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The Teaching for Understanding Guide, Blythe et al., 1997. ISBN #0787909939, Jossey-Bass publisher.
Website with a nice overview of the TfU Framework: p // / p / / http://learnweb.harvard.edu/alps/tfu/info3.cfm
Jon F. Hasenbank, Ph.D hasenban.jon@uwlax.edu www.uwlax.edu/faculty/hasenbank For the Transition Math Project Winter Retreat, Jan. 28, 2010.
Part 1 Theory and Motivation for Teaching for Understanding Part 2 Implementing TfU and the Framework for Procedural Understanding Part 3 (Re)focusing Curricula to Meet TfU Goals
Visiting a science class, John Dewey once asked the students: What would you find if you dug a hole in the earth? There was no response, so he asked again: What would you find if you dug a hole in the earth? After some silence, the teacher chided Mr. Dewey: silence Mr Youre asking the wrong question! Turning to the class, the teacher asked, What is the state of the center of the earth? Igneous Fusion! they replied in unison.
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Evidence?
Quickly forget what they learn View math as irrelevant and uninteresting See math as a collection of disconnected rules for manipulating symbols (Kaput, 1995).
Solve for x: x2 4x = 32
Course Geometry Algebra II (Honors) Algebra II Pre-calculus Number of Students 111 62 30 60 Percent Correct 1% 21% 0% 2%
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Compare & contast methods for completing a task. Apply math to other subjects & the real world. Connect procedures & concepts. p p Use multiple representations
[These standards] often ask students to connect their conceptual understanding to the procedures being learned or problems being solved.
The term fluency is used in these standards to describe the expected level and depth of a students knowledge of a computational procedure (p. iii) Immediate & accurate execution Planning knowledge (know when to use it) Automaticity (keeps working memory free)
Fluency entails:
When students learn mathematics with understanding, it becomes meaningful for them. As a result, they can
Carpenter, 1992; Van Hiele, 1986)
Execute procedures intelligently (Star & Siefert, 2002) Remember more of it, longer (Carpenter & Lehrer, 1999; Hiebert & Make fewer errors (Rittle-Johnson & Koedinger, 2002) Apply it in a variety of situations (Hiebert & Carpenter, 1992; Re-create partially forgotten knowledge,
Lehrer, 1999) (Hiebert & Carpenter, 1992) Kieran, 1992) (Carpenter &
National standards and other reports also place great value on learning math with understanding. E.g. NCTMs PSSM (2000)
E.g. The National Math Advisory Panel report (2008)
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The benefits of learning with understanding probably arise from the way the knowledge is stored.
Things take meaning from the way they are connected with other things (Carpenter & Lehrer, 1999, p. 1999 p 20)
So understanding is about connections; that makes it surprisingly difficult to assess! Can from skillful C we infer understanding f i f d t di killf l execution? How well do you think your students understand mathematics?
Why does that lead to the benefits we just discussed (summarized below)?
Long-lasting, flexible knowledge; can re-create forgotten knowledge; future learning is easier; intelligent problem solving; make fewer errors.
1) What is the value of the expression (x+1)(x+2) when x = -4? 2) Could (x+1)(x+2) ever be a negative number? Explain. 3) Solve this equation for x. Show your steps. 5x 6 = 4x + 3 4) Describe two ways you could check your answer to the previous question.
15) If 3x + 4y = 14, and y = -(5/2)x, what is the value of x? 16) What does the answer to the previous problem tell you about the graphs of the two equations? You have 8 student work samples for these six tasks in your handouts. They were scored on a scale from 0 (low) to 3 (high) as part of a TfU project.
1) What is the value of the expression (x+1)(x+2) when x = -4? 2) Could (x+1)(x+2) ever be a negative number? Explain. Can you find examples of correct responses for problem 1? How did those students do on problem 2?
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1) What is the value of the expression (x+1)(x+2) when x = -4? 2) Could (x+1)(x+2) ever be a negative number? Explain.
3) Solve this equation for x. Show your steps. 5x 6 = 4x + 3 4) Describe two ways you could check your answer to the previous question.
15) If 3x + 4y = 14, and y = -(5/2)x, what is the value of x? 16) What does the answer to the previous problem tell you about the graphs of the two equations? Can you find an example of a level 3 response for problem 15? How did that student do on problem 16?
3.15) If 3x + 4y = 14, and y = -(5/2)x, what is the value of x? 3.16) What does the answer to the previous problem tell you about the graphs of the two equations?
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So we cannot necessarily infer understanding from skilled execution of procedures. Raises the question: What is the relationship between skill & understanding?
Shallow
Deep
Procedure is executed intelligently, understood Concepts are wellwell-memorized and wellwell-connected, understood
Type:
Procedural
Depth:
Novice vs. Practiced vs (Arduous vs. Automatic) Shallow vs. Deep (Disconnected vs. Connected)
Procedural
Procedure is not wellwellmemorized and is isolated; Executed with high cognitive load
Procedure is not wellwellmemorized, but is better connected. Execution is informed, but slow Concepts are not wellwellmemorized, but connections are forming
Conceptual
Shallow
Deep, Connected
Shallow Procedural
Procedure is executed by rote
Deep
Procedure is executed intelligently, understood Concepts are wellwell-memorized and wellwell-connected, understood
Conceptual
Procedural
Procedure is not wellwellmemorized, but is better connected. Execution is informed, but slow
Practiced
Conceptual knowledge is knowledge about the facts, concepts, and ideas of mathematics Procedural knowledge is knowledge about the rules, algorithms, and techniques for completing mathematical tasks
Conceptual
m = rise / run
Shallow
Deep, Connected
Novice
List of Examples?
Novice
Practiced
Aptitude:
Conceptual
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Facts: Slope equals rise over run, The set of integers is unbounded, Negative x Negative = Positive. Ideas: Slope, Tangent, Equality, Zero, Proportion. Objects: Th set of integers, Zero, Th unit circle. The The Obj fi Z i i l
With repetition and practice, knowledge becomes well-memorized & automatic This allows rapid recall of facts, or mindless execution of procedures
Procedural knowledge: knowledge of the rules, algorithms, and techniques for completing mathematical tasks.
Rules & Algorithms: Long division, Gaussian elimination, Derivative of ax, Addition of two fractions, Quadratic formula Techniques: Sieve of Eratosthenes, Get common denominators.
Algebra allows us to think less and less about more and more. Bertrand Russell
Rapid recall of concepts / facts Ability to quickly & correctly perform a procedure
With reflection and experience, the connectedness of students knowledge increases. Students become aware of the big picture. They become more flexible problem solvers, are more confident, can justify their answers, can choose more efficient solutions paths. This deeper knowledge (or understanding) has many benefits, as we will discuss later.
It seems growth can occur (independently) along either the Aptitude dimension or the Depth dimension Advances in one type lead to advances in the other in a hand-over-hand fashion (Rittle-Johnson et al., 2001) The alliance of factual knowledge, procedural proficiency, and conceptual understanding makes all three components usable in powerful ways (NCTM, 2000)
Shallow Procedural
The seam indicates that as procedural and conceptual knowledge get deeper and
Conceptual
Procedural
Practiced
Conceptual
Novice
2. Depth: What would shallow (vs. deep / connected) knowledge look like? 3. Finally: What sorts of activities would facilitate growth in either (or both) of these dimensions?
Shallow
Deep, Connected
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Find the maximum of y = f(x), where f(x) = -2x2 + 4x + 3. Typical solution shortly after instruction & practice:
The 1. The formula is x=-b/(2a), so x = 1 x=-b/(2a) Now f(1)=5, so the max is (1, 5).
4 2
1 2
Try answering the following questions about the procedure for maximizing a quadratic function: 1. What sort of outcome should I expect? 2. How do I find the max? How else could I do it? 3. Wh d Why does x=b/2 work? H b/2a k? How would I explain ld l i it to others? 4. Is my answer reasonable? How could I check? 5. How does my method compare to others I could have used? How do I choose the best one? 6. What types of problems can I solve using this procedure?
Try answering the following questions about the procedure for maximizing a quadratic function: 1. What sort of outcome should I expect? 2. How do I find the max? How else could I do it? 3. Wh d Why does x=b/2 work? H b/2a k? How would I explain ld l i it to others? 4. Is my answer reasonable? How could I check? 5. How does my method compare to others I could have used? How do I choose the best one? 6. What types of problems can I solve using this procedure?
x=
Its at the axis of symmetry. The formula is x=-b/(2a), so x = 1. Now f(1) = 5, so the max is (1,5).
b b 2 4ac 2a
I dont remember the formula... 2 Lets see, itll be halfway between the roots... I could find them using the quadratic formula... Oh yeah! x=-b/(2a)! (etc.)
1 1
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The Framework for Procedural Understanding (NCTM, 2001) Can be used to:
Define procedural understanding Deepen lesson content Select and develop homework tasks Assess understanding through homework, quizzes, tests, journals, and interviews
(1) generative topics, (2) understanding goals, (3) performances of understanding, and (4) ongoing assessment.
Next, well learn more about both frameworks and see how they can be used together to:
Focus the curriculum, Deepen instruction, and Guide assessment.
It is intended to guide teachers in designing units that elicit understanding in all subject areas.
Using the (TfU) Framework as a lens to look at my teaching gives me a systematic way of making sure Im consistently integrating all of the important elements.
One implementation (2005) involved using the NCTM Framework in College Algebra. A second implementation (07-08) involved both the NCTM & TfU Frameworks in grades 8-12. Well focus on the implementations of TfU in each case, as well as the primary results.
Discussion Prompt: Reflect on what youve just seen: What do you think will stick with you?
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Teacher training
College Algebra (2005): Weekly content discussions based on NCTM Framework; 3 treatment & 3 control instructors. 8-12th Grade (07-08): Intensive summer workshop on both NCTM Framework and TfU Framework; 5 treatment, 4 control teachers (in algebra).
Curricular tweaks
College Algebra (2005): Reduce procedural HW by 18%; offset with Writing in Math HW instead; 8% HW reduction overall; Lectures and weekly quizzes included Framework questions. 8-12th Grade (07-08): Sprinkle it in during lessons; Identify through-lines & generative topics; Teachers design their own examples & assessments.
Assessments:
College Algebra (2005): Exams (skill), Journal Tasks (understanding), classroom observations of treatment & control instructors. 8-12th Grade (07-08): Three ~16-item assessments with skill-understanding paired items; classroom observations of treatment teachers only.
What do you look for in a quadratic equation to decide which method will be the best way to solve?
1. 6x2 3x 2 = 0 2. 9x2 24x = 0 3. (3x 4)2 = 16 4. 4 x2 6x 7 = 0 5. x2 6x + 7 = 0 Methods: Factoring, Square Root Method, Complete the Square, Quadratic Formula
What would your students say? What would an expert say? How can we bridge that gap?
What is the advantage of factoring first, before adding or multiplying rational expressions?
How could you verify that you have done the polynomial long division procedure correctly?
What would your students say? What would an expert say? How can we bridge that gap?
What would your students say? What would an expert say? How can we bridge that gap?
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Students work in pairs to solve linear equation. One student does a step, partner provides reason. Then exchange roles for next step.
(Established this routine early on)
All college algebra instructors emphasized procedural skill far more than the other Framework objectives. BUT: Treatment instructors managed to implement a more balanced curriculum. curriculum
Performing the procedure
(% coded 6 Pervasive)
I really like the understanding questions; it forces my students to really think instead of being so robotic. I have found it difficult to implement on tests. I guess I am scared to see what they will write & then have to score it as part of the test.
Control Treatment
94% 72%
9% 18%
Nov. 2007
Feb. 2008
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Framework students did no worse (indeed, did a little better, but mostly n.s.) than controls. But notice that nice gap opening up over time
Average Exam Scores (Weighted Average of Treatment / Control)
Weighted Average Score (%) 90.0 85.0 80.0 75.0 70.0 65.0 60.0 55.0 Exam1 Exam2 Exam3 Final Exam Treatment Control
Exam Number
Be patient!
The gains took time to emerge in both studies. In fact, the assessments showed a classic implementation dip that was later overcome.
The one college algebra class that was most verbose on the homework did the best on the exams and journal tasks. Lesson: Dont neglect the active homework component of TfU.
Reduce the number of drill exercises you assign. Bookend examples with Framework-oriented questions.
One critical (and highly relevant) difference between the two studies:
College algebra students have seen this content once before. Does that make it easier to build connections? (May explain the understanding gains in college algebra but not in high school).
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Begin with Generative Topics Select Understanding Goals Discussion prompt: What implications do these two studies have for your institution?
Provides students with continual feedback about their performances to help them improve
Are central to one or more disciplines, Are interesting and accessible to students, and Provide opportunities for multiple connections.
Generative Topics:
Central topics; Interesting & accessible to students; with Opportunities for making connections
These topics should form the core of the curriculum (TfU Guidebook, p. 18).
Sa p e Topics: (a e any of them generative?) ge e at e ) Sample op cs (are a y o t e Slope / Rate of Change Long Division of Polynomials Linear Equations Transforming Functions Graphing Rational Functions Factoring Polynomials Laws of Exponents
Generative Topics:
Central topics; Interesting & accessible to students; with Opportunities for making connections
Generative Topics:
Central topics; Interesting & accessible to students; with Opportunities for making connections
What do you see as generative topics for the generative topics courses you teach?
(To what extent can you use the College Readiness Standards to inform these decisions?)
We need a tool for focusing and adapting this TfU Framework for use in algebra. The Framework for Procedural Understanding can help by identify appropriate understanding goals for algebra procedures.
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What is the goal of the procedure? What sort of answer should I expect? How do I carry out the procedure? What other procedures could I use? Why does the procedure work? h d h d k How can I verify my answer? When is this the best procedure to use? What else can I use this procedure to do?
Few of us would set off on a trip without first having a sense of where we want to go. Because our resources are limited, we want to use them wisely. So we think carefully about where wed like to go, and we have that destination in mind when we set out. It helps us decide when to stop to rest, when to forge ahead, and when to modify our itinerary. (TfU Guide, p. 35)
Understanding goals are the destinations that make the journey worthwhile. Unit-long goals:
What must students understand about this topic? What understanding goals span the entire course?
Course-long (through-lines):
Students will be able to use multiple solution paths and choose intelligently among them. Related Question: Show how to solve the equation two different ways. Which way do you think is better? Why? Students will be able to interpret a linear equation and its solution as the intersection of two lines.
Use the Framework for Procedural Understanding to help identify important understanding goals. Express your understanding goals as a statements (Students will) or as questions for students.
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Broad understanding goals (those that span the course) are called throughlines. Consider: What broad understanding goals do you have for your students?
(And how will you get them there?)
Broad understanding goals (those that span the course) are called throughlines. Consider: What broad understanding goals do you have for your students?
(And how will you get them there?)
Want your students to recognize there are multiple p solution paths? or to identify the most efficient ones? or show how they might check their answer? Then we must ask them to do so.
Guided inquiry performances when lecture just wont do (for topics you feel are especially important to understand). Culminating performances - students are asked to synthesize and demonstrate their understandings.
Daily HW presentations (rotate through students). Small group tasks, thoughtfully selected. Journal reflections. Individual projects p j
Find a connection (in math, to life, to history) and explain it (to me, or to the class.) Report may be written or oral (or both).
Listen for common questions or sources of confusion that should be addressed in whole-group discussion or lecture
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You will learn more about what they understand (or misunderstand). y y y They will be able to sort out what they really think.
State your understanding goals, and revisit them from time to time. Post them in a prominent place, and refer to them as you teach.
Ongoing assessment is the last (but not least!) component of the TfU Framework. Key Points:
What are some ways you might incorporate understanding performances into your assessment (and facilitation) of student learning?
Students value what we assess so our assessments assess, must reflect our understanding goals. Provide students with clear responses to their performances of understanding in a way that helps them improve their next performance.
A simple rubric can make expectations clear and provide for reliable scoring & feedback.
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Imagine if students started asking these questions on their own? Let s Lets continue the dialog what are the opportunities before us for enriching the mathematical experiences of our students?
Finally
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