A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India

INTRODUCTION IDEAS OF THE EARLY INDIAN PAST
P. 8 EXCERPTS ANCIENT INDIA

FROM
ORIENTALIST, NATIONALIST,
AND
MARXIST WRITINGS
ON
Orientalist Writing
Extracted from James Mill and H.H. Wilson, History of British India. 10 Vols. Book II, 1858, pp. 115 19, 32234.
Rude nations seem to derive a peculiar gratification from pretensions to a remote antiquity. As a boastful and turgid vanity distinguishes remarkably the oriental nations, they have in most instances carried their claims extravagantly high. The people of Hindustan and the ancient nations of Europe came in contact at a single point. The expedition of Alexander the Great began, and in some sort ended, their connexion. Even of this event, so recent and remarkable, the Hindus have no record: they have not a tradition that can with any certainty be traced to it. Some particulars in their mythological stories have by certain European inquirers been supposed to refer to transactions of Alexander, but almost any part as well as another of these unnatural legends may, with equal propriety, receive the same distinction. From the scattered hints contained in the writings of the Greeks, the conclusion can be drawn, that the Hindus, at the time of Alexanders invasion, were in a state of manners, society, and knowledge, exactly the same with that in which they were discovered by the nations of modern Europe; nor is there any reason for differing widely from this opinion. It is certain that the few features of which we have any description from the Greeks, bear no inaccurate resemblance to those which are found to distinguish this people at the present day. From this resemblance, from the state of improvement in which the Indians remain, and from the stationary condition in which their institutions first, and then their manners and character, have a tendency to fix them, it is no unreasonable supposition, that they presented a very uniform appearance during the long interval from the visit of
A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India by Upinder Singh Introduction: Student resources Page 1 of 14
the Greeks to that of English. Their annals, however, from that era till the period of the Mahomedan conquest are a blank. With regard to the ancient history of India, we are still not without resources. The meritorious researches of the modern Europeans, who have explored the institutions, the laws, the manners, the arts, occupations and the maxims of this ancient people, have enabled philosophy to draw the picture of society, which they presented through a long revolution of years. We cannot describe the lives of their kings, or the circumstances and results of a train of battles. But we can show how they lived together as members of the community, and of families; how they were arranged in society; what arts they practised, what tenets they believed in, what manners they displayed; under what species of government they existed; and what character as human beings they possessed. This is by far the most useful and important part of history; and if it be true, as an acute and eloquent historian has remarked that the sudden, violent, and unprepared revolutions incident to barbarians, are so much guided by caprice, and terminate so often in cruelty, that they disgust us by the uniformity of their appearance, and it is rather fortunate for letters that they are buried in silence and oblivion, we have perhaps but little to regret in the total absence of Hindu records. Much attention has been attracted to the gentleness of manners of this people. They possess a feminine softness both in their persons and in their address. As the inhabitants of Europe were rough and impetuous, in their rude and early state, and grew mild only as they grew civilized, the gentleness of Hindu manners has usually impressed their European visitors with a high conception of their progress in civilization. It is, perhaps, a ground of presumption, but fallacious if taken as a proof. One of the circumstances that distinguish the state of commencing civilization is, that it is compatible with great violence, as well as great gentleness of manners. Nothing is more common than examples of both. The causes which seem to account for these effects are partly physical and partly moral. Where the commodities of life, in a happy union of climate and soil, are abundant, gentleness of manners, as appears by the traditions respecting the golden or pastoral age, is by no means unnatural to men in the earliest period of improvement. The savage, involved in a continual struggle with want, who sees himself and his children everyday exposed to perish with hunger, is, by a sort of necessity, rapacious, harsh, unfeeling, and cruel. The species of polity under which the national character is formed, is perhaps, to a still greater degree, the cause of the diversity which we now contemplate. Where the mind is free and vent its passions with little fear, the nation, while ignorant and rude, is
also fierce and impetuous. Where slavery prevails, and any departure from the most perfect obsequiousness is followed with the most direful consequences, and insinuating and fawning behaviour is the interest, and thence becomes the habit of the people. With the same causes are connected the other leading features in the character of the Hindus. They are remarkably prone to flattery; the most prevailing mode of address from the weak to the strong, while men are still ignorant and unreflecting. The Hindus are full of dissimulation and falsehood, the universal concomitants of oppression. The vices of falsehood, indeed, they carry to a height almost unexampled among the other races of men. Judicial mendacity is more than common; it is almost universal. Another remarkable circumstance in the character of the Hindus; in part, too, no doubt, the effect of corporeal weakness, though an effect in sort opposite to that excitability which we have immediately remarked, is the inertness of disposition, with which all men have been so forcibly struck in observing the conduct of this peculiar race. The love of repose reigns in Indian with more powerful sway than in any other regions probably of the globe. It is more happy to be seated than to walk; it is more happy to sleep than to be awake; but the happiest of all is death. Such is one of the favourite sayings, most frequently in the mouths of this listless tribe, and most descriptive of their habitual propensities. Phlegmatic indolence pervades the nation. Few pains, to the mind of the Hindu, are equal to that of bodily exertion; the pleasure must be intense which he prefers to that of its total cessation. This listless apathy and corporeal weakness of the natives of Hindustan, have been ascribed to the climate under which they live. But other nations, subject to the influence of as warm a sun, are neither indolent nor weak; the Malays, for example, the Arabians, the Chinese. The savage is listless and indolent under every clime. In general, this disposition must arise from the absence of the motives to work; because the pain of moderate labour are so many and great, that the prospect of them, where allowed to operate, can seldom fail to produce the exertion which they require. There is a state of barbarity and rudeness which implies, perhaps, a weakness of mind too great to be capable of perceiving, with a clearness sufficient to operate upon the will, the benefits of labour. This, however, is a state beyond which the Hindus have long since passed; and there is but one cause, to which, among the Hindus the absence of labour can be ascribed; their subjection to a wretched government, under which the fruits of labour were never secure.
Nationalist Writing
Extracted from R.C. Majumdar (Gen. ed.), The Classical Age. Vol. 3, The History and Culture of the Indian People. 2nd reprint, [1954] 1962. Preface, pp. xlvixlix.
The Gupta Age, which forms the subject-matter of this volume, has been described in rapturous terms, as the Golden Age, the classical period of Indian history, etc. and fully does it deserve these appellations. It was during this period that Indian intellect reached its high watermark in most branches of art, science and literature, and Indian culture and civilization reached a unique stage of development which left its deep impress upon succeeding ages. For the detailed justification of this claim the reader is referred to the volume itself, particularly Chapters XV and XIX. It will suffice here to state only a few broad facts. The period witnessed the highest development of Sanskrit literature, alike in prose, poetry and drama. It was the age of Kalidasa, who stands unrivalled, even unapproached, as poet and dramatist. It was also the age of Dandin, Subandhu, and Banabhatta, the greatest writers in Sanskrit prose. The six systems of Philosophy which some regard as the greatest intellectual contribution of India to the stock of human knowledge, took final shape mostly during this period, which also produced great Buddhist philosophers like Vasubandhu. It was also the age of Amara, the greatest lexicographer in Sanskrit. In the field of science, we have the shining figures of Aryabhata, Varahamihira, and Brahmagupta, whose works in Mathematics and Astronomy are still reckoned as the greatest contribution of India to science in the ancient world. It will be enough to recall the fact that Aryabhata was the first to discover that the earth rotates on its axis and move round the sun. Reference should also be made to the epoch-making discovery of the decimal system of notation which has revolutionized the process of arithmetical calculations and is now used all over the world. As regards technical science, the great iron pillar at Meharauli near Delhi is a triumph of metallurgy. The Gupta Age made equally splendid contribution in the domain of art. Some of the figures in stone at Sarnath and in colour at Ajanta are justly regarded as masterpieces all over the world. The art is justly styled classical, for the sculptures and paintings of this period set the standard which was alike the ideal and despair of succeeding ages. They still remain the finest production of Indian art to which modern world has appropriately paid a high tribute of praise. Finally this was the age made memorable to three hundred million Hindus by the fact that it witnessed the evolution of that form of Brahmanical religion which they follow today. It saw the final development of the two great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the phenomenal growth of the two religious creeds like Buddhism and Jainism. The vast Puranic literature which originated, or at least took definite shape, during this period, completed the break from the Vedic Age and set on a solid foundation what is now
commonly known as Hinduism, the culmination of a religious movement which had behind it the rich heritage of the diverse people of India. The replacement of Prakrit by Sanskrit as the court-language and the high development of Sanskrit literature in all branches gave a position of pre-eminence to Sanskrit language which became the lingua franca of educated Indians. It served as the medium of a cultural unity which has left an indelible mark upon the people and struggles in later times. This cultural unity has survived strange political vicissitudes and foreign domination and constitutes today the one sure basis of the political unity and nationality in the Indian Republic. During the Gupta Age this cultural unity overspread the natural boundaries of India and embraced within its fold a vast region lying beyond the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas, and across the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. The beginnings of Indias intercourse with the outside world have been described in the preceding volume. During the period under review, flourishing Hindu state arose in different parts of the mainland of Asia and the East Indies, such as Buram, Siam, the Malaya Peninsula, Annam, Cambodia, Sumatra, Java, Bali and Borneo. Their rulers regarded themselves as descended from Indian colonists and the Indian culture made a thorough conquest of the people. Even in Central and Eastern Asia, where we have no definite evidence of political domination by the Indian colonists, the cultural influence of India was very great. The activities of Indian missionaries in China during the Gupta Age may be regarded as almost unique in the annals of cultural relations between two independent countries. We have clear and detailed evidence of the spread of the cultural influence to Tibet, Korea, Japan and even the Philippine island in the east, and over the vast region in the north that lay along the overland route from China to India through Central Asia. Thus came into being the Greater India which sheds lustre on the Gupta Age no less than the cultural renaissance in India. The intellectual greatness which characterises the Gupta Age was typified in the University of Nalanda. The name and fame of this great seat of learning reached the remotest corners of Asia and attracted students from all parts of the vast continent. It was the symbol of the great international culture of which India was the universally acknowledged centre. This culture was promoted by the increased intercourse, during this age between Indian and other Asiatic countries, particularly China. The detailed account that we possess of Indias cordial relations with these countries, as given in Chapter XXIII, reveals a cultural internationalism of the Asiatic world such as has rarely been witnessed since. The facts recounted above will more than justify the appellations Periclean Age of India which is often applied to the Gupta period. The all-round greatness of Athens in the fifth century BC not only in itself but also with reference to its effect on the progress of
humanity, may not unreasonably be compared with that of India under the Guptas. As in the case of Periclean Athens, the new era of culture ushered in by the Guptas long survived their political power. The Gupta dynasty came to an end in the middle or latter half of the sixth century AD, but the Gupta Age may be said to have continued for two centuries more. The spirit and genius of Kalidasa were inherited, to some extend, by Bhavabhuti and Bharavi, while Banabhatta surpassed Dandin and Subandhu as a master of prose. The rhetorician Bhamaha and philosophers like Kumarila and Prabhakara kept up the highest tradition in these branches of literature. The form and ideal of the sculptures at Sarnath and the paintings of Ajanta caves inspired the artists who kept up the traditions for one or two centuries. Even the imperial traditions of the Guptas were never entirely lost sight of, and repeated attempts were made to revive the imperial unity, though success was always short lived. Further, as mentioned above, the ideas of political unity were more successfully pursued in Deccan and South Indian by the Chalukya and the Pallavas. Moreover, the development of the Puranic religion and its predominance over Buddhism and Jainism, as well as the great development in art and literature were equally characteristic of the Gupta and the Chalukya-Pallava period. Thus although the Guptas did not rule over the whole of Indian or for the entire period dealt with in this volume, the name Gupta Age may be fittingly applied to it, for the activities of the Gupta rulers and the cultural renaissance which followed in their wake mattered most during the whole period and have mattered most to the large majority of Indians ever since.
Extracted from R.C. Majumdar (Gen. ed.), The Vedic Age. Vol. 1, The History and Culture of the Indian People. 5th reprint, [1951] 1971, pp. 2740.
In spite of the limitation of our knowledge of the political history of the period, there can be no doubt that its chief interest and importance lie in the picture of cultural and civilization offered by the vast field of Vedic literature. Whereas everything else is but vaguely known, we possess nearly full information about the growth and gradual evolution of the Indian civilization from the well-marked stratification of the mass of literature, collectively known as the Vedas. It is also a matter of general knowledge that this civilization is the common basis on which succeeding generations of diverse races and localities have built up the imposing structure known as the Hindu civilization. This would explain why this volume has been entitled The Vedic Age, and detailed study has been made of it in three different sections, corresponding to the three well-marked stages of the evolution of Vedic literature.
The chief difference between Indian and the other ancient countries mentioned above lies in the continuity of her history and civilization. The culture and civilization of Egypt, Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Assyria, and Persia have long ceased to exist. They are known where past memories and their history possesses only an academic interest. Indian history possesses only an academic interest. Indian history and institutions, however, form an unbroken chain by which the past is indissolubly linked up with the present. The modern people of Egypt and Mesopotamia have no bonds whatsoever with the civilization that flourished there millennia ago, and its memorials have no more (usually very very much less) meaning to them than to any enlightened man in any part of the world. But not so in India. The icons discovered at Mohenjo-daro are those of gods and goddesses who are still worshipped in India, and Hindus from the Himalaya to Cape Comorin repeat even today the Vedic hymns which were uttered on the banks of the Indus nearly four thousand years ago. This continuity in language and literature and in religious and social usages, is more prominent in India than even in Greece and Italy, where we can trace the same continuity in history. The social and religious ideas of ancient Greece and Rome and their philosophy and outlook on life, in short some of the most essential factors which give individuality to a nation and preserve its continuity, are almost foreign to the people now inhabiting those lands. An artificial continuity is no doubt maintained in these two countries and the link with the past is not altogether snapped, as in the cases of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Nevertheless, the difference can only be regarding as one of degree and not of kind; and neither Greece nor Italy offers a parallel to India, in respect of either antiquity or continuity of civilization. To this difference may be added the present position of India. Her political subjection and lack of material power have relegated here to a position of marked inferiority in the eyes of the world. Both these causes have affected the study of the history of India in more ways than one. It has been easy, for instance, to bring a detached scientific spirit to bear on the study of the history of India. The reason is not far to seek, and may be traced to a psychological instinct or political prejudice. The Indian of today has cast its shadow on the past, and few writers have been able to disentangle the two and viewed through the spectacles of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. V.A. Smith, the well-known historian of ancient Indian and a distinguished member of the Indian Civil Service, never concealed his anxiety to prove the beneficence of the British Raj by holding before his readers the picture of anarchy and confusion which in his view has been the normal condition in Indian with rare intervals. To him, as to many others before and after him, ancient Indian history after the death of Harsh-vardhana was merely a pathetic tale of political chaos and internecine struggle, pointing to the inevitable moral such was India and such it always has been till the British established a stable order. Sometime the pendulum swings to the opposition extreme and Indian writers seek to find in ancient India a replica of the most advanced political institutions of the West. From
isolated phrases of doubtful import they conjure up a picture of a full-fledged modern democracy and even of an up-to-date parliamentary form of government. This is counterblast, from the Indian side, to the inveterate belief of European writers in undiluted autocracy as the only form of government that ever prevailed in India. To them Oriental despotism is an article of faith that colours their whole outlook. Some have also inherited the classical idea that wisdom and enlightenment were always a sort of monopoly of the West, and the East, comparatively as backward as she is today, must have acquired all the elements of higher culture from the West. The squalid poverty of modern India colours the outlook on economic conditions in ancient and medieval times. Even enlightened historians find it difficult to accept the view that Indians built ships and navigated the seas, for no better reason than that modern India shows such an aversion form, and ineptitude for maritime activities. Such instances may be multiplied to almost any extent. There are no doubt expectations, but one cannot deny, or overlook, the broad fact that Indian history has suffered much from an instinct to read the present into the past. The opposite danger of reading the past into the present has been no less a potential factor in distorting the history of India. To many the most glaring imperfections and even the most degrading features of modern Indian social life are sanctified by its present from and effect, but by a reference to what they conceive to be its original character, and the part it is supposed to have played in building up an ideal society in the past. This almost necessarily leads to the artificial creation of a golden age which rests mainly on imagination and intuition, independent of historical evidence. This intellectual support of false doctrines and bad institution in the name of Indias past often proceeds from a perverted form of patriotic sentiments or an inborn sense of national pride. In either case it is a wrong interpretation of Indian history, and what is worse, such interpretation is often devised as an instrument for consecrating all deep-seated prejudices. The student of Indian history must avoid these pitfalls and follow the modern methods of scientific research. Our aim should be the discovery of truth, and nothing but the truth and in order to attain this goal we must apply our minds fearlessly and without prejudice and preconceptions to the study of all available evidence. We should properly sift these data by all rational methods, handle them in the spirit of a judge rather than an advocate, and formulate our conclusions only as far as they permit us to do so. We may not achieve definite results in many cases, and final and decisive conclusion would probably be few and far between. But it is better to plead ignorance, express doubts and put forward alternative possibilities rather than definitively uphold a view on meagre and insufficient grounds. We must be particularly on our guard where any such view is likely to evoke strong sentiments and passions or affect the interest of any class or community. The history of Indias past touches the present life of Indians on many point, and we may legitimately expect the one to guide and control the other. This makes it all the more
difficult, especially for an Indian writer, to take a detached view of the history of India and approach it in a purely scientific attitude. Nevertheless the difficulty great as it is must be overcome and a proper critical spirit should be cultivated, if we are to read and write the story of Indias past and correctly understand its implications for the future. Marxist Writing
Extracted from Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi, An Introduction to the Study of Indian History. Rep. edn. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan, [1956] 1998.
We are thus led inevitably to concentrate upon successive developments, in chronological order, in the means and relations of production. Only this can tell us how people lived at any period. The point of view here is, as in any other science worth the name, purely materialistic. Man makes himself by using tools in order to live increasingly well at the expense of his environment. The sole practical test of his success has been, in the past, comparatively sudden increase in the human population with every important basic discovery in the means of production. Social organization cannot be more advanced than the instruments of production will allow. Particularly when man has progressed from the food-gathering quasi-animal stage to that of food production, which definitely raises him above the animal. Our definition has the merit of forcing us to notice and to account for certain features peculiar to Indian society and history, such as caste, or the remarkable lack of historical sense among all but a few of the most recent intellectuals. Certainly, this is the only definition known which will allow a reasonable treatment of pre-literate history, generally termed pre-history. The technique of applying the definition in practice means not only the collation of the written record with archaeology, but the interpretation of each of these in conjunction with ethnographic data. The existence of any classical literature implies the class-division of society; literacy in the oldest times meant the pre-existence of a temple, priesthood, urban life, division of society into producing groups and others who expropriated the relatively low surplus produced. Only the latter wrote the epigraphy with which the historian must work; the producers had not the leisure for literacy. Digging up the past tells us a good deal about the instruments of production. To work back from the houses, grave-goods, tools, and utensils found by the archaeologists to the former productive relations, usually relations between classes and groups, needs a study of ethnography. The principle has been used by modern archaeologists, who utilize studies of modern but still primitive African or Australian tribes to evaluate finds in Europe. Thus, certain types of joint burial would indicate whether the society was predominantly matriarchal, patriarchal, in transition from the former to the latter, or in the pre-clan state preceding both. We have to go much deeper than this for the grasp of Indian tradition. It is not the primitive tribes of other countries that are of primary interest here, nor primitive Indian survivals in marginal territory such as the Khasis, Nagas, Oraons, Bhils, Todas, Kadars. The social clusters that survive even in the heart of fully developed areas, say in and
around cities, with others which mark all strata of a caste society as having developed at some older date from the absorption of tribal groups, constitute priceless evidence for the interpretation of some ancient record or archaeological find. Their survival as backward groups also furnishes the real problem for explanation in the light of historical development. India is a country of long survivals. People of the atomic age rub elbows with those of the chalcolithic. The vast majority of countryside gods are still daubed with a red pigment that is a palpable substitute for long-vanished blood sacrificeswhich also survive in a few cases, although the very idea of blood sacrifices would now come as a shock to many devotees. One finds rites practiced which clearly go back to the stone age, though the votariesoften people with a modern educationare not conscious of the incredibly long continuity. Such practices may have no foundation in Brahmin scriptures. But other portions of Sanskrit ritual works show equally primitive sacraments adopted at almost all periods, down to the last century. Formulae from the Rigveda are still recited, after three millennia, at orthodox Hindu marriage and funeral ceremonies for the higher castes; but the same rites often show features that have no vedic justification whatsoever, practiced with the same earnestness as the documented Vedic portion, without incongruity or contradiction being felt by the participant. Concentration upon the study of religion, superstition, ritual can lead us very far away from history; to neglect their study altogether throws away valuable features of the superstructure that indicate real changes in the basis. The survivals mean that no conflict was felt in that particular case, or that primitive instruments of production have endured in spite of imposing complicated, often tortuous, development of the superstructure. There was rarely the bitter, violent conflict between the most primitive and most developed elements of society in India that one finds in the devastating interaction of Spanish conquistadors (with their fire-arms and small-pox) with tribal cultures in South America; or of traders who carried syphilis, tuberculosis, measles, alcohol to the previously healthy population of many South Sea islands. No Indian conquest had the pernicious effect of Roman legions and moneylenders upon transalpine Gauls, or of medieval Christian missionaries upon Germanic tribal priests. The present approach implies a definite theory of history known as dialectical materialism, also called Marxism after its founder. An excellent statement of what we need occurs in Karl Marxs preface to his Critique of Political Economy (1859). When one applies these inspiring words to the Indian problem, it must be kept in mind that Marx speaks of all mankind where we deal only with a fraction. For short periods in restricted localities, a dead end, retrogression, or evolution by atrophy are possible
which cannot stop the progress of mankind as a whole, not even mankind under the threat of total annihilation by atomic warfare. We shall at times have to reconstruct the material changes from what survives as marks upon the ideological superstructure, but let it be noted that Marxism is far from the economic determinism which its opponents so often take it to be. For that matter, any intelligent determinism must discuss condition rather than causes, and take full cognizance of the course of historical development. This is fairly well brought out in two books by V.G. Chiled: Piecing together the Past (London 1956) and The Prehistory of European Society (London 1958). Ideas (including superstition) become a force, once they have gripped the masses; they supply the forms in which men become conscious of their conflicts and fight them out. No historian may dismiss or ignore such ideas nor can he be regarded as having fulfilled his tasks unless he shows why, how, and when the grip was secured. The adoption of Marxs thesis does not mean blind repetition of all his conclusions (and even less, those of the official, party line Marxists) at all times. It will be shown that Indian had never a classical slave economy in the same sense as Greece or Rome. The die-hard argument that some people were not free, there was some sort of slavery, is not to the point here. The issue is of quantity, which by massive change transforms quality too. The really vexed question is what is meant by The Asiatic mode of production, never dearly defined by Marx. For all that, the theoretical basis remains Marxistas I understand the method. Thus, the more important question is not who was king, nor whether the given region had a king, but whether its people used a plough, light or heavy, at the time. The type of kingship, as a function of the property relations and surplus produced, depends upon the method of agriculture, not conversely. What was the role of caste in breaking up tribal groups to annex them to society? Where did the metals come from? When did commodity-exchange crops like the coconut become important; what relation did they have to communal and private land-holdings? Why have we no large-scale chattel slavery in the classical period and no proper serfdom in the feudal? What is the reason for survival of Mesolithic rites, continued worship of stone-age gods even today among all classes? These questions have at least to be raised, their answers, worked out as far as possible, if one adopts the new approach. Dynastic changes of importance, vast religious upheavals, are generally indicative of powerful changes in the productive basis, hence must be studied as such, not dismissed as senseless flickers on the surface of an unchanging substratum. The methods outlined above must be used actively in the study, for their validity has been proved by experience.
The present work cannot by its very nature be comprehensive. The field is now too vast for any one man to cover. But I hope at least to delineate a wide framework within which detailed results may be expected, while pointing out the methods available for reaching the end of such investigations. This implies some previous knowledge or further study on the part of the reader. Specifically, the reader should find here a reconstruction of the different ways whereby the three major geographical divisions of India (ignoring the recent separation of Pakistan) were settled and led to civilization: the valley of the Indus, the valley of the Ganges, and the peninsula. He will have to remember that no single mode prevailed uniformly over the whole country at any one time; so it is necessary to select for treatment that particular mode which, at any period, was the most vigorous, most likely to dominate production, and which inevitably spread over the greater part of the country, no matter how many of the older forms survived in outward appearance. Indian school texts now credit the Guptas with a revival of nationalism, a phrase piously repeated by all. Actually, no extant golden age court drama or other literature makes direct reference to any Gupta. Kalidasas Malavikagnimitra is related to the Sungas; the Mudraraksasa of Visakhadatta purports to describe the masterly intrigue whereby Chanakya placed Chandragupta Maurya securely upon the throne of Magadha. Only the Puranas among contemporary documents mention the early Guptas, contemptuously grouped with many other petty kings. The main praise of the Guptas is found mostly in their own inscriptions, forgotten for a millennium, until read by European scholars from Prinsep onwards in the 19th century. Even the names of the emperors had passed from memory. Once read, published, and translated, the records were eagerly seized upon by the nascent Indian bourgeoisie as contradiction of the constant British slogan: India has no history, except conquest by a continuous succession of foreign invaders. Far from the Guptas reviving nationalism, it was nationalism that revived the Guptas.
FURTHER RESOURCES
A Note on the Translations of Inscriptions For the sake of easy accessibility, in A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, nonEnglish words have been spelt phonetically and diacritical marks have not been used. The translated excerpts from texts in this web supplement also do not use diacritics. However, as most academic writings use certain transliteration and diacritic conventions, it is a good idea to understand them. The currently used transliteration conventions for Sanskrit and Tamil have been indicated on p. 644 of the book.
In order to increase familiarity with these conventions, the translations of inscriptions in this Web supplement have retained the transliteration conventions that are used in their original publications. Please note that there are some variations in the systems used, and that the translations that were published in the 19th and early 20th century use a slightly different system. For example, in older writings, the ^ mark is used instead of the macron ( ) to indicate long vowels, and this mark is also used over certain short vowels where currently scholars prefer to leave them out. You will also notice some variations in the way in which the first two palatal consonants are transliterated, as cha and chha instead of ca and cha. The retroflex is also often transliterated as sh. The retroflex is sometimes written as i. When you read inscriptions in the original, you should also be aware of a few basic epigraphic conventions: In the case of Sanskrit, an equal sign (=) is used to indicate euphonic combination (sandhi), and a dash (-) is used to separate compound words (samsas). Where there are both sandhi and samsa, the dash sign is used. Different kinds of brackets are also used in the transliteration of the original text of inscriptions: () Simple round brackets indicate corrections and doubtful points. [] Square brackets indicate damaged or partially illegible letters; or letters that can nevertheless be supplied with certainty. [*] Square brackets that have letters and an asterisk inside show that letters or punctuation marks are omitted in the original text.
Some Books That Are Well Worth Reading A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India has detailed in-text references, lists of further readings, and a bibliography. A few of the more recent books that you may find useful are listed below, with brief comments: Ali, Daud. 2006. Courtly Culture and Political Life in Early Medieval India. New Delhi, Foundation Books. This very thought-provoking analysis of textual, inscriptional and sculptural source material related to the first millennium asks new, refreshing questions about political culture in early medieval India. Hawkes, Jason and Akira Shimada, eds. 2009. Buddhist Stupas in South Asia: Recent Archaeological, Art-Historical, and Historical Perspectives. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. This book, which looks at Buddhist stupas from many different perspectives, is a valuable addition to the literature on the subject.
Pollock, Sheldon. 2006. The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture and Power in Premodern India. Berkeley, University of California Press. A brilliant, historically grounded theorizing of the relationship between language, culture and power, accompanied by thought-provoking cross-cultural parallels. It is already mentioned in my books Bibliography, but I would like to emphasize that it is essential reading for postgraduate students and for anyone who wants to go beyond the basics of ancient Indian history. Rangachari, Devika. 2009. Invisible Women, Visible Histories: Gender, Society, and Polity in North India (7th-12th century AD). Delhi: Manohar. This book takes the important step of inserting gender and women into the narrative of early medieval India. Tyagi, Jaya. 2008. Engendering the Early Household: Brahmanical Precepts in the Early Grhyasutras, Middle of the First Millennium BCE. New Delhi: Orient Longman. A useful, detailed study of what an important and influential category of Brahmanical texts have to say about gender and the household. Veluthat, Kesavan. 2008. The Early Medieval in South India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. This is an important collection of essays on a variety of themes related to early medieval South India.
QUESTIONS AND ISSUES TO THINK ABOUT

A history of ancient India from prehistory to the 12th century generates hundreds of questions. Given below are some questions of varied complexity and detail. These can be used as a basis for writing essays, class discussions, or as issues to think about. 1. Reflect on the relationship between political power, ideology and history-writing with reference to the historiography of ancient India. 2. What are some of the gaps and silences that you have noticed in the history books that you have read? How do you explain these, and how can they be addressed? 3. Why is history bound to be open-ended?
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 1 UNDERSTANDING LITERARY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

P. 26 EXTRACTS FROM BUDDHIST TEXTS
Extracted from E. B. Cowell, ed., The Jataka, or Stories of the Buddhas Former Births, Vol. I, Book I. Translated from Pali by Various Hands. New Delhi: Low Price Publications, [1894] 1990.
The Jataka no. 179, Satadhamma Jataka This story the Master told while sojourning in Jetavana, about the twenty-one unlawful ways of carving a livelihood. At one time there were a great many brethren who used to get a living by being physicians, or runners, doing errands on foot, exchanging alms for alms, and the like, the twenty-one unlawful callings, all this will be set forth in the Saketa Birth. When the Master found out that they got their living thus, he said, Now there are a great many Brethren who get their living in unlawful ways. Those who got their living thus will not escape birth as goblins or disembodied spirits; they will become beasts of burden; they will be born in hell; for their benefit and blessing it is necessary to hold a discourse which bears its own moral clear and plain. So he summoned the community together, and said, Brethren, you must not win your necessaries by the one-and-twenty unlawful methods. Food won unlawfully is like a piece of redhot iron, like a deadly poison. These unlawful methods are blamed and rebuked by disciples of all Buddhas and Pacceka-Buddhas. For those who eat food gained by unlawful means there is no laughter and no joy. Food got in this way, in my religion, is like the leavings of one of the lowest caste. To partake of it, for a disciple of the Religion of the Good is like partaking of the leavings of the vilest of mankind. And with these words, he told an old-world story: Once upon a time, when Brahmadatta was king of Benares, the Bodhisatta was born as the son of a man of the lowest caste. When he grew up, he took the road for some purpose, taking for his provision some rice grains in a basket. At that time there was a young fellow in Benares, named Satadhamma. He was the son of a magnifico, a Northern Brahmin. He also took the road for some purpose, but neither rice grains nor basket had he. The two met upon the highway. Said the young brahmin to the other, What caste are you of? He replied, Of the lowest. And what are you? Oh, I am a Northern Brahmin. All right, let us journey together; and so together they fared
A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India by Upinder Singh Chapter 1: Student resources Page 1 of 17
along. Breakfast time came. The Bodhisatta sat down where there was some nice water, and washed his hands, and opened his basket. Will you have some? said he. Tut, tut, says the other, 1 want none, you low fellow. All right, says the Bodhisatta. Careful to waste none, he put as much as he wanted in a leaf apart from the rest, fastened up his basket, and ate. Then he took a drink of water, washed his hands and feet, and picked up the rest of his rice and food. Come along, young Sir, says he, and they started off again on their journey. All day they tramped along; and at evening they both had a bath in some nice water. When they came out, the Bodhisatta sat down in a nice place, undid his parcel, and began to eat. This time he did not offer the other a share. The young gentleman was tired with walking all day, and hungry to the bottom of his soul; there the other ate away thinking, If he offers me any, Ill beg a piece, I can throw away the outside, which is defiled, and eat the rest. And so he did; he ate what was left. As soon as he had eaten, he thought, How I have disgraced my birth, my clan, my family! Why, I have eaten the leavings of a low born churl! Keen indeed was his remorse; he threw up the food, and blood came with it. Oh, what a wicked deed I Have done, he wept, all for the sake of a trifle! and he went on in the words of the first stanza: What a trifle! And his leavings! Given too against his will! And I am a highborn Brahmin! And the stuff has made me ill! Thus did the young gentleman make his lamentation; adding, Why did I do such a wicked thing just for lifes sake? He plunged into the jungle, and never let any eye see him again, but there he died forlorn. The Jataka no. 299, Komaya-putta Jataka This story the Master told in Pubbarama, about some Brethren who were rude and rough in their manners. These what they had seen and heard, and were quarrelsome and abusive. The Master called Mahamoggallana to him, and bade him go startle them. The Elder rose in the air, and just touched the foundation of the house with his great toe. It shook to the furthest edge of ocean! The Brothers were frightened to death, and came and stood outside. Their rough behaviour became known among the Brethren. One day they got to talking about it in the Hall of Truth. Friends, there are some Brethren who have retired to this house of salvation, who are rough and rude; they do not see the impermanence, sorrow and unreality of the world, nor do their duty. The Master came in, and asked what they were discussing as they sat there. They told him. This is not the first time, Brethren, said he, that they have been rough and rude. They were the same before. And he told them an old world tale. Once upon a time, when Brahmadatta reigned king in Benares, the Bodhisatta was born as a brahmins son in a village. They named him Komayaputta. By and by he went out and embraced the religious life in the region of Himalaya. There were some frivolous
ascetics who had made a hermitage in that region, and there they lived. But they did not take the means to induce religious ecstasy. They fetched the fruits from the woods, to eat; then they spent the time laughing and joking together. They had a monkey, rudemannered like themselves, which gave them endless amusement by his grimaces and antics. Long they lived in this place, till they had to go amongst men again to get salt and condiments. After they went away, the Bodhisatta lived in their dwelling-place. The monkey played his pranks for him as he had done for the others. The Bodhisatta snapt his fingers at him, and gave him a lecture, saying, One who lives with will-trained ascetics ought to behave properly, ought to be well-advised in his actions, and devoted to meditation. After that, the monkey was always virtuous and well-behaved. After this, the Bodhisatta moved away. The other ascetics returned with their salt and condiments. But the monkey no longer played his pranks for them. Whats this, my friend, they asked. Why dont you make sport, as you used to do? One of them repeated the first stanza: Aforetime you were used to play Where in this hut we hermits stay. O monkey! As a monkey do; When you are good we love not you. On hearing this, the Monkey repeated the second stanza: All perfect wisdom by the word Of wise Komaya I have heard. Think me not now as I was late; Now its my love to meditate. Hereupon the anchorite repeated the third: If seed upon the rock you sow, Though rain should fall, it will not grow. You may hear perfect wisdom still; But meditate you never will.
P. 27 EXTRACTS FROM JAINA TEXTS

Extracted from Jaina Sutras, Part I, Sacred Books of the East series, translated by Hermann Jacobi. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984.
Acharanga Sutra 4 The Arhats and Bhagavats of the past, present, and future, all say thus, speak thus, declare thus, explain thus: all breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. (1) This is the pure, unchangeable, eternal law, which the clever ones, who understand the world, have declared: among the zealous and the not zealous, among the faithful and the not faithful, among the not cruel and the cruel, among those who have worldly weakness and those who have not, among those who like social bonds and those who do not: that is the truth, that is so, that is proclaimed in this (creed). (2) Having adopted (the law), one should not hide it, nor forsake it. Correctly understanding the law, one should arrive at indifference for the impressions of the senses, and not act on the motives of the world. He who is not of this mind, how should he come to the other? What has been said here, has been seen (by the omniscient ones), heard (by the believers), acknowledged (by the faithful), and thoroughly understood by them. Those who acquiesce and indulge (in worldly pleasures), are born again and again. Day and night exerting thyself, steadfast, always having ready wisdom, perceive that the careless (stand) outside (of salvation); if careful, thou wilt always conquer. Thus I say. (3)
Acharanga Sutra 5 Staying in or between houses, in or between villages, in or between towns, in or between counties, a monk is attacked by murderers, or is subject to the hardships (of a mendicants life). A hero should bear these hardships. (1) A saint, with right intuition, who cherishes compassion for the world, in the east, west, south, and north, should preach, spread, and praise (the faith), knowing the sacred lore. He should proclaim it among those who exert themselves, and those who do not, among those who are willing to hear (the word). (2) Not neglecting tranquility, indifference, patience, liberation, purity, uprightness, gentleness, and freedom from worldly cares, one should, with due consideration, preach the law of the mendicants to all sorts of creatures. (3)
With due consideration preaching the law of the mendicants, one should do no injury to ones self, nor to anybody else, nor to any of the four kinds of living beings. But a great sage, neither injuring nor injured, becomes a shelter for all sorts of afflicted creatures, even as an island, which is never covered with water. (4) Thus a man who exerts himself, and is of a steady mind, without attachment, unmoved (by passion) but restless (in wandering about), having no worldly desires, should lead the life of an ascetic. Having contemplated the beautiful law, the discerning one is liberated. Therefore look at worldliness, ye men, fettered in fetters! Those whom lust conquers, sink; therefore do not shrink from the hard (control)! He who knows (and renounces) perfectly and thoroughly these injurious acts, from whom the injurers do not shrink, who has shaken off wrath, pride, delusion, and greed, he is called a removed one. Thus I say. (5) On the decay of the body (he does not despond, but deserves) his appellation, the leader of the battle. The sage who has reached the other side, unafflicted and unmoved like a beam, being in the power of death, desires death as the dissolution of the body. Thus I say. (6) __________________________________ End of the Sixth Lecture, called the Cleaning.
P. 27 POEMS FROM THE SANGAM CORPUS

Extracted from The Purananuru, Four Hundred Songs of War and Wisdom: An Anthology of Poems from Classical Tamil. Translated and edited by George L. Hart and Hank Heifetz. London: Penguin Books, 2002.
Puanu 112 That day in the white light of the moon, we had our father and enemies had not taken our mountain. This day in the white light of the moon kings whose royal drums beat victory have taken our mountain
and we have lost our father The song of Pris daughters Puanu 113 They would open pots of liquor, slaughter rams, cook rice and fine meat and give them to whoever wanted them so rich you were, such friendship you showed before. Now Pri is dead, I am bewildered and lost. My eyes stream tears. I bow and go, praising you, great-named Paampu mountain, to find men fit to touch the fragrant dark hair of his daughter their wrists decorated with many small bangles. The song of Kapilar, as he took leave of Paampu [mountain] to give in marriage to Brahmins the daughters of V Pri Puanu 123 Anyone, if he drinks toddy in the morning and gets happily drunk by the time he holds court, can give away chariots. But Malaiya, whose good fame never lessens, gives without getting drunk more tall ornamented chariots than there are drops in the clouds that form over rich Mullr mountain. Kapilar sings Malaiyam Tirumuikkri Puanu 183 Learning is a fine thing to have if a student helps a teacher in his troubles, gives him a mass of wealth and honors him without ever showing disdain! Among those born from the same belly,
Who share the same nature, a mothers heart will be most tender toward the most learned! Of all who are born into a joint family, a king will not summon the eldest to his side but instead he will show favor to the man among them who has the greatest knowledge! And with the four classes of society distinguished as different, should anyone from the lowest become a learned man, someone of the highest class, reverently, will come to him to study! The song of Pantiyan Ariyappatai Katanta Netunceliyan. Tinai:potuviyal. Turai: porunmolikkanci Puanu 219 On an island in a river, in a spotted shade, you sit and your body dries up. Are you angry with me, warrior who have asked so many to join you here? The song of Karuvrp Perucatukkattup Ptantar to Kperuca as he faced north [to starve himself to death].
Extracted from The Interior Landscape: Love Poems from a Classical Tail Anthology. Translated by A. K. Ramanujan. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1975.
What She Said When my lover is by my side I am happy as a city in the rapture of a carnival, and when he is gone I grieve like a deserted house in a little hamlet of the wastelands where the squirrel plays in the front yard.
Aniltu Muilr, Kuuntokai 41 What Her Friend Said to Him Even if passion should pass, O man of the hills where after the long tempestuous rains of night the mornings waterfalls make music in the caverns, would our love also pass with the passion? Kapilar, Kuuntokai 42 What He Said As a little white snake with lovely stripes on its young body troubles the jungle elephant this slip of a girl her teeth like sprouts of new rice her wrists stacked with bangles troubles me Catti Ntar, Kuuntokai 119
Extracted from Poets of the Tamil Anthologies. Translated by George L. Hart III. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979.
Ananu 82 Many saw him as he stood with a flowering garland on his chest near the entrance of the field of ripe millet and asked which way the elephant he was fighting had gone, carefully choosing an arrow and holding in his hand his strong, well-shaped bow, he from a land where the summer westwind makes flute music in the shining holes bored by bees in swaying bamboo, where the pleasant sound of cool waters dropping from a waterfall
is the thick voice of many concert drums, where the harsh cries of a herd of dear are the brass trumpets, where the bees on the flowering mountain slopes are the lutes, and where, as an audience of monkeys looks on with delight, a peacock swaying happily looks like a dancing woman entering the stage. Friend, of all those who saw him, why am I the only one who, lying on my bed in the night with its difficult darkness, my eyes streaming with tears, feel my arms grow thin? Kapilar, Kuici
FURTHER RESOURCES
PHOTOGRAPHS OF 19TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURY SCHOLARS
J. PH. VOGEL (EPIGRAPHIST)
STEN KONOW (EPIGRAPHIST)
JAMES BURGESS (ARCHITECTURAL SCHOLAR)
PHOTOGRAPHS OF SOURCES
INSCRIPTION ON RUMMINDEI PILLAR OF ASHOKA
RIDDHAPUR COPPER PLATES OF VAKATAKA QUEEN PRABHAVATIGUPTA (BRAHMI SCRIPT)

RIDDHAPUR COPPER PLATES OF VAKATAKA QUEEN PRABHAVATIGUPTA (BRAHMI SCRIPT)
RAJPUT PERIOD INSCRIPTIONS ON DELHITOPRA PILLAR
NAGARJUNAKONDA INSCRIPTIONS IN ORNAMENTAL BRAHMI
COPPER PLATE INSCRIPTIONS

A history of ancient India from prehistory to the 12th century generates hundreds of questions. Given below are some questions of varied complexity and detail. These can be used as a basis for writing essays, class discussions, or as issues to think about. 1. Discuss the relationship between sources, facts and interpretation in the discipline of history. 2. Why is it so difficult to date many ancient Indian texts? Discuss, giving specific examples. 3. Discuss the relationship between myth and history in the context of texts such as the epics and the Puranas. 4. Texts do not reflect the past, they represent it. Discuss this issue with reference to specific categories of ancient literary sources. 5. What are the issues that have be kept in mind when historicizing ancient Indian texts? Discuss with reference to specific texts. 6. What are the problems that arise while correlating evidence from texts and archaeology? Do you think that attempts at such correlation have been successful in the context of early Indian history? 7. Reflect on the connections between state formation and the emergence and development of the genre of royal biographies. 8. Discuss the nature of ancient Indian historical traditions. In what ways do these traditions differ from the perspectives of modern historians? 9. What are the major scientific techniques used in archaeology today? 10. Discuss the role of interpretation in archaeology. 11. What is the relationship between archaeology and history? 12. Discuss the potential of ethno-archaeology for the construction of the ancient past. 13. Discuss the issues that have to be kept in mind if inscriptions are analysed as inscribed texts. 14. How would you explain the significance of language shifts in inscriptions?
15. Do you agree that literary sources represent a purely normative view of the past while inscriptions take us into the realm of social practice? 16. Reflect on the multiple roles played by coinage in ancient cultures. 17. Who is responsible for the protection of our historical heritage?
Photographs Archaeological Survey of India
CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 2 HUNTER-GATHERERS OF THE HUNTER-GATHERERS OF THE PALAEOLIITHIIC PALAEOL TH C AND MESOLIITHIIC AGE AND MESOL TH C AGE
FURTHER RESOURCES
ROCK PAINTINGS, HOSHANGABAD

A history of ancient India from prehistory to the 12th century generates hundreds of questions. Given below are some questions of varied complexity and detail. These can be used as a basis for writing essays, class discussions, or as issues to think about. 1. Why is prehistory such an important part of the human past? 2. Discuss the various stages in the biological and cultural evolution of hominids, with special reference to the discoveries of hominid remains in the Indian subcontinent. 3. Reflect on the implications of stone age environments for the lives of stone age communities, with references to specific palaeoenvironmental studies. 4. What are the problems and challenges in reconstructing the ways of life of prehistoric people? 5. Why is the stereotypical description of stone age humans as primitive savages not justified? 6. Discuss the utility and limitations of the classification of the stone age into palaeolithic, mesolithic, and neolithic.
7. Discuss the evidence of animal domestication at mesolithic sites. 8. Reflect on the possible reasons for changes in stone tool typo-technology. 9. How can we make inferences about gender relations in prehistoric societies?
10. 11.
Did prehistoric humans have an aesthetic sense? Discuss how prehistoric art represents an important, evocative window into the world of stone age people.
CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 3 THE TRANSIITIION TO FOOD RODUCTIION: THE TRANS T ON TO FOOD RODUCT ON: NEOLIITHIIC,, NEOLIITHIICCHALCOLIITHIIC,, NEOL TH C NEOL TH CCHALCOL TH C AND CHALCOLIITHIIC VIILLAGES, AND CHALCOL TH C V LLAGES, C. 70002000 BCE C. 70002000 BCE
FURTHER RESOURCES
PHOTOGRAPHS OF ARTEFACTS FROM BURZAHOM
PAINTED SPOUTED POT
HARVESTER WITH TWO PERFORATIONS
STONE ADZE
BARBED ARROWHEAD

A history of ancient India from prehistory to the 12th century generates hundreds of questions. Given below are some questions of varied complexity and detail. These can be used as a basis for writing essays, class discussions, or as issues to think about. 1. Discuss the meaning and implications of the terms domestication and food production. 2. What are the various ways in which archaeologists have tried to explain the transition to domestication? 3. Discuss the various scientific techniques used in reconstructing early subsistence practices. 4. Why is Mehrgarh considered such an important site? 5. What are the implications of the new data regarding areas of early agriculture in the Indian subcontinent? 6. Discuss the varied chronology and patterns of the transition to agriculture in different parts of the subcontinent. 7. What are the ways in which archaeologists have explained the relationship between neolithic settlements and ash mounds in South India?
8. How can we assess the possible symbolic significance of female figurines? Why is it problematic to give all female figurines a blanket label of Mother Goddesses? 9. Discuss how ethno-archaeology can make an important contribution in helping us understand the lives of early hunter-gatherers and farmers. 10. Discuss the relationship between hunting, animal husbandry, and farming in ancient times. 11. How can the different types of formal burial practices in the Neolithic age be interpreted?
CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 4 THE HARAPPAN CIIVIILIIZATIION,, THE HARAPPAN C V L ZAT ON C. 26001900 BCE C. 26001900 BCE
FURTHER RESOURCES
PHOTOGRAPHS OF HARAPPAN SITES AND ARTEFACTS
MOHENJODARO: THE CHAMBER OF DEAD
MOHENJODARO: THE CHAMBER OF DEAD (DETAIL)
MAIN STREET, KALIBANGAN
MUD BRICK FLOORING, KALIBANGAN
LEFT: FLUTED CORE (KALIBANGAN); RIGHT: MINIATURE PERFORATED JAR (KALIBANGAN)
ABOVE LEFT: MINIATURE VASE (KALIBANGAN); ABOVE RIGHT: COPPER CELT WITH CONVEX EDGE (SURKOTADA)
ANTHROPOLOGIST EXAMINING SKELETON AT LOTHAL
DRAIN'S DISCHARGING POINT, LOTHAL
LOTHAL: EXCAVATIONS IN PROGRESS
CLOSE-UP OF DRAIN AT LOTHAL
WALL OF DOCKYARD DURING EXCAVATIONS AT LOTHAL
BHAGWANPURA: TOY RAM FROM LATE HARAPPANPGW OVERLAP LEVEL
IVORY OBJECTS
ABOVE AND LEFT: GOLD NECKLACES, LOTHAL

LOTHAL: MINIATURE POT, PAINTED WITH A DEER AND A BIRD
BANAWALI: SEALS
BANAWALI: TERRACOTTA SEALING
BANAWALI: TERRACOTTA BEADS
BANAWALI: TERRACOTTA GRAFFITI
DHOLAVIRA: SMALL EASTERN TANK
DHOLAVIRA: STRUCTURA L REMAINS OF CITADEL
DHOLAVIRA: PILLAR BASE OF EAST GATE
DHOLAVIRA: EXCAVATIONS IN PROGRESS
DHOLAVIRA: VIEW OF MIDDLE TOWN STREET
DHOLAVIRA: VIEW OF LOWER TOWN STREET

DHOLAVIRA: VIEW OF SITE

DHOLAVIRA: SIGNBOARD
DHOLAVIRA: SEALS
DHOLAVIRA: IN SITU BEADS
DHOLAVIRA: PERFORATED JAR

A history of ancient India from prehistory to the 12th century generates hundreds of questions. Given below are some questions of varied complexity and detail. These can be used as a basis for writing essays, class discussions, or as issues to think about. 1. Explain the differences between the terms culture and civilization. 2. How have recent excavations altered our understanding of the Harappan civilization? 3. Explain the elements of continuity and change between the early, mature, and late Harappan phases. 4. Discuss the importance of agriculture in urban cultures, with reference to the connections between the rural and urban economy in the Harappan civilization. 5. Reflect on the possible explanations for the level of standardization in Harappan crafts. 6. Discuss the relative importance of internal and long-distance trade in the Harappan civilization. 7. What are the various roles that writing played in the Harappan civilization? 8. To what extent is it possible to reach conclusions about gender relations in the Harappan civilization? 9. How do we know whether figurines or representations on Harappan seals had a cultic significance? 10. Discuss the problems in identifying the existence of a state society and polity on the basis of archaeological evidence. 11. Why is the theory of the Aryan massacre unacceptable? 12. Do you think that drastic environmental change was an important factor in the decline of the Harappan civilization? 13. Do civilizations end?
CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 5 CULTURAL TRANSIITIIONS: CULTURAL TRANS T ONS: IIMAGES FROM TEXT AND MAGES FROM TEXT AND ARCHAEOLOGY,, ARCHAEOLOGY C. 2000600 BCE C. 2000600 BCE
P. 198 VEDIC HYMNS
Extracted from Anthony MacDonell, A Vedic Reader for Students. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1917.
Hymn to Agni Guardian of the people, watchful, most skilful, Agni has been born for renewed welfare. Butter-faced, bright, he shines forth brilliantly for the Bharatas with lofty, heaventouching (flame). As banner of sacrifice, as first domestic priest, men have kindled Agni in the threefold abode. (Coming) on the same car with Indra and the gods may that most wise Invoker sit down on the sacrificial grass for sacrifice. Uncleansed thou art born bright from thy two parents. Thou didst arise as the gladdening sage of Vivasvant. With butter they strengthened thee, O Agni, in whom the offering is poured. Smoke became thy banner that reached to the sky. Let Agni come straightway to our sacrifice. Men carry Agni hither and thither in every house. Agni became the messenger, the carrier of oblations. In choosing Agni they choose one who has the wisdom of a seer. For thee, O Agni, let this most honeyed speech, for thee this prayer be a comfort to thy heart. The songs fill thee, as the great rivers the Indus, with power, and strengthen thee. Thee, O Agni, the Angirases discovered hidden, abiding in every wood. Thus thou art born, when rubbed with mighty strength: they call thee the son of strength, O Angiras. In whom King Varuna, in whom Soma, the All-gods drink exhilarating strength, into whom Agni Vaisvanara has entered: let those Waters, the goddesses, help me here.
Hymn to Mitra-Varuna Up the lovely eye of you two gods, O (Mitra and) Varuna, rises, the Sun, having spread (his light); he who regards all beings observes their intention among mortals. Forth for you two, O Mitra-Varuna, this pious Priest, heard afar, sends his hymns, that ye may favour his prayers, ye wise ones, that ye may fill his autumns as it were with wisdom. From the wide earth, O Mitra-Varuna, from the high lofty sky, O bounteous ones, ye have placed your spies that go separately, in plants and abodes, ye that protect with unwinking eye. I will praise the ordinance of Mitra and Varuna: their force presses apart the two worlds with might. May the months of non-sacrificers pass without sons; may he whose heart is set on sacrifice extend his circle. O wise mighty ones, all these (praises) are for you two, in which no marvel is seen nor mystery. Avengers follow the falsehoods of men: there have been no secrets for you not to know. With reverence I will consecrate for you the sacrifice; I call on you two, Mitra-Varuna, with zeal. (These) new thoughts are to praise you; may these prayers that have been offered be pleasing. This priestly service, O gods, has been rendered to you two at sacrifices, O Mitra-Varuna. Take us across all hardships. Do ye protect us evermore with blessings.
Hymn of the Gambler The dangling ones, born in a windy place, of the lofty (tree) gladden me as they roll on the dice-board. Like the draught of the Soma from Mujavant, the enlivening Vibhidaka has pleased me. She does not scold me, she is not angry: she was kind to friends and to me. For the sake of a die too high by one I have driven away a devoted wife. My mother-in-law hates me; my wife drives me away: the man in distress finds none to pity him: I find no more use in a gambler than in an aged horse that is for sale. Others embrace the wife of him for whose possessions the victorious die has been eager. Father, mother, brothers say of him. we know him not, lead him away bound.
When I think to myself, I will not go with them; I shall be left behind by my friends as they depart (to play) and the brown ones, thrown down, have raised their voices, I go straight, like a courtesan, to their place of assignation. The gambler goes to the assembly hall, asking himself, shall I conquer, trembling with his body. The dice run counter to his desire, bestowing on his adversary at play the lucky throws. The dice are hooked, piercing, deceitful, burning and causing to burn; presenting gifts like boys, striking back the victors, sweetened with honey by magic power over the gambler. Their host of three fifties plays like god Savitr whose laws are true: they bow not before the wrath of even the mighty; even a king pays them obeisance. They roll down, they spring upward. Though without hands, they overcome him that has hands. Divine coals thrown down upon the gaming-board, being cold, they burn up the heart. Forsaken the wife of the gambler is grieved, the mother (too) of the son that wanders who knows where. Indebted, fearing, desiring money he approaches at night the house of others. It pains the gambler when he sees a woman, the wife of others, and their well-ordered home. Since her yokes the brown horses in the morning, he falls down (in the evening) near the fire, a beggar. To him who as the general of your great throng, as king has become the first of your host, I stretch forth my ten fingersI withhold no moneythis is truth I say. Play not with dice; ply thy tillage; rejoice in thy property, thinking much of it; there are thy cattle, O gambler, there thy wife: this Savitr here, the noble, reveals to me. Pray make friendship, be gracious to us. Do not forcibly bewitch us with magic power. Let your wrath, your enmity now come to rest. Let another now be in the toils of the brown ones.
P. 230
PLAN OF THE DAIMABAD COMPLEX WITH APSIDAL TEMPLE
Source: S.A. Sali, Daimabad 197679 MASI: 83. New Delhi: Archaeological Society of India, 1986.
P. 253 PHOTOGRAPHS OF MEGALITHS FROM VARIOUS SITES
ABOVE: MEGALITHS X AND V, BRAHMAGIRI; BELOW : CIST BURIAL, BRAHMAGIRI; RIGHT: ROCK CUT CAVE, COCHIN
FURTHER RESOURCES
PHOTOGRAPHS
DAIMABAD BRONZES
BUFFALO
ELEPHANT
GROUP
RHINOCEROS
SIDE VIEW OF MAN ON CHARIOT
PAINTED DESIGNS ON DAIMABAD POTTERY
TOP RIGHT: PAINTED POT; LEFT, TOP LEFT, AND ABOVE: PAINTED POT SHERDS
MEGALITHIC BURIALS
TOP LEFT: DOLMENOID CIST BURIAL WITH SARCOPHAGI, SANUR; ABOVE: DOUBLE CIST BURIAL, SANUR; LEFT: SKELETON WITH GRAVE GOODS, BRAHMAGIRI
ARTEFACTS FROM VARIOUS SITES
ABOVE AND RIGHT: AHICHCHHATRA: GREY WARE; ABOVE RIGHT: COPPER HOARD HARPOONS
COPPER HOARD ANTHROPOMORPHS AND OTHER OBJECTS

A history of ancient India from prehistory to the 12th century generates hundreds of questions. Given below are some questions of varied complexity and detail. These can be used as a basis for writing essays, class discussions, or as issues to think about.
1. What are the difficulties in dating the Rig Veda? 2. What do you understand by the term Indo-Aryan? Why has the Aryan issue been the focus of so much heated debate? 3. Discuss the ideas related to nature and deities represented in the hymns of the Rig Veda. 4. Why does the question of the position of women in ancient societies have to be replaced by other, more meaningful questions?
5. Reflect on the relationship between social stratification and the emergence of monarchical states in north India during the first millennium BCE. 6. Discuss the origins and nature of the four-fold varna order in Vedic texts. 7. Discuss the complex relationship between goddess worship and gender relations in ancient Indian societies. 8. Apart from the Vedas, what are the other sources of information for the history of the subcontinent between c. 2000 and 500 BCE? 9. Discuss the importance of pottery in archaeology. How can spreads of and changes in ceramic traditions be interpreted? 10. To what extent can evidence from archaeological cultures be correlated with the content of the Vedas? 11. How do the Daimabad and Inamgaon reports reflect the potential of archaeology for reconstructing the lives of ancient communities? 12. Discuss the various types of ancient megalithic monuments and their possible significance. 13. Discuss the literary and archaeological evidence for the beginnings and early development of iron technology in different regions of the subcontinent. 14. Why is technological determinism not tenable as an explanation of cultural/historical change? Discuss with reference to the iron debate.
CHAPTER 6 CITIES, KINGS, AND RENUNCIANTS: NORTH INDIA, C. 600300 BCE
P. 307 EXCERPTS FROM BUDDHIST TEXTS

Extracted from Vinaya Texts, Part I: The Patimokkha, The Mahavagga IIV. Reprinted edition translated from Pali by T. W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, [1885] 1982.
At that time there was in Benares a noble youth, Yasa by name, the son of a setthi (or treasurer) and delicately nurtured. He had three palaces, one for winter, one for summer, one for the rainy season. In the palace for the rainy season he lived during the four months (of that season), surrounded with female musicians among whom no man was, and he did not descend from that palace (all that time). Now one day Yasa, the noble youth, who was endowed with, and possessed of the five pleasures of sense, while he was attended (by those female musicians), fell asleep sooner than usual; and after him his attendants also fell asleep. Now an oil lamp was burning through the whole night. And Yasa, the noble youth, awoke sooner than usual and he saw his attendants sleeping. One her lute leaning against her arm-pit; one had tabor leaning against her arm-pit, one had her tabor leaning against her neck; one had her drum leaning against her arm-pit, one had disheveled hair; one had saliva flowing from her mouth, and they were muttering in their sleep. One would think it was a cemetery one had fallen into. When he saw that, the evils (of the life he led) manifested themselves to him; his mind became weary (of worldly pleasures). And Yasa, the noble youth, gave utterance to this solemn exclamation: Alas! What distress. Alas! What danger! And Yasa, the noble youth, put on his gilt slippers, and went to the gate of his house. Non-human beings opened the gate, in order that no being might prevent Yasa the noble youths leaving the world, and going forth into the houseless state. And Yasa, the noble youth, went to the gate of the city. Non-human beings opened the gate, in order that no being might prevent Yasa the noble youths leaving the world, and going forth into the houseless state. And Yasa, the noble youth, went to the deer park Isipatana. At that time the Blessed One [i.e. the Buddha], having arisen in the night, at dawn was walking up and down in the open air. And the Blessed One saw Yasa, the noble youth, coming from afar. And when he saw him, he left the place where he was walking, and sat down on a seat laid out (for him). And Yasa, the noble youth, gave utterance near the Blessed One to that solemn exclamation: Alas! What distress; alas! What danger! And the Blessed One said to Yasa, the noble youth, Here is no distress, Yasa, here is no danger. Come here, Yasa, sit down; I will teach you the Truth (Dhamma).
And Yasa, the noble youth, when he heard that there was no distress, and that there was no danger, became glad and joyful; and he put off his gilt slippers, and went off to the place where the Blessed One was; having approached him and having respectfully saluted the Blessed One, he sat down near him. When Yasa, the noble youth was sitting near him, the Blessed One preached to him in due course: that is to say, he talked about the merits obtained by alms-giving, about the duties of morality, about heaven, about the evils, the vanity, and the sinfulness of desires, and about the blessings of the abandonment of desire. When the Blessed One saw that the mind of Yasa, the noble youth, was prepared, impressible, free from obstacles (to understanding the Truth), elated, and believing, then he preached what is the principal doctrine of the Buddhas, namely, Suffering, The Cause of suffering, the Cessation of suffering, the Path. Just as a clean cloth free from black specks properly takes the dye, thus Yasa, the noble youth, even while sitting there, obtained the pure and spotless Eye of the Truth (that is, the knowledge): Whatsoever is subject to the condition of origination is subject also the condition of cessation. Now the mother of Yasa, the noble youth, having gone up to his palace, did not see Yasa, the noble youth, and she went to the setthi, the house-holder (her husband), and having approached him, she said to the setthi, the householder: Your son Yasa, O householder, has disappeared. Then the setthi, the householder, sent messengers on horse-back to the four quarters of the horizon, and he went himself to the deer park Isipatana. Then the setthi, the householder, saw on the ground the marks of the gilt slippers, and when he saw them, he followed them up. And the Blessed One saw the setthi, the householder, coming from afar. On seeing him, he thought: What if I were to effect such an exercise of miraculous power, that the setthi, the householder, sitting here, should not see Yasa, the noble youth, who is sitting here also. And the Blessed One effected such an exercise of his miraculous power. And the setthi, the householder, went to the place where the Blessed One was, having approached him, he said to the Blessed One: Pray, Lord, has the Blessed One seen Yasa, the noble youth? Well, householder, sit down. Perhaps, sitting here, you may see Yasa, the noble youth, sitting here also. And the setthi, the householder, who thought: Indeed, sitting here I shall see Yasa, the noble youth, sitting here also! became glad and joyful and having respectfully saluted the Blessed One, he sat down near him. When the setthi, the householder, was sitting near him, the Blessed One preached to him in due course; that is to say, he talked about the merits obtained by alms-giving. And the setthi, the householder, having seen the Truth, having mastered the Truth, having penetrated the Truth, having overcome uncertainty, having dispelled all doubts, having gained full knowledge, dependent on nobody else for the knowledge of the doctrine of the Teacher, said to the Blessed One: Glorious, Lord! Glorious, Lord! Just as if one
should set up, Lord, what had been overturned, or should reveal what had been hidden, or should point out the way to one who had lost his way, or should bring a lamp into the darkness, in order that those who had eyes might see visible things, thus has the Blessed One preached the doctrine in many ways. I take my refuge, Lord, in the Blessed One, and in the Dhamma, and in the fraternity of Bhikkhus; may the Blessed One receive me from this day forth while my life lasts as a disciple who has taken his refuge in Him. This was the first person in the world who became a lay-disciple by the formula of the holy triad. And Yasa, the noble youth, while instruction was administered (by the Buddha) to his father, contemplated the stage of knowledge which he had seen with his mind and understood; and his mind became free from attachment to the world, and was released from the Asavas. Then the Blessed One thought: Yasa, the noble youth, while instruction was administered to his father, has contemplated the stage of knowledge which he had seen with his mind and understood; and his mind has become free from attachment to the world. And has become released from the Asavas. It is impossible that Yasa, the noble youth, should return to the world and enjoy pleasures, as he did before, when he lived in his house. What if I were now to put an end to that exertion of my miraculous power. And the Blessed One put an end to that exertion of his miraculous power. Then the setthi, the householder, saw Yasa the noble youth, sitting there. On seeing him he said to Yasa, the noble youth: My son Yasa, your mother is absorbed in lamentation and grief; restore your mother to life. Then Yasa, the noble youth, looked at the Blessed One. And the Blessed One said to the setthi, the householder: What do you think then, O householder? That Yasa has (first) won only an imperfect degree of knowledge and insight into the Truth, as you have yourself? Or that rather he was contemplating the stage of knowledge which he had seen with his mind and understood; and that his mind has thus become free from the Asavas? Now would it then be possible O householder, that Yasa should return to the world and enjoy pleasures as he did before, when he lived in his house? Not so, Lord. Yasa, the noble youth, O householder, had (first) won, like yourself, an imperfect degree of knowledge and insight into the Truth. But when he was contemplating the stage of knowledge that he has seen with his mind and understood, his mind has become free from attachment to the world, and has become released from the Asavas. It is impossible, O householder, that Yasa, the noble youth, should return to the world and enjoy pleasures as he did before, when he lived in his house. It is all gain, Lord, to Yasa, the noble youth, it is high bliss, Lord, for Yasa, the noble youth, that the mind of Yasa, the noble youth, has become free from attachment to the world and has become released from the Asavas. Might, Lord, the Blessed One consent to take his meal with me to-day together with Yasa, the noble youth, as his attendant?
The Blessed One expressed his consent by remaining silent. Then the setthi, the householder, when he understood that the Blessed One had accepted his invitation, rose from his seat, respectfully saluted the Blessed One, and passing round him with his right side towards him, departed thence. And Yasa, the noble youth, soon after the setthi, the householder, was gone, said to the Blessed One: Lord, let me receive the pabbagga and upasampada ordinations from the Blessed One. Come, O Bhikkhu, said the Blessed One, well taught is the doctrine; lead a holy life for the sake of the complete extinction of suffering. Thus this venerable person received the Upasampada ordination. At that time there were seven Arahats in the world. End of the story of Yasas pabbagga.
P. 316 JAINA TEXTS

Extracted from: F. Max Muller, ed., Jaina Sutras, Part II, Sacred Books of the East series. Translated by Hermann Jacobi. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984.
Uttaradhyana 5: Death Against Ones Will In this ocean (of life) will its currents (viz. births) difficult to cross, one man has reached the opposite shore; one wise man has given an answer to the following question. (1) These two ways of life ending with death have been declared: death with ones will, and death against ones will. (2) Death against ones will is that of ignorant men, and it happens (to the same individual) many times. Death with ones will is that of wise men, and at best it happens but once. (3) Mahavira has (thus) described the first kind in which an ignorant man, being attached to pleasures, does very cruel actions. (4) A man attached to pleasures and amusements will be caught in the trap (of deceit). (He thinks): I never saw the next world, but I have seen with my own eyes the pleasures of this life. (5) The pleasures of this life are (as it were) in your hand, but the future ones are uncertain. Who knows whether there is a next world or not? (6)
The fool boasts: I shall have the company of (most) men. But by his love of pleasures and amusements he will come to grief. (7) Then he begins to act cruelly against movable and immovable beings, and he kills living beings with a purpose or without. (8) An ignorant man kills, lies, deceives, calumniates, dissembles, drinks liquor, and eats meat, thinking that this is the right thing to do. (9) Overbearing in acts and words, desirous for wealth and women, he accumulates sins in two ways, just as a young snake gathers dust (both on and in its body). (10) Then he suffers ill and is attacked by disease: and he is in dread of the next world when he reflects on his deeds. (11) I have heard of the places in hell, and of the destination of the sinner, where the fools who do cruel deeds will suffer violently. (12) Then going to the place where he is to be born again according to his deeds, he feels remorse, as I have heard (from my teacher). (13) As a charioteer, who against his better judgment leaves the smooth highway and gets on a rugged road, repents when the axle breaks; so the fool, who transgresses the Law and embraces unrighteousness, repents in the hour of death, like (the charioteer) over the broken axle. (1415) Then when death comes at last, the fool trembles in fear; he dies the death against ones will, (having lost his chance) like a gambler vanquished by Kali. (16) Thus has been explained the fools death against ones will; now hear from me the wise mens death with ones will! (17) Full of peace and without injury to any one is, as I have heard (from my teachers), the death of the virtuous who control themselves and subdue their senses. (18) (Such a death) does not fall to the lot of every monk, nor of every householder; for the morality of householders is of various character, and that of monks is not always good throughout. (19) Some householders are superior to some monks in self-control; but the saints are superior to all householders in self-control. (20) Bark and skin (of a goat), nakedness, twisted hair, baldnessthese (outward tokens) will not save a sinful ascetic. (21)
A sinner, though he be a mendicant (friar), will not escape hell; but a pious man, whether monk or householder, ascends to heaven. (22) A faithful man should practise the rules of conduct for householders; he should never neglect the Posaha fast in both fortnights, not even for a single night. (23) When under such discipline he lives piously even as a householder, he will, on quitting flesh and bones, share the world of the Yakshas. (24) Now a restrained monk will become one of the two: either one free from all misery or a god of great power. (25) To the highest regions, in due order, to those where there is no delusion, and to those which are full of light, where the glorious (gods dwell)who have long life, great power, great lustre, who can change their shape at will, who are beautiful as on their first day, and have the brilliancy of many sunsto such places go those who are trained in selfcontrol and penance, monks or householders, who have obtained liberation by absence of passion. (2628) Having heard (this) from the venerable men who control themselves and subdue their senses, the virtuous and the learned do not tremble in the hour of death. (29) A wise man having weighed (both kinds of death) and chosen the better one (taught in) the Law of Compassion, will become calm through patience, with an undisturbed mind (at the time of death). (30) When the right time (to prepare for death) has arrived, a faithful (monk) should in the presence (of his teacher) suppress all emotions (of fear or joy) and wait for the dissolution of his body. (31) When the time for quitting the body has come, a sage dies the death with ones will, according to one of the three methods. (32) Thus I say. Uttaradhyayana 25: The Houseless Monk Learn from me, with attentive minds, the road shown by the wise ones, which leads a monk who follows it, to the end of all misery. (1) Giving up the life in a house, and taking Pravragya, a sage should know and renounce those attachments which take hold of men. (2) A restrained monk should abstain from killing, lying, stealing, carnal intercourse, from desire, love and greed. (3)
Even in his thoughts a monk should not long for a pleasant, painted house filled with the fragrance of garlands and frankincense, secured by doors, and decorated with a white ceiling-cloth. (4) For in such a dwelling a monk will find it difficult to prevent his senses from increased desire and passion. (5) He should be content to live on a burial-place, in a deserted house, below a tree, in solitude, or in a place which had been prepared for the sake of somebody else. (6) A well-controlled monk should live in a pure place, which is not too much crowded, and where no women live. (7) He should not build a house, nor cause others to erect one; for many living beings both movable and immovable, both subtile and gross, are seen to be killed when a house is being built; therefore a monk should abstain from building a house. (89) The same holds good with the cooking of food and drink, or with ones causing them to be cooked. Out of compassion for living beings one should not cook nor cause another to cook. (10) Beings which live in water, corn, or in earth and wood, are destroyed in food and drink; therefore a monk should cause nobody to cook. (11) There is nothing so dangerous as fire, for it spreads in all directions and is able to destroy many beings; one should therefore not light a fire. (12) Even in his thoughts a monk should not long for gold and silver; indifferent alike to dirt and gold he abstains from buying and selling. (13) If he buys, he becomes a buyer; if he sells, he becomes a merchant; a monk is not to engage in buying and selling. (14) A monk who is to live on alms, should beg and not buy; buying and selling is a great sin; but to live on alms is benefitting. (15) He should collect his alms in small parts according to the Sutras and so as to avoid faults; a monk should contentedly go on his begging-tour, whether he get alms or not. (16) A great sage should not eat for the sake of the pleasant taste (of the food) but for the sustenance of life, being not dainty nor eager for good fare, restraining his tongue, and being without cupidity. (17) Even in his thoughts he should not desire to be presented with flowers, to be offered a seat, to be eloquently greeted, or to be offered presents, or to get a magnificent welcome and treatment. (18)
He should meditate on true things only, committing no sins and having no property; he should walk about careless of his body till his end arrives. (19) Rejecting food when the time of his death arrives, and leaving the human body, he comes his own master, and is liberated from misery. (20) Without property, without egoism, free from passions and the Asravas, he obtains absolute knowledge, and reaches eternal beatitude. (21) Thus I say.
FURTHER RESOURCES
PHOTOGRAPHS
THE PIPRAHAWA STUPA
ABOVE: GENERAL VIEW OF THE STUPA, LEFT: BRICK STRUCTURE OF THE STUPA
EXCAVATIONS IN PROGRESS
CUNNINGHAMS SKETCH OF THE RUINS AT SARNATH

A history of ancient India from prehistory to the 12th century generates hundreds of questions. Given below are some questions of varied complexity and detail. These can be used as a basis for writing essays, class discussions, or as issues to think about. 1. What are the historical implications of the debate on the date of the Buddha? 2. What are the possible reasons for differences between the Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jaina accounts of the political history of early historical north India? 3. Discuss the differences between the structure of rajyas and ganas/sanghas. Why did nationalist historians tend to exaggerate the democratic nature of the latter? 4. Reflect on the relationship between the emergence of cities and states. 5. Discuss the social vocabulary of early Buddhist texts. To what extent does this vocabulary reflect significant social and economic changes of the time and the Buddhist attitude towards these changes? 6. Reflect on the importance of forests and forest people in ancient Indian history. Why do history books generally say so little about them? 7. Discuss the relationship between class, caste, gender, and the state in early historical north India. 8. Reflect on the doctrinal similarities and differences between the Upanishads and early Buddhism and Jainism. 9. Discuss the relationship between the monastic order and the laity in the Buddhist and Jaina traditions. 10. What were the attitudes of early Indian religious traditions vis--vis the relationship between women, salvation, and renunciation?
CHAPTER 7 POWER AND PIETY: THE MAURYA EMPIRE, C. 324187 BCE

P. 335 SCHEMATIC PLAN OF A ROYAL PALACE, BASED ON THE ARTHASHASTRA
FURTHER RESOURCES
PHOTOGRAPHS OF SOURCES
ASHOKAN BRAHMI (COPY OF INSCRIPTIONS ON DELHITOPRA PILLAR)
INSCRIPTIONS ON DELHITOPRA PILLAR

1. Discuss the importance of the Arthashastra as a treatise on statecraft. Why can this text not be treated as a direct description of Maurya administration? 2. Discuss the problems in using Megasthenes Indica as a source of history. 3. Analyse the potential of archaeological data in understanding the historical processes of the Maurya period 4. Discuss the debate over the nature of the Maurya state. 5. Analyse the relationship between Ashokas Buddhist beliefs and the dhamma of his inscriptions. 6. Reflect on the significance of the differences in languages and scripts in Ashokan inscriptions. In what ways does the content of the Aramaic inscriptions differ from those in Brahmi? 7. Discuss the symbolic significance of the sculptural motifs associated with Ashokan pillars. 8. Reflect on the later histories of Ashokan pillars, with special reference to the Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Meerut, and Allahabad pillars. 9. Reflecting on the relationship between art and empire, discuss the features of sculpture and architecture during the Maurya period. 10. Why does political history not form a useful framework for understanding social, economic, and cultural developments in ancient times?
CHAPTER 8 INTERACTION AND INNOVATION, C. 200 BCE300 CE
P. 454 PHOTOGRAPHS OF SCULPTURES FROM VARIOUS BUDDHIST SITES NAGARJUNAKONDA
WORSHIPPING THE BUDDHA, NAGARJUNAKONDA
A KING VISITING THE BUDDHA
INDRA VISITING THE BUDDHA
TOP: THE SAKYAN PRINCES CONVERSION; ABOVE LEFT: THE BUDDHA PREACHING AT SARNATH; ABOVE RIGHT: MARAS ATTACK ON THE BUDDHA
FURTHER RESOURCES
EXTRACTS
The Jatakas
Extracted from E. B. Cowell, ed., The Jataka, or Stories of the Buddhas Former Births, Vol. I, Book II. Translated from Pali by Various Hands. New Delhi: Low Price Publications, [1894] 1990.
Mandhatu-Jataka This story the Master told during a stay at Jetavana, about a backsliding brother. We are told that this brother, in traversing Savatthi for his alms, saw a finely dressed woman and fell in love with her. Then the Brethren led him to the Hall and Truth, and informed the Mater that he was a backslider. The Master asked whether it were true; and was answered, yes it was. [311] Brother, said the Master, when will you ever satisfy this lust, even while you are a householder? Such lust is as deep as the ocean, nothing can satisfy it. In former days there have been supreme monarchs, who attended by their retinue of men held away over the four great continents encircled by two thousand isles, ruling even in the heaven of the four great kings, even when they were kings of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty Three, even in the abode of the Thirty Six Sakkas,even these failed to satisfy their lust, and died before they could do so; when will you be able to satisfy it? And he told an old-world tale. Long ago, in the early ages of the world, there lived a king named Mahasammata, and he had a son Roja, who had a son Vararoja, who had a son Kalyana, who had a son Varakalyana, and Varakalyana had a son named Uposatha, and Uposatha had a son Mandhata. Mandhata was endowed with the Seven Precious Things and the Four Supernatural Powers; and he was a great monarch. When he clenched his left hand, and then touched it with his right, there fell a rain of seven kinds of jewels, knee-deep, as though a celestial rain-cloud had arisen in the sky; so wondrous a man was he. Eightyfour thousand years he was a prince, the same number he took some share in ruling the kingdom, and even so many years he ruled as supreme king; his life lasted for countless ages. One day, he could not satisfy some desire, so he showed signs of discontent. Why are you cast down, my lord? the courtiers asked him. When the power of my merit is considered, what is this kingdom? Which place seems worth desiring? Heaven, my lord.
So rolling along the Wheel of Empire, with his suite [312] he went to the heaven of the four great kings. The four kings, with a great throng of gods, come to meet him in state, bearing celestial flowers and perfumes; and having escorted him in their heaven, gave him rule over it. There he reigned in state, and a long time went by. But not there either could he satisfy his craving; and so he began to look sick with discontent. Why, mighty king, said the four monarchs, are you unsatisfied? And the king replied, What place is more lovely than this heaven? They answered, My lord, we are like servants. The Heaven of the Thirty-three is more lovely than this! Mandhata set the Wheel of Empire a-rolling, and with his court all round him turned his face to the Heaven of the Thirty-three. And Sakka, king of the Gods, bearing celestial flowers and perfumes, in the midst of a great throng of gods, came to meet him in state, and taking charge of him showed him the way he should go. At the time when the king was marching amidst the throng of gods, his eldest son took the Wheel of Empire, and descending to the paths of men, came to his own city. Sakka led Mandhata into the Heaven of the Thirty-three, and gave him the half of his own kingdom. After that the two of them ruled together. Time went on, until Sakka had lived for sixty times an hundred thousand years, and thirty millions of years, then was born on earth again; another Sakka grew up, and he too reigned, and lived his life, and was born on earth. In this way six and thirty Sakkas followed one after another. Still Mandhata reigned with his crowd of courtiers round him. As time went on, the force of his passion and desire grew stronger and stronger. What is half a realm to me? said he in his heart; I will kill Sakka, and reign along! But kill Sakka he could not. This desire and greed of his was the root of his misfortune. The power of his life began to wane; old age seized upon him; [313] but a human body does not disintegrate in heaven. So from heaven he fell, and descended in a park. The gardener made known his coming to the royal family; they came and appointed him a resting-place in the park; there lay the king in lassitude and weariness. The courtiers asked him, My lord, what world shall we take from? Take from me, quoth he, this message to the people: Mandhata, king of kings, having ruled supreme over the four quarters of the globe, with all the two thousand islands round about, for a long time having reigned over the people of the four great kings, having been king of Heaven during the lifetime of six and thirty Sakkas, now lies dead. With these words he died, and went to fare according to his deserts. This tale ended, the Master became perfectly enlightened and uttered the following stanzas: Wherever sun and moon their courses run All are Mandhatas servants, every one:
Whereer earths quarters see the light of day, There king Mandhata holds imperial away. Not though a rain of coins fall from the sky Could anything be found to satisfy. Pain is desire, and sorrow is unrest: He that knows this is wise, and he is blest. Where longing is, there pleasure takes him wings, Even though desire be set on heavenly things. Disciples of the Very Buddha try To crush out all desire eternally. [314] When the Master had ended this discourse, he declared the Four Truths, and identified the Birthat the conclusion of the Truths the back-sliding Brother and many others, attained to the Fruit of the First PathAt that time, I was the great king Mandhata.
Sasa-Jataka 1 This story was told by the Master while living at Jetavana, about a gift of all the Buddhist requisites. A certain landowner at Savatthi, they say, provided all the requisites for the Brotherhood with Buddha at its head, and setting up a pavilion at his house door, he invited all the company of priests with their chief Buddha, seated them on elegant seats prepared for them, and offered them a variety of choice and dainty food. And saying, Come again to-morrow, he entertained them for a whole week, and on the seventh day he presented Buddha and the five hundred priests under him with all the requisites. At the end of the feast the Master, in returning thanks, said, Lay Brother, you are right in giving pleasure and satisfaction by this charity. For this is a tradition of wise men of old, who sacrificed their lives for any beggars they met with, and gave them even their own flesh to eat. And at the request of his host he related this old-world legend. Once upon a time when Brahmadatta was a reigning in Benares, the Bodhisatta came to life as a young hare and lived in a wood. On one side of this wood was the foot of a mountain, on another side a river, and on the third side a border-village. The hare had three friendsa monkey, a jackal and an otter. These four wise creatures lived together [52] and each of them got his food on his own hunting-ground, and in the evening they again came together. The hare in his wisdom by way of admonition preached the Truth to his three companions, teaching that alms are to be given, the moral law to be observed, and holy days to be kept. They accepted his admonition and went each to his own part of the jungle and dwelt there.
And so in the course of time the Bodhisatta one day observing the sky, and looking at the moon knew that the next day would be a fast-day, and addressing his three companions he said, To-morrow is a fast-day. Let all three of you take upon you the moral precepts, and observe the holy day. To one that stands fast in moral practice, almsgiving brings a great reward. Therefore feed any beggars that come to you by giving them food from your own table. They readily assented, and abode each in his own place of dwelling. On the morrow quite early in the morning, the otter sallied forth to seek his prey and went down to the bank of the Ganges. Now it came to pass that a fisherman had landed seven red fish, and stringing them together on a withe, he had taken and buried them in the sand on the rivers bank. And then he dropped down the stream, catching more fish. The otter, scenting the buried fish, dug up the sand till he came upon them, and pulling them out cried aloud thrice, Does any one own these fish? And not seeing any owner he took hold of the withe with his teeth and laid the fish in the jungle where he dwelt, intending to eat them at a fitting time. And then he lay down, thinking how virtuous he was! The jackal too sallied forth in quest of food and found in the hut of a field-watcher two spits, a lizard and a pot of milk-curd. And after thrice crying aloud, To whom do these belong? and not finding an owner, he put on his neck the rope for lifting the pot, and grasping the spits and the lizard with his teeth, he brought and laid them in his own lair, thinking, In due season I will devour them, and so lay down, [53] reflecting how virtuous he had been. The monkey also entered the clump of trees, and gathering a bunch of mangoes laid them up in his part of the jungle, meaning to eat them in due season, and then lay down, thinking how virtuous he was. But the Bodhisatta in due time came out, intending to browse on the kuca grass, and as he lay in the jungle, the thought occurred to him, It is impossible for me to offer grass to any beggars that may chance to appear, and I have no oil or rice and such like. If any beggar shall appeal to me, I shall have to give him my own flesh to eat. At this splendid display of virtue, Sakkas white marble throne manifested signs of heat. Sakka on reflection discovered the cause and resolved to put this royal hare to the test. First of all he went and stood by the otters dwelling-place, disguised as a Brahmin, and being asked why he stood there, he replied, Wise Sir, if I could get something to eat, after keeping the fast, I would perform all my priestly duties. The otter replied, Very well, I will give you some food, and as he conversed with him he repeated the first stanza: Seven red fish I safely brought to land from Ganges flood, O brahmin, eat thy fill, I pray, and stay within this wood. The Brahmin said, Let be till to-morrow. I will see to it by and bye. Next he went to the jackal, and when asked by him why he stood there, he made the same answer. The jackal, too, readily promised him some food, and in talking with him repeated the second stanza: [54] A lizard and a jar of curds, the keepers evening meal, Two spits to roast the flesh withal I wrongfully did steal: Such as I have I give to thee: O Brahmin, eat, I pray,
If thou shouldst deign within this wood a while with us to stay. Said the Brahmin, Let be till to-morrow. I will see to it by and bye. Then he went to the monkey, and when asked what he meant by standing there, he answered just as before. The monkey readily offered him some food, and in conversing with him gave utterance to the third stanza: An icy stream, a mango ripe, and pleasant greenwood shade, Tis thine to enjoy, if thou canst dwell content in forest glade. Said the Brahmin, Let be till to-morrow. I will see to it by and bye. And he went to the wise hare, and on being asked by him why he stood there, he made the same reply. The Bodhisatta on hearing what he wanted was highly delighted, and said, Brahmin, you have done well in coming to me for food. This day will I grant you a boon that I have never granted before, but you shall not break the moral law by taking animal life. Go, friend, and when you have piled together logs of wood, and kindled a fire, come and let me know, [55] and I will sacrifice myself by falling into the midst of the flames, and when my body is roasted, you shall eat my flesh and fulfil all your priestly duties. And in thus addressing him the hare uttered the fourth stanza: Nor sesame, nor beans, nor rice have I as food to give, But roast with fire my flesh I yield, if thou with us would live. Sakka, on hearing what he said, by his miraculous power caused a heap of burning coals to appear, and came and told the Bodhisatta. Rising from his bed of kuca grass and coming to the place, he thrice shook himself that if there were any insects within his coat, they might escape death. Then offering his whole body as a free gift he sprang up, and like a royal swan, alighting on a cluster of lotuses, in an ecstasy of joy he fell on the heap of live coals. But the flame failed even to heat the pores of the hair on the body of the Bodhisatta, and it was as if he had entered a region of frost. Then he addressed Sakka in these words: Brahmin, the fire you have kindled is icy-cold: it fails to heat even the pores of the hair on my body. What is the meaning of this? Wise sir, he replied, I am no brahmin. I am Sakka, and I have come to put your virtue to the test. The Bodhisatta said, If not only thou, Sakka, but all the inhabitants of the world were to try me in this matter of almsgiving, they would not find in me any unwillingness to give, and with this the Bodhisatta uttered a cry of exultation like a lion roaring. Then said Sakka to the Bodhisatta, O wise hare, be thy virtue known throughout a whole on. And squeezing the mountain, with the essence thus extracted, he daubed the sign of a hare on the orb of the moon. And after depositing the hare on a bed of young kuca grass, in the same wooded part of the jungle, Sakka returned to his own place in heaven. [56] And these four wise creatures dwelt happily and harmoniously together, fulfilling the moral law and observing holy days, till they departed to fare according to their deeds.
The Master, when he had ended his lesson, revealed the Truths and identified the Birth: At the conclusion of the Truths the householder, who gave as a free gift all the Buddhist requisites, attained fruition of the First Path:At that time Ananda was the otter, Moggallana was the jackal, Sariputta the monkey, and I myself was the wise hare.
Extract from Periplus Maris Erythraei

Extracted from R. C. Majumdar, ed., The Classical Accounts of India. Calcutta: Firma KLM Private, 1981.
48. In the same region eastward in a city called Ozene, formerly the capital wherein the king resided. From it there is brought down to Barygaza every commodity for the supply of the country and for export to our own marketsonyx-stones, porcelain, fine muslins, mallow-coloured muslins, and no small quantity of ordinary cottons. At the same time there is brought down to it from the upper country by way of Proclais, for transmission to the coast, Kattybourine, Patropapigic, and Cabalitic spikenard, and another kind which reaches it by way of the adjacent province of Scythia; also costus and bdellium. 49. The imports of Barygaza areWine, principally Italian. Laodicean wine and Arabian, brass or copper and tin and lead, coral and Gold stone or Yellow stone; cloth, plain and mixed of all sorts; variegated sashes half a yard wide, storax, sweet clover, (meliot, white glass. Gum Sandarach. [Stibium] Tincture for the eyes); gold and silver specie, yielding a profit when exchanged for native money; perfumes or unguents, neither costly nor in great quantity. In those times, moreover, there were imported, as presents to the king, costly silver vases, instruments of music, handsome young women for concubinage, superior wine, apparel, plain but costly, and the choicest unguents. The exports, from this part of the country are Spikenard, costus, bdellium, ivory, onyx-stones and porcelain, box-thorn, cottons of all sorts, silk, mallow coloured cottons, silk thread, long pepper and other articles supplied from the neighbouring ports. The proper season to set sail for Barygaza from Egypt is the month of July or Epiphi. 50. From Barygaza the coast immediately adjoining stretches from the north directly to the south and the country is therefore called Dakhinabades, because Dakhan in the language of the natives signifies south. Of this country that part which lies inland towards the east comprises a great space of desert country, and large mountains abounding with all kinds of wild animals, leopards, tigers, elephants, huge snakes, hyenas, and baboons of many different sorts, and is inhabited right across to the Ganges by many and extremely populous nations. 51. Among the marts in this South Country there are two of more particular importance Paethana, which lies south from Barygaza, a distance of twenty days, and Tagara, ten days east of Paethana, the greatest city in the country. Their commodities are carried down on wagons to Barygaza along roads of extreme difficulty, that is, from Paithana a great quantity of onyx-stone and from Tagara ordinary cottons in abundance, many sorts
of muslins, mallow coloured cottons, and other articles of local production brought into it from the parts along the coast. The length of the entire voyage as far as Limyrike is 700 stadia, and to reach Aigialus you must sail very many stadia further. 52. The local marts which occur in order along the coast after Barygaza are Akabaru, Suppara, Kalliena, a city which was raised to the rank of a regular mart in the times of the elder Saraganus, but after Sandanes became its master its trade was put under the severest restrictions; for if Greek vessels even by accident enter its ports, a guard is put on board and they are taken to Barygaza. 53. After Kalliena other local marts occurSemylla, Mandagora, Palaepatmae, Melizeigara, Byzantion, Toparon, and Tyrannosboad. You come next to the islands called Sesecreienae and the island of the Aigidioi and that of the Kaeneitae, near what is called the Chersonesus, places in which are pirates, and after this the island Leuke (or the White). Then follow Naura and Tyndis, the first marts of Limyrike, and after these Muziris and Nelcynda, the seats of Government. 54. To the kingdom under the sway of Ceprobotras Tyndis is subject, a village of great note situate [sic] near the sea. Muziris, which pertains to the same realm, is a city at the height of prosperity, frequented as it is by ships (from Ariake and Greek ships from Egypt). It lies near a river at a distance from Tyndis of 500 stadia, whether this is measured from river to river the mouth of its own river. The distance of Nelcynda from Muziris is also nearly 500 stadia, whether measured from river to river or by the sea voyage, but it belongs to a different kingdom, that of Pandion. It likewise is situated near a river and at about a distance from the sea of 120 stadia. 55. At the very mouth of this river lies another village, Bacare, to which the ships dispatched from Nelcynda come down empty and ride at anchor off shore while taking in cargo; for the river, it many be noted, has sunken reefs and shallows which make its navigation difficult. The sign by which those who come hither by sea know they are nearing land is their meeting with snakes, which are here of a black colour, not so long as those already mentioned, like serpents about the head, and with eyes the colour of blood. 56. The ships which frequent these ports are of a large size, on account of the great amount and bulkiness of the pepper and betel of which their lading consists. The imports here are principally great quantities of specie; (topaz?), gold stone, thrysolite; a small assortment of plain cloth, flowered robes; Stibium, a pigment for the eyes; coral, white glass, copper or brass, tin, lead; wine, but not much, but about as much as at Barygaza; sandarach, arsenic (orpiment), yellow sulphuret of arsenic; and corn, only for the use of the ship company, as the merchants do not sell it. The following commodities are brought to it for export Pepper in great quantity, produced in only one of these marts and called the pepper of Cottonara, pearls in great quantity and of superior quality, ivory, fine silks, spikenard from the Ganges, betel, all brought from countries further east, transparent or precious stones of all sorts, diamonds, jacinths, tortoise-shell from the Golden Island, and another sort which is taken in the
islands which is taken in the islands which lie off the coast of Limyrike. The proper season to set sail from Egypt for this part of India is about the month of July, that is, Epiphi. 57. The whole round of the voyage from Cana and Eudaemon Arabia, which we have just described, used to be performed in small vessels which kept close to shore and followed its windings, but Hippalus was the pilot who first, by observing the bearings of the ports and the configuration of the sea, discovered the direct course across the ocean. For, at the same time when our own Etesian winds are blowing, a periodical wind from the ocean likewise blows in the Indian Sea, and this wind, which is the south-west, is, it seems, called in these seas Hippalus after the name of the pilot who first discovered the passage by means of it. From the time of this discovery to the present day, merchants who sail for India either from Cana, or as others do, from Aromata, if Limyrike be their destination, (must often change their tack), but if they are bound for Barygaza and Scythia, they are not retarded for more than three days, after which, committing themselves to the monsoon which blows right in the direction of their course, they stand far out to sea, leaving all the gulfs we have mentioned in the distance.
Some Donative Inscriptions from Sanchi Stupa No. 1

From Epigraphia Indica, Vol 2, 1894
The gift of Dhamasiva (Dharmaiva), son of Kekaeyaka (Kaikaeyaka). The gift of Dhamagirikas (Dharmagirikas) mother. The gift of Vijita, son-in-law of Kekaeyaka (Kaikaeyaka). The gift of the monk Kda (Knda). The gift of the monk Aya-Pasanaka (the venerable Prasannaka). The gift of the nun Achal, from Nadinagara (Nandinagara). The gift of the monk Kboja (Kmboja) from Nadinagara (Nandinagara). The gift of Soadev (Suvaradev or onadev), wife of Siharakhita (Simharakshita). The gift of Arahaguta (Arhadguta), inhabitant of Ssad. The gift of Subhaga, inhabitant of Kuraghara (Kuraragiha). The gift of Vudin (Vyudr), a female lay-disciple.
The measuring-staff of the Divine one (Buddha, the gift) of Kka (i.e. probably kkin, the litlle crow). The gift of Vesamanadata (Vaisravanadatta), daughter-in-law of Patihiya (Pratishhitha), a gahapati from Tubavana (Tumbavana). The gift of the gahapati Patihiya (Pratishhitha) from Tubavana (Tumbavana). The gift both of Ndavu (Nandyu?) and of Nndivirohi (Nandivirohin). The gift of the Bauddha Committee of Trustees from Dhamavahanana (Dharmavardhanana).
PHOTOGRAPHS
ARTEFACTS FROM VARIOUS SITES
MATHURA: TERRACOTTA YAKSHI MOULD
KAUSHAMBI POTTERY
SCULPTURES AT SANCHI
BODHI TREE, SYMBOLIZING THE BUDDHAS ENLIGHTENMENT
TOP: GATEWAY SCULPTURES; ABOVE LEFT: DETAIL OF EASTERN GATEWAY; RIGHT: MAYA OR GAJA-LAKSHMI, W ESTERN GATEWAY
BHARHUT SCULPTURES ON RAILING MEDALLIONS
TOP LEFT: W ORSHIP OF THE BODHI TREE OF VISABHU, THE THIRD MANUSHI BUDDHA; TOP RIGHT: W ORSHIP OF THE BODHI TREE OF VIPASIN, THE FIRST MANUSHI BUDDHA ABOVE LEFT: W ORSHIP OF THE BODHI TREE OF KANAKAMUNI, THE FIFTH MANUSHI BUDDHA; ABOVE RIGHT: WORSHIP OF THE BODHI TREE OF KASHYAPA, THE SIXTH MANUSHI BUDDHA
NAGARJUNAKONDA SCULPTURES
TOP LEFT: SUDDHODANA HEARS THE NEWS OF SIDDHARTHAS DEPARTURE FROM CHANDA; TOP RIGHT: THE FIRST SERMON IN DEER PARK; ABOVE LEFT: KING KAPINAS CONVERSION ABOVE: SCYTHIAN FIGURE; LEFT: CASTING OF THE HOROSCOPE
MITHUNA FIGURES
AMARAVATI SCULPTURES
ABOVE: THE TRANSPORTATION OF SIDDHARTHAS HEADDRESS; BELOW LEFT: MAYAS BATH; BELOW RIGHT: W ORSHIP OF THE BUDDHAS FOOTPRINTS
LEFT: STONE HEADS, KAUSHAMBI; ABOVE: TERRACOTA LAMP; BELOW LEFT: KUSHANA STONE LION, MATHURA; BELOW RIGHT: FRAGMENT OF INSCRIBED AND SCULPTED STONE RAILING, ALLAHABAD
TOP RIGHT AND LEFT: RED SANDSTONE HEAD, SARNATH; ABOVE RIGHT AND LEFT: STAMPED AND INCISED POT SHERDS, PURANA QILA

1. Summarize the multi-dimensional importance of the period c. 200 BCE300 CE. 2. Discuss the themes, patrons and audience of Sangam poetry. 3. How do early Tamil literature and the TamilBrahmi inscriptions reflect the social and political transformations in early historic South India? 4. Outline the evidence for the spread of urbanism in the difference regions of the subcontinent during the period c. 200 BCE300 CE. 5. What do texts and inscriptions tell us about the various roles played by guilds during this period? 6. Is there a necessary correlation between empires and the expansion of trade? Discuss with reference to the evidence of expanding trade networks between c. 200 BCE and 300 CE. 7. Discuss the expanding Indian Ocean trade networks during this period. 8. Analyse the economic and cultural interactions between South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia between c. 200 BCE and 300 CE. 9. Discuss the importance of archaeology as a source of the history of religions, with special reference to this period. 10. Discuss the importance of terracottas for the history of ancient Indian art and society. 11. How do we come to know about the importance of the cults of the yakshas, yakshis, nagas, nagis, and goddesses in ancient times? 12. In what ways is the period c. 200 BCE300 CE foundational from the point of view of religious history? 13. Compare Vedic and Puranic religious thought and practices. 14. Discuss the increasing importance of devotional elements in religious thought and practice during this period.
15. Discuss the relationship between doctrinal changes, permanent religious structures, and patronage of religious establishments during this period. 16. Discuss the early history of the Hindu temple. 17. Discuss the sculptural narratives of the life of the Buddha and Jataka stories at sites such as Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. 18. Reflect on the connection between collective community patronage and the growth of Buddhist stupa-monastery sites. 19. Compare the connotations of the words religion and dharma. 20. Reflect on the issues of religious identities and religious boundaries in ancient Indian societies. 21. Discuss the ideas of the major philosophical schools current in the period c. 200
BCE300 CE.
CHAPTER 9 AESTHETICS AND EMPIRE, C. 300600 CE

FURTHER RESOURCES
EXTRACTS
Kathasaritsagar: The Story of the Merchant Samudrasura
Extracted from E. B. Cowell, ed., The Jataka, or Stories of the Buddhas Former Births. Translated by Robert Chalmers New Delhi: Low Price Publications, 2001 [18951907].
In old times there was a splendid city, belonging to the king Harshavarman, called Harshapura, the citizens of which were made happy by good government. In this city there was a great merchant, named Samudrasura he was of good family, just, of resolute courage, a lord of much wealth. He was once compelled by his business to go to Suvarnadvipa, and reaching the shore of the sea, he embarked on a ship. As he was travelling over the sea, when his journey was very nearly at an end, a terrible cloud arose and a wind that agitated the deep. The wind tossed the ship about with the violence of the waves, and it was struck by a sea-monster and split asunder; and then the merchant, girding up his loins, plunged into the sea. And after the brave man had made some way by swimming, he found the corpse of a man long dead, driven hither and thither by the wind. And he climbed up on the corpse, and skillfully paddling himself along with his arms, he was carried to Suvarnadvipa by a favourable wind. There he got off the corpse on to the sand, and the perceived that it had a cloth tied round its loins, with a knot in it. When he unfastened the cloth from its loins, and examined it, he found inside it a necklace richly studded with jewels. He saw that is was of inestimable value, and he bathed and remained in a state of great felicity, thinking that the wealth he had lost in the sea was but star in comparison with it. Then he went on to a city called Kalasapura, and with the bracelet in his hand, entered the enclosure of a great temple. There he sat in the shade, and being exceedingly tired with his exertions in the water, he slowly dropped off to sleep, bewildered by Destiny. And while he was asleep, the policemen came and saw that necklace in his hand exposed to view. They saidHere is the necklace stolen from the neck of the princess Chakrasena; without doubt this is the thief. And so they woke the merchant up and took him to the palace. There the king himself questioned him, and he told him what had taken place. The king held out the necklace, and said to the people present in court,This man is speaking falsely; he is a thief, look at his necklace. And at that very moment a kite saw it glittering, and quickly swooping down from heaven,
carried off the necklace, and disappeared where he could not be traced. Then the king, in his anger, commanded that the merchant should be put to death, and he, in great grief, invoked the protection of Shiva. Then a voice was heard from heavenDo not put his man to death: he is a respectable merchant named Samudrasura from the city of Harshapura, that the landed on your territory. The thief, who stole the necklace, fled beside himself with fear of the police, and falling into the sea at night, perished. But this merchant here, when his ship foundered, came upon the body of that thief, and climbing up on it, he crossed the sea and came here. And then he found the necklace in the knot of the cloth fastened round his loins; he did not take it from your house. So let go, king, this virtuous merchant, who is not a thief; dismiss him with honour. Having said this, the voice ceased. When the king heard this, he was satisfied, and revoking the capital sentence passed on the merchant, he honoured him with wealth, and let him go. And the merchant, having obtained wealth, bought wares, and again crossed the terrible ocean in a ship, in order to return to his own native land. And after he had crossed the sea, he travelled with a caravan, and one day, at evening time, he reached a wood. The caravan encamped in the wood for the night, and while Samudrasura was awake, a powerful host of bandits attacked it. While the bandits were massacring the members of the caravan, Samudrasura left his wares and fled, and climbed up a banyan-tree without being discovered. The host of bandits departed, after they had carried of all the wealth, and the merchant spent that night there, perplexed with fear, and distracted with grief. In the morning he case his eye towards the top of the tree, and saw, as fate would have it, what looked like the light of a camp, trembling among the leaves. And in his astonishment he climbed up the tree, and a saw a kites nest, in which there was a heap of glittering priceless jeweled ornaments. He took them all out of it, and found among the ornaments that necklace, which he had found in Svarnadvipa and the kite had carried off. He obtained from that nest unlimited wealth, and, descending from the tree, he went off delighted, and reached in course of time his own city of Harshapura. There the merchant Samudrasura remained, enjoying himself to his hearts content with the family, free from the desire of any other wealth. So you have that merchants whelming in the sea, and that loss of his wealth, and the finding of the necklace, and again the losing of it, and his undeserved degradation to the position of the malefactor, and his immediate obtaining of wealth from the satisfied king, and his return-voyage over the sea, and his being stripped of all his wealth by falling in with bandits on the journey, and at last his acquisition of wealth from the top of a tree. So you see, prince, such is the various working of destiny, but a virtuous man, though he may have endured sorrow, obtains joy at the last.
Chammak Copper-Plate Inscription of the Maharaja Pravarasena II

From J. F. Fleet, ed., Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. 3, Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and Their Successors. Calcutta, 1888.
The inscription is on some copper-plates that were found in ploughing a field at Chammak, the ancient Charmka of the inscription, a village about four miles southwest of Ilichpur, in Maharashtra. The plates, of which the first and last are inscribed on one side only, are seven in number, each measuring from 7 3/8 to 7 1/2 by from 3 1/2 to 3 5/8 [sic]. The script is the box-headed variety of Brahmi and the language is Sanskrit. A charter of king Pravarasna, the ornament of the Vktakas, who has attained royal dignity by inheritance, (is) a charter for (the observance of even his) enemies! Sight has been attained! Hail! From the town of Pravarapura;(Line 17.)At the command of the most devout worshipper of (the god) Mahvara, the Mahrja of the Vkakas, the illustrious Pravarasna (II.), who was begotten on Prabhvatigupt, the daughter of the Mahrjdhirja , the glorious Dvagupta; who, through possessing the favour of (the god) ambhu, is (as virtuous as) one belonging to the Kita age; (Line 13.) (And) who is the son of the Mahrja of the Vktakas, the illustrious Rudrasna (II.), who acquired an abundance of good fortune through the favour of the divine (god) Chakrapni; (L. 9.)Who was the son of the Mahrja of the Vkakas, the illustrious Pithivisha, who was an excessively devout worshipper of (the god) Mahvara; who was endowed with an excess of truthfulness, straightforwardness, tenderness, heroism, prowess, political wisdom, modesty, and high-mindedness, and with devotion to worthy people and guests, and with the condition of being victorious through religion, and with purity of mind, and with other meritorious qualities; who belonged to an uninterrupted succession of sons and sons sons, whose treasure and means of government had been accumulating for a hundred years; who behaved like Yudhisthira; (L. 4.)Who was the son of the Mahrja of the Vkakas, the illustrious Rudrasna (I.), who was an excessively devout devotee of (the god) Svmi-Mahbhairava; who was the daughters son of the illustrious Bhavanga, the Mahrja of the Bhraivas, whose royal line owed its origin to the great satisfication of (the god) iva (caused) by (their) carrying a linga of iva placed as a load upon (their) shoulders, (and) who were besprinkled on the forehead with the pure water of the (the river) Bhgrath that had been obtained by (their) valour (and) who performed ablutions after the celebration of ten avamdha-sacrifices,Who was the son of Gautamputra;
(L. 1.)(And) who was the son of the son of the Mahrja of the sovereign Vkakas, the illustrious Pravarasna (I.), who celebrated the agnishma, aptryma, ukthya, shain, tirtra, vjapya, bihaspatisava, and sdyaskra sacrifices and four avamdha-sacrifices, (and) was of the Vishuviddha gtra: (L. 18)The village named Charmka, on the bank of the river Madhunad, in the Bhjakaa kingdom, (measured) by eight thousand bhms, (or in figures) 8000, according to the royal measure, is, at the request of Koarja, the son of atrughnarja, given to one thousand Brhmas of various gtras and charaas. (L. 21.)Wherefore Our obedient and high-born officers, employed in the office of general superintendents, (and Our) regular soldiers and umbrella-bearers, should be (thus) directed with a command preceded by (the words) O illustrious one:Be it known to you, that, in order to increase Our religion and life and strength and victory and dominion, (and) for the sake of (Our) welfare in this world and in the next, (and generally) for Our benefit, this (village) is granted, in (Our) victorious office of justice, as a grant not previously made, with libations of water. (L. 25.)Now We grant the fixed usage, such as befits this (Village), (and) such as has been approved of by former kings, of a village which belongs to a community of Chaturvdins; namely, it is not to pay taxes; it is not to be entered by the regular troops or by the umbrella-bearers; it does not carry with it (the right to) cows and bulls in succession of production, or to the abundance of flowers and milk, or to the pasturage, hides, and charcoal, or to the mines for the purchase of salt in a moist state; it is entirely free from (all obligation of) forced labour; it carries with it the hidden treasures and deposits, and the klipta and upaklipta; it is (to be enjoyed) for the same time with the moon and the sun; (and) it is to follow (the succession of) sons and sons sons. No hindrance should be caused by any one to those who enjoy it. It should be protected and increased by all (possible) means. And whosoever, disregarding this charter, shall give, or cause to be given, even slight vexation, We will inflict on him punishment, together with a fine, when he is denounced by the Brhmas. (L. 34.)And in this document, which has at least (the merit of) religion,in order to avoid boasting of (other) meritorious actions performed (by Us),We do not recite (Our) care and protection of grants made by various kings who are dead and gone. (L. 36.)And two verses, sung by Vysa, are to be cited as an authority on this point: Whosoever confiscates land that has been given, whether by himself, or by another, he incurs the guilt of the slayer of a hundred thousand cows! The giver of land enjoys happiness in heaven for sixty thousand years; (but) the confiscator (of a grant), and he who assents (to an act of confiscation), shall dwell for the same number of years in hell! (L. 39.)And this condition of the charter should be maintained by the Brhmas and by (future) lords; namely (the enjoyment of this grant is to belong to the Brhmas) for the
same time with the moon and the sun, provided that they commit no treason against the kingdom, consisting of seven constituent part,4 of (successive) kings; that they are not slayers of Brhmans, and are not thieves, adulterers, poisoners of kings, &c.; that they do not wage war; (and) that they do no wrong to other villages. But, if they act otherwise, or assent (to such acts), the king will commit no theft in taking the land away. (L. 44.)And the recipients, appointed for the occasion in this matter, (are):Garya, of the yyana (gtra). Dvrya, of the Vtsya (gtra). Kumraarmrya, of the Bhradvja (gtra). Guhaarman, of the Prarya (gtra). Dvrya, of the Kyapa (gtra); Mahvarrya, (and) Mtrrya. Rudrrya, of the Kauinya (gtra); (and) Smrya, (and) Hariarmrya. Kumraarmrya, of the Bhradvja (gtra). Matiarman, of the Kauinya (gtra); and Varaarma, Gaarman, (and) Ngaarman. ntiarman, of the Bhradvja (gtra); (and) Rudraarman. Bhjakadvrya of the Vstsya (gtra); (and) Maghaarman, (and) Dvaarman. Mkshaarman, of the Bhradvja (gtra); (and) Ngaarman, Rvatiarman, (and) Dharmrya. armrya, of the Bhradvja (gtra); (and) Nandanrya, Mlaarman, varaarman, (and) Varaarman. Skandrya, of the Vysa (gtra). Bapprya, of the Bhradvja (gtra); (and) Dharmrya. Skandrya, of the trya (gtra). Smaarmrya, of the Gautama (gtra); (and) Bhartiarman, Rudraarmrya, Maghrya, Mtiarmrya, (and) varaarmrya. Mtiarmrya, of the Gautama gtra. Dvaarmrya, of the Kuinya (gtra); (and) Varaarmrya, (and) Rhrya. Svmidvrya, of the Gautama gtra; (and) Rvatiarmrya, (and) Jyshhaarmrya. Kumraarmrya, of the ilya (gtra); (and) Svtiarmrya. (And) Krya, of the yyana (gtra); and so forth. (L. 59.)(This) charter has been written, while Chitravarman is the Snpati, in the eighteenth year, (or in figures) 10 (and) 8, on the thirteenth lunar day of the bright fortnight of the month Jyshha.
Dmdarpur Copper-Plate Inscription of Kumragupta I: The Year 128 This inscription was found in the village of Dmdarpur, in West Dinajpur District, West Bengal. The plate is inscribed on both sides, the first containing eight and the second five lines of writing. It measures 6 by 3 5/8. The language is Sanskrit and the script is Brahmi. (Lines 15) The year (is) 100 and 20 (and) 8, (the month) Vaikha, the day 7, while Paramadaivata Paramabharaka Mahrjdhirja the prosperous Kumrgupta is the lord of the earth; (and) while the Kivarsha District is running on with the rule of Chirtadatta, Uparika in the Puravardhana province, selected by His (Majestys) feet; and while Kumrmtya Vtravarman, appointed by him (Chirtadatta), is administering the Board of the Town, presiding over the Nagara-rshhin Dhitipla, the Srthavaha Bandhumitra, the Prathama-kulika Dhitimitra, (and) the Prathama kyastha mbapla.
(Lines 57) Whereas has applied: Deign to give (a plot of land) according to the customary (anuvitta) rules (maryd) of perpetual (nv Law) in respect of (land) not yielding anything (aparada) for instituting my five great sacrifices (pacha-mahyja). (Lines 711) After receiving this application, is being resolved that it might be granted according to the determination of the record-keepers Riidatta, Jayanandin and Vibhudatta, five dras of land were given together with drinking-places and waterdrawing wheels, on acceptance of two dnras, at the established rate of three dnras of each kulyavpa, in the western quarter, in the waterless region destitute of cows. These dras (of land) should be respected by the future administrators, considering (them) to be a religious gift. (Line 11) And there are these two stanzas connected with grants of land. (Verse 1) Carefully preserve the land that has already been given to the twice-born (Brhmaas) Yudhishhira, the best of land-owners. Preservation is more meritorious than grant (of land). (Verse 2) Land has been granted, and will again and again be granted by many. (But) the fruit (of such grant) belongs to whosoever possesses the earth at any time.
Jaina Donative Inscriptions from Mathura Translator: G. Bhler, Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 2, 1894. Language: Prakrit Script: Gupta Period Brahmi No. 37 Inscribed on the base of a large quadruple image, consisting of four standing naked Jinas, measuring 17 9: Success! The pupil of Ayya-Jeshahasti (Jyeshhahastin) out of the Koiya gaa, the Uchenagar (Uchchnagar) kh, (and) the Bamhadsia (Brahmadsikakula) (was) Aryya-Mihila (rya-Mihira); his pupil (was) the preacher (vchaka) Arya-Ksheraka (rya-Kshairaka?); at his request a fourfold (image was dedicated as) the gift of Sthir, daughter both of Varaahasti (hastin) and of Dev, daughter-in-law of Jayadeva (and) daughter-in-law of Moshin (and) first wife of Kuha Kasutha for the welfare and happiness of all creatures.
No. 38 Inscribed on the base of a small statue, now preserved in the Mathur museum: In the fifty-seventh, 57, year, in the third month of winter, on the thirteenth day, on that (date specified as) above No. 39 Inscribed on the base of a large sitting Jina, measuring 38 by 27. Success! In the year 113, in the victorious reign of the supreme lord and supreme king of great kings, the illustrious Kumragupta, on the twentieth day [of the winter-month] Krttika]on that (date, specified as) above an image was set up by mhy (ymhy), daughter of Bhaibhava (and) house-wife of the ferryman (?) Grahamittraplita, who had received the command (to make the dedication) from Datilchyya (Dattilchrya) out of the Koiya gana (and) the Vidydhar akh. No. 40 Incised on the back of a large broken slab, the surface of which is beautifully carved. This fragment, of which no continuous translation is possible, belongs to a longer metrical Praasti, which apparently recorded the building or restoration of a temple. For the remnant of line 5 says:By him this of the sage, which touches the sky. It is evident that a word [] has been lost. The verses to which the pieces in lines 2, 3 and 5 belong, seem to have been in the rdlavikrita metre. No. 41 Incised on the base of a quadruple image of four sitting Jinas, measuring 25 by 13. O! The illustrious Jinadeva (was) a Sri; after him was he who is named the illustrious Bhvadeva. His pupil (is) the chrya Vijayasiga (Vijayasiha). Exhorted by him the virtuous laymen, who reside in Navagrma, Sthna and other (towns), caused to be made, full of devotion, (and) in accordance with their mean, this fourfold Vardhamna; it was fashioned in the [Vikrama] year 1080 by Thabhaka and Pappaka. O!
PHOTOGRAPHS
NALANDA STUPA
VIEWS OF CORNER OF MAIN STUPA, SITE 3
FIGURES IN NICHES OF A STUPA
BHITARGAON TEMPLE: VIEW AND DETAILS
CLOCKWISE FROM ABOVE LEFT: GENERAL VIEW ; SOUTH FACE; DETAIL, SOUTH FACE

A history of ancient India from prehistory to the 12th century generates hundreds of questions. Given below are some questions of varied complexity and detail. These can be used as a basis for writing essays, class discussions, or as issues to think about. 1. Are the concepts of a golden age or classical age useful in historical analysis? 2. Why can the descriptions of kings in royal prashastis not be taken literally? In what ways do these prashastis nevertheless form an important source for political history? 3. Discuss the structure of the Gupta and Vakataka empires. 4. Discuss the representations of women on coins and in the inscriptions of the period c. 300600 CE.
5. What do texts and inscriptions of this period tell us about the complex nature of land rights in different regions during this period? 6. Discuss some of the technical terms that occur in the land grant inscriptions of the period c. 300600 CE. 7. Discuss the evidence for and against the theory of urban decay in this period. Which is more convincing? 8. Discuss the major Sanskrit kavyas of the early first millennium. Do the characters and situations in these texts tell us anything significant about the social structure and the norms of their times? 9. Outline the history of ancient Indian science in the first millennium CE.
CHAPTER 10 EMERGING REGIONAL CONFIGURATIONS, C. 6001200 CE

P. 616 MAHISHASURAMARDINI SCULPTURES IN VARIOUS TEMPLES
TOP: MAHISHASURAMARDINI, MAHISHASURAMARDINI CAVE, MAMALLAPURAM; ABOVE LEFT: CLOSE-UP OF MAHISHASURAMARDINI; ABOVE RIGHT: CLOSE-UP OF ASURA
P. 632 PHOTOGRAPHS OF BADAMI, PATTADAKAL, HALEBID, AND BELUR
VISHNU, CAVE 3, BADAMI
VARAHA LIFTING BHUDEVI, VARAHA MANDAPA

LEFT: DANCING SHIVA, KESHAVA TEMPLE, BELUR; RIGHT: KALKI, KESHAVA TEMPLE, BELUR
LEFT: ELEPHANTS, KESHAVA TEMPLE
LEFT: BRACKET FIGURE, KESHAVA TEMPLE, BELUR; RIGHT: DANCING SHIVA, HOYSALESHVARA TEMPLE, HALEBID TEMPLE
ABOVE LEFT: CEILING RELIEF, HOYSALESHVARA TEMPLE; ABOVE RIGHT: GAJODDHAR SCENE, HOYSALESHVARA
P. 634 PHOTOGRAPHS OF MAMALLAPURAM CAVE SCULPTURES
ABOVE LEFT: VISHNU AS TRIVIKRAMA, ENCOMPASSING THE W ORLD WITH HIS THREE STRIDES, VARAHA CAVE; ABOVE RIGHT: VARAHA CAVE
FURTHER RESOURCES
EXTRACTS
Khalimpur Plate of Dharmapaladeva
From Epigraphia Indica, Vol 4
This plate was discovered by Mr Umes Chandra Batavyal, ICS, in November 1893, at the village of Khlimpur, near Gaur, in the Maldah district of the Bhgalpur division of the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal. This is a single plate which measures about 11 3/8 broad by 1 4 3/8 high. The language is Sanskrit and the script is 9th century Nagai. This translation is by F. Kielhorn. Om. Hail! (Verse 1.) May the ten powers of Vajrsana who has firmly attained, as to fortune, to omniscience, (those powers) which, cherished by his consortgreat compassion, conquer the regions where many hosts of the Evil one are seen, protect you.
(V. 2.) As the sea is the birth-place of the blessed goddess of fortune, and the moon the source of that lustre which gladdens the universe, so Dayitavishu, bright with all learning, became the progenitor of the foremost line of kings. (V. 3.) From him sprang the illustrious Vapyaa, who, full of piety, as far as the ocean embellished the earth with massive temples, and became famous as the destroyer of adversaries. (V. 4.) His son was the crest-jewel of the heads of kings, the glorious Gpla, whom the people made take the hand of Fortune, to put an end to the practice of fishes; whose everlasting great fame the glorious mass of moonnight on a fullmoon-night seeks to rival by its whiteness in the sky. (V. 5.) As Rhii is the beloved of the Moon, Svh of the Sacrificial Fire, arvn of iva, and Bhadr of the lord of the Gukyakas; as the daughter of Pulman is of Purandara, and Lakshmi of Muras foe, so the illustrious Dddadvi, a daughter of the Bhadra king, became the queen of that brilliant ruler of the earth, to him a source of joy. (V. 6.) From them was born the glorious Dharmapla, whose achievements are praised by the good, a master of kings who alone is ruling the antire orb of the earth; whose progress when he is about the conquer the quarters all around, the four oceans, marked by the footprints of the arrays of his elephants that bathe on their shores, patiently permit, being no longer fosses of the earth. (V. 7.) When, with his ponderous army marching with unbounded glee, he proceeds to conquer the regions, and when the earth thereby slides down as if the mountains on it were marching, sha hurriedly follows him, always exactly beneath him, with his arms raised to support the circle of his heads, hurt by the jewels that sink into them, bent down by the weight. (V. 8.) When, on his setting forth, the whole sky is covered with the masses of dust, cast up by the stamping of his marching army, and the earth thereby is reduced to a minute size, then, on account of its light weight, the circle of the hoods of the serpent-king springs up, with the jewels, that had sunk into them, reappearing. (V. 9.) The fire of his wrath, stirred up when he finds himself opposed, like the submarine fire, blazes up unceasingly, checked (only) by the four oceans. (V. 10.) Desirous, as it were, of seeing collected together in one place such kings of old as Prithu, Rma, the descendant of Raghu, and Nala, the Creator in this Kali-age set up the glorious Dharmapla, who has humbled the great conceit of all rulers, as a mighty post to which to fasten that elephantthe fickle goddess of fortune.
(V. 11.) For those armies of his,not seeing at once how large they are, because the ten regions are whitened by the dust of their van-guard, the great Indra, afraid of what might happen to the armies of Mndhti exhausts himself in conjectures,for them even, thrilled as they are with eagerness to fight, there is no chance of rendering assistance to his arms, which (alone) annihilate the whole host of his adversaries. (V. 12.) With a sign of his gracefully moved eye-brows he installed the illustrious king of Kanyakubja, who readily was accepted by the Bhja, Matsya, Madra, Kuru, Yadu, Yavana, Avanti, Gandhra and Kira kings, bowing down respectfully with their diadems trembling, and for whom his own golden coronation jar was lifted up by the delighted elders of Pachla. (V. 13.) Hearing his praises sung by the cowherds on the borders, by the foresters in the forests, by the villagers on the outskirts of villages, by the plying groups of children in every courtyard, in every market by the guardians of the weight, and in pleasure-houses by the parrots in the cages, he always bashfully turns aside and bows down his face. (Line 25.) Nowfrom his royal camp of victory, pitched at Paliputra, where the manifold fleets of boats proceeding on the path of the Bhgrath make it seem as if a serious of mountain-tops had been sunk to build another causeway (for Rmas passage); where, the brightness of daylight being darkened by densely packed arrays of rutting elephants, the rainy season (with its masses of black clouds) might be taken constantly to prevail; where the firmament is rendered grey by the dust, dug up by the hard hoofs of unlimited troops of horses presented by many kings of the north; and where the earth is bending beneath the weight of the innumerable foot-soldiers of all the kings of Jamdvpa, assembled to render homage to their supreme lord;the devout worshipper of Sugaas, the Paramvara Paramabharaka Mahrjdhirja, the glorious Dharmapladva, who meditates on the feet of the Mahrjdhirja, the glorious Gpladva, being in good health, (L. 30.) In the Mahantpraka district (vishaya), which belongs to the Vyghrata maala within the prosperous Puravardhana bhukti, is the village named Krauchavabhra. Its boundary on the west is Ganginik; on the north it is the small temple of Kdambar and a date tree; on the north east the dike made by the Rjaputra Dvaa, it goes to and enters a citron grove (?); on the east it is the dike of Viaka, Also the village named Mhmmal. On the north its boundary is Gaginik; from there, on the east; from there again, on the south, it is Klikvabhra, proceeding thence as far as; on the west, from there again, it enters Gaginik. At Palitaka the boundary on the south is the small island of K; on the east the river Khiy; on the north Gaginik; on the west Jnandyik. On the island the funeral rites of this village are performed (?). Of the village of Gpippali, which is within the mrashaik maala belonging to the Sthlkkaa district (vishaya), the boundaries are, on the east the western boundary of the Udragrma maala, on the south a jlaka (?), on the west
the khik (?) named Vsanik, on the north the cattle-path running on the borders of the Udragrma maala. (L. 43.) To all the people assembled at these four villages, the Rjans, Rjanakas, Rjaputras, Rjmtyas, Snpatis, Vishaapatis, Bhgapatis, Shashhdhikitas, Daaaktis, Dapikas, Chaurddharaikas, Dausdhasdhanikas, Dtas, Khlas, Gamgamikas, Abhitvaramnas, inspectors of elephants, horses, cows, buffalo-cows, goats and sheep, inspectors of boats, inspectors of the forces, Tarikas, aulkikas, Gaulmikas, Tadyuktakas, Viniyuktakas and other dependants of the kings feet, and to the other not specially named, to those belonging to the irregular and regular troops as they may be present from time to time, to the Jyshhakyasthas, Mahmahattaras, Mahattaras, Dagrmikas and other district officers, including the Karaas and to the resident cultivators,to all these especially honouring the Brhmaas, he pays due respect, makes known, and issues these commands: (L. 48.) Be it known to you that the Mahsmantdhipati, the illustrious Nryaavarman, by the mouth of the Dtaka, the Yuvarja Tribhuvanapla, has preferred to us the following request: For the increase of our parents and our own merit we have had a temple built at ubhasthal. to the holy lord N[u]nna-Nryana who has been installed there (by us), and to the La Brhmaas, priests and other attendants who wait upon him, may it please your Majesty to grant four villages, with their hattik and talapaka, for the performance of worship and other rites. Thereupon, at his request, we accordingly have assigned the above-written four villages, together with the talapaka and haik, up to their proper boundaries, with all their localities, with (the fines for) the ten offences, not in any way to be interfered with, exempt from all molestation, in accordance with the maxim of bhmichchhidra, for as long as the moon, the sun and the earth endure. Wherefore all of you, out of respect for the merit resulting from a gift of land, and afraid of falling into the great hell and of other evils consequent on the resumption of it, should applaud and preserve this gift. And the resident cultivators, being ready to obey our commands, should make over (to the donees) the customary taxes, means of subsistence, and all other kinds of revenue. (L. 56.) [Here follow five benedictive and imprecatory verses.] (L. 60.) In the increasing reign of victory, the year 32, 12 days of Mrga. (L. 62.) This was engraved by the skilful Tata, the son of the worthy Subhaa and sons son of the worthy Bhgaa.
Madhuban Plate of Harsha; theYear 25

From: Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 7
This plate was discovered, in January 1888 in a field near the village of Madhuban in the pargaa Nathpr of the tahsl sagr, in the Azamgarh district of the Benares division of the United Provinces. This is a single copper plate, about 18 broad by 1 3/4 high, and inscribed on one side only. The size of the letters is about 5/16. The characters belong to the north-western class of alphabets. The language is Sanskrit, and the script is 7th century Brahmi. This translation is by F. Kielhorn. (Line 1.) Om. Hail! From the great royal residence of victory, (furnished) with boats, elephants and horses from Kapitthik: (There was) the Mahrja Naravardhana. Begotten on Vajridvi, his son, who meditated on his feet, (was) the devout worshipper of the Sun, the Mahrja Rjyavardhana [I.]. Begotten on Apsardvi, his son, who meditated on his feet, (was) the devout worshipper of the Sun, the Mahrja dityavardhana. Begotten on Mahsnaguptdvi, his son, who meditated on his feet, (was) the devout worshipper of the Sun, the Paramabharaka Mahrjdhirja Prabhkaravardhana, whose fame crossed the four oceans; before whom other kings bowed down on account of his prowess and out of affection for him; who wielded his power for the due maintenance of the castes and orders of life, (and) who, like the sun, relieved the distress of the people. Begotten on the queen of spotless fame Yamati, his son, who meditated on his feet, (was) the devout worshipper of Sugata (Buddha)like Sugata solely delighting in the welfare of others the Paramabharaka Mahrjdhirja Rjyavardhana [II.], the tendrils of whose bright fame overspread the whole orb of the earth; who appropriated the glory of Dhanada, Varuna, Indra and the other guardian (deities) of the world; who gladdened the hearts of suppliants by many donations of wealth and land acquired in righteous ways, (and) who surpassed the conduct of former kings. He in battle curbed Dvagupta and all the other kings together, like vicious horses made to turn away from the lashes of the whip. Having uprooted his adversaries, having conquered the earth, having acted kindly towards the people, he through his trust in promises lost his life in the enemys quarters. (L. 7.) His younger brother, who meditates on his feet, the devout worshipper of Mahvara (iva)like Mahvara taking compassion on all beingsthe Paramabharaka Mahrjadhirja Harsha issues this command to the Mahsmantas, Mahrjas, Dausdhasdhanikas, Pramtras, Rjasthniyas, Kumrmtyas, Uparikas, Vishayapatis, regular and irregular soldiers, servants and others, assembled at the village of Smakuak which belongs to the Kuadhni vishaya in the rvasti bhukti, and to the resident people:
(L. 10.) Be it known to you! Having ascertained that this village of Smakundak was held by the Brhma Vmarathya on the strength of a forged charter, I therefore have broken that charter and taken (the village) away from him and, for the increase of the spiritual merit and fame of my father, the Paramabharaka Mahrjdhirja Prabhkaravardhanadva, of my mother, the Paramabharik Mahdv, the queen Yamatdv, and of my revered eldest brother, the Paramabharaka Mahryadhirja, Rjyavardhanadva, have given it, in the nature of a donation (to Brhmans), as an agrahraextending to its proper boundaries, with udranga, together with all income that might be claimed by the kings family, exempt from obligations, as a piece taken out of the district (to which it belongs), to follow the success of sons and sons sons, for as long as the moon, the sun and the earth endure, according to maxim of bhmichchhidrato the Bhaa Vtasvmin who is of the gtra of Svaria fellowstudent of the Chhandgas, and the Bhaa ivadvasvmin who is of the gtra Vishuvidha and a fellow-student of the Bahvichas. Knowing this, you should assent this and the resident people, being ready to obey my commands, should make over only these two the tulya-mya, the share of the produce, payments in money and other kinds income, as they may be due, and should render service to them. Moreover: (L. 16.) Those who profess (to belong to) the noble line of our family and others should approve of this donation. Of fortune, unstable as lightning and a bubble of water, donation the preservation of others fame are the (real) fruit. By deeds, thoughts and words one should do good to the living. This Harsha has declared to be the very best way of earning religious merit. (L. 17.) The dtaka in this matter is the Mahpramtra Mahsmanta, the illustrious Skandagupta. And by order of the great officer in charge of the office records, the Smani Mahrja varagupta, (this was) engraved by Garjara. The year 205 Mrgairsha-vadi 6. The Pehoa Inscription from the Temple of Garbnth
From Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 1
This inscription was found on a stone slab in the Garibnath temple, Pehoa, Karnal district. The language is Sanskrit, and the script is 9th century Nagari. This translation is by G. Bhler. O! During the increasing, auspicious and victorious reign of the feet of his majesty, the supreme sovereign, superior king of great kings (and) supreme lord, the illustrious Bhoja who meditates on the feet of his majesty, the supreme sovereign, superior king of great kings (and) supreme lord, the illustrious Rmabhadra, in the year two hundred exceeded
by seventy-six, on the seventh (lunar day) of the bright half of the month of Vaikha, (in figures) Savat 276 Vaikha udi 7on this lunar day specified as above by the year, month and (civil) day (mentioned) met here in the famous town of the Pithdaka at the horse-fair on the Pichchaturdai the (following) inhabitants of Chavrshika , Bhaa Vrukas sons Vanda and Rjyavala and Valluka, likewise Rukas son Rjyasha; the (following) inhabitants of Utpalika, Bhallukas son Mgaka, Chihas son Choarka; likewise the (following) inhabitants of Chikkariselavaapura, Daas son Kalluka, his son Jayarka, Vishus son dityarka, Rajjukas son Chiha and Ragaka, Kallukas son Vmuka; the (following) inhabitants of Valadevapura (Baladevapura), Khambhaas son Hoddha, Migkas son Viaka, Keavas son Dhauka, Khagakas son Vmuka, Maikkas son Uehari; the (following) inhabitants of rakadika, Nras son Lohaa (or Lhata) and akara, Vallukas son varditya; the (following) inhabitants of Sharudukkaka, Ullakas son Vachchhaka, Jayadharkas son Raika, Sras son Pragada; the (following) inhabitants of Traighaka, Dhraas son Chanda, Ekagorakas son Savva, Devaarmans son Phampha, Vaggukas son Kammika; the (following) inhabitants of Ghaghaka, Lallikas son Svmirka, Sighukas son S[ha], Dmodaras son Pombha, Hallukas son Davvu, Kaili, Manas son Khajji; the (following) inhabitant of Avala-Uhovaka, Ushas son Vaddha. The foreman of the dealers, come from various countries, chief among whom are those mentioned above, grants to the sacred place of famous Pithdaka a charter to the following (effect): To the (temple of the) god built by the illustrious Guhditya in famous Kanyakubja, and to (the temple of) the god built by Kadambditya even there in the Gotrtha, and to the (temple of the) god riding on the Garua built by Bhvaka, the son of the Ngara Bhaa Prabhkara on the bank of the Ganges in famous Bhojapura near famous Kanyakubja, and to the (temple of the) sacrificial boar built by the same Bhvaka in famous Pithdaka near the Eastern Sarasvat, we have given on the sale of horses, mares, mules and other animalsin Pithdaka in the case of a purchase by the king as well as in the case of a purchase by the hakuras, the provincials and so forth, and in Traighaka and other sacred places in the case of a purchase by the king alonefor the sake of spiritual merit two dharmas for each animal, as a perpetual endowment; and dividing that into twenty-four shares, we have assigned seven shares to the (temple of the) god built by the illustrious Guhditya, and seven shares to the (temple of the) god built by Kadambditya, and seven shares to (the temple of) him who rides on Garua, and one share to the (temple of the) sacrificial boar built by Bhvaka in Pithdaka, and one share to the temple priest of the latter, and one share to the sacred place of Pithdaka, moreover we have assigned out of the twelve shares into which the one dharma given for each horse by the purchasers of horses has been divided, [six] shares to (the temple of) the sacrificial boar built by Bhvaka in Pithdaka near the Eastern Sarasvat and to the temple priest of the latter two shares, and to the sacred place in famous Pithdaka four shares. This [should be agreed to] by the sellers and buyers of horses, (and) the virtuous Goshhikas should thus manage on their own part and on behalf of others, according to the rule laid down above, as long as sun and moon exist. Moreover these shares should be divided [by the Goshhikas] according to [the rule] laid down above.
Grant of Pallava King Shivaskankavarman

Purchased from a merchant of Hirahadagalli in Bellary district, the grant is on eight copper plates, each 8 3 3/4, held together by a ring, with a damaged circular seal. The language is mostly Prakrit (the last line is in Sanskrit), and the script is Brahmi. This translation is by G. Bhler. Success! From Kchpurathe righteous supreme king of great kings of the Pallavas Sivakhadavama (ivaskandavarman), a Bhraddya (Bhradvja) an offerer of Agnishoma, Vjapeya and Avamedha (sacrifices) [issues the following orders]: [We send greeting] to our lords of provinces, vatthas, royal princes, generals, rulers of districts, custom-house officers, prefects of countries and others, to the freeholders of various villages, to herdsmen, cowherds, ministers, foresters, gumikas, tthikas, neyikas, and all others employed in our service, to roaming (spices) and warriors, and we grant here an immunity (viz.) the garden in Chillarekakouka, which was formerly given by the great king, the lord Bappa, a giver of many krors of gold and of one hundred thousand ox-ploughs,while he made (the gift) a means of the increase of the merit, longevity, power and fame of (his) own family and raceto the Brhmans, free-holders of Chillarekakouka (and) inhabitants of pii, (viz.) to Golasamaja (Golaarmrya) one share of the produce, to Agisamaja (Agniarmrya) of the tteya (treya) gotra four shares of the produce, to Mhara (Mhara) two shares of the produce, to (his) son-inlaw (?) Agilla (Agnila) one share of the produce, to Klasama (Klaarman) of the Hrita gotra two (?) shares of the produce, to Kumrasama (Kumraarman) of the Bhradya (Bhradvja) gotra two shares of the produce, to the four brothers Kumranadi, (Kumranandin), Kumrasama, (Kumraarman), Koasama (Koaarman) and Satti (akti) of the Kosika (Kauika) gotra four (4) shares of the produce, to Bhai (Bhai) of the Kassava (Kyapa) gotra one share of the produce, to Khadakoi (Skandakoi ?) the Bhradya (Bhradvja) two shares of the produce, to Khamdaha (Skanda-iddha) one share of the produce, to Bappa one share of the produce, to Dattaja (Dattrya) two shares of the produce, to Nadija (Nandyrya) three shares of the produce, to Rudasama (Rudraarman) of the Vtsya gotra one share of the produce, to Dmaja (Dmrya) one share of the produce, to Slasama (ylaaran ?) one share of the produce, to Parimita (?) one share of the produce, to Nganadi one share of the produce, to Goli (?) one share of the produce, to Khadasama (Skandaarman) one share of the produce, to Smija (Svmyrya) one share of the produce. By Us also the formerly-given (garden) (situated) on the southern sm, in the village of Chillarekakouka (and) in the province (raha) of Sthani, has been granted to the above-mentioned Brhmans, chief among whom is Agisamaja (Agniarmrya), (the gift)
being confirmed by a libation of water and being made (valid) as long as the moon and stars endure. This garden in Chillarekakouka, which belongs to the Brhmans, (is to be) free from taxes, free from the taking of sweet and sour milk, free from troubles about salt and sugar, free from taxes, forced labour, free from the taking of the oxen in succession, free from the taking of grass and wood, free from the taking of vegetables and flowers; with these and other immunities of the eighteen kinds it must be exempted and caused to be exempted by the inhabitants of the province, by the inhabitants of pi and by the inhabitants of Chillarekakouka. Moreover, in pi (one) nivartana (has been given) to the Brhmans, chief among whom is Agisamaja (Agniarmrya), for a threshing-floor, (one) nivartana for a house, four labourers receiving half the produce (addhik), two Kolikas. Now (if) anybody, knowing this, proud of (being) a favourite (of the king), should cause or cause to be caused a small obstacle (to the donees) him, forsooth, we shall restrain by punishment. And further I pray both the future great warriors of our Pallava race, (who may rule) within a period exceeding one hundred thousand years, as well as kings, differing from us (in descent), saying (unto them): To him among you blessings, who in his time make (the people) act according to the rule, written above. But he who act contrary to it shall be the lowest of men, loaded with (the guilt of) the five mortal sins. A charter (valid) for one hundred thousand years has been given on the fifth day, in the sixth (fortnight) of the rainy season, in the year eight. (My) own order. The charter has been prepared in his own handwriting by the privy councillor Bhaisama (Bhattiarman), the Kolivla freeholder. Welfare to cows, Brhmans, the writer, the readers and the hearers. Vatteluttu Inscriptions of Chola Kings
A. Inscription in the Sthanunatha temple at Suchindram Hail! Prosperity! In the year thirty-four (of the reign) of king Paraksarivarman,in this year Araiyan Aravindan of Talaikkuam in the southern country (Ten-ndu) gave to (the temple of) Mahdva (iva) at Tiruchchivindiram in Nji-nu one sacred perpetual lamp, to burn without fail (one) uakku of ghee per day, as long as the moon and the sun exist. For (this lamp he) gave fifty full-grown ewes. Which must neither die nor grow old. These fifty (ewes-were made over) to the members of the assembly (of the village).
B. Inscription in the Sthuntha temple at uchndram Hail! Prosperity! In the year forty (of the reign) of king Paraksarivarman who conquered Madirai and am,in the month of Kumbha of this year, Orugai Aragan, a merchant of Karavandapuram in Kaakkui-nu, gave one perpetual lamp, weighing thirty palam, to (the temple of) Emberumn (Vishu) at Tiruchchivindiram. In order that this (lamp) might burn without fail, as long as the moon and the sun exist, during day and night, (one) uakku and a half of ghee per day, (he) granted seventy-five full-grown ewes, which must neither die nor grow old. For one (other) perpetual lamp, which the same person gave to (the shrine of) Tiruvgaa[nilai], (he) granted twenty-five ewes, in order that (this lamp) might burn, in the same manner as stated above, (one) kku of ghee per day. Altogether one hundred ewes were shown and made over to the members of the assembly.
C. Inscription in the Sthuntha temple at uchndram Hail! Prosperity! In the tenth year (of the reign) of king Rajrja-Ksarivarman, in the month of Karkaaka with which (this) year began, Maa[varaiya]n [e]n[ni] Ka[a] of []a-nu gave to (the temple of) Mahdva at Tiruchchivindiram, a brahmadya in Nji-nu, one sacred perpetual lamp, to burn without fail during night and day, as long as the moon and the sun exist, (one) uakku of ghee per day. For this (lamp he) gave fifty full-grown ewes, which must neither die nor grow old. These (ewes) were shown and made over to the chief members of the assembly. And (by) the chief members of the assembly they were entrusted (?), shown and made over to [Pa]ait[taruma]n Kaai[ya]n of [V]eirkui (a village belonging to the temple of) Emberumn (Vishu).
D. Inscription in the Sthuntha temple at uchndram Hail! Prosperity! In the year fourteen (of the reign) of king Rjarja-Ksarivarman, who, having destroyed the ships, (at) Kndar-lai, conquered Gaga-pi, Nuamba-pi, Taga-vai and Vgai-nu,in the month of Vichika of this year, the cultivators who were formerly sub-tenants to Tenvaanallr, a portion of Nipakharavaanallr, a dvadna (of the temple) of Emberumn (Vishu) at Sujindiram, a brahmadya in Njindu, (a district) of Rjarja-vaanu, at the bidding of Nriyan-Mvndavr
E. Inscription in the Sthnuntha temple at uchindram Hail! Prosperity! In the year-fifteen (of the reign) of king Rjarja-Ksarivarman, who, (in) the belief that, as well as the goddess of Fortune, the goddess of the great Earth had
become his wife, was pleased to the destroy the ships (at) Kndar-lai; who conquered by (his) army Gaga-pi, Nuambar-pi, Taityar-pi, Vgai-nu and Kuagamalai-nu; and who in the long time during which his youth was resplendent, deprived the eiyvas (i.e. the Pyas) of (their) splendour at the very moment when Udag[ai], which is worshipped everywhere, was (most) resplendent;in this year, on the day of Prva-Bhadrapad which corresponded to the Tuesday, three evenings having expired of the month of Kany,we, the members of the great assembly of Tiruchchivindiram, a brahmadya in Nji-nu, (a district) of Rjarja-vaanu,
F. Inscription in the Rmasvmin temple at Shrmdvi Hail ! Prosperity ! In the fifteenth year (of the reign) of king Rjarja-Ksarivarman, who, etc. in this year ... of ramn-mahdvi-chaturvdimagalam, a brahmadya in Mui-nu, (a district) of Rjarja-vaanu,...
H. Inscription in the Rmasvmin temple at Shrmdvi Hail! Prosperity! In the third year (of the reign) of king Paraksarivarman, alias the glorious Rjndra-adva,we, the Vaikhnasas of the Nigarili-a-Viagar (temple) at Nigarili- a-chaturvdimagalam, a brahmadya in Mui-nu, (a district) of Rjarja-maalam, having previously received money from the cultivator (Vaan) Kan ndan, who resides in this village, and having (thereby) become bound to burn a sacred perpetual lamp for this god, have been burning half a lamp. We shall have to burn (one) kku of ghee per day in this half lamp. As long as this holy temple exists, and as long as the moon and the sun exist, we shall have to burn (it). If (we) do not burn (it), those who shall be in charge of the holy temple at that time, shall make (us) burn (it), causing (us) to supply double the quantity of the missing ghee (as fine). Thus we, the Vaikhnasas, shall have to burn without fail (one) kku of ghee per day. Having thus agreed, we, the representatives of the Vaikhnasas who have received that money, shall have to burn (that lamp).
Nidur Inscription of Kulottunga-Chola A. Hail ! Prosperity. ! In the forty-sixth year (of the reign) of Kulttuga-Cha, who had brought under (his) parasol all the known worlds, Kaan Mdavan, the V of Mialainu, and the ruler of Toai, who had earned fame by constructing in the year seven times five added to three (i.e. 38) (of the reign) of the Nriyan (i.e. the Cha king) the incomparable stone temle of the resplendent god of Nr, who was the chief of
Kuattr, where Amudasgara began [and] completed (his work) Krigai, and who was (as it were) the kalpaka (wish-giving tree) to the people (?) of iukuna-nu, was pleased to construct of stone the shrine of onnavaivr in the great ... on the northeastern side of the hall (ambalam) at Tillai and the walled pavilion (in it) where works on Puras were expounded and which were thus made to appear extensively splendid.
B. Hail ! Prosperity ! In the thirty-eighth year (of the reign) of Kulttuga-Cha, who had brought the world with its eight quarters under the shade of his single (i.e. incomparable) parasol, Kaan Mdavan the V of Mialai-nu, who was the nephew (or son-in-law) of him that caused the fine work Krigai-[Yppu] (prosody), to be composed by Amudasgaramuni of Tami fame, who was the chief of Krigai-Kuattr iukuna-nu (a sub-division) of Jayagoaa-maalam and who showed mercy and generosity to all, was pleased to construct an excellent stone vimna as high as a mountain to the god who was resplendent with (his consort) Um at Nr of high (mansions) and ... (situated) in Tiruvindalr-nu (a sub-division) of au.
PHOTOGRAPHS
NAGARJUNAKONDA: EARLY MEDIEVAL SCULPTURES
NANDI
CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT: GANESHA; NARASIMHA; KALI; DURGA

PURANA QILA, NEW DELHI: REMAINS OF THE EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD
ABOVE LEFT: BELLS AND POT; ABOVE RIGHT: COINS
ABOVE LEFT: POT WITH COINS; ABOVE RIGHT: TERRACOTTA FIGURINES
BADAMI
TOP LEFT: THE BHUTNATH GROUP OF TEMPLES; TOP RIGHT: UPPER SHIVALAYA TEMPLE; ABOVE LEFT: GANAS IN UPPER SHIVALAYA TEMPLE; ABOVE RIGHT: CLOSE-UP OF GANAS
SCULPTURES IN THE BADAMI CAVES
TOP LEFT: MAHISHASURAMARDINI; TOP RIGHT: CAVE 3, VARAHA LIFTING PRITHVI; ABOVE LEFT: GANESHA; ABOVE RIGHT: SHIVA AS ARDHANARISHVARA
TOP LEFT AND RIGHT: BRACKET FIGURES; LEFT: NAGA ON CAVE CEILING
TEMPLE SCULPTURES AT MAHAKUTA, BADAMI
ABOVE LEFT: SHIVA AS ARDHANARISHVARA; ABOVE RIGHT: VARAHA LIFTING PRITHVI SCULPTURES IN THE HOYSALESHVARA TEMPLE, HALEBID
ABOVE LEFT: VISHNU AS KALKI; ABOVE RIGHT: HUNTRESS

LEFT: ANIMAL PROCESSIONS; RIGHT: SCENE FROM THE MAHABHARATA
MAMALLAPURAM TEMPLES: DETAILS
SHIKHARA OF THE DHARMARAJA RATHA
SHIKHARA OF THE BHIMA RATHA
SCULPTURES IN THE PAPANATHA TEMPLE, PATTADAKAL
ABOVE LEFT: RAM, LAKSHMANA AND SITA; ABOVE RIGHT: VANARA ARMY BUILDING BRIDGE TO LANKA
TOP LEFT: JATAYU AND SUGRIVA; ABOVE: FIGHT BETWEEN VALI AND SUGRIVA; LEFT: SHIVA AND PARVATI

A history of ancient India from prehistory to the 12th century generates hundreds of questions. Given below are some questions of varied complexity and detail. These can be used as a basis for writing essays, class discussions, or as issues to think about. 1. What are the implications of the use of the term early medieval in Indian history? 2. Why do regions have to be considered as fluid rather than fixed entities? 3. Discuss the various aspects of royal land grants as sources of history. 4. Reflect on the relationship between women and political power in ancient India, with special reference to the dynastic history of the early medieval period. 5. Discuss the relationship between power and authority, with special reference to the various legitimation strategies adopted by early medieval kings. 6. Discuss the impact of royal land grants on agrarian structures in various regions of the subcontinent. Were the patterns identical? 7. Analyse the evidence for and against the decline of cities and coins in early medieval India. Which hypothesis do you find more convincing, and why? 8. What are the problems with the segmentary state model as applied to early medieval South India? 9. Discuss the debate over the political structure of early medieval India. Which hypothesis do you find more convincing and why? 10. Discuss the nature of cultural contacts and exchanges between the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and East Asia during this period. 11. How can we understand the retreat of Buddhism to the peripheries of the subcontinent during the early medieval period? 12. Discuss the religious ideas and social content of South Indian bhakti. 13. What do inscriptions tell us about diverse sources of patronage of religious establishments during the period c. 6001200 CE? 14. Discuss the various stages in the evolution of Chola temples. 15. What were the basic features of the sophisticated regional styles of Hindu temple architecture and sculpture in different parts of the subcontinent during this period?
16. Discuss the literary production of early medieval times. How would you describe this period from the perspective of intellectual history? 17. Discuss the relationship between Sanskrit and the regional vernaculars in the literature of the first and second millennium. 18. Do you think that it is possible or even necessary to think beyond the existing explanatory models (feudalism/segmentary state/integration/processual) with regard to early medieval India?

A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India

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A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India

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INTRODUCTION IDEAS OF THE EARLY INDIAN PAST

P. 8 EXCERPTS ANCIENT INDIA

QUESTIONS AND ISSUES TO THINK ABOUT

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 1 UNDERSTANDING LITERARY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

P. 27 EXTRACTS FROM JAINA TEXTS

P. 27 POEMS FROM THE SANGAM CORPUS

J. PH. VOGEL (EPIGRAPHIST)

STEN KONOW (EPIGRAPHIST)

JAMES BURGESS (ARCHITECTURAL SCHOLAR)

INSCRIPTION ON RUMMINDEI PILLAR OF ASHOKA

RIDDHAPUR COPPER PLATES OF VAKATAKA QUEEN PRABHAVATIGUPTA (BRAHMI SCRIPT)

RIDDHAPUR COPPER PLATES OF VAKATAKA QUEEN PRABHAVATIGUPTA (BRAHMI SCRIPT)

RAJPUT PERIOD INSCRIPTIONS ON DELHITOPRA PILLAR

NAGARJUNAKONDA INSCRIPTIONS IN ORNAMENTAL BRAHMI

COPPER PLATE INSCRIPTIONS

QUESTIONS AND ISSUES TO THINK ABOUT

QUESTIONS AND ISSUES TO THINK ABOUT

Photographs Archaeological Survey of India

PAINTED SPOUTED POT

HARVESTER WITH TWO PERFORATIONS

QUESTIONS AND ISSUES TO THINK ABOUT

MOHENJODARO: THE CHAMBER OF DEAD

MOHENJODARO: THE CHAMBER OF DEAD (DETAIL)

MAIN STREET, KALIBANGAN

MUD BRICK FLOORING, KALIBANGAN

LEFT: FLUTED CORE (KALIBANGAN); RIGHT: MINIATURE PERFORATED JAR (KALIBANGAN)

ANTHROPOLOGIST EXAMINING SKELETON AT LOTHAL

DRAIN'S DISCHARGING POINT, LOTHAL

LOTHAL: EXCAVATIONS IN PROGRESS

CLOSE-UP OF DRAIN AT LOTHAL

WALL OF DOCKYARD DURING EXCAVATIONS AT LOTHAL

BHAGWANPURA: TOY RAM FROM LATE HARAPPANPGW OVERLAP LEVEL

ABOVE AND LEFT: GOLD NECKLACES, LOTHAL

LOTHAL: MINIATURE POT, PAINTED WITH A DEER AND A BIRD

BANAWALI: TERRACOTTA SEALING

BANAWALI: TERRACOTTA BEADS

BANAWALI: TERRACOTTA GRAFFITI

DHOLAVIRA: SMALL EASTERN TANK

DHOLAVIRA: STRUCTURA L REMAINS OF CITADEL

DHOLAVIRA: PILLAR BASE OF EAST GATE

DHOLAVIRA: EXCAVATIONS IN PROGRESS

DHOLAVIRA: VIEW OF MIDDLE TOWN STREET

DHOLAVIRA: VIEW OF LOWER TOWN STREET

DHOLAVIRA: VIEW OF SITE

DHOLAVIRA: IN SITU BEADS

DHOLAVIRA: PERFORATED JAR

QUESTIONS AND ISSUES TO THINK ABOUT

PLAN OF THE DAIMABAD COMPLEX WITH APSIDAL TEMPLE

P. 253 PHOTOGRAPHS OF MEGALITHS FROM VARIOUS SITES

SIDE VIEW OF MAN ON CHARIOT

PAINTED DESIGNS ON DAIMABAD POTTERY

ARTEFACTS FROM VARIOUS SITES

COPPER HOARD ANTHROPOMORPHS AND OTHER OBJECTS

QUESTIONS AND ISSUES TO THINK ABOUT

CHAPTER 6 CITIES, KINGS, AND RENUNCIANTS: NORTH INDIA, C. 600300 BCE

P. 307 EXCERPTS FROM BUDDHIST TEXTS

P. 316 JAINA TEXTS

CUNNINGHAMS SKETCH OF THE RUINS AT SARNATH

QUESTIONS AND ISSUES TO THINK ABOUT

CHAPTER 7 POWER AND PIETY: THE MAURYA EMPIRE, C. 324187 BCE

ASHOKAN BRAHMI (COPY OF INSCRIPTIONS ON DELHITOPRA PILLAR)

INSCRIPTIONS ON DELHITOPRA PILLAR

QUESTIONS AND ISSUES TO THINK ABOUT

CHAPTER 8 INTERACTION AND INNOVATION, C. 200 BCE300 CE