Plants: Their Forms and Function

Plants: Their Forms and Functions

Garcia, Pauline Jessica M. Bautista, Analin DR. Salonoy, Mary Sheil S. BSA 2-20 Adrian Guinto August 10, 2012

Plants: Their Forms and Function

Abstract Plants are found everywhere but people often do not notice them. These organisms play an extremely important part in the existence of life on earth. Virtually, all land animals depend on them for food, either eating plants directly or eating other animals that eat plants. Above and below the ground, plants provide food, shelter and breeding areas for animals, fungi and microorganisms. Plant roots also prevent soil erosion, and photosynthesis in plant leaves helps reduce carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and adds oxygen to the air. This paper will give its audience little information about plants, mainly about their parts with their certain functions and bodily processes. It aims to enlighten people of what they have to know about the most important organism on earth.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

Plants: Their Forms and Function Plants are eukaryotic, multicellular, photosynthetic and non-motile organisms. These include angiosperms, gymnosperms ferns, bryophytes and green algae which is recently included in the plant kingdom.

Flowering plants or Angiosperms Angiosperms or flowering plants are the most varied set of land vegetation. The distinguishing trait of flowering plants or angiosperms is the flower. The chief role of the flower is to make certain that fertilization of the ovule occur and that result in the growth of fruit containing seeds.

Conifers or Gymnosperms Gymnosperms or conifers are plants that have cones instead of flowers. Their seeds grow within female cones. The seeds develop on scales inside cones. The majority of gymnosperms are trees or shrubs. The cones are not as diverse as flowers but they can be brilliantly colored and attractive.

Ferns Ferns are the most superior spore bearing type of plants. Many ferns grow in cool, dry places but the largest ones are found in the hot, damp tropic regions. Around 15,000 species of ferns are there in existence now according to scientific researches

Mosses Mosses and most liverworts have simple stems and tiny, slender leaves. They can be found growing on the plain land, on rocks, and on other plants. They habitually live in mild, damp regions, but some can live in very cold places. Algae The simplest plant type is algae. They do not have leaves, stems or roots. Algae thrive in a moist or wet environment. Many are tiny single celled plants, but some seaweeds are huge.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

The main focus of this discussion is about angiosperms. Angiosperms are classified into two groups called monocots and dicots. The names monocot and dicot refer to the first leaves that appear on the plant embryo. These embryonic leaves are called seed leaves or cotyledon.

Monocots As the name implies, a monocot embryo has one seed leaf. Most monocots have leaves vith parallel veins and their stem have vascular tissues arranged in a complex array of bundles. The flowers of most monocots have their petals in multiples of three. The fibrous root system of a monocot provides broad exposure to soil, water and minerals as well as firm anchorage.

Dicots You can see two cotyledons in a typical dicot seed. Multibranched network of veins are found in dicot leaves. Unlike in monocot stems, the vascular bundles of a dicot stem are arranged in a ring. The dicot flower usually has petals in multiples of four or five. The root system of a dicot has many small secondary roots growing out from one large taproot.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

Plant Structure
Plant cells like animal cells are eukaryotic, i.e. they contain membrane bound nuclei and cell organelles. A plant cell differs from an animal cell in having certain distinctive structures - cell wall, vacuoles, plasmodesmata and plastids. On the contrary, plant cells lack centrioles and intermediate filaments, which are present in animal cells. Despite these, plant and animal cells share several similarities in structure, parts and their roles.

Different Parts of a Plant Cell

Plant cells are classified into three types, based on the structure and function, viz. parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma. The parenchyma cells are living, thin-walled and undergo repeated cell division for growth of the plant. They are mostly present in the leaf epidermis, stem pith, root and fruit pulp. Mature collenchyma cells are living, and provide stretchable support to the plant. Lastly, sclerenchyma cells (e.g. fiber cells) are hard, non-living and give mechanical support to plants. Now, let us see the different parts of a plant cell with their significant roles.

Cell Wall Cell wall is the outermost tough and rigid layer, which comprises cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and at other times, lignin. As expected, it remains connected with the cell walls of other cells. The prime functions of cell wall are protection, giving structural support and helping in the filter mechanism.

Plasmodesma Plasmodesma (plural plasmodesmata) is a small opening, which connects plant cells with each other. Present only in some types of algal cells and plants cells, this connecting channel enables transport of materials and allows communication between the cells. In a single plant cell, about 1,000-100,000 plasmodesmata are present.

Nuclear Membrane The nuclear membrane and the nuclear envelope mean one and same thing. As the name reveals, it is the outer covering of the nucleus. It separates the cytoplasmic contents from the nuclear

Plants: Their Forms and Function

contents. Nonetheless, minute pores (nuclear pores) are present for exchanging materials between the cytoplasm.

Nucleus Nucleus is a specialized organelle, which contains the plant's hereditary material i.e. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). Inside the nucleus, a dense, spherical body called nucleolus is present. The nucleus contains structures, which regulates the cell cycle, growth, protein synthesis and reproductive function.

Vacuole Vacuoles are large membrane-bound compartments, which store water and compounds. They function as storage, excretory and secretory organelles. The membrane surrounding a vacuole is called tonoplast. A mature plant cell has a single vacuole at the near center of the cell (central vacuole), which contributes to about 30-80 percent of the cell's volume.

Cytoplasm Cytoplasm is filled up by cytosol, which is a gelatinous and semitransparent fluid. All the organelles of the plant cell are present in this cytoplasm. This part of the plant cell is the site for cell division, glycolysis and many other cellular activities. Also, the cytoskeleton elements (microtubules and microfilaments) are present in the cytosol.

Plastid (Chloroplast) Plastids are organelles responsible for photosynthetic activity, manufacturing and storage of chemical compounds in plants. Chloroplast is an important form of plastid containing chlorophyll pigment, which helps in harvesting light energy and converting it to chemical energy. Likewise, chromoplast and other plastids are present in a plant cell.

Mitochondria Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are oblong shaped organelles, which are also known as 'the powerhouse of the cell'. They are responsible for breaking down complex carbohydrate and sugar molecules to simpler forms, which the plants can use. Other than this, mitochondria are crucial for cell signaling, cycle, division, growth and death.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

Endoplasmic Reticulum The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) organelle plays a major role in manufacturing and storage of chemical compounds, like glycogen and steroids. It is also involved in translation and transportation of protein. ER is also connected to the nuclear membrane, so as to make a channel between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

In the overall functioning of a plant cell, the above cell parts coordinate in a specific manner. As you have seen, lysosomes are absent in plant cells. While vacuole is large and single in a plant cell, the animal cell houses smaller vacuoles in larger numbers. Likewise, for understanding the differences between plant and animal cells, you can study the cells separately along with the types of organelles present in them.

Tissue Organization in Angiosperms

There are three types of tissue in an angiosperm, the dermal, ground and vascular tissue. Dermal tissue is composed of epidermal cells, closely packed cells that secrete a waxy cuticle that aids in the prevention of water loss. The ground tissue comprises the bulk of the primary plant body. Parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells are common in the ground tissue. Vascular tissue transports food, water, hormones and minerals within the plant. Vascular tissue includes xylem, phloem, parenchyma, and cambium cells.

Dermal Tissue

Generally a single layer of cells The "skin" of the plant Primarily parenchyma cells Main role is protection of the plant

The dermal tissue system consists of the epidermis and the periderm.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

The epidermis is generally a single layer of closely packed cells. It both covers and protects the plant. It can be thought of as the plant's "skin." Depending on the part of the plant that it covers, the dermal tissue system can be specialized to a certain extent. For instance, the epidermis of a plant's leaves secretes a coating called the cuticle that helps the plant retain water. The epidermis in plant leaves and stems also contain pores called stomata. Guard cells in the epidermis regulate gas exchange between the plant and the environment by controlling the size of the stomata openings. The periderm, also called bark, replaces the epidermis in plants that undergo secondary growth. It is multilayered as opposed to the single layered epidermis. It consists of cork cells (phellem), phelloderm, and phellogen (cork cambium). Cork cells are nonliving cells that cover the outside of stems and roots to protect and provide insulation for the plant. The periderm protects the plant from pathogens, injury, prevents excessive water loss, and insulates the plant.

Ground Tissue

Makes up the bulk of the plant Predominately parenchyma, but collenchyma and schlerenchyma cells are found Diverse functions including photosynthesis, storage, and support

The ground tissue system synthesizes organic compounds, supports the plant and provides storage for the plant. It is mostly made up of parenchyma cells but can also include some collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells as well. Parenchyma cells synthesize and store organic products in a plant. Most of the plant's metabolism takes place in these cells. Parenchyma cells in leaves control photosynthesis. Collenchyma cells have a support function in plants, particularly in young plants. These cells help to support plants while not restraining growth due to their lack of secondary walls and the absence of a hardening agent in their primary walls. Sclerenchyma cells also have a support function in plants, but unlike collenchyma cells, they have a hardening agent and are much more rigid.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

Parenchyma A generalized plant cell type, parenchyma cells are alive at maturity. They function in storage, photosynthesis, and as the bulk of ground and vascular tissues. Palisade parenchyma cells are elogated cells located in many leaves just below the epidermal tissue. Spongy mesophyll cells occur below the one or two layers of palisade cells. Ray parenchyma cells occur in wood rays, the structures that transport materials laterally within a woody stem. Parenchyma cells also occur within the xylem and phloem of vascular bundles. The largest parenchyma cells occur in the pith region, often, as in corn (Zea ) stems, being larger than the vascular bundles. In many prepared slides they stain green. The cells of parenchyma are large, thin-walled, and usually have a large central vacuole. They are often partially separated from each other and are usually stuffed with plastids. In areas not exposed to light, colorless plastids predominate and food storage is the main function. The cells of the white potato are parenchyma cells. Where light is present, e.g., in leaves, chloroplasts predominate and photosynthesis is the main function of parenchyma cells.

Sclerenchyma Sclerenchyma cells support the plant. The walls of these cells are very thick and built up in a uniform layer around the entire margin of the cell. Often, the cell dies after its cell wall is fully formed. Sclerenchyma cells are usually associated with other cells types and give them mechanical support. They are usually found in stems and also in leaf veins. Sclerenchyma also makes up the hard outer covering of seeds and nuts. They often occur as bundle cap fibers. Sclerenchyma cells are characterized by thickenings in their secondary walls. They are dead at maturity. They, like collenchyma, stain red in many commonly used prepared slides. A common type of schlerenchyma cell is the fiber. Some of these cells occur in the fruits of pear which gives pears their gritty texture.

Collenchyma Collenchyma cells have thick walls that are especially thick at their corners. These cells provide mechanical support for the plant. They are most often found in areas that are growing rapidly and need to be strengthened. The petiole ("stalk") of leaves is usually reinforced with collenchyma. Collenchyma cells support the plant. They are alive at maturity. They tend to occur as part of vascular bundles or on the corners of angular stems. In many prepared slides they stain red.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

10

Vascular Tissue

Involved in the transport of water, ions, minerals, and food Also has a secondary role in support Composed of xylem, phloem, parenchyma, schlerenchyma

Xylem and phloem throughout the plant make up the vascular tissue system. They allow water and other nutrients to be transported throughout the plant. Xylem consists of two types of cells known as tracheids and vessel elements. Tracheids and vessel elements form tube-shaped structures that provide pathways for water and minerals to travel from the roots to the leaves. While tracheids are found in all vascular plants, vessels are found only in angiosperms.

Phloem is composed mostly of cells called sieve-tube cells and companion cells. These cells assist in the transport of sugar and nutrients produced during photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts of the plant. While tracheid cells are nonliving, sieve-tube and companion cells of the phloem are living. Companion cells possess a nucleus and actively transport sugar into and out of sieve-tubes.

Guard Cells Guard cells contain chloroplasts and regulate gas exchange between the inside of the leaf and the surrounding air. To facilitate gas exchange between the inner parts of leaves, stems, and fruits, plants have a series of openings known as stomata (singular stoma). Obviously these openings would allow gas exchange, but at a cost of water loss. Guard cells are bean-shaped cells covering the stomata opening. They regulate exchange of water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide through the stoma.

The "Typical" Plant Body The Root System

Underground (usually) Anchor the plant in the soil Absorb water and nutrients Conduct water and nutrients Food Storage

Plants: Their Forms and Function

11

The Shoot System

Above ground (usually) Elevates the plant above the soil Many functions including:
o o o

photosynthesis reproduction & dispersal food and water conduction

Note: the shoot system includes the leaves and the reproductive organs, although these will be covered in more detail separately

Transport System in Plants

Plant cells need water, minerals and sugars to live. Usually the tissues that are devoted for energy capture are not necessarily where this energy is most needed. So plants need transport systems to move substances to and from individual cells quickly. Vascular tissues system is made up of xylem and phloem which run through the leaf, stem and roots. Its main function is to transport water and nutrients throughout the plant. The leafs vascular tissue system is made up of a network of veins which support it. Each vein is a vascular bundle composed of xylem and phloem surrounded by a sheath of parenchyma cells. The veins xylem and phloem, continuous with the vascular bundles of the stem, are near the outside to provide a sort of scaffolding to reduce bending; they are in close contact with the leafs photosynthetic tissues. This ensures that those tissues are supplied with water and mineral nutrients from the soil and that sugars made in the leaves are transported throughout the plant. Unlike in the leaves and the roots, monocot and dicot stem differ in the arrangement of their tissues. The dicot stem has a distinct ring of vascular bundles and a two-part ground tissue system. The dicot cortex fills the space between vascular ring and the epidermis. Monocot stem has no defined cortex. The pith, composed of parenchyma cells occupies the center. The vascular tissues are scattered at the outer layer of the pith near the cortex. In the root, vascular tissue occupies the center forming a cylinder providing support for the root as it pushes through the soil, with the xylem cells radiating from the center like spokes of a wheel, and phloem cells filling in the wedges between the spokes.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

12

Xylem and Phloem

Xylem vessels carry water and minerals from the roots up to the leaves. They are thick walled cells that are not alive. It consists of two types of water-conducting cells namely, tracheids and vessel elements. Tracheids are long cells with tapered ends. Vessel elements are wider, shorter and less tapered. Chains of tracheids or vessel elements are arranged end-to-end forming a system of tubes that convey water from the roots up to the stems and the leaves. The tubes are hollow because when mature, both tracheids and vessel elements are dead, and only their cell walls remain. They also have a woody substance called lignin which help support zylem vessels and stops them collapsing inwards. Phloem vessels carry food in the form of a sugar called sucrose to all parts of the plant in either direction. They are build up of food-conducting cells, also known as sieve-tube elements, which are also arranged end-to-end, forming tubes. Unlike water-conducting cells however, sieve-tube elements have thin primary walls and no secondary walls and they remain alive at maturity. Sieve tube elements dont have nucleus, but contain a very thin layer of cytoplasm and few organelles. Their end walls are perforated by pores which form sieve plates, through which sugars, other compounds, and some mineral ions move between adjacent food-conducting cells. Each sieve tube element is flanked by at least one companion cell, which is connected to the sieve-tube elements by numerous plasmodesmata. The nucleus and ribosomes of the companion cells may make certain proteins for the sieve-tube member, which loses its nucleus and ribosomes during development. Phloem and xylem also contain schlerenchyma cells that provide support to keep plants upright and parenchyma cells that store various materials.

Water Transport in Plants

Water and minerals needed by plants are found in the soil, which are absorbed by the roots through their epidermis in the process of osmosis. Some of these epidermal cells will grow outward and form root hairs, which will increase the absorptive surface area of the epidermis and in turn will ensure more efficient absorption of water. Nutrients then move through the cortex and into the stele via endodermis. From the stele most minerals moved along with the water up to the stem through the xylem vessels and tracheids by root pressure, a force produced by the uptake of water because of osmosis.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

13

Root pressure can push water a few centimeters up a short stem but is not sufficient to bring water up a big tree. Transpiration provides the needed pull to do this. It is the loss of water from the plant in the form of vapor. As water escapes from the leaves, water below moves up to replace it.

Factors affecting Transpiration

Light. Light stimulates the stomata to open allowing gas exchange for photosynthesis, and as a side effect this also increases transpiration. This is a problem for some plants as they may lose water during the day and wilt. Temperature. High temperature increases the rate of evaporation of water from the spongy cells, and reduces air humidity, so transpiration increases. Humidity. High humidity means a higher water potential in the air, so a lower water potential gradient between the leaf and the air, so less evaporation. Air movements. Wind blows away saturated air from around stomata, replacing it with drier air, so increasing the water potential gradient and increasing transpiration. Many plants are able to control their stomata, and if they are losing too much water and their cells are wilting, they can close their stomata, reducing transpiration and water loss. So long periods of light, heat, or dry air could result in a decrease in transpiration when the stomata close.

Solute Transport in Plants

The phloem contains a very concentrated solution of dissolved solutes, mainly sucrose, but also other sugars, amino acids, and other metabolites. This solution is called the sap, and the transport of solutes in the phloem is called translocation.

Unlike the water in the xylem, the contents of the phloem can move both up and down a plant stem, often simultaneously. It helps to identify where the sugar is being transported from (the source), and where to (the sink).

During the summer sugar is mostly transported from the leaves, where it is made by photosynthesis (the source) to the roots, where it is stored (the sink).

During the spring, sugar is often transported from the underground root store (the source) to the growing leaf buds (the sink).

Flowers and young buds are not photosynthetic, so sugars can also be transported from leaves or roots (the source) to flowers or buds (sinks).

Plants: Their Forms and Function

14

Surprisingly, the exact mechanism of sugar transport in the phloem is not known, but it is certainly far too fast to be simple diffusion. The main mechanism is thought to be the mass flow of fluid up the xylem and down the phloem, carrying dissolved solutes with it. Plants dont have hearts, so the mass flow is driven by a combination of active transport (energy from ATP) and evaporation (energy from the sun). This is called the mass flow theory or pressure flow model

The mass flow theory works like this:

1. Sucrose produced by photosynthesis is actively pumped into the phloem vessels by the companion cells. 2. This decreases the water potential in the leaf phloem, so water diffuses from the neighbouring xylem vessels by osmosis. 3. This is increases the hydrostatic pressure in the phloem, so water and dissolved solutes are forced downwards to relieve the pressure. This is mass flow: the flow of water together with its dissolved solutes due to a force. 4. In the roots the solutes are removed from the phloem by active transport into the cells of the root. 5. At the same time, ions are being pumped into the xylem from the soil by active transport, reducing the water potential in the xylem. 6. The xylem now has a lower water potential than the phloem, so water diffuses by osmosis from the phloem to the xylem. 7. Water and its dissolved ions are pulled up the xylem by tension from the leaves. This is also mass flow.

This mass-flow certainly occurs, and it explains the fast speed of solute translocation. However there must be additional processes, since mass flow does not explain how different solutes can move at different speeds or even in different directions in the phloem. One significant process is cytoplasmic streaming: the active transport of molecules and small organelles around cells on the cytoskeleton.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

15

Plant Reproduction, Growth and Development

Plant Reproduction
Plant reproduction is the production of new individuals or offspring in plants, which can be accomplished by sexual or asexual means.

Asexual Vegetative Reproduction Plants are able to produce new plants without reproducing sexually when there is an outgrowth of old vegetative structures. Vegetative Propagation may occur in two ways: Natural Process Artificial Process

Natural Processes of Vegetative Propagation Most times, asexual reproduction in plants occurs naturally, without human influence. New plants may be formed from rhizomes, corms, stem tubers, runners, plantlets and bulbs. Rhizomes Rhizomes are horizontal underground stems. This is made evident by their physical properties which greatly reflect the properties of a stem. For example, there are scale leaves or scars where leaves were once attached to the stem and buds grow in the axils of these leaves. It is from these bids that the shoots of the new plant develop and grow. Adventitious roots form from the nodes of the rhizome. There newly developed shoots and adventitious roots form a newly produced plant. Examples of rhizomes are ginger and devil's grass. Corms Corms are short, swollen underground stems which look like short, upright rhizomes. Like most stems, the corm has a bud(s), which serves as its point of growth. In the case of the corm, the bud(s) can be found at the top of the corm and it is from this bud that a shoot begins to grow, eventually forming a new plant. Examples of these corms include dasheen and garlic.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

16

Stem Tubers Stem Tubers are the swollen ends of slender rhizomes. New plants develop from buds and roots growing at the nodes in the stem tubers. Buds grow into shoots and leaves at the top and on the side of tubers. Roots grow at the bottom. Examples of stems tubers are Irish Potatoes and yams. Bulbs Bulbs are underground vertical shoots which have modified leaves. A modified stem forms the base of the bulb and it is from this stem that the new plant emerges. Roots emerge from under the base of the bulb. Shoots and leaves emerge from the top of the base. This root and shoot system forms a new plant. Example of bulbs includes onion and tulip. Runners Runners are also horizontal stems growing from the parent plant, but they grow above ground. When their terminal buds touch the ground they take root and produce new plants.

Plantlets Plantlets are a plant asexually reproduced by tissue culture. A plantling is a plantlet growing in a soil mixture that has attained sufficient size and hardiness to be outplanted.

Artificial Processes of Vegetative Propagation

Gardeners have learned to use the asexual reproduction of plants to their advantage and are now using artificial methods of vegetative propagation to increase the stock of a plant. Two ways in which this is done is via cuttings and grafting. These methods are considered to be artificial as they do not occur naturally Cuttings Cuttings are the most common method of artificial vegetative propagation used as many plants can be produced from just one parent plant. In this method, cuttings may be taken mainly from the stems and roots of the parent plant. Identical offspring produced by vegetative cuttings are clones.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

17

Grafting Grafting occurs this way; Piece of stem is cut from the plant which is being propagated, that is the plant which is being grafted onto root stock. This piece of stem is inserted into the root stock and bound tightly in place. After a while, after the vascular bundles of the stem and the root stocks have been connected to each other, the stem and root stock begin to grow together. The new plant has all the features of its parent plant but its size is controlled by the root stock which it has been grafted onto. Layering Layering is a practice of propagating a plant by rooting a branch before severing it from the mother plant. Typically the branch is bent and a section that has been slit or broken on the underside is covered with soil and held in place by means of stakes or pins.

Sexual Reproduction
Happens primarily in the flower which can take place through pollination, whether selfpollination or cross-pollination.

Self- pollination
When a plant is self-pollinating, it has the ability to pollinate and fertilize itself. This means that the plant does not need another plant of the same species for pollination. Pollen is moved from the male anther of the plant to the female stigma on the same plant. Cross-Pollination Cross-Pollination requires two plants of the same species for pollination of the flowers. Without another plant close by in the same species, the plant is not fertilized. Seed and fruit development does not occur.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

18

Plant Development
Plants need material resources and energy to grow and develop. Material resources are used as reactants in chemical reactions involved in the synthesis of new body parts. Energy is needed to drive these chemical reactions forward. a.) Optimum Temperature b.) Sunlight c.) Water d.) Mineral Nutrients such as: - Nitrogen - Phosphorus - Potassium - Calcium - Magnesium - Sulfur - Micronutrients e.) Gases such as: - Oxygen - Carbon Dioxide

Basic Requirements for Plant Growth

Plants produce certain chemical substance that regulates growth and development. These plant regulators are known as hormones. The following are substances and condition required to achieve continuous and optimum growth in plants:

Plants: Their Forms and Function

19

a.) Auxins - is produced by the shoot apical meristem. - diffuses from the shoot tip where it is produce below the shoot apical meristem. - is sensitive to light and tends to move away from it. - promotes cell elongation. b.) Cytokinins -are plant regulators that work in combination with auxins to stimulate cell division and differentiation. - generally promote cell division and growth of lateral buds but inhibit the formation of lateral roots. c.) Gibberellins - are plant regulators produced in seeds and juvenile plants. - they promote seed germination in response to water availability and flowering in response to day length. - also stimulate the growth of stems and leaves, thereby promoting stem elongation.

d.) Abscisins (or Abscisic Acid) - are synthesized mainly in the root cap, mature leaves and fruits. - promote bud dormancy and affect the closing of the stomata in the leaf. - help the plant cope with environmental stresses, such as extreme cold and drought. e.) Ethylene - is a gaseous plant regulator that inhibits stem and root elongation. - it also promotes ripening of fruits, wilting of flowers and aging of leaves.

Plants: Their Forms and Function

20

References

Allen, Robert D. (1995). Biology a Critical Thinking Approach. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers

Campbell, Mitchell, Reece, Addison. (1997). Biology: Concepts and Connections. Canada. Wesley Longman Inc Campbell, Neil A. Biology (Fourth Edition). California: The Benjamin/ Cummings Publishing Company, Inc.

Grolier International Encyclopedia. Plant. Vol. 15 pp. 333-343. 1994

Hadsall, A. (2009). High School Science Today. Makati City: Diwa Learning Systems, Inc.

McMahon, Levin. (2008). Plants and Society (Fifth Edition)

Miller, K., & Levine, J. (1998). Biology the Living Science. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. Payawal, R., Alvarez, L & Coronado, A. et. al. (2012). Practical Biology: A Modular Approach 2nd edition. Manila

Radford, Albert E. Fundamentals of Plant Systematics

Essenfeld, Gontang, Moore. (2004). Biology. Adison-Wesley Publishing Company