure inside the eye causes glaucoma. In the front of the eye is a space called the anterior chamber. A clear fluid flows continuously in and out of this space and nourishes nearby tissues . The fluid leaves the anterior chamber at the angle where the cornea and iris meet. When the fluid reaches the angle, it flows through a spongy meshwork, like a drain, and leaves the eye. Open-angle glaucoma gets its name because the angle that allows fluid to drain out of the anterior chamber is open. However, for unknown reasons, the fluid passes too slowly through the meshwork drain. As the fluid builds up, the pressure inside the eye rises. Unless the pressure at the front of the eye is controlled, it can damage the optic nerve and cause vision loss.

Due to an increase in intraocular pressure retina starts to damage . 1) It reduces field of vision . 2) Poor night vision 3) Sensitive to glare

VISUAL COMFORT In order to ensure visual comfort it is necessary to ensure that the lighting allows a good level of visual performance and does not cause distraction . This can be done by following ways : 1) Identify the visual tasks to be performed and then determine the characteristics of lighting needed to allow a high level of visual performance of the task . 2) Eliminate flicker by using high frequency control gear for discharge lamp . 3) Reduce disability / discomfort glare by proper lighting design. 4) Reduce density and extent of shadows. Use extended / wide light source Use more numbers of low wattage lamps. 5) Reduce veiling reflections by reducing the secular reflectance of the surface being viewed or by changing the geometry between the viewer , the surface being viewed or by increasing the amount of inter - reflected light in the space. 6) If the reflections are occurring on a self luminous surface such as VDT Screen Use dark letters on a bright background . This will reduce the impact of any veiling reflections seen on the screen .

29

GUIDE LINES FOR ACCEPTABLE LIGHTING There have be been a number of studies that have examined the acceptability of the specified aspects of lighting , usually in a specified context . This section considers what is known about the preference for three lighting variables , all of which are under the control of the lighting design . 1) Illuminance : The Acceptability of different illuminances in offices and other working areas has been examined and tried to determine the effect of illuminance on the observer preference .

2) Spatial Distribution : Spatial distribution of illuminance across the working area is also important . In general the more uniform the light distribution in the visual field and the larger the area of the visual field it covers , the better one sees the visual task table , no shadow.

30

3) Colour of Illumination : The colour of illumination can be described by two independent properties : The colour of illumination can be described by two independent properties : a) Chromaticity / Correlated Colour Temperature i.e., Colour appearance of light source Warm for low CCT Value , Cool for High CCT Value . b)Colour Rendering Index : It refers to the ability of a light source with its particular CCT to render the colours of objects the same as reference light source of the same CCT . Experiments showed that lamps with high CCT values at low illuminances will make a space appear cold and dim . Conversely low CCT lamp with high luminance will make the space appear artificial and over colourful. OPTICAL RADIATION AND HAZARDS ON EYES There are basically four separate type of hazards to the eye that must be considered for each optical source : 1. Ultra - violet radiation hazards to the cornea and lens (at 200 400 nm ) . 2. Thermal retinal injury hazard (at 400 1400 nm ) . 3. Blue light photo chemical retinal hazard (principally at 400 550 nm ) . 4. Near infrared hazards to the cornea and lens (at 700 3000 nm ) . EFFECT OF UV - RADIATION ON EYES

a) PHOTO CONJUNCTIVITIES - Normally the human skin is protected by the upper layer , i.e. the horny layer (stratum corneum), this is not the eye bulb and the eye lid and the eye bulb itself is not protected .Too strong UV radiation on the conjunctiva leads to the so called conjunctivitis , a painful inflammation of the conjunctiva , whose pair effects are described as sand in the eyes . It is to be felt only after 5 10 hours after radiation, so that sleeping, reading and seeing are strongly impeded (hampered) . The inflammation ceases according to its severe ness within a time of half a day to several days. b) PHOTOKERATITIS - Photokeratitis is an inflammation of the transparent cornea on the front side of the eye bulb caused by UV radiation .The maximum of the relative effectiveness of the photokeratitis lies at 270 nm and the threshold exposure at this wavelength amounts to about 50 J / m2 . c) LENTICULAR EFFECTS - Lenticular effects of UV radiation have been recently undergoing extensive investigation .The lens undergoes a number of changes with aging, including a yellowish colouration, an increasing proportion of insoluble proteins, sclerosis With loss of accommodation, and cataract ,etc.
31

Some investigators are coming to believe that all wave length below 400 nm should be executed using sunglass etc. d) RETINAL EFFECTS Retinal effect of UV radiation are problematical, depending on whether enough photons reach the retina to produce an observable effect. Under normal circumstances, the ocular media (Cornea, aqueous lens and vitreous) protect the retina from ultra violet exposure. In the near ultraviolet (320-400 nm) the lens effectively shields the retina. EFFECT OF IR - RADIATION ON THE EYES

The Ocular media absorb an increasing amount of the radiant energy incident upon the cornea for increasing wave lengths in the near infrared (IR-A). Wavelengths greater than 1400nm (i.e., IR B & C ) do not found involve the retina , but can produce effects on the eye-lids to cornea / aqueous humour and lens causing lenticular damage .Beyond 1900nm ( IR-B) the cornea is considered to be the sole absorber causing infrared cataract. Infra red cataract has been reported in the literature for a long time , but there is little or no recent quantative data to substantiate the clinical observation . The general consequence is that long term exposure to infra red radiation produces an elevated temperature in the lens which , over a period of years leads to denaturation (change in normal behaviour ) of the lens proteins with consequent opacification . Some authorities believe that infrared radiation is absorbed by pigmented iris and convert to heat which is conducted to the lens rather than by direct absorption of radiation by the lens . Infrared cataract is reported to occur among glass blowers , steel puddlers and others who undergo long term occupational exposure to infra red radiation . It can be avoided by using the proper IR protection filters .

EFFECT OF OPTICAL RADIATION ON SKIN

SKIN ANATOMY Skin is an ever changing organ that contains many specialized cells and structures . The skin functions as a protective barrier that interfaces with a sometimes hostile environment .It is also involved in maintaining the proper temperature for the body to function well .It gathers sensasonary information from environment and plays as active role in the immune system protecting us from diseases .Skin has three (3) layers : - Epidermis - Dermis - Subcutaneous Tissue

32

Epidermis is the outer layer of skin .The thickness of the epidermis varies in different types of skin . It is the thinnest on the eyelid at 0.05 mm and thickest on the palms and soles at 1.5 mm .Epidermis contains 5 layers . Epidermis composed of three ( 3 ) types of specialized cells . - Melanocyte produces pigment ( melanin ) - Langerthans cell is the frontline defense of the immune system in the skin - Merkel cell - function is not clearly known. Dermis varies in thickness depending on the location of skin . It is 0.3 mm on eyelid and 3.0 mm at the back . Dermis composed of three ( 3 ) types of tissues . - Collagen - Elastic Tissue & - Reticular Tissue The dermis contains many specialized cells and structures. The hair follicles are situated here muscle that attaches to each follicle . Sebaceous (oil) glands , and apocrine (scent) glands are a follicle . This layer also certain eccrine (sweat) glands , Nerves transmit sensations of pain , itch , touch , pressure etc. Subcutaneous Tissue the subcutaneous Tissue is a layer of fat and connective tissue that houses larger blood vessels . This layer is important in the regulation of temperature of the skin itself and the body .

33

EFFECT OF SUN ON THE SKIN

Sunlight has a profound effect on the skin . UV radiation exposure on skin has two advantages - production of vitamin D - induction of protective pigmentation Sunlight causes premature skin cancer , and a host of skin changes . Exposure to UV A & B causes 90 % of the symptoms of premature skin aging . UV C radiation is almost completely absorbed by the ozone layer and does not affect the skin . But UV C itself has some carcinogenic effect . UV B affects the outer layer of the skin and is the primary agent responsible for skin damage. UV A provides major contribution to skin damage deeper into the skin and work with more intensity. Both UV A & B radiation can cause skin damage including wrinkles , lowered immunity age skin disorders and cancer . However we still do not fully understand the process . Some of the mechanisms for UV skin damage are collagen breakdown , formation of free radicals , DNA repair and inhibiting the immune system .

34

Collagen Breakdown In the dermis, UV radiation causes collagen to break down at a higher rate than with just chronologic aging. Sunlight damages collagen fibers and causes the accumulation of abnormal elastin. When this sun-induced elastin accumulates, enzymes called metalloproteinases are produced in large quantities. Normally, metalloproteinases remodel sun-injured skin by manufacturing and reforming collagen. However, this process does not always work well and some of the metalloproteinases actually break down collagen. This results in the formation of disorganized collagen fibers known as solar scars. When the skin repeats this imperfect rebuilding process over and over wrinkles develop. Free Radicals UV radiation is one of the major creators of free radicals. Free radicals are unstable oxygen molecules that have only one electron instead of two. Because electrons are found in pairs, the molecule must scavenge other molecules for another electron. When the second molecule looses its electron to the first molecule, it must then find another electron repeating the process. This process can damage cell function and alter genetic material. Free radical damage causes wrinkles by activating the metalloproteinases that break down collagen. They cause cancer by changing the genetic material, RNA and DNA, of the cell. DNA Repair UV radiation can affect enzymes that help repair damaged DNA. Studies are being conducted looking into the role a specific enzyme called T4 endonuclease 5 (T4N5) has in repairing DNA.

35

Immune System Effects The body has a defense system to attack developing cancer cells. These immune system factors include white blood cells called T- lymphocytes and specialized skin cells in the dermis called Langerhans cells. When the skin is exposed to sunlight, certain chemicals are released that suppress these immune factors. Cell Death The last line of defense of the immune system is a process called apoptosis. Apoptosis is a process of cell-suicide that kills severely damaged cells so they cannot become cancerous. This cell-suicide is seen when you peel after a sunburn. There are certain factors, including UV exposure, that prevent this cell death allowing cells to continue to divide and possibly become cancerous. Skin colour is genetically determined result of a number of factors , the primary factor is melanin .Melanin protects against UV damage by reducing transmission through absorption and scattering . Its quality , granule size and distribution all affect skin colour .

EFFECTS ON INFRA - RED RADIATION

Special photochemical effects in the skin and the subcutaneous tissue by IR radiation can not be provoked because of relatively low energy of the IR quantas . Most of the effects are the heating of the skin and the tissue by the absorbed radiation . When the human body is irradiated by IR Radiation the natural temperature fall from the inner to the outer parts of the body is inverted .As a consequence the mechanism regulating the body temperature begin to work , leading to a rush of blood in the outer blood vessels which is to be seen as heat erythema . By IR radiation of the skin blood circulation , respiration , functions of stomach and intestines , kidneys , muscles and nerves can be influenced . These effects can not only be explained purely physically but also by irritations of the nerve ends in the skin thus influencing inner organs via a reflectory system .

36

SOME EXAMPLES OF OPTICAL RADIATION EXPOSURE

Principal wavePotential Potentially exposed length bands effects populations of concern ----------------------------------------------------------------------sunlight ultraviolet (UV), skin cancer; outdoor workers visible cataract; (e.g., farmers, near-infrared sunburn; construction accelerated workers); sunskin aging; bathers; general solar retinitis population ----------------------------------------------------------------------arc lamps UV, visible, photokeratitis; printing plant (Xe, Xe-Hg, near-infrared erythema; camera operators; Hg) skin cancer; optical laboratory retinal injury workers; entertainers ----------------------------------------------------------------------germicidal actinic, far UV erythema; hospital workers; (low-pressure photokeratitis; workers in sterile Hg) skin cancer laboratories mediumUV-A and blue retinal injury street lamp pressure light replacement Hg-HID lamps personnel; gymnasium (broken actinic UVA photokeratitis; users; general envelope) erythema population ----------------------------------------------------------------------carbon arcs UV, blue light photokeratitis; certain laboratory erythema workers; search ight operators ----------------------------------------------------------------------metal halide near UV, visible cataract; printing plant UV-A lamps photosensitive maintenance workers; skin reactions; integrated circuit retinal injury manufacturing workers ----------------------------------------------------------------------sunlamps ultraviolet, photokeratitis; suntan-parlour blue light erythema, customers; home users accelerated skin aging; skin cancer ----------------------------------------------------------------------welding arcs ultraviolet photokeratitis; welders' helpers; and blue light erythema; welders UV cataract; retinal injury ----------------------------------------------------------------------industrial infrared sources infrared radiant heat stress; infrared cataract steel mill workers; foundry workers; workers using infrared drying equipment Sources

37

BIOLOGICAL

RHYTHMS

Cyclic changes in biological parameters e.g., (i) Day-Night Cycle (ii) Lunar Cycle (iii) Seasonal Cycle Have been observed across species throughout the plant and animal kingdoms known as Biological Rhythms . Biological Rhythms manifest themselves at both the a) macroscopic ( multi cellular) b) microscopic (unicellular or subcellular levels ) Each rhythm has a characteristic Amplitude or magnitude of periodic change and a Characteristic Period or frequency of oscillation . The timing of all Biological Rhythms involves the coordination , or entrainment of external time factor( called exogenous Zeitgebers ) internal peacemaker (endogenous) External causes are due to geographical effect as states earlier . Each natural cycle causes the synchronization of a particular rhythm called a Circa-rhythms. a) Circadian Rhythm ---Day-night effect manifested in (i) Plant - open / closing ; rising / lowering of leaves (ii) Animals --- Sleep / wake cycle is affected by light

38

b) Circannual rhythms (Seasonal ) flowering , seed germination , breeding of certain animals . Disruption of circadian rhythms not only affects sleep patterns but also has been found to precipitate mania in people with Bipolar disorder (Manic depressive illness). Other types of illnesses also are affected by circadian rhythms , e.g. Heart attacks occurs more frequently in the morning while Asthma attacks occurs more often at night . There are other effects discussed in details afterwards . Although Biological clocks have been the focus of intensive research over the past four decades , only recently have the tools needed to examine the molecular basis of circadian rhythms become available . Early studies pointed to an area of the brain , the hypothalamus as the location of the circadian pacemaker in mammals . More recent findings show proteins called Cytochromes , located through out the body are also involved in detecting changes in light and setting the bodys clock . Recent research has shown that some of our Ganglion Cells may be performing as a third type of Photoreceptor called Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells ( ipRGC) .These sparsely situated cells are most sensitive to Blue Light . They seem to exist principally to help us to differentiate between day and night (thus modulating Sleep / Wake cycles) . The ipRGC has been shown to independently control dilation and contraction of our pupils with a peak response at 480nm Blue light.

FEW DISORDERS DUE TO

BIOLOGICAL

RHYTHM

SAD Seasonal Affective Disorder With the fall of winter people affected with malady experience , Melatonin secretion (sort of hormone from Pineal Gland to be discussed later .) 1) A certain decrease in their physical energy and stamina . 2) Experience emotional depression , feeling of hopelessness and despair 3) Increase sleepiness and need of sleep 4) Increased appetite (particularly sweet / carbohydrates ) The SAD can be treated by light therapy . Earlier SAD can be treated with light located at a specific distance with 2500 Lux 10,000 Lux on face .Exposure duration varies from 30 minute to 6 hour in single or split sessions . 2500 Lux with 2 4 hour Or , 10,500 Lux with 30 minute However it is still unknown which photo pigment / photo receptors mediate the antidepressant effects of light . Earlier studies on SAD therapy used fluorescent lamps that emitted white light containing a small portion of UV A energy. Those early findings erroneously led to the suggestion that UV-A is necessary for successful therapy.

39

The current literature however , clearly shows that SAD symptoms can be reduced by lamps that emit little or no UV . Hence UV radiation does not appear to be necessarily for positive therapeutic results. Most of the clinical trials treating winter depression have employed while light emitted by commercially available lamps . The while light used for treating SAD can be provided by a range of lamp including incandescent and cool white fluorescent . There is an assortment of light devices specifically designed for the treatment of SAD . Light therapy instruments come in a variety of shapes and configurations , including workstations , head mounted light visors and automatic dawn simulators . These devices are configured to shorten therapeutic time , increase patient mobility or permit therapy during the sleep period . Light visors appear to therapeutically benefit SAD patients with substantially lower energy requirements than those emitted by light boxes (2500 10,000 Lux ) and workstations. Since dose response comparisons have not been performed among different lamp types and light devices , it is not yet decided which types of light superior for treating depression . There are numerous clinics in North America who offers light therapy from SAD . SAD is prevalent when Vitamin D storage are typically low . Broad Spectrum light therapy includes wave lengths between 280 320 nm which allows the skin to produce Vitamin D . LIGHT THERAPY AND SUSTAINED FOR JET LAG , SHIFT WORK PERFORMANCES

Jetlag :is the condition that results from rapidly moving across time zones .Travelling across time zones can interface with social and business schedules , disrupt circadian rhythms and consequently impire both physical and psychological health . While the body readjusts its biological clock to a new time zone , many people experience symptoms such as daylight sleepiness , night-time insomnia , gastrointestinal distress , irritability , mild depression and confusion .

40

Shift Work : similar to intercontinental travelers , shift workers are also forced to make changes to their usual sleep and wake time .However , circadian disruption in shift workers is generally longer lasting and therefore , the body also requires a long period of time to readjust . Problems of decreased productivity , increased accidents and serious health consequences . It has been observed that they suffers from higher incidence of : - Cardiovascular Disease , - Gastrointestial Disease , - Psychological Problems , Cancer etc. Bright light exposure appears to have an acute stimulating alerting effect on healthy humans . An early study showed that subjects working a continuous 30 Hour shift demonstrated behavioral and cognitive performance (reaction time , mathematical skills and complex problem solving ). When working under 3000 Lux of white light as compared to a dimmer light exposure of 100 Lux .Similar problem occurs with Astronauts during long duration space flight .Emphasis has been given on illumination of general living quarters as well as design of space vehicle windows , improve and space suit with visors for manned missions .Results from such studies also may be relevant to general Architectural lighting design on earth for civilian design on earth for civilian problems of Shift work and Jet lag . Night worker discharges better performance when exposed to 1000 to 12000 Lux than under dim light of 100 150 Lux, specially at the brightness of 3000 5000 Lux level .However it is under research how to best use light for both short term and long term work application .

41

HORMONES
With the evolution of Multicellar higher organisms it has become necessary for them to have mechanisms for maintenance of functional coordinatation between different cells , tissues and organs .For this higher animals are provided with two types of regulatory mechanisms through which information are conveyed from one organ to another. The first one is the neutral mechanism which carries the information originating from one part of the body to the other part very quickly in the form of nerve impulses ( like electric current ) for a rapid regulation of various organs . The second one is the blood-borne chemical (hormonal) mechanism in which chemical substances secreted from certain specialized tissues are carried through blood to the whole body for coordinating the actions of different organs .The former (neural mechanism ) is quick acting but short lasting while the latter (hormonal mechanism ) is slow acting but long lasting .Hormones are also found in plants which probably do not have the nervous system ; thus the hormonal system is the sole internal regulator plants . The nervous system plays a very important role in the regulation of hormones and the hormones also influence the function of nervous system either directly or indirectly .Moreover different parts of the nervous system are now known to secrete some hormones called neuro-hormones . PHYSIOLOGY OF HORMONES Hormones are organic compounds that are produced from specialized cells and exert a regulatory influence at a point remote from the site of secretion after being transported by issue fluid ; act like chemical messengers . The rate of production of a given hormone is most commonly regulated by a homeostatic control system , generally by negative feedback. In higher animals including generate from the Endocrine Glands . Major Endocrine Glands are : Sl.no. Name of the Gland Location /Seat of Name of the secreted Hormone the Gland 1 Pineal Gland Brain Melatonin 2 Pituitary Gland Brain i) Growth Hormone(GH) ii) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone(ACTH) iii) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) i) Trilodo Thyronine (T3) ii) Thyroxine (T4)

Thyroid Gland

Neck

4 5 6

Thymus Gland Adrenal Gland Genital Organs

In between Neck Unknown Function and Chest Pyramid structure Cortisol on the top of kidney

Out of the above Melatonin and Cortisol have influence of light .

42

RETINAL AND OCULAR

PHYSILOGY

In the mammalian circadian system photic information is processed by the retina and relayed to the hypothalamus of the brain via a neural pathway called the Retino Hypothalamic Track (RHT). The peak sensitivity of the circadian and neuroendrocrine system is near 500nm . Experimentally it has been established that rhodospin or a rhodopsin based molecule is the primary receptor for circadian and neuroendocrine regulation . From other experimental data it suggests that other photo pigment might be involved in regulatory effects . Studies also shown that bloodbrone elements circulating through the eye might be responsible for transducing photic stimuli for circadian and neuroendrocrin regulation . Neural pathway after retinal detection of photic information the RHT projects directly to Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) , which serves as the primary central circadian oscillators / pacemaker which regulate daily rhythms such as the sleep wake cycle , body temperature rhythms and 24 hours secretary patterns of hormones . By this pathway , the ambient light dark cycle entrains the rhythmic synthesis and secretion of pineal melatonin . High level of melatonin are secreted during the night and low levels are secreted during the day . In the pineal gland melatyonin is synthesized and typically released into the circulation when illumination diminishes and may help- explain why most of us sleep. MELATONIN AND ITS EFFECT Melatonin is a hormone secreted by the pineal gland that aids bio rhythm regulation .Biorhythm is distributed by stress , crossing time zones and changing work shifts . Melatonin secretion is enhanced in darkness and decreased by light exposure .As we age , melatonin production decreases .In addition to sleep , melatonin has many other functions. Melatonin may influence human physiology , including the Sleep - wake cycle , in a time dependent manner via the bodys internal clock , Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep expression , is strongly circadian modulated and the impact of REM sleep on primary brain functions ; metabolic processes and immune system function has becomes increasingly clear over the past decade . Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) a depression occurring in winter months is associated with Melatonin secretion . Pineal Melatonin has been shown in animals / humans to be involved in the regulation of Calcium and Phosphorus metabolism by stimulating the parathyroid glands and by inhibiting Calcitonin release and prostaglandin ( a group of complex fatty acids present in the body that act as messenger substances between cells .Effects includes stimulating the contraction of smooth muscle , regulating production of stomach acid and modifying hormonal activity , excess causes arthritis )synthesis . External magnetic fields have been found to synchronise Melatonin secretion in experimental animal and humans and may be beneficial in the treatment Osteoporosis . During morning hours when melatonin levels begin to diminish , birds begin to sing and we also tend to wake up restored to start our daily activity .

43

Functions : 1) It lessens the effects of Jet Lag . Melatonin oral supplementation helps in hypertension specifically for Pilots. 2) In laboratory studies Melatonin has been found to stimulate natural antioxidant systems in addition to offering protection to DNA present within cells . It has an anti aging property . 3) It is also effective for treatment of Alzheimers disease , to reduce oxidative damage in some types of Parkinsons disease. 4) Melatonin may enhance the immune system . The details are not established in case of humans but in cell culture and animal studies melatonin has immune stimulating capabilities. 5) It may have anti-tumor abilities. It s done is done in Italy (not in USA ) . 6) It can also alleviate certain forms of anxiety and depression . 7) It also has some smoothing effect on our genital organ due to suppression of system leads to various female diseases and male disorders . 8) Melatonin reduces body temperature . 9) Pineal melatonin has shown in animals to be involved in the regulation of Calcium and Phosphorus metabolism by stimulating the parathyroid glands and by inhibiting Calcitonin release . Other additional functions : Melatonin oral supplement has been found to reduce a) Night-time visit to toilet b) Reduce Night-time blood pressure c) Prevent migraine headaches d) Improve sleep of patient e) Irritable Bowl Syndrome

44

CORTISOL Cortisol is a hormone synthesized from Adrenal Gland. The amount of Cortisol present in the serum undergoes dinural variation with the highest rate of rise in the early morning , peaks at noon and lower levels in the evening .Information about the light / dark cycle is transmitted from the retina to the paired Suprechiasmatic nuclei (SCN) in hypothalamus .Changed patterns of the serum cortisol levels have been observed in connection with abnormal ACTH levels , clinical depression , psychological stress and such physiological stressors as hypoglycemia , illness , fever , trauma , surgery , fear ,pain , physical exertion or extreme temperature . There is also significant individual variation , although a given person tends to have consistent rhythms . Some effects of Cortisol being secreted into the blood stream are an increase in blood pressure and glucose. Elevated levels of melatonin during mania and elevated Cortisol levels during depression were the principal findings .

BLUE

LIGHT

HAZARD

Light waves measuring approximately 400nm to 470nm in length are seen as the colour Blue .The blue bands of the visible light spectrum are adjacent to the invisible band of ultraviolet (UV) light .It is divided into three wave lengths : UV-A , UV- B and UV-C . The effects of UV- C are negligible as the waves are so short they are filtered by the atmosphere before reaching our eyes . UV-A and UV-B are responsible for damaging material , skin and eye with UV-B getting most of the blame . Fluorescent lamp is a phosphor coated tube filled with Mercury and Argon vapour . Phosphors in lamps are rare earth compounds of various types that glow during absorption of light radiation .The type and blend of phosphors used in the coating determine the colour of emitted light. Fluorescent lamp containing the older halophosphate type phosphors emits light that is high in the blue spectrum . The phosphors increase the wave length of the invisible UV rays are blocked mostly by the glass enclosure , protecting us to some extent from those harmful wavelengths . The Blue light however passes through unimpeded . Most Fluorescent lamps now use a Triphosphor mixture , based on Europium and Terbium ions , which more evenly distributes over the visible light spectrum . With a blend of phosphors designed for a CCT of 5000 6500 oK , theses lamps come close to imitating the colour of daylight .

45

PHOTO THERAPY Photo therapy means treatment by light under medical supervision .It is regarded to be proven value in treatment of limited number of diseases .

A) SKIN DISEASES : 1) Sun Tanning 2) Psorasis 3) Common Acne and Herpes 4) Vitiligo B) PHYCOLOGICAL / NEUROLOGICAL DISEASES 1) Depression 2) Stress 3) Heart rhythm 4) Dream 5) Alert Grade C) TREATMENT OF METABOLIC CONDITIONS 1) Ricket 2) Jaundice in new born babies D) PHOTO CHEMOTHERAPY 1) Skin diseases under Sl. No. A(2 &3) 2) Cancer

There are various methods of photo therapy .Few are discussed below :

46

UV B - This type of treatment involves exposing the skin to UV light B . It is a common , safe and very effective treatment , and generally works best when the psoriasis layer are thin. HOME PHOTOTHERAPY: Patients who lives far from a doctor or whose schedule makes it difficult to go in for frequent light treatments in a Doctor's office may purchase a home UVB unit and take the therapy under medical prescription . UV PHOTO THERAPY It refers to the irradiation with short wave UV radiation .To treat the whole body , the patient , undressed , stands in a specially designed cabinet containing fluorescent light tube . Some units offer narrow band UVB phototherapy (311nm). Increasing doses of UVB are given each exposure (three to five times weekly ), aiming to turn the skin slightly pink . Sometimes uncomfortable sunburn will occur , at its worst about 8 hours after treatment .This fades over the next few days and should be treated with frequent and liberal emollient (comfortable) . The effect of UVB is similar to Sun. Excessive exposure contributes to aging skin and to the skin cancers. PSORIASIS Psoriasis is a common inherited skin disorder which may vary considerably in extent and severity .UVB is usually suitable for most people with extensive psoriasis .Although sometimes it worsen. It is not suitable for very fair skinned persons . Initially most patients have their treatment thre times a week. The first few exposures will be short (les than 5 minutes ) .The length of exposure is gradually increased , according to the patient's response , upto a maximum of 30 minutes per session .Few patients require such long exposures , most being controlled with shorter times . Most psoriasis patients will have their psoriasis cleared or much improve after 12 24 treatments. At this stage treatments .At this stage treatments will usually be discontinued .Even without treatment the skin may remain clear for some months .However the psoriasis may flare up again and further UVB treatment is necessary . Those cases of psoriasis which appear to be resistant to UVB may still be helped by another form of UV treatment called PUVA. DERMATITIS ( Eczyma) UV - B is occasionally used for severe cases of Dermimatities .Frequency and dosages of treatment is similar to that used for psoriasis .However , a course of photo therapy may need to be more prolonged than that generally required for psoriasis .

47

PHOTO CHEMOTHERAPY It is defined as the combination of non ionizing Electromagnetic radiation and a drug to bring about a beneficial effect .Neither the drug alone nor the radiation along has any significant biological activity .It is only the combination of drug and radiation that is therapeutic . PUVA ( Psoralen and UV ) It is a type of UV radiation treatment ( Photo therapy) used for severe skin diseases . PUIVA is combination treatment which consists of Psoralen (P) and then exposing the skin to long wave UV -A radiation . Psoralens are compounds found in many plants which makes the skin temporarily sensitive to UV-A . The ancient Egyptians were the first to invent it . The number of exposure and the frequency of PUVA treatments will depend on the condition being treated and the individual factors . Methoxsalen capsules are taken two hours before exposure to UVA . Bulbs emitted different wavelengths are used for the UV . Those patients required treatment to small areas only may be treated using the small hand and foot units . "Bathwater "PUVA may be suitable .In this case the hands and foot are soaked in dilute solution of Methoxsalen for 30 minutes , then immediately exposed to UVA .

A few patients may be treated with topical Tripsor PUVA - a lotion painted on the effected areas 10 minutes before the exposure . Living cell systems absorbs energy from photons within the 320 - 400nm wave band , with a broad peak of 340 - 360 nm , results in thymine ( It is a nitrogeneous based found in DNA) psorelen photoproducts and the transient inhibition of DNA synthesis . Side Effects : -- Burning like Sun burn like reaction , -- Itching -- Nausea -- Cornea - cataract formation

48

PHOTO DYNAMIC THERAPY Photochemotherapy of Tuimours . Photodynamic therapy employs visible radiation of a particular wavelength band as a catalyst in a photo-degradation reaction .The products of this radiation are Cytotoxic , effectively destroy tumor cells . The chemical Hematoprophyrin derivative (HpD) , when introduced into the blood , locates and binds to tumor cells . Exposure of the tumor to radiation at 630nm causes the production of Singlet Oxygen .Singlet oxygen is highly Cytotoxic and cosequently causes tumor cell degradation . Filtered Xenon and Tungsten lamps can be used to treat cutaneous lesion . A pumped dye argon LASER radiating at 630 nm , connected to an optical delivery system such as fibre optics can be used with an endoscope or similar device to reach internal cavities .

Photodynamic therapy has achieved partial or complete responses in 85 % of patients with lungs , Esophageal , bladder ,Ocular , head and neck , Neurological , and Gynecological tumors .Despite this success treatment generally has been confined to cutaneous and subcutaneous tumors (including Breast cancer , etc.). The photo reactivity of HpD also can be empolyed in tumor loclization and detection , as radiation of 400nm causes HpD to fluoresecene . HpD is not toxic in the absence of light , however as the substance is retained in the skin , it can causes photo sensitivity that may persist for 3 - 4 weeks after infusion .

49

PHOTO THERAPY OF HYPERBILIRUBINEMIA ( Jaundice )

Hyperbilirubinimia occurs in infants ( 7 - 10%)when they are at 5 - 6 days . Jaundice results from the accumulation of a yellow pigments bilirubin which is principally derived from the degradation of hemoglobin .Infants do not have ability to get rid of those pigments through urine rather it goes on increasing due to immaturity of liver. Peak levels of bilirubin reaches 5 - 13 mg /dL. As the plasma concentration of bilirubin increases it can penetrate the blood brain barrier and accumulate in brain which has some toxic infury to brain cells leads to develop neurological injury , including learning impairment , cerebral palsy , deafness and extreme case of death .

50

Three methods of administered : 1) Conventional or overhead system of Fluorescent lamp . 2) Overhead Tungsten - Halogen spot light 3) A relatively newer fiber optic pad. The light source may be filtered to maximize radiation in the short visible wavelength region and to minimise unnecessary UV & IR radiation . Overhead systems may be portable or incorporated into the incubators , radiant warmers .They typically are mounted 25 to 50 cm . from the infant , depending on the intensity required .Because of the blue appearance of the illumination from these systems , changes in infant skin colour can be difficult to detect . Blue illumination also may contribute to irritation or nausea in some caregiver , e.g., nurse .For these reasons AAP - American Academy of Pediatrics recommended a mixture of Blue and White lamps in overhead phototherapy systems . Fibre-optic phototherapy pads developed in the late 1980s eliminated some problems associated with overhead system. The light from Tungsten -Halogen lamp is delivered via ., fibre optic cables to the pad where they emit light through the sides and ends of the fibres .Some pads can be wrapped around infants . AAP suggests a minimum average spectral irradiance of 4 mW / cm2 / nm in the range between 425 - 475 nm for photochemical reduction of bilirubin . Most medical text book recommend 6 - 12 mW / cm2 / nm. When bilirubin level is high even higher irradiance , by moving the source closure and / or using multiple number of light sources , combination of overhead as well as fibreoptic system with due protection from eye and skin .

51

TREATMENT OF VITILIGO
Patients with Vitiligo have areas of completely white skin .PUVA can bring about some repigmentation , particularly for vitiligo of face , and in dark -skinned patient.

The treatment is same as that of psoriasis .start the dose of UV-A with 0.5 J /cm2 , with each increment of 0.25 J /cm2 and a frequency of two or three treatments per week . Try PUVA for 3 months . If there is response , may continue upto one year .However some time PUVA treatment does not become helpful . It is difficult to standardize the exposure time as different models of UV lamps are used and these lamps wear with time .It therefore depends upon the experience of individual therapist with that particular lamp.

EFFECT OF LASER
All lasers have three basic components: (a) a laser (active)medium; (b) an energy source (pumping system); and (c) a resonant optical cavity. Lenses, mirrors, shutters, saturable absorbers, and other accessories may be added to the system to obtain greater power, shorter pulses, or special beam shapes, but only the three basic components (a, b, and c) are necessary for laser action.

52

The Laser Medium Laser action depends on the ability of the laser (active) medium to undergo population inversion (i.e., more atoms or molecules in the excited state than in the lower state). Once population inversion occurs, an avalanche of photons can be generated by stimulated emission. Initial, spontaneously emitted photons stimulate other excited atoms to emit photons of the same energy in phase with one another. This process is Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, with the acronym, LASER. This figure shows a simplified 3-level energy diagram for a laser material. This is just one of the many possible systems of energy levels. Though laser action is possible with only 3 energy levels, most such actions involve 4 or more levels.

The Pumping System Pumping systems are necessary to raise electrons to a higher energy level in lasers. These systems pump energy into the laser material, increasing the number of atoms or molecules trapped in the metastable energy level, until a population inversion exists large enough to make laser action possible (Fig. 4). Several different pumping systems are available including optical, electron collision, and chemical reaction. In optical pumping, a strong source of light is used, such as a xenon flashtube or another laser (e.g., an argon or nitrogen laser), generally of a shorter wavelength than that emitted by the medium. Electron collision pumping is accomplished by passing an

53

electric current through a laser medium, usually a gas (e.g., helium-neon laser) or a semiconductor junction (e.g., galliumarsenide laser), or by accelerating electrons in an electron gun to impact on the laser material, as in some semiconductor or gas lasers. Chemical pumping is based on energy released in the making and breaking of chemical bonds. For example, some hydrogen fluoride (HF) or deuterium fluoride (DF) lasers are pumped in this manner.

After the development of the laser in 1960 aroused great interest in the potential hazards of optical radiation . Since organic macromolecules absorbing the radiant energy would have broad spectral absorption bands, the monochromatic nature of laser radiation would not be expected to create any different effects from those of radiation emitted by conventional sources; this conclusion is strongly supported by experimental evidence. The coherence of laser radiation is also considered not to affect the hazard potential for thermal or photochemical chorioretinal injury. Though a speckle pattern resulting from the interference effects of laser light at the retina does exist, the very fine gradations in retinal irradiance resulting from this effect (Considine, 1966; Fried, 1981) would certainly be lost, as soon as the pulse duration was greater than a few microseconds (s). Both thermal conduction and ocular tremor would smooth out the distribution of light and localized temperature elevations resulting from the 1-10 m gradations of the speckle pattern and these non-uniformities would be blurred. Chorioretinal injury from either a laser or a non-laser source should not differ, therefore, if image size (retinal irradiance distribution), exposure duration, and wavelength are the same. The laser exposure limits are complex functions of wavelength, exposure duration, and viewing conditions and cannot be summarized, without the use of complex tables. Based on present knowledge, most of these extensive sets of laser standards appear adequate for the protection of the health of those potentially exposed. Several areas of concern still exist regarding exposure limits for ultrashort pulse, repetitive pulse, long-term, and multiwavelength exposures. Types of Lasers Lasers can be categorized in a variety of ways, e.g., according to the active medium or temporal mode of operation. Active media Lasers are often designated according to the type of laser medium, as follows: (a) Solid-state lasers: a glass or crystalline medium into which active atoms are introduced; Gas lasers: a medium of pure gas or a mixture of gases; this category also includes metal vapour lasers;

(b)

54

(c)

Semi-conductor lasers: a medium of n-type and p-type semiconducting element material; Liquid lasers: a liquid medium containing an active material, such as an organic dye, in solution or suspension.

(d)

Common laser devices and applications ---------------------------------------------------------------------Type Wavelength(s) Applications ---------------------------------------------------------------------argon (Ar) 458-515 nm instrumentation; + 350 nm holography; retinal photocoagulation; entertainment ---------------------------------------------------------------------carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 10.6 m material processing; optical radar/ranging; instrumentation; surgery techniques ---------------------------------------------------------------------dye(s) variable 350 nm instrumentation 1 m ---------------------------------------------------------------------excimer lasers 180-250 nm laser pumping; spectroscopy gallium arsenide (GaAs) 850-950 nm instrumentation ranging; intrusion detection; communications; toys ---------------------------------------------------------------------helium cadmium (HeCd) 325, 442 nm alignment; surveying ---------------------------------------------------------------------helium neon (HeNe) 632.8 nm alignment; surveying; holography; ranging; intrusion detection; communications; entertainment ---------------------------------------------------------------------neodymium glass 1.06 m material processing; (Nd-glass) instrumentation; neodymium yttriumoptical radar/ranging; aluminium garnet (Nd-YAG) surgery ---------------------------------------------------------------------ruby 694.3 nm material processing; holography; photocoagulation; ranging ----------------------------------------------------------------------Sources Principal wavePotential Potentially exposed length bands effects populations of concern -----------------------------------------------------------------------

55

He-Ne lasers

construction workers; (0.5-5.0 mW) users of alignment lasers; some members of generalpopulation ----------------------------------------------------------------------argon laser visible retinal injury, observers and operators 1-20 W localized skin- of laser light shows; burns laboratory workers; medical personnel ----------------------------------------------------------------------ruby or visible retinal injury scientific neodynium near-infrared investigators; laser military personnel rangefinders The focused laser beam proved to be a unique scalpel , capable of bloodless surgery , since the beam not only cuts but also "welds" blood vessels being cut .Apart from that , this surgery is outstanding in its high sterility , as no contact of tissues with surgical took place . and , last but not least , laser surgery is painless because operations are very fast and there is not enough time for patient to respond to the incision and sense pain. It is now common for LASER scalpel in a facility which provides the possibility of certain movements of the beam and its rotation .Fibre optics has put the LASER scalpel into the Surgeon's hand : flexible optic fiber lead the beam to the radiator in the hand .The radiation contains a lens system for beam focusing . LASER radiation is efficient in Hemorrhage control due to cauterizing action of the lASER beam on the blood vessels .Therefore , LASER are used for reduction of hematic losses , which is especially important for patients with poor blood coagulation. LASER surgery becomes a routine procedure in the treatment of Liver and Lungs , and for elimination of moles and tumour developing on the Skin tissues .Most common sources for these applications are CO2 and Argon LASER. In the field of Ophthalmology LASER (usually Argon A+) are in use for treatment of retina - detachment .The beam is focused on a certain point of retina after it has passed through the lens of the eye and the Vitreous Chamber without being absorbed in them, The green beam of LASER is strongly absorbed by the red blood cells of the retina and the consequent thermal effect leads to reattachment of the retina. The operation is carried out by a 0.01 Second pulse and being very short , is virtually painless . Of other illnesses treated by the focused LASER beam are Cataract , varied Tumors and Glaucoma . LASER pulses is used to destroy plugs in blood vessels feeding the eye . Most popular ophthalmologic systems involve also Neodymium and Ruby LASERs . LASERs are now finding increasing use in therapy .The He - Ne LASER has produced curing effect on trophic ulcers , poorly healing wounds and bone fractures .Relatively rapid healing effect has been observed for all these cases after a few radiative treatments .

visible

retinal injury

56

Stomatology is another field in medicine where the LASER has also been found useful .It has been proved capable of destroying selectively those tissues of the tooth affected by caries , that is the LASER can replace dental drills. In this function it has demonstrated a much higher performance and operated without pain . Ruby LASER is designed for microsurgery of the front tissues of the eye.

NdYAG - LASER is used for treating brown spots and Tattoos .The LASER produces a bright flash of red light which is absorbed by most tattoo pigments and brown spots , but spare adjacent normal skin structures .The scarring is minimal , and a normal or near normal skin appearance is often achieved.

LASERs : Excimer LASERs emit a high intensity beam of UV light similar to the light in narrow band UVB units .Pulse dye LASERs use short bursts of light to target blood vessels under the skin

LASIK

LASER ASSITED

IN

SITU

KERATOMILEUSIS

Photorefractive Keratectomy(PRK) - a surgical technique using LASER to sculpt the cornea of the eye and thus altering its refractive power , has been developed to correct refractive errors , e.g., Myopia , Astigmatism etc.

LOW LEVEL LASER THERPY

Low level LASERs at 630 , 830 and 904 nm are used widely throughout the world in sports medicine cline and by veterinarians to accelerate wound healing , treat sprains and control certain types of pain .

VITAMIN D Vitamin D (Calciferol ) is a steroid hormone that has an important role in regulating body levels of Calcium and Phosphorus and in mineralization of bone. There are groups of vitamin D , of which -- D1 ( a molecular compound of lumisterol and vitamin D2 ) -- D2 ( ergocalciferol ) -- D3 ( cholecalciferol ) -- D4 ( 22:23 dihydroergo calciferol ) -- Calcitriol ( 1,25 dihydrocholecalciferol) Vitamin - D2 & D3 are more effective vitamin D for human body .

57

NATURAL SOURCES : Vitamin - D2 - Milk , Egg Vitamin D3 - Sunlight Vitamin D2 and D3 are biologically similar but chemically different .

FUNCTIONS : i)Helps absorption of Calcium and Phosphorous from intestine and related to Calcium and Phosphorous metabolism . ii)Helps in normal mineralization of bone . DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS : Among children a) Ricket & Tetany b) Mal development of teeth , bony deformities ( e.g. Sternum ), retardation of bony growth c) Delay in tooth eruption Among adults a) Osteomalacia b) Hearing loss c)Vitamin D might improve zinc status in kidney disease patients on Dialysis.

Ricket : The bones of the child are not properly calcified and remain cartilaginous .As a result of this , the long bones of the legs become soft and bowed by the weight of the body . Due to growth of cartilaginous tissue , enlargement of ankles , knee and wrist joints are seen . Tetany : A disease caused by a lack of calcium in the blood . Tetany is commonly associated with parathyroid disease or a lack of vitamin D in diet . The condition causes muscle spasms and violent twitching , especially of the extremities . Sterum : It is a bone of terrestrial vertebrates . It lies in the middle of the ventral side of chest . The ventral ends of most of the ribs are attached to sternum . Osteomalacia : Due to decalcification of bones they becomes weak and fragile instead of being soft because bones of adults usually do not contain cartilage . Hearing Loss : Hearing Loss from vitamin D deficiency may progress as the adult ages due to increased porosity of the cochlea bone in the inner ear .

58

PHOTO PRODUCTION OF VITAMIN D Early in the 19th century, long before the discovery of vitamins , it was recognized empirically that sunlight of fish liver oils could prevent rickets they are called anti rachitic . Rickets , a disease that can cause severe bone malformations was becoming more and more prevalent in children as the chimneys of the industrial revolution obscured urban skies across north Europe . By the 1930s much of the chemistry and biology involved in this anti rachitic effect had been uncovered .It was recognized that fat soluble substance were involved and that they could be manufactured by irradiation yeast or natural food stuffs with ultra violet ( UV ) light. The product found in yeast was identified as calciferol or vitamin D2 . In the skin , it was learned that a cholesterol like precursor is transformed by UV to a similar product called cholecalciferol or vitamin D3. --Vitamin D3 is found more stable than Vitamin . --Calcitriol the most active form of vitamin D , is classified as a steroid hormone and is air and light sensitive.

SMALL MOLECULAR PRECURSORS

Ultra violet ray

PRE VITAMIN-D

Heat

7 - DEHYDROCHOLESTEROL

VITAMIN-D

Binding Protein
CHOLESTEROL BLOOD VITAMIND

Fig. Steps in the photo production of vitamin D in the skin

59

Studies on animals and humans clearly show that UV B radiation is effective in producing vitamin D in the skin , with a peak of effectiveness near 297 nm . Melanin content of skin , sunscreen used and aging decreases the capacity of the skin produce vitamin D .Furthermore such environmental factors as changes in latitude , season and time of day also greatly influence the cutaneous production of vitamin D . Among children and able persons 90% and above vitamin D comes from exposure to sun .For elderly & infirm persons it comes from food supplement .

60

TOXIC EFFECT : Since vitamin D is fat soluble it is one of the toxic vitamin. --Excessive doses of vitamin D can increase calcium loss from bone . --Large doses of vitamin D are also linked to increased risk for premature heart attack and atherosclerosis ( a condition of the arteries in which blood flow is blocked by fatty deposits ) . -- Blood calcium concentration and a precipitation of calcium phosphate deposits in vital organs , e.g., arteries , kidney ,heart ,lungs , etc. Renal calcification may cause failure of urine formation and thus toxicity leading to death . -- Mild cases of vitamin D poisoning lead only to increased urinary calcium excretion . DIETARY REFERENCE INDEX (DRI) VALUES : The current recommended dietary allowance for vitamin D in adults in the United States is 10 microgram/day or 400 International Units. Excessive exposure to sunlight does not cause vitamin D intoxication ; however excessive vitamin D intake can occur , although this usually requires ingestion of over 1000 microgram /day or 40,000 International Units . Upper intake level (UL ) for vitamin D3 is 25 microgram /day for children upto 12 months 50 microgram /day for other age group. CONCLUSION In recent years vitamin D has gained increased respect and attention . Its biological role is now known to extend beyond regulation of bone mineralization and serum calcium levels . Vitamin D receptors have been found in a variety of cells . It is believed that calcitriol plays an important part in the regulation of genes involved in cell growth , differentiation and proliferation . By promoting differentiation and inhibiting proliferation , it may become an important factor in cancer prevention and therapy . Another role of calcitriol involves regulation of genes which control the production of immune factors known as lymphokines , which effect cell mediated immunity functions.

EFFECT ON INSECTS
INSECT RESPONCES Nocturnal insects are attracted towards light . The insect nuisance problems associated with lighting have distinct and related aspects .A knowledge of the insects in relation to their normal habitats and of the activities to be carried out in the desired insect free areas usually helps to anticipate problems . Preventive measure can be done accordingly. a) Insect not attracted to light Ants , Flour beetles , Cockroaches ,etc. b) Diurnal insects Flies , Honey Bees , etc. c) Nocturnal insects Mosquitoes , Moths , Leaf - hopper , etc. Photoaxis is the term applied to insect visual response which causes the insect to be attracted to a source of Electro magnetic radiation .Insects which are attracted to a radiation source are said to be photo positive or exhibit positive photoaxis . The spectral region most attractive to a wide range of insect species especially nocturnal species , is in the near Ultraviolet A(310 to 380 nm in wave length ). Other species are known to respond to energy in the visible and infrared as well .

61

LIGHTING SYSTEM ATTRACTION One means of reducing the insect nuisance is to select light sources having low insect attractiveness. In practices , this involves maximum use of yellow red light ( with high energy at long wavelength ) and the reduction of UV and blue wave lengths . Mercury Lamps generate ultra violet radiation and filtering to remove the ultra violet , either by the lamp envelop or a refractor ; may also reduce the light output . If filtering is extended to remove some visible wavelengths , to further reduce attraction , the loss will be even greater . HPSV lamps have a higher lumen per watt output than mercury lamps and with about 1/3 rd as much comparable Hg- lamp system .Thus mercury lamps should be avoided for area lighting either inside or outside buildings where night flying insects are a potential problem. If light attractive lamps are in use for colour rendition reasons , they can be shaded so that all their radiant output is confined to the area to be illuminated .If lamps must remain visible from outside , consideration should be given for using refractors , filters and shields made of glass , or plastic material to filter out the UV radiation .If lamps emitting blue light and near UV energy are used for lighting , they should not be directly visible at distances beyond a few metres from illuminated area . Highly attractive small mercury lamps and exposed incandescent lamps should not be located directly over entrances or work areas , inside or outside of buildings , for insects will be attracted , will annoy people and animals using the entrances and will gain access to the interior when a door is opened . This problem can be greatly reduced by using Yellow insect incandescent or Sodium lamps .If Fluorescent lamps are to be used gold Fluorescent lamps will be less attractive than the white type . At the best , an attractive lamp can be shaded so that its radiant output is directed downward and confirmed to the immediate area . Any type of lamp used to light an entrance or work area should be located a short distance away , with the light directed towards the area to be illuminated . An insects are also attracted to reflected radiant energy , care should be taken to avoid using a surface or a paint with a high reflectance for visible or UV- radiation . DECOY LAMPS AND INSECT TRAP In addition to careful selection and shielding designs the number of night flying insects within an area also can be reduced by placing attracting Black light fluorescent or mercury decoy lamps at 30 60 m distances around the perimeter of the area to intercept those insects trying to enter . Insect traps commonly contain black light lamps to attract photopositive insects as a means of killing or trapping them .One of the common killing mechanism is an electric grid the electrocutes the insects attracted to the black light .Various designs are available for commercial , industrial and residential use . The placement and number of traps should vary with the individual situation and the species of insects involved . Specialists in this field usually are required to determine the best placement of traps for solving specific insect problems .If grid traps are used they should not be placed on that electrocuted insects fall or are blows into working and food processing areas .System design and installation should be in compliance with the National Electrical Code or the Canadian Electrical Code . In agriculture , various insect traps have been used for survey purposes to detect insects in a crop area , to predict the need for pesticide application and to evaluate effects of insecticide measures .

62

Survey traps used over large areas can be used to determine migration of insects and to predict potential infestation . The trap designs , usually include a black light or other fluorescent lamp and a means of trapping insects . Designs are altered for specific insect species . Studies with black light insect traps in large tobacco or tomato growing areas of over 300 Km2 have shown that one or more traps per square kilometer reduced tomato hornworm population .Indication are that insect traps are best used in conjunction with insecticides . The use of such traps would generally reduce the number of insecticide applications in growing season .

PHOTO OXIDATIVE EFFECT The toxicity of O 2 for living organisms can be greatly enhanced if the cells are exposed to light in presence of air and of certain pigments , known as Photosensitizers .Light converts the Photosensitizer (P) to a highly reactive form , known as the triplet state (P*). P + h = P* [ gains an extra electron super oxide carries a negative charge ] A secondary reaction between P* and O 2 produces single state oxygen is a very powerful oxidant and its formulation within the cell is rapidly lethal. Carotenoid pigments( associated with chlorophyll) of cell acts as a quenchers of singlet - state oxygen and thus protect the cell from Photo-oxidative death . Thus effect of UV radiation can be summarised as follows : UV-A is the near or long wave band (315 - 380 nm) .Also known as black light UV-A makes certain pigments fluorescence . UV-A has no effect on pathogens and no effect on human tissue . UV-B is the middle UV band (280 - 314 nm) . Also known as Suntan UV band used for suntanning , Vitamin - D formation in some Industrial applications , e.g. UV-B inactivates a moderate amount of pathogens , but is not as effective as UV-C in destroying bacteria .Prolonged exposure to UV-B results in blistering of the skin and cornea damage . UV-C is the Germicidal or short wave UV band (100 - 280 nm) . UV-C inactivates pathogens by destroying their DNA and RNA . Ideal wave length is 253.7 nm .Prolonged exposure to UV -C causes a temporary reddening of the skin and a temporary eye irritation commonly known as "welder's eye ".

63

EFFECTS ON MICRO - ORGANISMS Germicidal (Bactericidal) : Microbe is a term for tiny form of life that individually are not seen with the unaided eye which includes bacteria , fungi , viruses etc.( though there is a debate as to whether viruses can be considered living creatures or not ) . Electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range between 180 - 700 nm is capable of killing many species of bacteria , yeasts and viruses .The germicidal effectiveness of the different wavelength regions can vary by several orders of magnitude , but wavelengths , shorter than 300nm are generally the most effective for bactericidal purposes . Studies have shown that most effective wavelength range to be between 220 - 300 nm , corresponding to the peak of photic absorption by bacterial Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) .The absorption of the UV radiation by the DNA molecule produces mutations or cell death . APPLICATIONS : (1) Germicidal (Bactericidal) Lamps : Mercury vapour enclosed in a special glass /quartz tube transmits shortwave UV radiation most effective at 253.7 nm . Hot cathode germicidal lamp with 8 , 15 , 30 W Fluorescent lamp also are in use . Some germicidal lamps generate a controlled amount of 184.9 nm radiation which produces ozone , which is highly toxic OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration ) has limited its use to 0.1 ppm (part per million) . (2) Disinfection of Rooms : (3) Liquid Disinfection : (4) Disinfection of Granular Material : The surfaces of Granular materials (e.g. Sugar ) are disinfected on traveling belts of vibrating conveyors designed to agitate the material during travel under banks of closely spaced germicidal lamps .In the case of Sugar , thermoduric bacteria survive the vacuum evaporator temeratures of a sugar - syrup concentration and forced out of the sugar crystals during lattice formation , remain in the final film of dilute syrup left on the crystal surface .Ordinary harm less these bacteria can cause serious spoilage in canned foods and beverages . (5) Food Processing As consumer demand for fresh and 'fresh like 'food products increases , the demand for nonthermal methods of food processing is also raising demand for improved food processing methods. UV Radiation is used to pasteurize fruit juices by pumping the juice over a high intensity UV light source .The effectiveness of such a process depends on the UV absorbance of the juice .

[ EXTRA :(1) Detection of hidden inscription in the paper note .

(2) Mineral Detection : With the application of UV , e.g. FluorsparViolet , Calcite Red , Orthoclase Yellows , etc.]

64

FEW APPLICATIONS FOR INVESTIGATIONS , OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES All tissues and cells with the small exception of haemoglobin and pigmented skin are luminescent under UV light . -- The luminescence of cartilage , bones and teeth is much more intense than that of the skin , whereas the glow of muscles is hardly noticeable . -- The luminescence of bile is the most variable in colour ( from violet to red ) -- The gum and the base of tongue usually give dark red luminanscence (because of presence of porphyrin derivatives ). -- Dissected liver has an intense greenish- yellow glow . -- The luminescent changes of the skin surface can detect eczemas long before they become visible to the eye . -- The appearance of brownish spots in the mouth cavity under UV - light is a valid proof of jaundice before development of visible symptoms .

[ EXTRA : Numerous observations have suggested that organic molecules with alternating single and double bonds between carbon atoms are luminescent , e.g Vitamin - A .]
The colour and intensity of luminescence of biological systems are determined by the presence of luminophore compounds like Porphyrin derivatives . A weak glow , especially in the green and blue spectral regions can appear owing to oxidative reactions of lipid structures in the cell .The glow diminishes with a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen over living tissues .

[ EXTRA :
Where do physical bodies obtain the energy necessary for luminescence ? There exist several sources : -- Energy of Chemical Reaction Chemiluminescence -- Electric discharge Electroluminescence -- Energy of Light absorbed by a body Photoluminescence ]

65

GERMICIDAL UV LAMP Ultraviolet range of Elecromagnetic Spectrum covers span from 380 nm - 100nm in the following three ranges : UV - A : 315 - 380 nm , UV - B : 280 - 315 nm, UV - C : 100 - 280 nm

Germicidal effect is most pronounced in UV - C range peaking at 265 nm which is very close to 253.7 nm radiation emitted by a low pressure Mercury Discharge Lamp . This radiation is extremely effective in klling micro organisms such as air , water and surface brone bacteria , viruses , yeast and molds , algae and protozoa .Proteins and nucleic acids - main constituents of microorganisms absorb ultraviolet radiation energy , which destroy and inactive DNA preventing reproduction .Germicidal lamp find extensive applications in air and water sterilizations disinfection in hospitals and Pharmaceuticals , food and beverage ,Industries , poultry and meat processing and effluent and sewage treatment and numerous disinfection and sterilization applications . Radiation of wavelength shorter than 220nm converts oxygen to ozone which itself has strong germicidal property .Low pressure mercury discharge lamp also emits 185nm , which if not absorbed by lamp walls , will generate ozone in air .So depending upon the grade of Quartz used for lamp making , quartz UV lamp could be ozone forming or ozone free .It should be noted that soft glass always absorb 185nm radiation and hence soft glass UV - lamp can not produce ozone . High purity fused silica (Quartz) has high transmission of UV and therefore quartz UV -lamp has higher initial UV output , also the UV transmission of Quartz , in contrast to that of soft glass , does not decrease with aging .It therefore has higher initial efficiency as well as superior UV maintenance .For all industrial and commercial applications , where large amount of UV sterilization of air and water is required . Quartz UV lamp is preferred over soft glass UV- lamp .

Quartz jacket : In many applications particularly in water sterilization , a UV lamp is surrounded by a UV transmitting glass jacket .Such a jacket , if made from any glass other than quartz tube will result in total absorption of UV - radiation thereby reducing germicidal activity of the system to zero .It is therefore very important to use only high purity fused silica quartz sleeve for this application .

66

LIGHT AND PLANTS

PHOTOSYNTHESIS : Photosynthesis is one of the most fascinating achievements of biological evolution on Earth .Life implies decrease in entropy - that means integrating disorderly materials into highly ordered units ,i.e., organisms . It therefore needs external supply of free energy and Solar radiation is the only abundantly available source of such energy .An amazing achievement of evolution had been to equip organisms with an apparatus for converting light energy into chemical energy . Without this provision life on earth would have remained restricted .

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and certain bacteria , termed phototrophs convert radiant energy in the form of light into metabolic energy and reducing power. Other aspects of the metabolism of these organisms resemble the corresponding one of chemotrophs. the unique reactions of photosynthesis are mediated by a class of molecules termed Chlorophylls, representatives of which nearly all phototrophs contain . When these molecules absorb light energy they become activated to a state. The process of photosynthesis is one of the most important biological process of autotropic ( who can prepare their own food) organisms. It is a redox reduction involving three major processes. a) absorption of light energy b) its conversion to chemical energy c) storage chemical energy as the final product of photosynthesis The entire process is divided into two process a) Light dependent / light phase b) Light independent / dark phase During light phase , the chlorophyll ( Greek word chloros = green and phyllon = leaf )absorbs photon , photolysis of water takes place , Oxygen gas is liberated ,formation of ATP(Adenosine Triphosphate

67

)Acid and NADPH( Dihydro Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Hydrogen ) take place .But during dark place Carbon di oxide gas is fixed and reduced to glucose molecule . Sunlight 6 CO 2 + 12 H 2 O Chlorophyll In this phenomenon an oxidation - reduction reaction between an oxidant (CO 2 ) with a potential of about (-)0.4 volt , and a reductant (H 2 O) with a potential of about (+)0.8 volt , in which four electron s (or four H - atoms) are transferred uphill against a potential gradient of about 1.3 volts . Photosynthetic efficiency of a plant increase when it is exposed to flashes of light instead of continuous light period .Experiments showed that the dark periods in photosynthesis must last at least 0.1 second . Chloroplast contains a Iron based protein pigment called Cytochrome which gets oxidised and liberate energy . Cytochromes have various light absorption bands .Quantitative studies of all spectra in Witt's laboratory in Germany and at the University of Illinois , have dealt in particular with the 520nm band ; it is not only the most prominent , but also the best responsible of all different bands[4] . Photo chemistry : Photo chemistry involves the effect of various wavelengths of light on the chlorophyll molecules . The chlorophyll molecules initially remain in ground state .
Change in spin quantum of Electron
TRIPLET STATE

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 18 H 2 O + 6O 2

Half life (10-3 Sec) Loss of Heat No change in spin quantum of Electron

SINGLET STATE F L O U R E S C E N C E P H O S P H O R E S C E N C E

Half life (10-9 Sec) Loss of Heat

Ground State of Chlorophyll Molecule

Red Light

Blue Light

Fig . Excitation of Chlorophyll Molecule due to absorption of light rays

68

On absorption of Red light ( long wave length , low energy, E =h.c / , E - Energy , h - Planck constant, c - speed of light , - wave length ) it passes on to excited Singlet level - I with a duration of half life period of 10-9 Seconds .From this level ,it goes back to ground state by liberation of excess energy in the form of heat or liberation of light , called Fluorescence .But the fluorescence only continuous during the period when the Chlorophyll molecule is exposed to incident light . Similarly on absorption of Blue light ( short wave length , high energy) . it passes on to excited Singlet level- II or Triplet State with a duration of half life period of 10-3 Seconds only .This greater duration of this state is because of the fact that the spin quantum of the electron changes .From this state Chlorophyll molecule returns to ground state by liberation of excess energy in the form of heat or liberation of light , called Phosphorescence .The Phosphorescence can continue even after the incident light is cut off .Sometimes the electrons may be totally expelled and accepted by specific carries , which initiate the photochemical reactions involved during the light phase of photosynthesis . White Light from Sun is the composition of VIBGYOR , each of these lights having specific wave length .The photochemical effect of these different wave length of light on photosynthesis is called action spectrum (380nm to 780nm, nm-nano(10-9 ) metre) . In the visible spectrum Red ( 647 - 780nm) , Orange( 580 - 647nm) , Yellow ( 535 - 580nm) , Blue (422 - 492nm) , Violet ( 380 - 422nm) .The Green coloured light is not absorbed by green coloured Chlorophyll .So Green coloured light does not have any contribution in photosynthesis . Photo synthetically active radiation (PAR) involves the interaction between individual photons and molecules. Specifically, PAR is reported as the number of moles of photons per unit area, per second, in the spectral interval from 380 to 780 nm, where there are 6.0222 x 1023 (Avogadro's number) photons per mole.

RESPIRATION :The reverse of photosynthesis is respiration which does not require light . The carbohydrate formed in photosynthesis is oxydized to CO 2 , water and energy in respiration .The intensity of light at which photosynthesis and respiration becomes equal is Light Compensation point .Plant lighted are the compensation point can not long survive because stored carbohydrate is used during the dark period by respiration . OTHER PHOTO RESPONSES : In addition to photosynthesis there are other following major photo responses of plants - Chlorophyll synthesis - Phototropism - Photomorphogenesis ,etc. Chlorophyll synthesis : More than a century ago it was recognized that Chlorophyll synthesized by all green plants , is directly associated with photosynthesis .In the year 1913 [3] structure of Chlorophyll was establised by Willstilter and Stoll and then in 1940 Fischer and Stern and in 1961 Woodward successfully

69

synthesized Chlorophyll-a in laboratory .Empirical formula for Chlorophyll is C 55 H 12 O 5 N 4 Mg and its greenness come due to presence of Magnesium atom .Synthesis of Chlorophyll which is formed from the reduction by light of its precursor and photoreceptor - Protochlorophyll.

Phototropism : It is the light inducted growth movement of a plant organ , i.e., bending of an organ (e.g., branch ) towards or away from the direction of the source of light. Light induced movements of plants can be classified as follows : Photonastic and Phototaxis Photonastic - It is the movement of plant organs due to changes in irradiation such as the closing of flowers / leaves at night and opening during daytime. Phototaxis - It is the movement of the whole organ in response to light. Photomorphogenesis : It is the light controlled growth , development and differentiation of a plant from responses initiated largely by the photoreceptor , phytochrome. Photomorphogenesis responses of plants has been observed as controlled by blue coloured light .Like chlorophyll , it has a Chromophore , that absorbs radiant energy and undergoes excitation but unlike chlorophyll , the excitation energy is not transferred but is used to change its molecular structure .Photomorphogenesis response include following phenomenon : -- Photoperiodism -- Seed Germination -- Stem Elongation -- Anthocyanin (violet coloured) pigment formation,etc. GROWTH REGULATION ; Hormones are organic compounds naturally synthesized in higher plants which influence growth and development .The naturally occurring hormone are the auxin ( Indole Acetic Acid - IAA ) and Cytokinin Zeatin Auxin induces cell division , elongation auxiliary shoot formation . Cytokinin has important role in shoot induction . Stock solutions of IAA and kinetin ( a type of Cytokinin are stored in amber bottle(s) are reported[1] to covered with a black paper and kept in dark since they are unstable in light . In Plant Tissue culture compounds such as Carotenoids , Flavonoids , Polyphenols and Plastoquinones are found stimulated by light . In Androgenesis physical environmental conditions can be affected by light . In the initial stage of Induction of morphogenesis , darkness is normally more effective or cultures should be kept in low light intensity ( 500 lux ) . After induction , macroscopic structure are transferred to a regeneration medium (in cereals with reduced sucrose and auxin concentration ) and kept at 14 h day - light regime at 2000 - 4000 lux.

70

HORTICULTURAL LIGHTING Horticultural lighting is the application of light sources for the control of growth , flowering and maintenance of plants specially for indoor application . Following are most important criteria i) Intensity ii) Quantity iii) Duration Light is required for Photosynthesis and Photoperiodism .Quality of light requirement for Photosynthesis from Photoperiodic lighting .It varies from plant to plant . INTENSITY : Varies from plant to plant and season to season.

QUALITY : Light ranges in colour from Ultra - Violet at one end of the spectrum to Infra Red at the other .Experimentally we have observed that usually colours accelerates as following : - Longitudinal growth of plant is better in red light , - Flowering in bluish white light, - Chlorophyll production in golden light, etc. However a wide spectrum of light is needed for healthy plant growth . DURATION : Light has an accumulative effect in plants . With shorter day length in winter the total amount of light received is significantly reduced . Day length also has an effect on functions such as flowering . Plants triggering into flower by less than 12 hours are short day plants . Plants triggering into flower more than 12 hours of light to flowers are called long day plants .

Light from the Sun takes about 8 minutes to reach earth . Tropical plant often require 12 - 16 hours of day light for active growth .

71

For example in India Krishnachura ( Poinciana Pulcherrima),a red flowered tree becomes most flourish in the vicinity of 1st May (day length : Approx.13 hours ) to mark the occasion with its red colour . ENERGY FROM SUN The Sun is the primary source of energy to Earth with light and heat.The Sun produces immense amount of energy through thermonuclear fusion , a process by which small atoms like hydrogen fuse to form large atoms in the synthesis of Helium .When this fusion happens , the combined masses of the fusing atoms are more than the mass of the atom they form and some of this extra masses of the fusing atoms are converted to energy .The equivalence of mass and energy is well known through Einstein's relationship ,E = mc2 'c' is the speed of light. Only about 0.7% of the Sun's mass ,ie., 5.6 x 1016 kg loss is converted to energy per day. The Earth receives only about 1 part of a trillion , still it is enormous . Since the Sun and Earth position is not fixed due to Semi Elliptical shape of the orbit the intensity of Sun beam towards a position of earth varies with following various factors : i) latitude and longitude of the place ii) calendar day of year , duration of Sun light iii) time of the day , i.e., light beam angle from the Sun iv) angle of inclination of the plane of receipt , etc ., The radiation emits by the Sun normally falls from in regions of Ultra violet to Infra Red including Visible . The radiation energy effective for photobiology lies between 300nm and 900 nm .It has been observed by earlier established experiments that practically all photo biological behavior of plants and animal , photosynthesis , phototropism , photo taxis, photoperiodism ,etc. utilises this range of radiation energy for excitation .UV - C ( 100nm - 280nm ) is the most dangerous part of solar spectrum causing great biological damages due to absorption by Protein , Nucleic Acid of cell leading to DNA mutation .

RADIANT ENERGY MEASUREMENT : Horticultural lighting is not the same as illumination needed by human being for visibility .The Lux and Foot candle will not be so relevant here . In horticultural lighting measurements are either in terms of Spectral emission of the light source or are converted absolute units by calibrating the illuminance meter for the power density in Watt / sqm for each Lux and spectral emission is required .Following table can be referred for conversion : Wave length ( nm ) , 1nm =10-9 metre Approximate region of Light Photons (quanta) (in erg / quantum ) Photons (quanta) (in K.cal / einstein ) ( 1 einstein = 6.03 x 1023 quanta ) Photons (quanta) (in electron volt / quantum ) 200 UV extreme 10 x 10-12 144 6.3 400 Visible lowest 5 x 10-12 72 3.15 800 Visible highest 2.5x 1012

1600 Infra Red extreme 1.25x 10-12 18 0.79

36 1.57

72

CONTRIBUTION OF LIGHT AND PLANT IN MEDICINE 1)PUVA : It is a combination of Skin treatment consists of Psoralens (P) and then exposing the skin to UV-A radiation . Psoralens are compounds found in many plants , e.g. , which makes the skin temporarily sensitive to UV - A . Ancient Egyptians were the first to invent it . 2) Photo Dynamic Therapy : Hematoprofirin derivative usually out of the nodules of Soyabin root when introduced into the blood , locates and binds tumour cell .On exposure to light at 630nm singlet oxygen which is highly cytotoxic is produced and consequently causes tumor cell degradation .This has found successful in neurological operations etc. and expected to be a future solution of cancer treatment instead of conventional Chemotherapy .

73