i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 1
APPARATUS / PROCEDURE.............................................................................. 1
PROCEDURE ....................................................................................................... 2
THEORY ............................................................................................................... 3
RESULTS ............................................................................................................. 6
CALCULATIONS ................................................................................................. 7
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT, H .................................................................................................7
VELOCITY UPSTREAM OF WORKING SECTION, V
1
..........................................................................7
MEAN VELOCITY PAST ELEMENT SINGLE ELEMENT ...................................................................7
MEAN VELOCITY PAST ELEMENT FULL WORKING SECTION ........................................................8
NUSSELT AND REYNOLDS NUMBERS SINGLE ELEMENT ............................................................8
NUSSELT AND REYNOLDS NUMBERS FULL WORKING SECTION ................................................8
DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................... 11
RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................................... 12
CONCLUSION .................................................................................................... 12
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................ I


List of Figures, Diagrams & Graphs

Figure 1 Schematic Diagram of Apparatus Used ....................................... 1


Table 1 Given Dimensions ......................................................................... 6
Table 2 Properties Required for Calculations - Given ................................ 6
Table 3 Results of Heat transfer coeff., Nusselt and Reynold Number
Calculations for 3 Sections ........................................................................ 9

Graph 1 Changes in Nusselt Number with respect to Reynolds Number 10



1
OBJECTIVES
To investigate the characteristics of heat transfer associated with cross
flow by evaluating the following scenarios
- Different air velocities
- Flow past an isolated tube and
- Flow past a tube bundle with the element in different positions.


APPARATUS / PROCEDURE



Figure 1 Schematic Diagram of Apparatus Used

Additional Apparatus:-
Stopwatch
Removable Perspex tubes

The copper element was heated and then inserted into the work space
such that it was perpendicular to the air flow. The air velocity was varied
by closing the throttle valve. The Perspex tubes were used to increase
turbulence in the workspace.

2
PROCEDURE
i. With the working section of the apparatus in the empty condition and
with the throttle valve on closed position, the fan was switched on and
the throttle slowly opened until 100% open.
ii. The copper element (cylinder) provided was heated to about 82 C by
inserting it into the low voltage electric heater the control panel.
iii. The heated copper element was then transferred to the central slot of
the working section with the axis in at right angles to the direction of air
flow.
iv. As soon as the temperature of the element reached 80C, within the
work space, the stopwatch was started and the temperature was
recorded at 10 second intervals, until the temperature became constant
same temperature for 3 consecutive intervals.
v. The velocity head valve was recorded from the manometer with the
element still in the work space.
vi. Steps (ii) to (v) were repeated with fan throttle at 80%, 60%, 40% and
20% of full opening.
vii. The tubes provided were placed in the working section with the centre
position in the first row of tubes free to place the copper element. Steps
(ii) to (vi) were repeated.
viii. With the centre position in the third row of tubes free for the copper
element, steps (ii) to (vi) were repeated.












3
THEORY
For convective heat transfer from a solid to a fluid the rate of heat
transmission (dq/dt) is given by the following equation:
dq = hA
1
( T - T
A
)
dt

Where h = heat transfer coefficient for the fluid
A
1
= area normal to the direction of heat flow
T = surface temperature of solid
T
A
= temperature of fluid

The fall in temperature dT of the solid in time dt is given by
dq dt = m.c.dt
dt

Where m = mass of solid
c = specific heat capacity of solid
Combining equations (1) and (2) the following equation is obtained:
dT = hA
1
dt
(T-T
A
) mc

Integrating gives
log
10
(T - T
A
) log
10
(T
o
- T
A
) = - hA
1
t
2.303.m.c

log
10
(T - T
A
) = hA
1
t log
10
(T
o
- T
A
)
2.303. m.c

Where T
o
= element temperature at t = 0.

This is an equation of the straight line form y = Mx + C, with
y = log
10
(T - T
A
)
M = hA
1
t
2.303. m.c
x = t and
C = log
10
(T
o
- T
A
)

A plot of log
10
(T - T
A
) versus t will give M and hence h can be found.
h = 2.303mc M
A
1


4
THEORY
The velocity V
1
, developed by the gas of density, expanding freely under
the influence of pressure difference p is given by
V
1
2
= p
2
Since velocity is given in terms of the velocity head H
1
(cm of water) and
1cmH
2
O = 98.1N/m
2
V
1
2
= 98.1H
1


2
The density of the air under pressure P
A
at temperature T
A
is given by
P
A
= RT
A


where R = 287
Therefore,
V
1
= 237.3
H T
P
A
A
1
1
2
|
\

|
.
|


For the effective velocity(V) past a bank of tubes, the velocity based on full
cross section has to be adjusted according to the flow area available.
When a single element is being studied, the diameter of one elements
under study is one tenth the diameter of the working section, so the flow
area is 9/10 of the full area. Hence, the effective velocity, V = 10/9* V
1
.

Nusselts number, Nu, is the ratio of the conductive thermal resistance of
the gas to the convective thermal resistance of the gas while Reynolds
number, Re, is the ratio of the inertia force of the gas to the viscous force
of the gas.
Nu and Re for a gas with density , viscosity , speed V, thermal
conductivity k and heat transfer coefficient h can be found using the
following equations:
Nu = hD

Re = VD
k

where D
e
is the equivalent diameter through which the gas is
passing, which is given by the following formula:

5
where S
L
and S
T
are the longitudinal pitch and transverse pitch of
the elements
and d is diameter of the elements.

D
S S
d
d
e
L T
=

(
(
(
(
4
4
2
t
t

6
RESULTS

See Appendix Tables R1, R2 and R3

Table 1 Given Dimensions

Width of working
section, m
0.125 Transverse pitch of
elements, m
0.025
Height of working
section, m
0.125 Longitudinal pitch of
elements, m
0.1875
Diameter of element, m 0.0125 Mass of element, kg 0.1093
Length of element, m 0.1035


Table 2 Properties Required for Calculations - Given

Specific heat capacity
of copper, J/kg.K
3.854*10
2

Thermal Conductivity,
W/m K
2.6395*10
-2

Density of Air, kg/m
3
1.17 Viscosity, Pa/s 1.856 * 10
-5




7
CALCULATIONS
Sample Calculations for Copper element alone in central position
with throttle at 100 %

Heat Transfer Coefficient, h
From plot of log(T-T
A
) versus time,
Gradient, M, = - 0.0054 s
-1


A
1
= (d*)*l = (0.0125*3.14)*0.1035 = 0.00406m
2

h = -2.303 m c M /A
1

= -2.303*0.1093*385.4*(-0.0054)/0.00406
h = 128.96 J/m
2
s

Velocity upstream of working section, V
1

Now H
1
= 3.6 cm
V
1
= 237.3
H T
P
A
A
1
1
2
|
\

|
.
|

= 237.3 ([3.6*300]/101300)
1/2

V
1
= 24.50 m/s

Mean velocity past element Single element
Flow past a single element,
V = 10/9 V
1
= (10/9)*24.50
V

= 27.20 m/s




8
CALCULATIONS
Mean velocity past element Full working section
Copper element in central position of 1
st
Row 100% throttle
V = (D/D
eq
)*V
1

D
eq
=

= 4*([0.025*0.01875] [3.14*0.0125
2
/4])/ (3.14*0.0125)
= 0.03527 m
V = (0.125/0.03527)*31.89
= 113.00 m/s

Nusselt and Reynolds Numbers Single element
Nu = (h*D)/k
= (128.96J/m
2
sK*0.125m) / 0.026395W/mK
= 610.70

Re = VD/
= (1.17*27.20*0.125) / 1.856*10
-5
= 214526.20

Nusselt and Reynolds Numbers Full working section
Copper element in central position of 1
st
Row 100% throttle
Nu = (h*D
eq
)/k
= (85.97J/m
2
sK*0.03527m) / 0.026395W/mK
= 114.90

Re = VD
eq
/
= (1.17*113.00*0.03527) / 1.856*10
-5
= 251325.30




D
D S S
T L
t
t ) 4 / ( 4
2

9
CALCULATIONS

Table 3 Results of Heat transfer coeff., Nusselt and Reynold Number Calculations for 3 Sections














Air Flow, % M h H
1
, cm V
1
V=(10/9)*V
1
Nu=hD/k Re=VD/
100 -0.0054 128.96 3.60 24.50 27.2 610.70 214526.2
80 -0.0047 112.24 3.30 23.46 26.1 531.54 205393.2
60 -0.0037 88.36 2.95 22.18 24.6 418.44 194195.9
40 -0.0029 69.25 2.60 20.82 23.1 327.97 182312.2
20 -0.0022 52.54 2.40 20.01 22.2 248.80 175159.9
Air Flow, % M h H
1
, cm V
1
V=(D/D
eq
)*V
1
Nu=hD/k Re=VD/
100 -0.0036 85.97 6.10 31.89 113.0 114.9 251325.4
80 -0.0038 90.75 5.85 31.23 110.7 121.3 246121.5
60 -0.0034 81.19 4.45 27.24 96.5 108.5 214660.2
40 -0.0031 74.03 3.60 24.50 86.8 98.9 193073.6
20 -0.0028 66.87 3.00 22.37 79.3 89.4 176251.2
Air Flow, % M h H
1
, cm V
1
V=(D/D
eq
)*V
1
Nu=hD/k Re=VD/
100 -0.0072 171.94 6.00 31.63 112.1 229.8 249256.9
80 -0.0079 188.66 5.90 31.37 111.2 252.1 247171.0
60 -0.007 167.16 4.65 27.85 98.7 223.4 219431.0
40 -0.0046 109.85 3.45 23.99 85.0 146.8 189008.4
20 -0.0036 85.97 2.95 22.18 78.6 114.9 174776.3
3rd Row
1st Row
EMPTY

10
CALCULATIONS

























Graph 1 Changes in Nusselt Number with respect to Reynolds Number
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
150000 170000 190000 210000 230000 250000
Reynold Number, Re
N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
,

N
u
empty 1st row 3rd Row Linear (1st row) Linear (3rd Row) Linear (empty)

11
DISCUSSION

12
DISCUSSION


RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSION





































I
APPENDIX














































II