BIOTECHNOLOGY-AN OVERVIEW Biotechnology is a field of technology of growing importance.

Biotechnology concerns living organisms such as plants, animals, seeds and microorganisms as well as biological material such as enzymes, proteins and their use for the betterment of the humankind and environment. Biotechnology involves human intervention to the natural biological processes by way of technical contribution of human-invented techniques to natural biological processes. The inventions of biotechnology are called biotechnological inventions. Any invention which is a product consisting of or containing biological material or process by means of which biological material is produced, processed or used. Biotechnological inventions fall into three categories: process for the creation or modification of living organisms and biological material, the results of such process, and the use of such results. Biotechnological inventions may have a very significant effect on our future, in particular in the fields of medicine, food, agriculture, energy and protection of the environment. Biotechnology is one of the oldest technologies. The traditional biotechnology has been the largest industrial activity on the earth since a very long time and people have relied on it to obtain their food, clothing, and many other natural products by the use of bacteria, yeast and fungi to make for example bread, beer, and cheese by means of conventional fermentation processes. Biotechnology is a general term describing the direct modification of biological process. This may be accomplished by introducing new gene into organisms, breeding organisms to form new variants or treating organisms with specific compounds. Biotechnology-derived products have the potential to positively change our society, from improving health care and increasing agriculture products to producing a cleaner environment. Modern biotechnology begins with the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953 and the identification of DNA as the genetic material in all life-forms from bacteria to plants to humans. Armed with a better understanding how organisms work we are now able to engineer life to suit our needs. Modern biotechnology makes use of genetic engineering to adapt the properties of bacteria, plants and animals by directly intervening in the information carrier that is the basis for all the properties of each organism: DNA. Recombinant DNA technology has had a tremendous impact on human health through the identification of thousands of genes involved in human genetic disease condition. The ultimate record of DNA technology on humans was produced by the Human Genome Project, an international effort that begun in 1990. A primary goal of Human Genome Project was to identify all genes-the genome-contained in the DNA of human cell. If one now is able to express a natural gene in simple bacteria such as Escheria coli (E.coli), a bacterium living in intestine that has become the model organism for much of biotechnology, one can have this bacterium make a lot of the protein coded for by the gene, regardless its source. With the advent of molecular cellular biology, powerful tools and means to play with natural DNA have become available. These techniques are being improved at a rapid pace making recombinant DNA technology almost a new avatar of biology, an avatar that can touch the lives of billions of the people positively.

DEFINATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY The term biotechnology is a combination of two words bio and technology. The word bio is taken from Greek word bios which means life. Technology means application of scientific knowledge for practical purposed to get desired results. Biotechnology, in the recent years, has created unprecedented opportunities, not only to manipulate biological systems for the benefit of mankind but also to understand the fundamental life processes. Consequently, this field has become a fastest growing and rapidly changing technology. A number of definitions have been propounded from time to time, keeping in view the corresponding developments in biotechnology. Many organizations and work parties have published reports where an attempt has been made to define biotechnology. Some of them are given below: Biotechnology consists of the controlled use of biological agents, such as microorganisms or cellular components for beneficial use. (US National Science Federation) Biotechnology is the integrated use of knowledge and techniques of biochemistry, microbiology and engineering sciences in order to achieve technological application of the capabilities of microorganisms, cultured tissues/cell and parts thereof. (European Federation of Biotechnology) Biotechnology is defined as any technological innovation that uses biological systems. Living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products for specific use. (The Conventional on Biological Diversity) Biotechnology is defined as The application of science and technology to living organisms as well as parts, products and models thereof, to alter living or non-living materials for the production of knowledge, goods and services. (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) Biotechnology is far too diverse a subject to come under a complete satisfactory definition but the definition Biotechnology describes the use of living organisms including microorganisms, and biological processes to provide food, chemicals and services to meets the needs and improve the life style of humans. Fits in all aspects of applied biology and suffices to understand biotechnology in general terms. Therefore, it could be said that biotechnology is a collection of technologies that capitalize on the attributes of cells, such as their manufacturing capabilities, and put biological molecules, such as DNA and proteins to work for human beings.

APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY Modern biotechnology techniques are currently being used in many areas such as food, agriculture, health care, environment, and industrial processes to develop new products and processes, and to modify the existing ones. While biotechnology touches virtually every aspect of human life today, one can try and divide the impact of biotechnology on human beings into the following categories: The medicinal field which includes development of new targeted drugs, development of new diagnostic and preventive technologies, gene therapy, exploitation of plants and microbes as vehicles and factories for producing drugs and, in general, development of technologies that make human health better. Developments of transgenic traits in plants that make them produce more and sustain adverse climatic conditions such as drought, salinity, aridity etc. Evolution of biofertilizers and biopesticides that reduce our dependence on chemicals and making agriculture ecofriendly. The question of higher food production and increasing nutrition is also included in this category by genetically modifying the crops. Addressing the question of environmentally sustainable technologies that will allow us to carry on with our activities with least damage to the environment or, conversely, allow us to restore the environmental conditions to earlier, pristine nature, Included in this category is the development of alternative sources of energy since it is the exploitation of fossil fuels mainly that is responsible for the state in which environment is today. Bioinformatics started as a mere application of computer technology for the management of biological information. The need for bioinformatics has been precipitated by the explosion of genomic information resulting from the Human Genome Project and other galloping genomics and proteomics studies. Biotechnology seems to meet the hunger needs of society by guaranteeing right to food. Biotechnology has introduced genetically modified food(GMF) to the world, which has revolutionizes the food industry. GMF has proved to have high protein levels and vitamins compared to regular food. In the field of aquaculture, biotechnology is used to increase the fish production. By transferring genes to fishes or other marine creatures to get better results like high protein values, to install disease resistance, to express any nutritional or medicinal proteins and also high yield.

COLOR BIOTECHNOLOGY The main idea behind the color-coding of various applications of biotechnology: Today, there exist multiple commercial applications of biotechnology. As biotechnology comprises a very broad spectrum of applications, colour-coding is used to differentiate the various fields of application. Biotechnology is a difficult subject to get into ones hand. It is a vast subject and changes at an amazing pace while there is an ever-increasing curiosity in mind of people about this subject, lack of comprehensive language makes it even more difficult to pursue. Using colors for various areas of biotechnology promotes: o Public awareness and understanding of biotech applications. o Biotech in color makes it attractive for schoolchildren. o Makes it interesting to the science, agriculture, medical students and practitioners and makes it interesting to public. Although various biotech sectors have come up with a color index guide, the stakeholders envision a mixing of color schemes as applications of biotech become more and more interdisciplinary.

BIOTECHNOLOG: SAVING AND EXTENDING LIVES

Medical biotechnology is involved in the whole spectrum of human medicine. Of all the commercial applications, healthcare or medicine biotechnology has had both a profound significance in saving, extending, and improving human lives, as well as significant commercial returns for the scientist and entrepreneurs involved. Biotechnology is helping to heal the world and make it a healthier place by developing new medicines that dramatically reduce rates of infectious disease and save millions of childrens lives. Biotechnology is improving the odds for millions of patients around the world with serious, life-threatening conditions, and is providing tailored treatments to individuals to minimize health risks and side effects. These medicines also create more precise tools for disease detection, while combating serious illness and everyday threats confronting the developing world. To bring these new discoveries to patients, the biotech industry has harnessed natures own toolbox and looked inside our bodies, to use our own genetic makeup to heal and guideline of research.

We are on the leading edge of a true revolution in medicine, one that promises to transform the traditional one size fits all approach into a much more powerful strategy that considers each individual as unique and as having special characteristics that should guide an approach to staying healthy.
Francis S. Collins, Director, U.S. National Institutes of Health24

Some advances in biotechnology have changed more than disease prevention and treatment. The outlook for cancer diagnoses, for example, has changed drastically: no longer a death sentence, cancer survival rates have increased significantly for a number of types of cancer (see Figure 1) and treatments are more effective than ever.

From preventive medicine to the diagnosois of health and illness to the treatment of human disease conditions, medical biotech has resulted in an amazing array of application designed to improve the human health.

BREAKTHROUGHS IN MEDICAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

Diagnosis: Faster Detection, Better Accuracy, Greater Mobility

Biotech diagnostic tools have enhanced our ability to detect and diagnose conditions faster and with greater accuracyhelping improve patient prognosis. Many biotech diagnostic tools are now portable, allowing physicians to conduct tests, interpret results and determine treatment on-the-spot. These tools have had a profound effect on access to health care in developing Countries, many of which lack a health care delivery infrastructure. Diagnostic Kits is used to detect the occurrence of the disease in a very short duration of time. Diagnostic kits are also available for detection of pregnancy, for checking the sensitive allergens etc. DNA micro-array or gene chip is also one of the diagnostic tool helping early detecting disease.

Regenerative medicine
Growing cells and tissue that can be used to replace or repair defective tissues and organs, is an exciting new field of biotechnology that holds the promise and potential for radically changing medicine and delivery of the health.

Tissue Engineering
The emerging science of tissue engineering provides tissues and organs that can be used to replace damaged of diseased tissue. This is a small but growing field-is actively involved in research to produce human tissues and organs that can be used to replace damaged tissue or possible even the worn tissue. Tissue engineering, which deals with tissue implantation following the cultivation of cells on bio-compatible and bio-degradable materials, is the new field offering great application for human development and alleviating of human sufferings. Besides the production of artificial skin, tissue-engineering products predominantly service the orthopedics markets through the supply of cartilage, bone and spinal disc replacements. For example, engineered sheets of human skin have proven very useful for treating severe burn victims who have lost substantial portions of their skin, a very painful and lifethreatening condition.

Tissue Engineering
The emerging science of tissue engineering provides tissues and organs that can be used to replace damaged of diseased tissue. This is a small but growing field-is actively involved in research to produce human tissues and organs that can be used to replace damaged tissue or possible even the worn tissue. Tissue engineering, which deals with tissue implantation following the cultivation of cells on bio-compatible and bio-degradable materials, is the new field offering great application for human development and alleviating of human sufferings. Besides the production of artificial skin, tissue-engineering products predominantly service the orthopedics markets through the supply of cartilage, bone and spinal disc replacements. For example, engineered sheets of human skin have proven very useful for treating severe burn victims who have lost substantial portions of their skin, a very painful and lifethreatening condition Xenotransplantation Xenotransplantation is a scientific term that actually refers to the transplantation of tissues, organs and cells between members of different species. The application of this technique has been the goal of transplant specialists as it is considered to be helpful especially in cases of heart failure and kidney problems. Despite the possible benefits, xenotransplantation is still under great controversy.

Stem cell therapy

Stem cells are distinguished from other cell types by two important characteristics. First, they are unspecialized cells capable of renewing themselves through cell division, sometimes after long periods of inactivity. Second, under certain physiologic or experimental conditions, they can be induced to become tissue- or organ-specific cells with special functions. In some organs, such as the gut and bone marrow, stem cells regularly divide to repair and replace worn out or damaged tissues. In other organs, however, such as the pancreas and the heart, stem cells only divide under special conditions. Perhaps the most important potential application of human stem cells is the generation of cells and tissues that could be used for cell-based therapies.

Today, donated organs and tissues are often used to replace ailing or destroyed tissue, but the need for transplantable tissues and organs far outweighs the available supply. Stem cells, directed to differentiate into specific cell types, offer the possibility of a renewable source of replacement cells and tissues to treat diseases including Alzheimer's diseases, spinal cord injury, stroke, burns, heart disease, diabetes, osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid arthritis. For example, it may become possible to generate healthy heart muscle cells in the laboratory and then transplant those cells into patients with chronic heart disease. Preliminary research in mice and other animals indicates that bone marrow cells, transplanted into a damaged heart, can have beneficial effects.

Figure 3. Strategies to repair heart muscle with stem cells.

Cloning
Cloning involves the removal of nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed. There are two types of cloning: Reproductive cloning: After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into uterus where it is allowed to develop into fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus.

Therapeutic cloning: The egg is placed into Petri dish where it develops into embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several alignments. Cloning became the focus of media of attention, when the successful cloning of a sheep, named Dolly, from the mammary glands of an adult female

Personalized Medicine: Cures Designed Just for You

Today, biotechnology is helping personalize medicine by tailoring treatments to the individual patient and the specific circumstances necessitating treatment. This is known as personalized medicine: leveraging information about individual genetic make-up to guide health care Decisions, rather than treating every individual like the anonymous statistical average. The use of genetic information can help determine: Which treatment will likely work best; The safest and most effective dosage; and Whether a person is predisposed to develop a specific disease later in life.

Genetic testing
Biotech diagnostic tools have helped drive the personalization of medicine in our health care system. Genetic tests identify patients predisposed to developing various cancers, osteoporosis, emphysema, type II diabetes, and asthma. This gives patients an opportunity to take preventive steps by avoiding disease triggers such as poor diet, smoking, and other behavioral factors.

Other biotech diagnostic tests look for specific genetic markers that determine whether a patient is likely to benefit from a certain treatment Genetic testing is now used for: carrier selection, or an illness that must receive a copy of the gene affected individuals appear to recognize the disease for two copies; Conformational diagnosis of symptomatic individual; Sex determination; Forensic / identity testing; Newborn selection; Prenatal diagnosis of choice; - The principle of risk assessment of cancer in adults Presymptomatic testing; Adults - the beginning of the disturbances

Gene therapy

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Gene therapy is that branch of red biotechnology that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of genetic diseases and some other diseases like cancer. In gene therapy the treatment of involves manipulating genes and correcting defecting genes. Genes are inserted, deleted or modified as the treatment requires. This can provide a permanent or semi permanent cure. The most common form of gene therapy involves the insertion of functional genes into an unspecified genomic location in order to replace a mutated and dysfunctional gene. This technology is still new but has great potential Through genetic research like the Human Genome Projecta thirteen year public-private collaboration that paved the way for leveraging genetic information in preventing, diagnosing, and treating diseasewe have learned how to change the code in DNA molecules, meaning that we can give cells new instructions. Biotech scientists are using this knowledge to help correct defective genes that cause a disease. In time, it may be possible to use gene therapy to cure hereditary conditions. Gene therapy focuses on finding ways to introduce corrective genes into cells in order to: correct a cell malfunction; add a new function to a cell; or, In the case of cancer, add a gene to a cancer cell that causes that cell to die. A variety of different types of gene delivery systems are used to deliver genes into target cells, including: modified viruses, which appear to be very efficient at getting genetic information into cells; naked DNA containing the corrected genes; or artificial lipids carrying new DNA. The goal is to match the appropriate delivery system with the gene, the target cell, and the disease, in order to develop effective therapeutics.

Pharmacogenomics
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her bodys response to drugs. It is coined word derived from the words pharmacology and genomics, It is hence the study the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to about to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each persons genetic makeup. Example: Herceptine, was the first drug approved for the use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells expres the protein HER2. Pharmacogenomics result in the foolowing benefits : Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drug based on proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These drugs not only promise to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby cells. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patients genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/her body can

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process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the like hood of overdose. Improvement in the drug discovery and approval process. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.
Marine biotechnology

The oceans offer abundant resouces for research and development, yet the potential of this domain as the basis for new biotechnologyies remains largerly unexplored. Indeed the vast majority of marine organisms have yet to be indentified. Even for the known organisms, there is insuffficientr knowlegde to permit their intelligent management and application. Ocean organisms are of enormous scientific interst for two major reasons. First they constitute a major share of the Earths biological resources. Second, marine organisms often possess unique structures, metabolic pathways, reproductive system, and sensory and defense mechanisms because they have adpated to extreme environments ranging from the cold polar seas at -2 C to the great pressures of the ocean floor. Most major lass of the Earths organisms are primarily or exclusively marine, so the oceans represents a source of unique genetic information. Interest in marine biotechnology has been growing in recent years , and recent developments in molecular biology promise fundamentally new approaches and oppurtunities for identifying, using, and managing biological resources from the seas and other bodies of water. The resources have a bond potential as technologies for application in many fields, including health, agriculture, bioremediation, and manufacturing. These technologies also will enhab=nce understanding of the basic biology of the seas and their pivotal role in preserving the global environment . The ocean environment is massively complex, consisting of extreme variations in pressure, salinity, temperature, and biological habitats. The biota of marine microorganisms has developed unique metabolic and physiological functions that not only ensure survival in extreme habitats but also offer a potential for the production of novel enzymes and bioactive metabolites for potential exploitation. It is estimated that less than 5% of the bacteria observed by microscopy are culturable under standard laboratory conditions. Out of the large number of species examined, only a fraction of marine bacteria have been isolated and cultured With their vast genetic and physiological diversity, marine organisms will be source for new classes of chemicals and process, including pharmaceuticals, enzymes, vaccines, and diagnostic and analysis reagents. New and prosperous industries will be created; one growing industry that will benefit from the develpments is aquaculture-the farming of aquatic organisms, including fishes and plants, for food and other products. Scientists are already aware of a huge variety of marine life that is proving valuable to medical research, and still there are thousands of species not known, which hold a key promise. About 1% of the marine animals have been examined for the pharmacological activity and only a few have been fully explored for their pharmacological properties. 12

Various observations indicated that for every dozen organisms examined, fewer than six have been shown to have chemical and biological characteristics.

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Develop a fundamental understanding of the genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors that control the production of primary and secondary metabolites in marine organisms, as a basis for developing new and improved products. Identify bioactive compounds and determine their mechanisms of action and natural function, to provide models for new lines of selectively active materials for application in medicine and the chemical industry. Develop bioremediation strategies for application in the worlds coastal oceans, where multiple uses-including waste-water disposal, recreation, fishing and aquaculturedemand prevention and remediation of pollution; and develop bioprocessing strategies for improving sustainable industrial processes. Use the tools of modern biotechnology to improve the health, reproduction, development, growth, and overall well-being of cultivated aquatic organisms; and promote the interdisciplinary development of environmentally sensitive sustainable systems that will enable significant commercialization of aquaculture. Improve understanding of microbial physiology, gentics, biochemistry, and ecology in order to provide model systems for research and production systems for commerce, and to contribute to understanding and conservation of the seas.

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New and improved product from the seas The research priorities in this sector are:
Develop a fundamental understanding of the genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors that control the production of primary and secondary metabolites in marine organisms, as a basis for developing new and improved products. Identify bioactive compounds and determine their mechanisms of action and natural function, to provide models for new lines of selectively active materials for application in medicine and the chemical industry.

Recent redeasrch has uncovered unicellular and and multicellular microorganisms that are unique to the marine world. Indeed. it seems clear that marine bacteria are emerging as a significant chemical resource. Marine microorganisms are expected to serve as lead compounds for potential drug development or pharmacological tools for basic research in life sciences. Exploration of the marine environment began as an exciting resource during the 1960s to isolate new compounds. Much attention has been paid to identify, isolate, and purify them for useful biochemicals and utilize them in human welfare and development. Initially, the study of these natural products was focused on the chemical characterization of metabolites from macroscopic marine algae and invertebrate animals. So far, more than 3,700 new natural products have been separated from these groups. The metabolic and physiological capabilities of marine microorganisms that allow them to survive on their unique habitats also provide a great potential for production of metabolites, which are not found in terrestrial environments. However, most bioactive products of microbial origin have come from terrestrial bacteria belonging to one taxonomic group, the Actinomycetales. Although this group continues to be a prolific source of bioactive compounds, the yield of novel metabolites is decreasing and, thus, new sources of bioactive natural products need to be explored. Several natural products obtained from them have proven to be rich sources of novel compounds exhibiting many different biological activities.

Pharmaceuticals: Life saving drugs

Therapeutic natural products found in terrestrial planta and microorganisms were the only basis of the early development of drugs. Exploration and the use of marine resources, especially microorganisms for drug development has barely begun. Marine natural products are likely to provide a major new chapter in the history of the drugs. Researchers have pointed out, on the basis of the few chemical studies reported, and in the recognization of the unique compounds that have been isolated, it can be concluded that marine organisms could, if effectively explored, represent a major biomedical resource. Many bioactive substances from the marine environment already have been isolated and characterizes, several with great promise for the treatment of human diseases. The need for 15

new therapeutic compounds has been expanding greatly because of the evolving resistance of microorganisms to existing antibiotics, the emergence of new viral diseases, and the appearance of drug-resistant tumors. Most antibiotics cannot be used in animals and humans because they are too toxic. Some toxic agents affect primarily; rapidly dividing and growing cells and have been used by adjusting dosage and directing the action of these agents in treating various diseases. Several life-saving drugs have been developed from the extracted biochemicals of terrestrial plants. The success of isolating such new drugs is immense since over 10,000 terrestrial plants have shown the occurrence of some bioactive compounds that are pharmacologically active. The work carried out on marine biota is relatively meager. Many bacteria have been recognized as a new source of therapeutic leads and have shown to produce large number of diverse biochemicals. Thus, the future of this technology is promising as a way of accessing new natural products from the marine environment. The compound manolide from a Pacific sponge, for example, has spawned more than 300 chemicals analogs, with asignificant number of these going on to clinical trials as antiinflammatory agents. Manolide, a secondary metabolite isolated from the South Pacific sponge, Luffariella variabilis, and a terpene with an unusual structure has antiinflammatory and analgesic properties besides antileukemic and antifungal properties. The sponges have proven to be a good source of secondary metabolites and several compounds have been isolated from them. Enzymes Marine organisms are richly endowed with many enzymes and have unique functions. This has boosted marine microbial enzyme technology in recent years, offering valuable products. These are used as pharmaceuticals, food additives, and fine chemicals. they have a diverse range of enzymatic activity and are capable of analyzing various biochemical reactions with novel enzymes. A few potent strains of marine organisms could produce novel enzymes like amalyse, protease, cellulase, L- asperginase, acetylcholinesterase, and urethanase. The results indicate that these microorganisms show potential for the production of salt-tolerant enzymes that could be used in the biotech-based food, beverage, and pharmaceutical industries. It is known that the marine environment could provide not only a wealth of newer enzymes but also many more novel enzymes by hyperproducing microorganisms, since they remain as yet an untapped resource. Among them, aerobic bacteria appear to be capable of producing several enzymes, such as amylases, which are well recognized to have applications in various industries. A mutant of amoeba Trichospaherium sp. is found to degrade and destroy plastic in the field as well as in the laboratory. Viral DNA polymerase produced by Thermococcus litoralis, a type of archebacterium, is active for more than two hours at 100C. Enzymes isolated from extremophiles have greater stability and are longer lasting at high temperatures than those now used by industry. Their availability would open up new possibilities for efficient manufacturing.

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Plant and biotechnology Clearly, we face many challenges in ensuring the productivity and sustainability of the global food supply. Fortunately, the scope of beneficial impacts generated by biotechnology in agriculture and food production is extremely broad and capable of meeting these challenges. Key categories of benefits from biotechnology in agriculture include, for example: Increased agricultural yields and agricultural productivity; Reduced environmental impacts of agricultural production; Increased farmer incomes; Enhanced food safety, nutrition, and health; and Opportunities for new and expanding industries in the sustainable production of biobased fuels, chemicals, plastics and materials from agricultural and forest biotech crops. Biotechnology is on the frontlines generating new and brighter futures for humankind. The application of biotechnology in agriculture and food production promises global agriculture that is both more productive and environmentally sustainable exp

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