(1) Whats the reason of grounding or earthing of equipment?

with a ground path, in case of short circuit the short circuit current goes to t he body of the equipment & then to the ground through the ground wire.hence if a t the moment of fault if a person touches the equipment body he will not get a s hock cause his body resistance (in thousands of ohms) will offer a high resistan ce path in comparison to the ground wire. Hence the fault current will flow thru the ground wire & not thru human body. Providing a ground path helps in clearing the fault. A CT in the ground connecti on detects the high value fault current hence the relay connected to the CT give s breaker a trip command. Grounding helps in avoiding arcing faults. IF there would have been no ground th en a fault with the outer body can cause a arcing to the ground by breaking the air. This is dangerous both for the equipment & the human beings. (2) A type-C MCB has thermo magnetic capability 5In to 10In that means a short circuit current will be interrupted as the value will reach between 5In to 10In but the MCB breaking capacity is (for example) define as 10kA. 5In to 10In is the pickup threshold for the magnetic trip element. The MCB will trip instantaneously when the current is between these limits. 10kA is the short circuit withstands capacity of the MCB. Under normal condition, a current limit ing type MCB will trip on short circuit (magnetic trip) and the current during c ircuit interruption will be much less than the prospective current. However, the MCBs have to have a short circuit capacity more than or equal to the fault leve l at the location where it is installed. (3) What is Ferrari Effect? Ferranti Effect is due to the rise in voltage at the receiving end than that of the sending end.This occurs when the load on the system reduces suddenly Transmission line usually consists of line inductance ,line to earth capacitance and resistance. Resistance can be neglected with respect to the line inductance .When the load on the system falls the energy stored in the capacitance gets di scharged. The charging current causes inductive reactance voltage drop. This get s added vector ally to the sending end voltage and hence causes the voltage at t he receiving end to raise A Long transmission line draws significant amount of charging current. If such l ine is open circuited or very lightly loaded at the receiving end, the voltage a t the receiving end may become greater than sending end voltage. This effect is known Ferranti effect and is due to the voltage drop across the line inductance (due to charging current) being in phase with the sending end voltages. Therefor e both capacitance and inductance is responsible to produce this phenomenon. The capacitance (charging current) is negligible in short lines, but significant in medium and long transmission line. Hence, this phenomenon is applicable for medium and long transmission line. The main impact of this phenomenon is on over voltage protection system, surge p rotection system, insulation level etc. CT with 0.2s class is more accurate than with 0.2 class. because in 0.2 class CT , ratio & phase angle errors must be within the specified limits at 5%, 20%, 100 % & 120% of rated secondary current. Whereas in 0.2s class CT, ratio & phase ang le errors must be within the specified limits at 1%, 5%, 20%, 100% & 120% of rat ed secondary current. Also in 0.2s class, Ratio & Phase angle errors limits are lower than 0.2 classes. Earthing an equipment doesnt mean it requires a ground or actual earth its just e nough to have a sink which can dissipate all the fault current. so in the case o f aero plane as well as ship the body of the same is enough to dissipate all the fault current. (ship can be grounded to water also). it mean to say the fault c urrent will be dissipated through the body. A lightening strike will opt for the shortest path to reach the earth.an aeropla ne will in no way connected to earth so a lightening strike will never take its path through aero plane. It mean to say an aero plane will never see a lightenin g strike in its path. (6) Why earth point in 3 pin socket is twice in size why earth point in 3 pin socket is twice in size compared to phase & neutral whe

reas conductor we used for both end of socket for earth point having same crosssection as we used for phase & neutral R = k *(L/A) k=resistivity A=Area L=Length so large is the area, the less will be resistance. Hence, if any equipment have current in the body/cover, then it will follow the less resistance path. And, body current will be earthed. This is the hard way coz we have to consider to the derating factor, current up rating factor, effect of short circuit current , electrodynamics effect, strengt h of material, But it will take 2 days to calculate the size in such a manner. S o i usually opt for the easy go Size of Copper bus bar = Continuous Current Rating / 0.8 Size of Aluminum bus bar = Continuous Current Rating / 1.2 eg: if the continous current rating is 400Amperes , then if you choosing Al bus bar , size should be greater than 400/ 1.2= 500sqmm size of Cu busbar should be greater than 400/ 0.8= 333sqmm (8 )Where is Auto-recloser is used? Gen. protection / Trans. Protection / T/L / Bus bar protection Auto reclosure is generally used for Transmission lines where the general type o f faults are transient in nature. It can be three phase auto-reclosure or single pole auto-reclosure. The single pole auto reclosures are generally for 400kV line. below this if empl oyed are three pole auto- reclosures. The reason I know is for a line the single pole reclosure provides a better stab ility of the system.. since some part of power is still transferred through the healthy phases. Also 400kV breaker till date has a independent drive/ trip/ close coils for the three poles, below that all breakers have common drive/ trip / closing coils for the three poles. The usual size used of copper bus bar is 256 Cu for panel.. The size is calculated as per the fault current. refer IEEE-80 for SC ampacity c alculations. The general thumb rule is 200A/sq mm for Cu and 100A/sq mm for Al for 1 sec SC r ating (10) What is difference between power transformers & distribution transformers Distribution Transformers are designed for a maximum efficiency at 50% of load. whereas power transformers are designed to deliver max efficiency ay 90% and abo ve loads. The distributions transformers have low impedance so as to have a better regulat ion power transformers have higher so as to limit the SC current. Power transformers are used to step up voltages from 11 kv which is the generati ng voltage to 132 or whatever will be the transmission voltage levels. Power tra nsformers are having DEL-DEL connection. Will be located at power generating sta tions. Distribution transformers are used to step down voltages from transformer levels to 11 kv/415 v. Will be having DEL-Y. Will be located in substations near load centers. The main basic difference lies in the Design stage itself as power transformer a re to operate at near full load so there sensing is such that they achieve equal . of copper losses & iron losses at full loads whereas this is achieved in the d esign itself at about 50% loading in dist transformer but friends there is a dil emma as our dist. transformer are almost fully loaded & beyond so they never go operate at their full eff. & also poor voltage regulation. The difference between power and distribution transformers refers to size & inpu t voltage. Distribution transformers vary between 25 kVA and 10 MVA, with input voltage between 1 and 36 kV. Power transformers are typically units from 5 to 50 0 MVA, with input voltage above 36 kV. distribution transformer design to have a max efficiency at a load lower than full load.power transformer design to have a max efficiency at full load. (11)Why it that the voltage levels in India is is in Multiples of 11?

Voltage levels in India are the multiples of 1.1. coz ripple factor of a perfect sine wave is 1.11. Hence to transfer an equivalent of 100 volts, we need to tra nsfer 1.11*100 i.e. 110 volts. But not in dc voltage. In India, transmission is mostly done at 33kv. for longer transfer of power, we use 440kv at the most. the highest voltage at which power is transferred is 765k v, thats in north America.. There has been no change in IS and IEC considering digital meters, moreover, bur den of instrument transformer depends on the lead wire used in the secondary of CT or PT. Generally highly accurate CT or PT of 0.1 or 0.2 are used for measurement purpos e, beyond this, accuracy class of 0.05 or 0.01 is used by standard laboratories like ERDA OR CPRI for calibration purpose of ct or pt. Selection of burden depends completely on the use of leads on secondary side of C T or PT . When CT or PT is to be calibrated, it has to be calibrated using the same lead b urden with which it has to be connected at site for connecting it to meters. CT Burden = I x I x( Rct + 2Rl + Rm) where Rct = CT Internal resistance Rl= Resistance of lead/cable Rm= Resistance of meter(s) connected in series PT Burden = V x V / (( Rpt + Rm), for a conservative design you can ignore the l ead resistance since it will reduce the burden on PT (13)What will be happen if the neutral isolator will be open or close during the running condition of power system?? During normal condition the neutral isolating switch should be kept close. In ca se it is kept open, under balanced load conditions the current thru neutral will not flow & nothing harmful will take place but in case an earth fault takes pla ce then there will be no earth fault current flowing thru the system & the gener ator will run as a ungrounded generator. Thus the earth fault will not be cleare d. In case of 2 or more generators connected to a common bus without a transformer in between, basically in hydro stations, one of the NIS is kept closed & rest ar e opened to prevent circulating currents to flow between generators. Hence the a bove explanation will not be valid for such systems. Sometime you may want to test you generator & may want to isolate the neutral fr om ground. like for example meggaring etc. In such case would you like to open y our ground connection cable in case you want to remove the NIS? You will certain ly not like to open all the bolted connections for just a small test like checki ng your insulation with a meggar etc. for such things you need a NIS. If more number of generators are connected parallel. We will have a close loop a nd hence negative sequence current will flow. This will increase the rotor tempe rature. Hence if more number of generators are connected then only one is earthe d and others are open. Neutral isolator is not must. Smaller ratings are directly earthed through regis ter. Two reasons are already mentioned ones. one more can is it is required if w e have delta transmission system where transmission personnel ask you to isolate neutral after connected to grid. If you ungrounded the neutral then the generator is connected to the ground via Phase to earth capacitances. Hence during faults arcing grounds can take place. which are dangerous both to human & equipment. When you provide earthed neutral, for a fault, earth fault current will start fl owing thru the neutral, which you can sense thru a CT & relay & hence can immedi ately identify & clear the fault in abut 100 ms by opening the associated breake r/prime mover/excitation. Quicker the fault clearance less is the damage. In unearthed system , the voltage of healthy phases can go up 1.732 times the PE voltage. Hence you have to design the system for that voltage which makes it c ostlier. Only in case of very important systems like medical systems etc you will not gro und the system cause you can operate such systems for single ground fault. (15)Why it is required to operate the radio stations at high frequencies.

 Its not regarding power coz power has no relationship with frequency. The thing i s the Antenna for transmitting & receiving should bo of smaller height. The form ula for which is ( C/4f) where C = velocity of light & f = frequency so if the f requency is 10 KHz then minimum antenna height require is 7.5 k.m. for C= 300000 0000 but if frequency is 1 Mhz then height require is 75 Metre so thats why high freq is used. Take example of mobile & its antenna which is opearting on GHz . Also High frequency increases the quality of reception , increases the range of communication , high frequency offers high bandwidth so for large range of freq ur gain will remain constant. Much more is there but I hope ur view is cleared n ow. (16)Why is shorting type terminal required for CT? During maintenance or secondary injection you will need to bypass the CT & for t he same you need shorting link. During sec. injection you will short circuit the main CT & bypass it. Open circuiting the CT will saturate it & damage it. (17) Why is fuse given for only PT and not CT? Fuse if given for CT blows off due to a fault then rather than protecting the CT it will make it open circuited hence it will be saturated & damaged. For PT it gives overload & SC protection. (18) Why is insulating base required for LA? Can it be used without insulator as well(coz it is possible as suggested by 1 of the LA manufacturers, especially a t 6kV) The LA is provided with a dedicated PROPER earthing which may be in the form of a buried treated electrode next to it.LA connection is securely made with the el ectrode via a surge counter. If you directly earth the LA through structure then the surge counter will not be able to measure the no of surges. for lesser rati ng the counter is not provided, hence you can bypass the insulated base. But the n proper earthing has to be assured. Is motorized earth switch allowed for isolator as per IS and IEC? I think it is allowed cause even if it is motorized the interlocking will preven t from eathing during the closed condition (20) What is main zone and check zone in case of 21 protections? Main zone is the zone in which the distance relay will monitor the impedance & d uring the fault if the impedance falls under its characteristics (circle/quadril ateral) then the relay will operate. Check zone is a back up for the main zone. (21) IS THE WELDING TRANSFORMER IS A STEP UP OR STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER? WHY DOES SHORT CIRCUIT DONT TAKES PLACE WHEN ELECTRODE IS TOUCHED TO GROUND. Basically during welding we force a short-circuit at the electrode tip. The faul t condition produces large magnitude currents. Greater the I value..greater is t he I2R heat produced. The arcing energy elevates the temperature & hence melts t he electrode material over the joint. Of course the transformer is designed to w ithstand such high currents. But welding is a very complex & detailed phenomenon . Besides there are many principles on which welding operates. some may be a wel ding, dc welding, arc, constant voltage, constant current etc. Its a complex sub ject of study & for deeper knowledge detailed study is important. (22)Whats the difference between generator breaker and simple breaker..?? Breaker is one which disconnect the circuit in fault condition. and is similar f or all equipment. Based on the equipment voltage and maximum short circuit curre nt the ratings will be decided. For better understanding we call generator or tr ansformer or line etc breakers . (23) Class of the instrument? Generally the class indicates the accuracy with which the meter will indicate or an equipment will measure with respect to its input. The accuracy of different equipment will depend on number of factors. For exampl e for a VT accuracy will depend on its leakage reactance & winding resistance. F or a VT accuracy gives the voltage & phase error & it varies with the VA burden of secondary. Also better core material will give better heat dissipation & redu ce error. class of accuracy will give the voltage error for a VT different type of VTs available are: 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 5 & error values will be: class-% voltage error(+/_)-phase displacement

0.1-0.1-5 0.2-0.2-10 0.5-0.5-20 1-1-40 3-3-to be specified. Similarly indicating instruments shall have accuracies & accordingly application as depicted below for testing the following values are generally used: for routine tests : accuracy class 1 for type tests : accuracy class 0.5 or better. indicating meters generally will have accuracy of 1. (25) First pole to clear factor-Circuit breakers The first pole to clear factor (kpp)is depending on the earthing system of the n etwork. The first pole to clear factor is used to calculating the transient reco very voltage for three phase faults. In general following cases apply:1. kpp = 1.3 corresponds to three phase faults in system with an earthed neutral . 2. kpp = 1.5 corresponds to three phase faults in isolated or resonant earthed s ystem. 3. kpp = 1.0 corresponds to special cases e.g. railway systems. A special case is when there is a three phase fault without involving earth in a system with earthed neutral. This case responds to kpp = 1.5 . This special cas e is however not normally considered in the standards. (26) What is the roll of NGR in a power system and why we use a resistance to gr ound the neutral when we need always low resistivity for the grounding?? We need to understand why grounding is needed. well if You dont ground the neutra l then there is a possibility of production of what is called is an arcing when the fault will take place. The generator is actually connected with the ground t hrough the unseen capacitances with the ground. so u see that always there is a connection between the generator & the ground thru such capacitances(capacitance s between generator & ground, capacitance between cables/bus duct & ground etc) hence when a fault will take place an arc will produce which will deteriorate th e insulation & is also dangerous to humans. NOW If you ground the generator dire ctly then whenever a fault will take place at any phase with ground the fault cu rrent flowing throw the faulted phase-to ground-to neutral will be very high cau se there will be no resistance to limit the value of fault current. Hence we ins ert a resistance in the neutral circuit to limit this fault current. Also we nee d to reduce the fault current to such a value that the protection CTs are able t o identify the fault current without saturating the CTs.Communicate it to the pr otection relays & hence the relays can then isolate the system from the fault; s o that the system is isolated from the fault before the harm is done by the faul t current. That is the reason that all the equipment will be designed for fault KA vaules f or 1 sec so that the total operation(CT sensing-relay functioning-circuit breake r operation ) time will be less than 1 sec. hence the Breakers will isolate the fault before 1 sec i.e. within the time period the equipment are designed to car ry the fault current. Thus all your objectives of: -preventing the arcing, -limiting the fault current -& isolating the faulted system are achieved Of course you can have different types of earthing systems based on your require ment & system configuration. i hope the explanation was understandable. Neutral isolating switch Is required for: measuring / testing / repair etc. NIS Should be avoided as one can open the neutral switch & make the system dange rous with ungrounded condition. In that case arcing fault can take place & ur pr otection may become ineffective. NIS Should be replaced by a link I think so that it can be operated only in disc onnected condition.

however: Where multiple generators are solidly grounded but have switches in the neutral, there has sometimes been the practice of grounding only one of the several gene rators in parallel to limit ground-fault current duty or circulating third harmo nic current. (28) NGR Ratings / why are NGRs rated for 10sec? These are placed in the neutral circuit & hence will be energized only in the fa ult conditions thus their continuous loading is not expected. hence they are sel ected for intermittent rating. Similarly when you place a transformer in the neutral grounding circuit the KVA rating obtained after the calculation is multiplied by a diversity factor to obt ain smaller rating cause the therefore It will not be continuously rated. NIS is also provided to cut the circulating negative sequence current in 2 more generator connected in parallel. in some grid conditions they ask to keep neutral isolated after being connected to grid. (29) How to calculate knee point voltage and significance of knee point voltag? Knee point voltage: That point on the magnetizing curve(BH curve) where an incre ase of 10% in the flux density (voltage) causes an increase of 50% in the magnet izing force (current). Its significance lies mainly in PS class core of CTs used for diff protection (30) Design method for neutral grounding resistor??? NGR design basics: capacitive coupling of your generator, equipment and the ground -generator to ground capacitance -generator cable to ground capacitance(or bus duct as the case may be) -low voltage winding of trafo & ground capacitance. -surge arrestor capacitance. The total capacitance is then obtained from the above values & then u calculate from that the capacitive reactance. The capacitive current then produced is calc ulated from the generator voltage & the capacitive reactance obtained above. Once the current is obtained you can then calculate the electrostatic KVA from t he current multiplied with voltage.