32

Material Selection

32.1

INTRODUCTION

The previous chapters of this book have covered many hundreds of polymers. Each of these finds use in the field of plastics materials although only about 100 may be considered to be used in mainstream applications. In many cases the polymers may be greatly modified by the use of additives, as can be illustrated by the wide range of plastics materials made from PVC. It is convenient to consider materials based on a general chemical structure as a generic group, e.g. polycarbonates. It is also useful to consider distinctive variants of such a generic group as sub-generic groups. In the case of polycarbonates one well-known software package identifies nine sub-generic groups for polycarbonates, including standard grades, structural foam, high flow, glass or carbon reinforced, PTFE lubricated, ultraviolet stabilised and fire retardant. Even this is a considerable simplification, since in 1993 one manufacturer alone was offering 88 grades of polycarbonate (not including the important polycarbonate alloys with ABS). Indeed in recent years there has been increased use of blends of polymers as a less expensive way of extending the spectrum of properties available rather than that of developing highly specialised polymers. Clearly the selection of material for a particular application is not a simple exercise. Before discussing material selection it is important to appreciate the extent to which processing conditions can affect polymer properties. Table 32.1 illustrates the range of values of selected properties that can be obtained with a specific grade of material in a given injection mould simply by varying processing parameters such as melt temperature, injection time and injection pressure. Such a variation may well be greater than the difference in properties shown between materials under consideration. Intelligent use of the moulding process may well be more effective and more economical than the use of a more expensive material.

'

890

Economic Factors Affecting Material Choice

89 1

Table 32.1 Range of values of physical properties of injection mouldings obtained by alteration of moulding conditions (after Allen and Van Putte, 1974)2 Property
Tensile load at failure (N) Flexural strength (MPa) Izod impact strength (ft I b h notch)* Ball-drop impact strength (J) Shrinkage across flow ( m m h m ) Shrinkage with flow ( m m h m ) Stiffness modulus (MPa)
~ ~ ~ ~

Polystyrene
698-1 120 35-57 1.4-4.0 0.113-6.666 0-0.005 0-0.006 1517-2137

Polypropylene
578-898 16-28 0.9-8.3 5.197-13.558 0.007-0.016 0.0 10-0.014 620-1241

*Imd figures cannot realistically be converted from the f.p.s. units of the original data

32.2

ESTABLISHING OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS

The first requirement must be to specify carefully the operational requirements of the item to be produced and of the material(s) to be used in its construction. This is seldom easy and is usually the most difficult part of the selection process. The most common factors to be considered are:

( 1 ) Regulations and specifications. There may be international (e.g. EU), national or local regulations concerning the use of materials. These may be with respect to factors such as flammability, contact with foodstuffs, environmental considerations and medical criteria. (2) Mechanical properties. Properties commonly of importance here are rigidity, creep resistance, strength and toughness. For some applications resistance to repeated flexing or abrasion may be critical. (3) Environmental operating conditions. This will include such factors as operating temperatures, including duration of use at elevated temperatures, presence of water, solvents, oils and chemicals which may be reactive with the plastics materials (not just the polymer but also with the additives) and expected humidity levels. (4) Other requirements. These could include electrical insulation properties, including resistance to tracking and arcing, transparency, frictional properties, surface finish, scuff resistance and specific gravity. (5) Particular fabrication requirements, including the need to assemble or plate parts.
Once such criteria have been established and a shortlist of possible materials drawn up, it will be important to consider:
(1) Processing problems associated with the shortlist materials. (2) Economics.

32.3

ECONOMIC FACTORS AFFECTING MATERIAL CHOICE

In most instances there will be more than one material that will meet a technical specification, and choice will then be largely a matter of economics. Since parts

892 Material Selection

are usually made by volume rather than by weight, a simple comparison of the price per unit weight, e.g. &/kg or $/tonne, is quite misleading. Figures for comparative volume cost are an important first requirement. It may also be the case that, of two materials, that with a higher volume cost may prove to be more economical. One reason for this may be that the more expensive material may be stiffer and can thus be used in thinner section mouldings, so allowing material savings. Simpler processing operations and conditions, including shorter downtimes and more economical purging requirements, may also tilt the economic balance. In the previous chapter mention was made of the replacement of fabric-reinforced vulcanised rubbers with easily moulded intrinsically stiff thermoplastic rubbers for diaphragms and other automotive parts. Implications of possible differences in scrap rates should also be considered.
32.4

MATERIAL DATA SOURCES

Sources for material data may be classified into three groups: (1) Journals and textbooks (such as Plastics Materials!). (2) Trade literature issued by raw material suppliers. (3) Computer-based information sources. The writer would suggest that the use of all three in combination would be synergistic. No textbook can provide data on all the materials available, nor can it ever be completely up to date. It can, however, provide a useful background, helping the user to understand material behaviour. It can guide the reader between different classes of materials and it can point out deficiencies in materials. Trade literature can provide a wealth of information. Users should, however, bear in mind that suppliers will naturally wish to emphasise data in the best possible light. For example, if the Izod impact strength increases sharply with decrease in sample thickness, then results may be quoted for thinner section test pieces. Whilst the facts may be stated, the underlying significance may not be fully appreciated by the casual reader. Much trade literature is of a high standard, particularly that of suppliers of the so-called engineering polymers. In many cases these manufacturers supply a range of such polymer types and they provide much useful comparative material. This may be in the form of descriptive material and tables of numerical data. Suitable choice of graphs and other diagrams can often give the reader a more immediately absorbed visual comparison. One such graphical device about which this writer is equivocal is the polar diagram. In this case a number of properties, e.g. 6, are selected and the value of the property is indicated on a radial line. The points are then joined up. In some cases, as in Figure 32.1, maximum and minimum values of the properties (which vary between grades) is given. Diagrams for three such materials are given in Figure 32.1. Whilst the data presented in such diagrams is useful, particularly where many such diagrams may be inspected simultaneously, I do have certain reservations. The purpose of a graph or diagram is to provide an instant visual impact. My personal experience when I look at these diagrams is that the instant impact is of

893
TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa) CYCOLOY FLEXURAL MODULUS (MPa)

60W

HEAT RESISTANCE DTULI 82MPa (C)

FLAMMABILITY (UL94)

IZOD NOTCHED IMPACT

(JW

FLEXURAL STRENGTH

TEYSILE STRENGTH
(MW

ULTEM

FLEXURAL MODULUS

HEAT RESISTANCE 3oo fgyL 1.82MPa

~

2M

FLAMMABILITY (UL94)

(JW

IZOD NOTCHED IMPACT

FLEXURAL STRENGTH (MPa)

TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)

NORYL

FLEXURAL MODULUS

IZOD NOTCHED IMPACT

(Jm

2Wb rAII;URAL

STRENGTH

Figure 32.1. Polar diagrams for three thermoplastic materials, CYCOLOY (a PC/ABS blend), ULTEM (polyetherimide) and NORYL (a styrenic PPO). The shaded area indicates the range available with different grades

894 Material Selection the shape of the polygon, which is quite irrelevant, and to a large extent determined by the order in which the properties are arranged radially. The magnitude of the individual properties recorded by the peaks and troughs on the radii, which are all-important, requires more scrutiny and gives less immediate impact. However, if at the same time histograms or bar charts comparing various materials for a given property are also available and immediately comparable, then the combined use of the two types of diagram can be quite useful. The considerable development in computer technology in recent years has provided an additional aid to material selection. This is considered further in the next section.

32.4.1 Computer-aided Selection

One important use of a computer is to provide a data base for information storage and retrieval. Such a data base may be restricted to a particular organisation or it may have world-wide application. Many thousands of the latter data bases now exist, and these can be accessed via data base hosts. The catalogue of one such host lists over 6000 data bases in its catalogue. There are about a dozen data bases specifically about plastics.2 Two of the best known and largest are Rapra Abstracts, issued by the Rubber and Plastics Research Association of Great Britain*, with about 400000 entries, and the KKF data base of the Deutsche Kunstoff-Institut, with some 300000 records in 1993. Such data bases provide a huge source of information on all aspects of plastics, and considerable expertise is necessary to extract pertinent information efficiently. More specifically, data bases are now available which are designed as aids to plastics material selection. One estimate in 1993 was that there were 300-400 systems in the field.3. Systems vary as to whether they are limited to the products of a particular company, to a particular area of activity and to the depth of coverage over a broad area. One well known system is Pluscams offer by Rapra Technology Ltd as part of their KBS (Knowledge-based system) Plastics package which also incorporates an abstracts database, a topic base (including the 6th edition of this book) and a number of other so-called activity modules. The system is frequently updated but even one of the earliest productions provided data on approaching 600 types of material spread over 84 generic types of material. Thus in addition to data on basic polymer grades data is also given on important sub-species such as flameretardant grades, UV stabilised grades, toughened grades, fibre-reinforced grades and so on. In this system the user starts by listing the requirements that are essential to the application and then adding those that are desirable. The essential items are then stepped through one by one in single searching. With each step there is a progressively shorter number of suitable materials. By then entering all the desirable features in a combined search, the shortlist is ranked in descending order of suitability. The materials on the shortlist may be further investigated by use of the associated data bank in the Pluscams system, which not only provides a precis of the materials properties and a property data bank but also information on material cost. Such a system cannot, however, be expected to include all of the factors

Now known as RAPRA Technology Ltd.

A Simple Pathway-based Non-computer Selection System

895

considered in the specification. Further study of potential materials will be required, perhaps by use of this book and also by obtaining from suppliers their recommendations for specific grades and current price information. An alternative approach is to provide a system such as Campus or Polymat PC of the Deutsches Kunstoff-Institut, which provides data on a large number of specific grades, for example up to 12 000 grades in the latter case. This will give much more specific data and could indeed be used in a supplementary way for the more basic system by making specific grade suggestions. My reservation about these systems is that users may be discouraged from reading around about the materials under consideration and could lose out on useful information from the lack of contact with suppliers. It is also important that, like the user of any pocket calculator, the operator should be able to appreciate whether or not the result or recommendation looks sensible; and this does presuppose some understanding of the subject. 32.5 A SIMPLE MECHANISTIC NON-COMPUTER SELECTION SYSTEM

A crude approximation to computer-based systems can be achieved by considering tables of properties of plastics materials such as those published annually in the Modern Plastics Encyclopaedia. Since the tables are to be marked, the following exercise should be carried out on photocopies! The first stage is to select one of the more demanding requirements and go through the tables, ringing the sub-generic groups that appear to meet this requirement. A second requirement is then taken and the materials that passed the first stage are ringed in a second colour if they appear to meet the second requirement. After a few stages only a shortlist of materials is likely to remain. When this stage has been reached, the materials on the shortlist can be investigated further, checking suppliers, grades available, prices, processability and further details of the material properties, such as, for example, surface finish and scuff resistance, which do not normally feature in property tables.
32.6 A SIMPLE PATHWAY-BASED NON-COMPUTER SELECTION SYSTEM

In this section a selection procedure will be developed for injection moulding, since this process is used for the widest range of materials. The choice available for other processes such as, for example, compression moulding, filament winding and vacuum forming, is much more restricted. The approach described will be less mechanistic than the systems described in the two previous sections, requiring the prospective user to be aware of the properties of the various materials available. Because the approach is somewhat different, it would be instructive to run it parallel to the above processes and compare the results. The basic approach will be to select one generic type initially, with a knowledge of its advantages and limitations. If this material is not suitable, different pathways will be followed depending on the deficiencies of the first material.

896 Material Selection

It is suggested that the first material to be considered is polypropylene. The polymer has a number of desirable properties, as discussed in Chapter 11. These include low density, reasonable toughness, flexibility and strength at normal room temperatures, good resistance to hot water for a moderate period, low water absorption, translucency and good surface finish. Furthermore, it is one of the cheapest materials currently available. If polypropylene is too hard for the purpose envisaged, then the user should consider, progressively, polyethylene, ethylene-vinyl acetate and plasticised PVC. If more rubberiness is required, then a vulcanising rubber such as natural rubber or SBR or a thermoplastic polyolefin elastomer may be considered. If the material requires to be rubbery and oil and/or heat resistant, vulcanising rubbers such as the polychloroprenes, nitrile rubbers, acrylic rubbers or hydrin rubbers or a thermoplastic elastomer such as a thermoplastic polyester elastomer, thermoplastic polyurethane elastomer or thermoplastic polyamide elastomer may be considered. Where it is important that the elastomer remain rubbery at very low temperatures, then NR, SBR, BR or TPO rubbers may be considered where oil resistance is not a consideration. If, however, oil resistance is important, a polypropylene oxide or hydrin rubber may be preferred. Where a wide temperature service range is paramount, a silicone rubber may be indicated. The selection of rubbery materials has been dealt with by the author e l ~ e w h e r e . ~ If polypropylene is too soft and a more rigid product is required, polystyrene will probably be the first material to consider. If this is too brittle, then toughened polystyrene, styrene-acrylonitrile and styrene-maleic anhydride will be assessed. In many instances the demand will be for a rigid, tough, good-finish material with a higher softening point than polystyrene. For a wide range of applications ABS is the appropriate material. Where dimensional stability and good dielectric properties over a range of temperatures and higher deflection temperatures under load are to be taken into account, a blend based on polyphenylene oxide may be preferred. Where transparency is required, a range of polymers is available. Polystyrene is the least expensive but polymethylmethacrylate has an outstanding high light transmission combined with excellent weathering properties. Also to be considered are the polycarbonates, glass-clear polyamides, SAN, butadienestyrene block copolymers, MBS polymers, plasticised PVC, ionomers and cellulose esters such as cellulose acetate. For many applications a polymer with good load-bearing properties is required. This will call for one of the so-called engineering plastics. In this case nylons 6, 66 and, perhaps, 46 will be assessed first, but if a lower water absorption is required the properties of such polyamides as nylon 69, nylon 610, nylon 11, or nylon 12 should be taken into account. Where enhanced stiffness, creep resistance, stiffness and water resistance is required, glass-filled grades may solve the problem, but if low coefficient of friction and/or good moulding appearance are important, then a polyacetal may be considered. Where rigidity and creep resistance are particularly important, then fibre-reinforced polymers, particularly glass-fibre-reinforced polyamides, will be of interest. There is a frequent demand for materials suitable for housings for computer, domestic, electrical and automotive equipment. In these applications toughness, excellent surface finish, surface durability, reasonable rigidity, dimensional stability, good weathering behaviour and low water absorption are common requirements. In these applications ABS is frequently considered first but its limited deflection temperature and heat aging resistance may lead to other

References

897

materials being considered, such as ASA, AES and ACS polymers (Section 16.9), PPO derivatives such as Noryl, polycarbonates (PC), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) and related materials, and alloys such as ABS-PC and PC-PBT. Selection here can be helped in that some suppliers market several of these materials and they produce data which makes comparisons easier than they might have been. Over the years polymers have been produced suitable for use at progressively higher temperatures. Where this is a requirement, it is usual first to decide whether a rubbery or a rigid material is required. If the former, this has been dealt with by the author elsewhere? If the latter, it is usually convenient to look in turn at polycarbonates, PPO-based materials, polyphenylene sulphides, polysulphones, polyketones such as PEEK and PEK, polyamide-imides, polyphthalamides, fluoropolymers, liquid crystal polymers and polyimides. Where fire retardancy is of importance, then reference should be made to Tables 5.13-5.15, which will indicate the intrinsic fire retardancy of the polymer. It will, however, be noted that many polymers may be modified to enhance fire retardancy properties so that fire retardant grades of such polymers may be considered. It is to be noted that such enhanced fire retardancy may be associated with adverse effects on other properties. Where plastics are to be used for electrical applications, then electrical properties as well as mechanical and other properties need to be considered. Whilst properties such as resistivity, power factor and dielectric constant are important, they may not be all-important. For example, although polyamides and many thermosetting plastics may show only moderate values for the above properties, they have frequently been used successfully in low-frequency applications. Perhaps more important for many purposes are the tracking and arcing resistance, which are frequently poor with aromatic polymers. Occasionally, water-soluble plastics are required. Poly(viny1 alcohol) is commonly the first to be considered but some cellulose ethers, polyethylene oxides, poly(viny1 pyrrolidone) and N-substituted polyamides are among many possible alternatives. Consideration of the above factors will cover most applications but polymers are employed in an enormous range of applications, so that many other properties may have to be taken into account. This may result in the use of some of the more esoteric materials but this is somewhat beyond the scope of this section.

References
1. 2. 3. 4.
ALLEN, E. 0. MAIER, MAIER,

and

VAN PUTTE, D. A.,

Plastics Engineering, 30, 37 (1974)

c., British Plostics and Rubber, November (1993)

c., British Plostics and Rubber, April (1993) Rubbery Moterials and Their Compounds, Elsevier Applied Science, London and New York (1988) (Title now held by Chapman and Hall, London)
BRYDSON, J . A , ,