HYDRO POWER

Power from force of moving water Process of extracting ores by use of water waves is called hushing A falling water column with sufficient head is used to generate compressed air & in turn power Power = Hydraulic power = Q g h (for water dropping from height i.e. PE) =

(for moving water i.e. KE)

Hydro electricity - electricity produced by hydropower i.e. power of falling water Accounts for 20% of world electricity & 88% of renewable power till 2006 Rarely a hydro power station operates at its full capacity Capacity Factor - ratio of annual average power produced to its installed capacity Hydropower also called as white coal Hoover dam - built in 1928 , generated 1345 MW , largest hydro electric power plant in 1936 Grand Coulee dam - built in 1948 , generate 6809 MW Itaipu dam - built in 1984 , produced 14000 MW Three gorges dam - built in 2008 , generate 22500 MW Methods of generating hydro electricity Conventional makes use of dam PE of dammed water is used to rotate turbine blades which in turn makes generator to produce electricity

Pumped storage used to meet high peak demands by moving water b/w reservoirs at different elevations used in large scale grid system Run off the river

has small or no reservoir running water from river is directly used to produce power without any storage Tidal power makes use of tides in ocean Classification of Hydroelectricity facilities Large above 25 MW (as per GOI) Three Gorges Dam at 22.5 GW Itaipu Dam at 14 GW Guri Dam at 10.2 GW Small 20 to 25 MW (as per GOI) Juthed & Titang small hydro power located in Chamba, HP Total installed capacity of small hydro power in India is 2953 MW from 801 projects till 31/1/2011 serve as low cost renewable energy system useful for supplying power to small industries & consumers Mini 10 to 20 MW (as per GOI) Micro upto 10 MW capacity (as per GOI) Pico upto 5 kW Related Equipments Penstock enclosed pipes that supplies water to turbine in hydropower projects Turbines rotary engine that takes energy from moving water 2 types a) reaction turbine b) impulse turbine Reaction Turbine water pressure head acts on turbine blades & produce work involves change in pressure must be encased Newton's third law describes transfer of energy pressure drops occur both at fixed & moving heads used in low & medium head application Impulse Turbine change velocity of water jet due to change in direction momentum changes which causes force in turbine no change in water pressure occur Newton's second law applies for transfer of energy used in high head applications

 Advantages of Hydro power economical less CO2 emission reservoirs can be used for other purpose also Disadvantages of Hydropower eco system damage and loss of land change in water levels change in water course emission of methane from reservoirs due to anaerobic decay of plant Major hydro power producers of world (year 2009) Country China Canada Brazil US Russia Norway India Venezuela Japan Sweden Annual hydro production (TWh)
652.05 369.5 363.8 250.6 167.0 140.5 115.6 85.96 69.2 65.5

Installed capacity (GW)

196.79 88.974 69.080 79.511 45.000 27.528 33.600 14.622 27.229 16.209

Hydropower and India

Union minister of power - Mr. Shushil Kumar Shinde Union minister of new & renewable energy - Mr Farqoo Abdulla

 List of Dams in India

Andhra Pradesh

Dowleswaram Barrage on the Godavari River in the East Godavari district Joorala Reservoir on the Krishna River Nagarjuna Sagar Dam on the Krishna River in the [Nalgonda district] Osman Sagar Reservoir on the [Musi River] Nizam Sagar Reservoir on the Manjira River in the [Nizamabad district] Prakasham Barrage on the Krishna River Sriram Sagar Reservoir Reservoir on the Godavari River Srisailam Dam on the Krishna River in the Kurnool district Rajolibanda Dam Telugu Ganga Polavaram Project on Godavari River Koil Sagar Lower Maneru Reservoir on the canal of Sriramsagar Project(SRSP) in '''Karimnagar''' District Himayath Sagar Reservoir Dindi Reservoir Somasila Gandipalem Reservoir Tatipudi Reservoir Inchampalli on the river Godavari and an inter state project Andhra pradesh, Maharastra, Chattisghad Pulichintala on the river Krishna in Guntur district Ellammpalli Singur Dam Dummagudem Sunkesula Musi Reservoir pothireddy padunear kund Ramagundam Dam on the river Godavari in [[Karimnagar District] Pranahita Chevella on the river Godavari in Adilabad District Jeri Dam Brmham sagar Polavaram,wG Handri-neeva Mylavaram Dam Koil sagar Dam PABR Dam MPR Dam

Chhatisgarh

gangrel Dam Hasdeo Bango Dam sondur Dam Dudhawa Dam

Gujarat

Dantiwada Dam on Banas River in Banaskantha district Dharoi Dam on Sabarmati River near Dharoi Sukhi Dam on Sukhi River Sardar Sarovar Dam or Narmada Dam on the Narmada River Ukai Dam near Surat on Tapi river Kakrapar Dam near Surat on Tapi river Vasana Berej on Sabarmati River near Ahmedabad

Himachal Pradesh + Punjab

Baira siul on Ravi River near Chamba Bhakra Nangal Dam on Satluj River near the border between Punjab and Himachal Pradesh Chamera Dam on Ravi River in the Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh Nathpa Dam on Sutlej River in the Kinnaur and Shimla districts of Himachal Pradesh Pong Dam Reservoir on Beas River in the Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh Pandoh Dam on Beas River in the Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh Ranjeet Sagar Dam on Raavi River in the Gurdaspur District of Punjab

Jammu & Kashmir

Baglihar Dam on the Chenab River in the southern Doda district Dulhasti Hydroelectric Project on the Chenab River in the Kishtwar district Salal Hydroelectric Project on the Chenab River Kirthai Dam on Chenab River Sawalkot Dam on Chenab River Pakal-Dul Dam on Chenab River Uri Hydroelectric Project - I & II on the Jhelum River near Uri in the Baramula district Nimoo Bazgo Project at village Alchi Dumkhar Hydroelectric Dam Project on Leh- Khalsi Batalik road Chutak on River Suru Kishanganga Hydropower project on the Kishanganga River Bursar Dam on Marusudar River in Doda District

Jharkhand

Maithon Dam on Barakar River at Dhanbad Chandil Dam on Swarnarekha River near Chandil Palna Dam on Swarnarekha River near Chandil Konar Dam on Konar River Panchet on Damodar River Garga dam on Garga river Tilaiya Dam on Barakar River

Karnataka

Hidkal Jalashaya (Dam) across Ghataprabha

Dhupdal Reservoir across Ghataprabha Krishna Raja Sagara Dam on Kaveri River Alamatti Dam across Krishna Basava Sagara Dam Lingsugur Linganamakki Dam on Sharavathi River Supa Dam Kodasalli Dam Kadra Dam Tunga Bhadra Dam Kabini Reservoir Beechanahalli, H.D Kote, Mysore Dist Harangi Reservoir Kushalnagar, Kodagu Dist Narayanpur Dam downstream of Alamatti Dam Garura Dam Krishna River Hemavathi Reservoir (Gorur Dam), Hassan Dist Naviltheertha Dam across Malaprabha Nethravathi river Linganmakki Dam across Sharavathi River Gajanuru Dam across Tunga river Lakkavali Dam across Bhadra river Manchinabeli Dam Marconhalli Dam, Kunigal, Tumkur Dist Thippagondanahalli Reservoir Kanva Reservoir Vani Vilasa Sagara, (Marikanive), Hiriyur, Chitradurga Dist Kempu Hole Dam B.R.P Dam Chikahole Dam, Chamarajnagar Suvarnawathi Dam, Chamarajnagar Taraka Reservoir, H.D.Kote, Mysore Dist Nugu Dam, Beerwal, H.D.Kote, Mysore Dist Chakra Dam on the Chakra river

Kerala

Banasura Sagar Dam on Kabini River in the Wayanad District Malampuzha Dam on Malampuzha river in the Palakkad District Peechi Dam Vazhani dam Mangalam Dam Mattupetty Dam Kundala dam in Munnar Parambikulam Dam on the Parambikulam River Pothundi Dam Walayar Dam on the Walayar River Idukki arch dam on the Periyar River Idamalayar Dam Mullaperiyar Dam on the Periyar River Pazhassi Dam on Iritty River in the Kannur District Malankara Dam Neyyar Dam Siruvani Dam

Meenkara Dam Kanjhirapuzha Chulliyar Dam Jeevana dam Asurankundu Dam thenmala Dam

Madhya Pradesh

Bansagar Dam on Son River in the Shahdol District Bargi Dam on Narmada River in the Jabalpur District Gandhi Sagar Dam on Chambal River in the Mandsaur District Indirasagar on Narmada River in the Khandwa District Madikheda Dam on Sindh River in the Shivpuri District Rajghat Dam on Betwa River in the Ashoknagar District Tawa Reservoir on Tawa River in the Hoshangabad District tigra dam on sank river in the gwalior district Barna Dam halali dam kolar dam kerwa dam Omkareshwar Dam on narmada tippa jhariya Dam omkareshwar project on narmada river in khargon district

Maharashtra
Main article: Dams in Maharashtra

Mula Dam, Rahuri - River Mula Akkalpada Dam - River Panjra(Dhule)- [In progress] Kanehar Dam - Venna River - [SATARA] Koyna Dam - Koyna River Jayakwadi dam on River Godavari Ujani - River Bhima Mulshi Dam - River Mula Khadakwasla - River Mutha Kolkewadi Dam Panshet - Ambi River Radhanagari Bhatsa Tansa Vaitarna Pawna - River Pawna Wilson Dam - River Pravara Gangapur Dam, Nashik Dhom Dam-Krishna River[Wai]SATARA Ozarkhed Dam, Nashik Karanjwan Dam

Nandur Madhmeshwar Dam Gose dam - bhandara dist Yeldari Dam on Purna River Near Parbhani Siddheshwar Dam on Purna River Near Parbhani Manjara On River Manjara Near Latur Girna Dam On River Girna Chaskaman On River Bhima Near Rajgurunagar Pravara On River Godavari Isapur Dam On River Painganga River Yedgaon Dam on river kukadi Varasgaon on river Mose Temghar on river Mutha Pavnanagar on Pavna River

Orissa

Balimela Reservoir Hirakud Dam on Mahanadi River near Sambalpur Jalaput on Machkund River near Jaypore, Koraput District Indravati Dam on river Indravati in kalahandi district Salia dam on river Kharkhari in Ganjam District SATKOSIA (ANGUL)

Rajasthan

Jawai Dam Jawahar Sagar Dam Kota Barrage Rana Pratap Sagar dam on Chambal River Sukali dam on Sukali river at Selvada Meja Dam on Kothari river Morel Dam on Morel River Pong Dam on Vyas River Mahi Bajaj Sagar Dam on Mahi River Bisalpur Dam Project on Banas River Gambhiri Dam on Gambhiri River at Aranoda village,Tehsil-Nimbahera, Dist. chittorgarh ((meja dam )) in Bhilwara District

Sikkim

Teesta-V Dam Rangit Dam

Tamil Nadu

Aliyar Reservoir Amaravathi Reservoir Amaravathi Dam Anaikuttam Reservoir

Anainaduvu Reservoir Bhavanisagar Reservoir Chittar Reservoir Chittar Reservoir-1 Chittar Reservoir-2 Gatana Reservoir Golwarpatti Reservoir Gomukhinadhi Reservoir Gundar Reservoir Gunderippalam Reservoir Kallanai Anaicut Kariakoil Reservoir Karupppanadhi Reservoir Kelavarapalli Reservoir Kesarigulihalla Reservoir Kodaganar Reservoir Kodiveri Dam Kovilar Reservoir Krishnagiri Reservoir Kullursandai Reservoir Kutharaiyar Reservoir Lower Nirar Reservoir Manimukthanadhi Reservoir Manimuthar Reservoir Manjalar Reservoir Marudhanadhi Reservoir Mettur Dam on Kaveri River Nagavathi Reservoir Noyyal Oarathuppalayam Palar Porandalar Reservoir Pambar Reservoir Parappalar Reservoir Pechiparai Reservoir Periyar Reservoir (Pilavukkal Project) Perumpallam Reservoir Perunchani Reservoir Peruvaripallam Ponnaniar Reservoir Ramanadhi Reservoir Sathanur Reservoir Sholayar Reservoir Siddhamalli Reservoir Soolagiri chinnar Reservoir Stanley Reservoir Thambalahalli Reservoir Thirumurthi Reservoir Thoppaiyar Reservoir Thunakadavu Reservoir Uppar Reservoir Upper Nirar Wier Vaigai Dam

Vaigai Reservoir Vaniyar Reservoir Varadamanadhi Reservoir Varattupallam Reservoir Vattamalaikarai Odai Reservoir Vembakottai Reservoir Vidur Reservoir Willingdon Reservoir Karaiyar Reservoir

Uttar Pradesh

Parichha Dam on Betwa River in Jhansi District Matatila Dam on Betwa River in Lalitpur District Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar on Rihand River in Sonbhadra Jamni Dam on Jamni River in Lalitpur District Ramganga Dam on Ramganga River in Kalagarh Rohini Dam on Rohini River in Lalitpur District Shahzad Dam on Shahzad River in Lalitpur District Govind Sagar Dam on Shahzad River in Lalitpur District Sajnam Dam on Sajnam River in Lalitpur District Sukma-Dukma Dam a below water construction on Betwa River near Jhansi District Jirgo reservoir on Jirgo river in mirzapurUttar Pradesh Musa Kahand on Karmnasa river]] in chaundali district Uttar Pradesh Chittaurgarh dam Balrampur Dist.UP

Uttarakhand

Tehri Dam on Bhagirathi River Dhauliganga dam Vishnuprayag Lakhwar Tanakpur Dam Haripura dam BAUR DAM Tumaria dam Nanaksager dam BEGUL DAM Birahi Ganga Hydro Power Ltd

West Bengal

Farakka Barrage on Ganges River

Nagarjuna Sagar Dam

Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (Telugu: ) is the world's largest masonry dam built across
Krishna River in Nagarjuna Sagar, Nalgonda District of Andhra Pradesh, India, between 1955 and

1967. The dam contains the Nagarjuna Sagar reservoir with a capacity of up to 11,472 million cubic metres. The dam is 490 ft (150 m). tall and 1.6 km long with 26 gates which are 42 ft (13 m). wide and 45 ft (14 m). tall.[2] Nagarjuna Sagar was the earliest in the series of large infrastructure projects initiated for the Green Revolution in India; it also is one of the earliest multi-purpose irrigation and hydro-electric projects in India. The dam provides irrigation water to the Nalgonda District, Prakasam District, Khammam District and Guntur District and electric power to the national grid.

o o o o o o

Catchment Area : 215000 km (83012 sq mi) Masonry dam Spillway of dam : 471 m Non-over flow dam : 979 m Length of Masonry dam : 1450 m Maximum height : 125 m Earth dam Total Length of Earth dam : 3414 m Maximum height : 28 m

Sardar Sarovar Dam

The Sardar Sarovar Dam is a dam on the Narmada River near Navagam, Gujarat, India. The dam is the largest dam in and part of the Narmada Valley Project, a large hydraulic engineering project involving the construction of a series of large irrigation and hydroelectric multi purpose dams on the Narmada River. The project took form in 1979 as part of a development scheme to increase irrigation and produce hydroelectricity. Of the thirty large dams planned on river Narmada, Sardar Sarovar Dam (SSD) is the largest structure to be built. It has a proposed final height of 136.5 m (448 ft). The project will irrigate more than 18,000 km2 (6,900 sq mi), most of it in drought prone areas of Kutch and Saurashtra. Critics maintain that its negative environmental impacts outweigh its benefits. It has created discord between its government planners and the citizens group Narmada Bachao Andolan.

Bhakra Dam
Bhakra Dam is a concrete gravity dam across the Sutlej River, and is near the border between Punjab and Himachal Pradesh in northern India. The dam, located at a gorge near the (now submerged) upstream Bhakra village in Bilaspur district of Himachal Pradesh, is Asia's second highest at 225.55 m (740 ft) high next to the 261m Tehri Dam also in India. The length of the dam (measured from the road above it) is 518.25 m; it is 9.1 m broad. Its reservoir, known as the "Gobind Sagar", stores up to 9340 million cu m of water, enough to drain the whole of Chandigarh, parts of Haryana, Punjab

and Delhi. The 90 km long reservoir created by the Bhakra Dam is spread over an area of 168.35 km2. In terms of storage of water, it withholds the second largest reservoir in India, the first being Indira Sagar dam in Madhya Pradesh with capacity of 12.22 billion cu m. Described as 'New Temple of Resurgent India' by Jawaharlal Nehru,[1] the first prime minister of India, the dam attracts tourists from all over India. Nangal dam is another dam downstream of Bhakra dam. Sometimes both the dams together are called Bhakra-Nangal dam though they are two separate dams.

Idukki Dam
The Idukki Dam, located in Kerala, India, is currently the 14th largest arch dam in Asia, at 555 feet in height. The dam stands between the two mountains - Kuravanmala (839 feet) and Kurathimala (925 feet). It was constructed and is owned by the Kerala State Electricity Board. It is built on the Periyar River, in the ravine between the Kuravan and Kurathi Hills in Kerala, India. At 167.68 metres, it is one of the highest arch dams in Asia. It started generating power on 4 October 1975.[1] Technically, the dam type is a concrete double, curvature parabolic, thin arc dam.[2] This dam was constructed along with two other dams at Cheruthony and Kulamavu. Together, the three dams have created an artificial lake that is 60 km wide. The stored water is used to produce electricity at the Moolamattom Power house, which is located inside nearby rocky caves. The Government of Canada aided in the building of the dam with long term loans and grants.[1]

Hirakud Dam
Hirakud Dam (Oriya: ) is built across the Mahanadi River, about 15 km from Sambalpur in the state of Orissa in India. Built in 1957, the dam is one of the world's longest earthen dam.[1] Behind the dam extends a lake, Hirakud Reservoir, 55 km long. Hirakud Dam is one of the longest dams in the world, about 16 mi (26 km) in length. It is one of the first major multipurpose river valley project started after India's independence. The name of the dam is mostly mis-pronounced in North India as Hirakund which is actually Hirakud.

Rana Pratap Sagar Dam

The Rana Pratap Sagar Dam is a gravity masonry dam of 53.8 metres (177 ft) height built on the Chambal River at Rawatbhata in Rajasthan in India. It is part of integrated scheme of a cascade development of the river involving four projects starting with the Gandhi Sagar Dam in the upstream reach (48 kilometres (30 mi) upstream) in Madhya Pradesh and the Jawahar Sagar Dam on the downstream (28 kilometres (17 mi) downstream) with a terminal structure of the Kota Barrage (28 kilometres (17 mi) further downstream) in Rajasthan for irrigation.[1][2][3]

The direct benefit from the dam is hydropower generation of 172 MW (with four units of 43 MW capacity each) at the dam toe powerhouse adjoining the spillway, with releases received from the Gandhi Sagar Dam and the additional storage created at the dam by the intercepted catchment area. The estimated generation potential of 473.0 GWh of generation has been exceeded in most years since its commissioning. The Power Station was officially declared open on 9 February 1970 by Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India. The dam and power plant are named after the warrior Maharaja Rana Pratap of Rajasthan.[4][3]

Farakka Barrage
Farakka Barrage is a barrage across the Ganges River, located in the Indian state of West Bengal, roughly 16.5 kilometres (10.3 mi) from the border with Bangladesh near Chapai Nawabganj District. Construction was started in 1961 and completed in 1975. Operations began on April 21, 1975. The barrage is about 2,240 metres (7,350 ft) long. The feeder canal from the barrage to the Bhagirathi-Hooghly River is about 25 miles (40 km) long.[1]
Types of dams Arch dams In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock.[27] The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constantradius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept a constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels are taken care of by varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam is a constant-angle arch dam. A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream. The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Qubec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the

hollow gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.
Gravity dams

In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earths gravity pulling down on the weight of the dam itself. [28] In a gravity dam, stability is secured by making it of such a size and shape that it will resist overturning, sliding and crushing at the toe. The dam will not overturn provided that the moment around the turning point, caused by the water pressure, is smaller than the moment caused by the weight of the dam[clarification needed]. This is the case if the resultant force of water pressure and weight falls within the base of the dam. However, in order to prevent tensile stress at the upstream face and excessive compressive stress at the downstream face, the dam cross section is usually designed so that the resultant falls within the middle at all elevations of the cross section (the core). For this type of dam, impervious foundations with high bearing strength are essential. When situated on a suitable site, gravity dams can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built on a carefully studied foundation, the gravity dam probably represents the best developed example of dam building. Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams are being built in some instances where an arch dam would have been more economical. Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. This is called "zoning". The core of the dam is zoned depending on the availability of locally available materials, foundation conditions and the material attributes. The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Gravity dams can also be classified as "overflow" (spillway) and "non-overflow." Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Itaipu Dam is a hollow gravity dam.

Buttress dam
A buttress dam or hollow dam is a dam with a solid, water-tight upstream side that is supported at intervals on the downstream side by a series of buttresses or supports.[1] The dam wall may be flat or curved. Most buttress dams are made of reinforced concrete and are heavy, pushing the dam into the ground. Water pushes against the dam, but the buttresses are inflexible and prevent the dam from falling over.[2] Buttress dams were originally built to retain water for irrigation or mining in areas of scarce or expensive resources but cheap labour. A buttress dam is a good choice in wide valleys where solid rock is rare.[3] As designs have become more sophisticated, the virtues and weaknesses of the buttress type dams have become apparent. The Romans were the first to use buttresses to increase the stability of a dam wall.[4]

Cofferdam
A cofferdam (also called a coffer[1]) is a temporary enclosure built within, or in pairs across, a body of water and constructed to allow the enclosed area to be pumped out, creating a dry work environment for the major work to proceed. Enclosed coffers are commonly used for construction and repair of Oil platforms, bridge piers and other support structures built within or over water. These cofferdams are usually welded steel structures, with components consisting of sheet piles, wales, and cross braces. Such structures are typically dismantled after the ultimate work is completed. For dam construction, two cofferdams are usually built, one upstream and one downstream of the proposed dam, after an alternative diversion tunnel or channel has been provided for the river flow to bypass the dam foundation area. These cofferdams are typically a conventional embankment dam of both earth- and rock-fill, but concrete or some sheet piling also may be used. Typically, upon completion of the dam and associated structures, the downstream coffer is removed and the upstream coffer is flooded as the diversion is closed and the reservoir begins to fill. Dependent upon the the geography of a dam site, in some applications, a "U"-shaped cofferdam is used in the construction one half of a dam. When complete, the cofferdam is removed and a similar one is created on the opposite side of the river for the construction of the dam's other half. The cofferdam is also used on occasion in the shipbuilding and ship repair industry, when it is not practical to put a ship in drydock for repair or alteration. An example of such an application is certain ship lengthening operations. In some cases a ship is actually cut in two while still in the water, and a new section of ship is floated in to lengthen the ship. Torch cutting of the hull is done inside a cofferdam attached directly to the hull of the ship, and is then detached before the hull sections are floated apart. The cofferdam is later replaced while the hull sections are welded together again. As expensive as this may be to accomplish, use of a drydock may be even more expensive. See also caisson.

Turbine
A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the blades react to the flow, so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and water wheels. Gas, steam, and water turbines usually have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the working fluid. Credit for invention of the steam turbine is given both to the British engineer Sir Charles Parsons (18541931), for invention of the reaction turbine and to Swedish engineer Gustaf de Laval (18451913), for invention of the impulse turbine. Modern steam turbines frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the same unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the blade root to its periphery.

A device similar to a turbine but operating in reverse, i.e., driven, is a compressor or pump. The axial compressor in many gas turbine engines is a common example. Here again, both reaction and impulse are employed and again, in modern axial compressors, the degree of reaction and impulse typically vary from the blade root to its periphery. Claude Burdin coined the term from the Latin turbo, or vortex, during an 1828 engineering competition. Benoit Fourneyron, a student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine.

Theory of operation
A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy (velocity head). The fluid may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles are employed by turbines to collect this energy:
Impulse turbines These turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid or gas jet. The resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is no pressure change of the fluid or gas in the turbine blades (the moving blades), as in the case of a steam or gas turbine, all the pressure drop takes place in the stationary blades (the nozzles).

Before reaching the turbine, the fluid's pressure head is changed to velocity head by accelerating the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels and de Laval turbines use this process exclusively. Impulse turbines do not require a pressure casement around the rotor since the fluid jet is created by the nozzle prior to reaching the blading on the rotor. Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
Reaction turbines These turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid's pressure or mass. The pressure of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow (such as with wind turbines). The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for water turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple turbine stages are usually used to harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.

In the case of steam turbines, such as would be used for marine applications or for land-based electricity generation, a Parsons type reaction turbine would require approximately double the number of blade rows as a de Laval type impulse turbine, for the same degree of thermal energy conversion. Whilst this makes the Parsons turbine much longer and heavier, the overall efficiency of a reaction turbine is slightly higher than the equivalent impulse turbine for the same thermal energy conversion.

Steam turbines and later, gas turbines developed continually during the 20th Century, continue to do so and in practice, modern turbine designs use both reaction and impulse concepts to varying degrees whenever possible. Wind turbines use an airfoil to generate lift from the moving fluid and impart it to the rotor (this is a form of reaction). Wind turbines also gain some energy from the impulse of the wind, by deflecting it at an angle. Crossflow turbines are designed as an impulse machine, with a nozzle, but in low head applications maintain some efficiency through reaction, like a traditional water wheel. Turbines with multiple stages may utilize either reaction or impulse blading at high pressure. Steam Turbines were traditionally more impulse but continue to move towards reaction designs similar to those used in Gas Turbines. At low pressure the operating fluid medium expands in volume for small reductions in pressure. Under these conditions (termed Low Pressure Turbines) blading becomes strictly a reaction type design with the base of the blade solely impulse. The reason is due to the effect of the rotation speed for each blade. As the volume increases, the blade height increases, and the base of the blade spins at a slower speed relative to the tip. This change in speed forces a designer to change from impulse at the base, to a high reaction style tip. Classical turbine design methods were developed in the mid 19th century. Vector analysis related the fluid flow with turbine shape and rotation. Graphical calculation methods were used at first. Formulae for the basic dimensions of turbine parts are well documented and a highly efficient machine can be reliably designed for any fluid flow condition. Some of the calculations are empirical or 'rule of thumb' formulae, and others are based on classical mechanics. As with most engineering calculations, simplifying assumptions were made. Velocity triangles can be used to calculate the basic performance of a turbine stage. Gas exits the stationary turbine nozzle guide vanes at absolute velocity Va1. The rotor rotates at velocity U. Relative to the rotor, the velocity of the gas as it impinges on the rotor entrance is Vr1. The gas is turned by the rotor and exits, relative to the rotor, at velocity Vr2. However, in absolute terms the rotor exit velocity is Va2. The velocity triangles are constructed using these various velocity vectors. Velocity triangles can be constructed at any section through the blading (for example: hub , tip, midsection and so on) but are usually shown at the mean stage radius. Mean performance for the stage can be calculated from the velocity triangles, at this radius, using the Euler equation:

Hence:

where:
specific enthalpy drop across stage turbine entry total (or stagnation) temperature turbine rotor peripheral velocity

change in whirl velocity

The turbine pressure ratio is a function of

and the turbine efficiency.

Modern turbine design carries the calculations further. Computational fluid dynamics dispenses with many of the simplifying assumptions used to derive classical formulas and computer software facilitates optimization. These tools have led to steady improvements in turbine design over the last forty years. The primary numerical classification of a turbine is its specific speed. This number describes the speed of the turbine at its maximum efficiency with respect to the power and flow rate. The specific speed is derived to be independent of turbine size. Given the fluid flow conditions and the desired shaft output speed, the specific speed can be calculated and an appropriate turbine design selected. The specific speed, along with some fundamental formulas can be used to reliably scale an existing design of known performance to a new size with corresponding performance. Off-design performance is normally displayed as a turbine map or characteristic.

Francis turbine
The Francis turbine is a type of water turbine that was developed by James B. Francis in Lowell, Massachusetts.[1] It is an inward-flow reaction turbine that combines radial and axial flow concepts. Francis turbines are the most common water turbine in use today. They operate in a head range of ten meters to six hundred and fifty meters and are primarily used for electrical power production. The power output generally ranges from 10 to 750 megawatts, though mini-hydro installations may be lower. Runner diameters are between 1 and 10 meters. The speed range of the turbine is from 83 to 1000 rpm. Medium size and larger Francis turbines are most often arranged with a vertical shaft. Vertical shaft may also be used for small size turbines, but normally they have horizontal shaft. The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid changes pressure as it moves through the turbine, giving up its energy. A casement is needed to contain the water flow. The turbine is located between the high-pressure water source and the low-pressure water exit, usually at the base of a dam. The inlet is spiral shaped. Guide vanes direct the water tangentially to the turbine wheel, known as a runner. This radial flow acts on the runner's vanes, causing the runner to spin. The guide vanes (or wicket gate) may be adjustable to allow efficient turbine operation for a range of water flow conditions. As the water moves through the runner, its spinning radius decreases, further acting on the runner. For an analogy, imagine swinging a ball on a string around in a circle; if the string is pulled short, the ball spins faster due to the conservation of angular momentum. This

property, in addition to the water's pressure, helps Francis and other inward-flow turbines harness water energy efficiently.

Kaplan turbine
The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type water turbine which has adjustable blades. It was developed in 1913 by the Austrian professor Viktor Kaplan, who combined automatically adjusted propeller blades with automatically adjusted wicket gates to achieve efficiency over a wide range of flow and water level. The Kaplan turbine was an evolution of the Francis turbine. Its invention allowed efficient power production in low-head applications that was not possible with Francis turbines. The head ranges from 10-70 meters and the output from 5 to 120 MW. Runner diameters are between 2 and 8 meters. The range of the turbine is from 79 to 429 rpm. Kaplan turbines are now widely used throughout the world in high-flow, low-head power production The Kaplan turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. The design combines radial and axial features. The inlet is a scroll-shaped tube that wraps around the turbine's wicket gate. Water is directed tangentially through the wicket gate and spirals on to a propeller shaped runner, causing it to spin. The outlet is a specially shaped draft tube that helps decelerate the water and recover kinetic energy. The turbine does not need to be at the lowest point of water flow as long as the draft tube remains full of water. A higher turbine location, however, increases the suction that is imparted on the turbine blades by the draft tube. The resulting pressure drop may lead to cavitation. Variable geometry of the wicket gate and turbine blades allow efficient operation for a range of flow conditions. Kaplan turbine efficiencies are typically over 90%, but may be lower in very low head applications. Current areas of research include CFD driven efficiency improvements and new designs that raise survival rates of fish passing through. Because the propeller blades are rotated by high-pressure hydraulic oil, a critical element of Kaplan design is to maintain a positive seal to prevent emission of oil into the waterway. Discharge of oil into rivers is not permitted.

Pelton wheel
The Pelton wheel is an impulse turbine which is among the most efficient types of water turbines. It was invented by Lester Allan Pelton in the 1870s. The Pelton wheel extracts energy from the impulse (momentum) of moving water, as opposed to its weight like traditional overshot water wheel.

Although many variations of impulse turbines existed prior to Pelton's design, they were less efficient than Pelton's design; the water leaving these wheels typically still had high speed, and carried away much of the energy. Pelton's paddle geometry was designed so that when the rim runs at the speed of the water jet, the water leaves the wheel with very little speed, extracting almost all of its energy, and allowing for a very efficient turbine.

The water flows along the tangent to the path of the runner. Nozzles direct forceful streams of water against a series of spoon-shaped buckets mounted around the edge of a wheel. As water flows into the bucket, the direction of the water velocity changes to follow the contour of the bucket. When the water-jet contacts the bucket, the water exerts pressure on the bucket and the water is decelerated as it does a "u-turn" and flows out the other side of the bucket at low velocity. In the process, the water's momentum is transferred to the turbine. This "impulse" does work on the turbine. For maximum power and efficiency, the turbine system is designed such that the water-jet velocity is twice the velocity of the bucket. A very small percentage of the water's original kinetic energy will still remain in the water; however, this allows the bucket to be emptied at the same rate it is filled, (see conservation of mass), thus allowing the water flow to continue uninterrupted. Often two buckets are mounted side-by-side, thus splitting the water jet in half (see photo). This balances the side-load forces on the wheel, and helps to ensure smooth, efficient momentum transfer of the fluid jet to the turbine wheel. Because water and most liquids are nearly incompressible, almost all of the available energy is extracted in the first stage of the hydraulic turbine. Therefore, Pelton wheels have only one turbine stage, unlike gas turbines that operate with compressible fluid.

The specific speed ns of a turbine dictates the turbine's shape in a way that is not related to its size. This allows a new turbine design to be scaled from an existing design of known performance. The specific speed is also the main criterion for matching a specific hydroelectric site with the correct turbine type. The formula suggests that the Pelton turbine is most suitable for applications with relatively high hydraulic head H, due to the 5/4 exponent being greater than unity, and given the characteristically low specific speed of the Pelton.[1]
Specific speed

Specific speed Ns is a quasi non-dimensional number used to classify pump impellers as to their type and proportions. In Imperial units it is defined as the speed in revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar impeller would operate if it were of such a size as to deliver one gallon per minute against one foot of hydraulic head. In metric units flow may be in l/s or m/s and head in m, and care must be taken to state the units used. Performance is defined as the ratio of the pump or turbine against a reference pump or turbine, which divides the actual performance figure to provide a unitless figure of merit. The resulting figure would more descriptively be called the "ideal-reference-device-specific performance." This resulting unitless ratio may loosely be expressed as a "speed," only because the performance of the reference ideal pump is linearly dependent on its speed, so

that the ratio of [device-performance to reference-device-performance] is also the increased speed the reference device would need to turn, in order to produce the performance, instead of its reference speed of "1 unit." Specific speed is used in engineering design where it is thought of as an index used to predict desired pump or turbine characteristics; e.g., the general shape of a pump's impeller. Often it is used to predict the type of pump or turbine required for a design flow rate and head. Once the desired specific speed is known, basic dimensions of the unit's components can be easily calculated. Several mathematical definitions of specific speed (all of them actually ideal-device-specific) have been created for different devices and applications.

Pump specific speed

Low-specific speed radial flow impellers develop hydraulic head principally through centrifugal force. Pumps of higher specific speeds develop head partly by centrifugal force and partly by axial force. An axial flow or propeller pump with a specific speed of 10,000 or greater generates its head exclusively through axial forces. Radial impellers are generally low flow/high head designs whereas axial flow impellers are high flow/low head designs. Centrifugal pump impellers have specific speed values ranging from 500 to 10,000 (English units), with radial flow pumps at 500-4000, mixed flow at 2000-8000 and axial flow pumps at 7000-20,000. Values of specific speed less than 500 are associated with positive displacement pumps. As the specific speed increases, the ratio of the impeller outlet diameter to the inlet or eye diameter decreases. This ratio becomes 1.0 for a true axial flow impeller.

where:
Ns is specific speed (unitless) n is pump rotational speed (revolutions per seconds) Q is flowrate (m/s) at the point of best efficiency H is total head (m) per stage at the point of best efficiency g is acceleration due to gravity (m/s)

Note that the units used affect the specific speed value and consistent units should be used for comparisons. Pump specific speed can be calculated using British gallons or using Metric units (m3/s or L/s and metres head), changing the values listed above.

Net suction specific speed

The net suction specific speed is mainly used to see if there will be problems with cavitation during the pump's operation on the suction side [1]. It is defined by centrifugal and axial pumps' inherent physical characteristics and operating point [2]. The net suction specific speed of a pump will define the range of operation in which a pump will experience stable operation [3] . The higher the net suction specific speed, then the smaller the range of stable operation. The envelope of stable operation is defined in terms of the best efficiency point of the pump. The net suction specific speed is defined as[4]:

where:
Nss = net suction specific speed N = rotational speed of pump in rpm Q = flow of pump in US gallons per minute NPSHR = Net positive suction head (NPSH) required in feet at pump's best efficiency point

Turbine specific speed

The specific speed value (radian/second) for a turbine is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine which would produce one unit of he specific speed of a turbine is given by the manufacturer (along with other ratings) and will always refer to the point of maximum efficiency. This allows accurate calculations to be made of the turbine's performance for a range of heads. Well-designed efficient machines typically use the following values: Impulse turbines have the lowest ns values, typically ranging from 1 to 10, a Pelton wheel is typically around 4, Francis turbines fall in the range of 10 to 100, while Kaplan turbines are at least 100 or more, all in imperial units[5].

(dimensioned parameter), n = rpm[citation needed]

where:
= angular velocity (radians per second) Hn = Net head after turbine and waterway loss (m) Q = water flow (m/s)

N = Wheel speed (rpm)

P = Power (kW) H = Water head (m)

Pump
A pump is a device used to move fluids, such as liquids, gases or slurries. A pump displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action. Pumps fall into three major groups: direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps.[1] Their names describe the method for moving a fluid.

Types
Positive displacement pump

A positive displacement pump causes a fluid to move trapping a fixed amount of it then forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe. Some positive displacement pumps work using an expanding cavity on the suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is constant given each cycle of operation.
[edit] Positive displacement pump behavior and safety

Positive displacement pumps, unlike centrifugal or roto-dynamic pumps, will produce the same flow at a given speed (RPM) no matter what the discharge pressure. Thus, positive displacement pumps are "constant flow machines". A positive displacement pump must not be operated against a closed valve on the discharge side of the pump, because it has no shut-off head like centrifugal pumps. A positive displacement pump operating against a closed discharge valve will continue to produce flow and the pressure in the discharge line will increase, until the line bursts or the pump is severely damaged, or both. A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the positive displacement pump is therefore necessary. The relief valve can be internal or external. The pump manufacturer normally has the option to supply internal relief or safety valves. The internal valve should in general only be used as a safety precaution, an external relief valve installed in the discharge line with a return line back to the suction line or supply tank is recommended.
Positive displacement types

A positive displacement pump can be further classified according to the mechanism used to move the fluid:

Rotary-type positive displacement: internal gear, screw, shuttle block, flexible vane or sliding vane, circumferential piston, helical twisted roots (e.g. the Wendelkolben pump) or liquid ring vacuum pumps. Reciprocating-type positive displacement: piston or diaphragm pumps. Linear-type positive displacement: Rope pumps and chain pumps

Positive displacement rotary pumps are pumps that move fluid using the principles of rotation. The vacuum created by the rotation of the pump captures and draws in the liquid. Advantages: Rotary pumps are very efficient because they naturally remove air from the lines, eliminating the need to bleed the air from the lines manually. Drawbacks: Positive displacement rotary pumps also have their weaknesses. Because of the nature of the pump, the clearance between the rotating pump and the outer edge must be very close, requiring that the pumps rotate at a slow, steady speed. If rotary pumps are operated at high speeds, the fluids will cause erosion. Rotary pumps that experience such erosion eventually show signs of enlarged clearances, which allow liquid to slip through and reduce the efficiency of the pump.

Reciprocating positive displacement pumps

Reciprocating pumps are those which cause the fluid to move using one or more oscillating pistons, plungers or membranes (diaphragms). Reciprocating-type pumps require a system of suction and discharge valves to ensure that the fluid moves in a positive direction. Pumps in this category range from having "simplex" one cylinder, to in some cases "quad" four cylinders or more. Most reciprocating-type pumps are "duplex" (two) or "triplex" (three) cylinder. Furthermore, they can be either "single acting" independent suction and discharge strokes or "double acting" suction and discharge in both directions. The pumps can be powered by air, steam or through a belt drive from an engine or motor. This type of pump was used extensively in the early days of steam propulsion (19th century) as boiler feed water pumps. Reciprocating pumps are now typically used for pumping highly viscous fluids including concrete and heavy oils, and special applications demanding low flow rates against high resistance. These positive displacement pumps have an expanding cavity on the suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pumps as the cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is constant given each cycle of operation. Typical reciprocating pumps are:

plunger pumps - a reciprocating plunger pushes the fluid through one or two open valves, closed by suction on the way back. diaphragm pumps - similar to plunger pumps, where the plunger pressurizes hydraulic oil which is used to flex a diaphragm in the pumping cylinder. Diaphragm valves are used to pump hazardous and toxic fluids. piston displacement pumps - usually simple devices for pumping small amounts of liquid or gel manually. An example is the common hand soap pump.

Centrifugal pump

A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the pressure and flow rate of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used to move liquids through a piping system. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward or axially into a diffuser or volute chamber, from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps are typically used for large discharge through smaller heads. Centrifugal pumps are most often associated with the radial flow type. However, the term "centrifugal pump" can be used to describe all impeller type rotodynamic pumps[4] including the radial, axial and mixed flow variations.
[edit] Radial flow pumps

Often simply referred to as centrifugal pumps. The fluid enters along the axial plane, is accelerated by the impeller and exits at right angles to the shaft (radially). Radial flow pumps operate at higher pressures and lower flow rates than axial and mixed flow pumps.