Chapter I INTRODUCTION In philosophy, ethics is the science of moral values and duties, the study of ideal human character

and of human conduct and the consequences of it. Ethics developed when men began to study the motives behind their actions and the results of them. The adoption of ethical principles and the enforcement of standards become matters of increasing importance to society. The number of professions and professionals increase and the work environment becomes more ethically sensitive because the credibility of the entire profession is endangered when there are lapses in occurrence of ethical behavior. According to Greenhalgh (1997), the essence of the word professionalism can be defined as the profession and autonomous control of a body of specialized knowledge, which when combined with honorific status confers power upon its holders. Professionals have always been linked with the notion of service so that a profession is described as a group of people organized to serve a body specialized knowledge in the interests of society based on the perceived relationship. This thesis designed for use by the development practitioner. The analysis will focus on ethics code and codes of behavior. It will provide both background
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and foreground for what codes are how they used intentionally, what are the best uses and limitations of codes, how they are used international development.

Chapter II DISCUSSION This chapter presents the library research entitled, Professionalism and Code of Ethics Practiced by Engineers The Professions The early meaning of the term profession and its cognates referred to a free act of commitment to a way of life. The Oxford Shorter Dictionary says that the earliest meaning of the adjective professed referred to the activity of a person who had taken the monastic vows of a religious order. We might think of a person who made a public promise to enter a distinct way of life with allegiance to high more ideals. One professed to be a certain type of person and to occupy a special social role, which carried with it stringent moral requirements. Thus, profession originally meant, according to the Oxford Short Dictionary, the act or fact of professing. It has come to mean: The occupation which one professes to be skilled in and to follow . . . A vocation in which professed knowledge of some branch of leaving is used in its application to the affairs of others, or in the practice of an art based upon it.

This brief historical account, however, is not sufficient for our purposes; we need to discuss the characteristics of professionalism in more detail. In particular, we need an account of the characteristics of professionalism that will enable us to distinguish a profession from a mere occupation. There is no universally accepted account. It is unwise to claim that the characteristics we will discuss constitute a true definition, i.e. a statement of the necessary and sufficient conditions for having the status of a profession. Rather, we will consider a set of characteristics that at least usually hold true of professions. A given profession might not have one of those (so the characteristics would not be necessary), or an occupation might have a characteristics without being a profession (so that characteristics is not sufficient). Nevertheless, the following five characteristics will be useful in distinguishing professions from nonprofessional occupations. (Kempler, J.D., 1982) First, entrance to a profession requires an extensive period of training, and this training must be of an intellectual character. Many occupations require extensive apprenticeship and training required of professionals focuses as much on intellectual content as practical skills. Second, professionals knowledge and skills are vital to the well-being of the larger society. A society that has a sophisticated scientific and technological base is

especially dependent on its professional elite. We rely on the knowledge professed by physicians to protect us from disease and restore us to health. Third, professions usually have a monopoly or near monopoly on the provision of professional services. According to Greenwood, this control is achieved in two ways. One way is that the profession convinces the community that only those who have graduated from a professional school should be allowed to hold the professional title. In the second way of achieving control, a profession often attempts to persuade the community that there should be a licensing system for those who want to enter the profession. Those who practice without license are subject to legal penalties. Fourth, professionals have an unusual degree of autonomy in the workplace. Professionals in private practice have considerable freedom in choosing their clients or patients, and most professionals exercise a large degree of individual judgment and creativity in carrying out their professional responsibilities. Fifth, a professional claims to be regulated by ethical standards, usually embodies in a code of ethics. The degree of control that professions posses over the services vital to the well-being of the rest of the community provide an obvious temptation for abuse.

Holding those five characteristics in mind, it is easy to see that occupations form a continuum, extending from those that are unquestionably not. The occupations that hold a clear title to professional status include machine, law, veterinary medicine, architecture, accounting (at least certified public accountants), and dentistry. Some occupational groups might be considered borderline. Characteristics of Profession There is considerable agreement about defining the characteristics features of a profession. They have a professional association, cognitive base, institutionalized training, licensing, work autonomy, colleague control, and code of ethics to which Larson then also adds high standards of professional and intellectual excellence that professions are occupation with special power and prestige (Larson, 1987). Professionalism Concept of Professionalism First, they often appeal to their supposed service orientation, maintaining that professionals have a special responsibility for service to all humanity, regardless of social class. This can mask the economic interests of engineers and other professionals. Second, professionals insist that their work is of unusual importance to society, which can serve to justify high prices for professional
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services. Third, professionals insist that they are capable of regulating themselves in the public interest, an argument used to ask for relative freedom from government control (Watson, 1998). Models of Professionalism There are at least two models of professions, both which are suggested by the characteristics of professions we have just considered. One model, the business model, emphasizes the way in which professionals use their professional status for their own economic advantage. The other, the social-contract model, emphasizes the service orientation to which professionals are supposedly committed (Harris, Charles E. 1995). The Business Model Most engineers are employees of large organizations. These so called employed professionals usually have a strong sense of loyalty to their employers, and some of them may think of themselves primarily as employees. As employees, they are also interested in increasing their own salaries and making themselves as essentials to their employers as possible. Some engineers are either self-employed or work in small professional firms- some civil engineers, for example. It is even more obvious that those engineers are engaged in business enterprises, so that the business model is more appropriate.
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Business ethics is concerned with how business institutions ought to be structured, about corporate social responsibilities, and about making decisions that will impact many people other than the individual decision maker. This aspect of business ethics asks to examine business institutions from a social rather than an individual perspective. We refer to this broader social aspect of ethics as decision making for social responsibility (Hartman, 2008). Critics of the professions point out of many of these activities of professional societies seem to promote the economic self-interest of professionals, although their various activities often have more altruistic motivations. Professional societies often promote professional licensure and aggressively attack the unauthorized practice of the professional skills associated with their profession. While this is done in the name of protecting the public, it can also give the profession control of the market for a particular service. Professional societies have also traditionally opposed competitive pricing and the advertising of professional services, on the grounds that it protects the quality of professional services. Professional societies perform other functions that promote the economic self-interest of professionals (Fielder, 1986).

The Social-Contract Model The second model takes the affirmations of the professions to a public service orientation much more seriously than does the business model. In this model, professionals are not simply businesspersons who use trappings of professionalism to promote their economic self-interest. Rather, they are guardians of public trust. The basic idea of a social contract is that there are implicit, unstated agreements among the members of society that explain and justify social institutions (Harris, 1995). The discussions of the social responsibilities of business are viable for their analytical looseness and lack of vigor. Only people can have responsibilities. A corporation is an artificial person and in this sense may have artificial responsibilities, even in the vague sense. The first step toward clarity in examining the doctrine of the social responsibility of business is to ask precisely what it implies for whom (www.peo.on ca/Ethics /code of ethics.html)

Provision of the social- control model Service `the service provision includes several elements: promoting the well being of the general public as this relates to the professions area of expertise; ensuring the competence of professionals in their area of expertise; ensuring that professions are devoted to the public welfare even when it conflicts with self interest, particularly economic in self interest. These latter provisions may sometimes imply the obligations to engage in pro bono work, providing free professionals services to the poor and public service organizations. Self- regulation Professionals must be able to create and enforce high standards of professional competence and ethical conduct for themselves. A provision under the second rule in this section is that if a client or employer insists on unprofessional conduct an engineer should notify the proper authorities and withdraw further service on the project. The third rule states that engineers should avoid all conduct or practice which is likely to discredit the profession or deceive the public.

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Autonomy The other side of the contract between professions and the public is that, in exchange for competent service and self- regulations, professions are to receive public honor and recognition and to enjoy an unusual degree of autonomy in conduct of their professional work. Autonomy includes freedom to choose whom to serve and to conduct professional services in accordance with professional standards and with a minimum of enterprise from nonprofessional sources. Social status Even the social- contract model maintains the right to financial rewards. According to section III.6, engineers shall uphold the principle of appropriate and adequate compensation for those engaged in engineering work. Section III. 6. Instructs engineers, when employing other engineers to offer a salary according to professional qualifications . The Emergence of the Social- Contract Model If we were to evaluate these two models of professionalism for their conformity to the facts of professional life, we would probably to have to say that both models have validity. Professionals are to some extent businesspersons; they must survive in the marketplace. Even the social contract models recognize the legitimacy of expecting financial rewards for professional services.
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According to Martin, M.W (1982), Professionals also have obligations to public service that may transcend the business model and that may correspond more adequately with aspects of the social- contract model. Nevertheless, the stress on obligations to the public- the hallmark of the social contract- model seems to be assuming increasing in engineering codes. The Very Idea of Code of Ethics Although professions characteristically have codes of ethics there is no consensus about what functions such codes should have. A code of ethics is necessary for an emerging profession to gain initial recognition. However, he adds, engineering codes have now outlived their usefulness. These codes are currently understood as a set of ethical rules that are governing engineers in their professional lives (Meese, G.P.E, 1982). Reasons for not being satisfied with this understanding Three reasons for not being satisfied with this understanding: first, practicing engineers seldom consult engineering codes of ethics. Second is basic principle in the codes conflicts with the autonomy usually attributed to moral agents and lastly codes are meant to be coerces.

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Purpose of code of ethics Codes of ethics are written to guide behavior. Any final analysis of the impact of the code must include how well it affects behavior. Scholarly researchers debates about codes generally revolve around. Whether more general codes are mere platitudes, and whether more detailed codes required behavior about which reasonable people can disagree. According to Velasquez M. (1983), the codes of ethics is a basic guide for professional conduct and imposes duties on the practicing professional engineer, with respect to: society, employers, clients, colleagues(including employees and subordinates), the engineering professions and himself or herself. According to Friedman, M (1970), It is important to notice that the principles to which appeals have their foundations outside the codes of ethics in which they are incorporated. Although a code of ethics may endorse and adapt such principles for its own purposes, it does not create, invent, or legitimate them. They already exist in common morality. A code simply spells out their relevance to the professional practice in question.

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Why Support Code of Ethics? As described by Carl Taeusch (1987), a group of experienced, thoughtful leaders of the profession examined representative ethical problems engineers face. They derived from their discussions a set of principles and standards that seemed most relevant to their solution. This reason gains even further strength when we consider the more recent work of NSPEs Board of Ethical Review (BER). This board could carefully examine and comments on ethical problems in terms of NSPEs code. Thus, providing guidance in interpreting and applying the code to engineering practice. This inductive approach may not be the final word, but it does seem to deserve the respect of engineers seeking ethical guidance. Why is Ethics Codes Important? As foundational documents they can provide the framework that public servant, political and civil service use to carry out their public responsibilities. Codes can clearly articulate unacceptable behavior as well as providing a vision for which the government official as striving (Roa, 2007). According to P.W Taylor (1981), the advantage a code of ethics gives engineers is that ethics need no longer be just a matter of personal conscience for

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them. Conscience standing alone might tell us something quite different than conscience joined with others by way of the codes. According to Neil Luebke (1987), There are four reasons for supporting engineering code of ethics: it will help protect engineers and those they care about from being injured by others engineers (self-regulation); it will help create a working environment that makes it easier for an engineer to resist the pressure to do wrong (objecting as an engineer); it will help make engineering a practice about which they need not fell justified embarrassment, shame or guilt (respectability of profession); it is an obligation of failures to do ones part, assuming that others do theirs. Codes: Uses and Limitations The code emphasizes protection of the health, safety, and welfare of the public; competence; objectivity; truthfulness; and serving as faithful agents of their employers and clients. However, as the full body of the code reveals, the special functions of engineers in their professional life require elaborations of these basic principles in the context of engineering practice. Furthermore, even these further elaborations are no substitute for individual judgment or decision (Standards Educational Corporation, Vol.1, 1987).

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Chapter III

CONCLUSION

This chapter presents the accumulated evidences about the topic being discussed. Professionalism as it applies to engineering. Both the business and socialcontract model seems to apply to engineering. Engineers, whether self- employed or employees, musty market their services and survive economically. Engineering codes of ethics have increasingly recognized an obligation to public safety, health, and welfare. As in other professions, codes of ethics play an important role in efforts to have engineerings professional status fully defined and accepted. It examined reasons for even those engineers who are not members of professional societies to take these codes seriously. Engineering codes of ethics reflect the efforts of experienced, thoughtful engineers to articulate the kinds of ethical principles and standards that responsible engineer should accept. Beyond this, the codes have the potential to support engineers who want to resist pressures to do less than what is ethically required. In any case, codes of ethics are invaluable resource in thinking through the ethical problems facing engineers.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. BOOKS Greenhalgh, Richard (1997). Hastings-on-Hudson. NY: The Hasting Center. Harris, Charles E (1995). Engineering Ethics: Concepts and Cases. Belmont. Wadsworth Publishing Company. Hartman, Laura P (2008). Business Ethics: Decision Making for Personal Integrity. Boston. McGraw Hill. Kempler, J.D (1982). Engineers and Their Profession. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Montemajor, Felix M. (1993). Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. National Book Store, Inc. Roa, Floriana C (2007). Business Ethics and Social Responsibility. Manila, Philippines. Rex Bookstore. Taeusch, Carl (1987). Engineering Ethics: Concepts and Cases. Belmont. Wadsworth Publishing Company. Watson, Frank (1998). Ethics and Professionalism. Philadelphia. The University of Pennsylvania Press. B. ARTICLES Fielder, J (1986). Tough Break for Goodrich, Journal of Business and Professional Ethics, Vol. 19. No. 3 Friedman, M (1970). The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, The New York Times Magazine (September 13) Luebke, Neil R (1987). Conflict of Interest as Moral Category. Business and Professional Ethics Journal. Vol. 6. No. 1 (pp.66-81) Martin, M.W (1982). Professional Autonomy and Employers Authority, Rensselear Polytechnic Institute. Vol. 1 (pp.177-181)
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Meese, GP. E (1982). The Sealed Beam Case, Business and Professional Ethics, Vol. 1. No. 3 (pp.1-20) Taylor, P.W (1981). The Ethics of Respect for Nature, Environmental Ethics, Vol. 3. No. 3 (pp.197-218) Velasquez, M. (1983). Why Corporations Are Not Morally Responsible for Anything They Do, Business and Professional Ethics Journal, Vol. 2. No. 3 (pp.118) C. REFERENCE Standard Educational Corporation (1987). New Standard Encyclopedia. Chicago. Vol. 11 D. INTERNET www.peo.on ca /Ethics/ codes-of-ethics. Html

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