Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Professor W. S. Morley
Engineering Library
April 7, 1958
SAMUEL SHELDON,
A.M., PH.D.
PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AT THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF BROOKLYN, MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, AND FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
ASSISTED BY
HOBART MASON,
B.S.
NEW
D.
23
YORK:
WARREN
STS.
1900
COPYRIGHT,
1900,
BY
D.
^v \JO
PREFACE.
THIS book
is
out on the
in
the
It is intended equally Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. as much for the general reader, who is seriously looking for information concerning dynamo electrical machinery of
The
first
two chapters are devoted to a brief but logical and magnetic laws and facts
upon which the operation of this class of machinery Calculus methods have been employed in a few depends.
places in these chapters, but the results arrived at by use of them are in such a form that they can be utilized by the
who is unfamiliar with the processes of the calculus. In the chapter on design it has seemed advisable to express the flux density in lines per square centimeter. Both the square centimeter and the square inch are used
reader
in practice.
The
units
is
obviously simple.
wish to express our thanks to the various manufacturing companies who have so courteously given information, and who have kindly loaned electrotypes of their
apparatus.
We
1)90644
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
PAGE
II.
12
III.
ARMATURES
FIELD MAGNETS
31
IV.
67
77
V.
VI.
OPERATION OF ARMATURES
EFFICIENCY OF OPERATION
92
103
VII.
VIII.
129
161
IX.
X.
MOTORS
SERIES MOTORS
185
.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
208
218
232
251
XIV.
T.
.V:..H'
''' ?
'
' 5
Force
is
that which
tends to
or destroy motion.
The
The dyne is that force, which on one gram for one second, will produce a velocity acting of one centimeter per second.
Work is the production of motion against The units of work are the foot-pound and the
is
resistance.
erg.
The
the work done in lifting a body weighing one foot-pound pound one foot vertically. The erg is the work performed
in
The
joule
is
a larger unit
divided
much
used, and
is
is
7 equal to io ergs.
Energy
Energy
is
into Kinetic energy and Potential energy. body possesses kinetic energy in virtue of its motion, while potential
of
due to the separation or the disarrangement A wound up spring has attracting particles or masses.
energy
is
potential energy because of the strained positions of the molecules, while a weight raised to a height has potential
its
attracting
The
potential energy of a
body
is
into its
measured by the work required to put the body Kinetic energy is measured by strained condition.
=
2g
Its units
is
/,':.;'
the^ fcate of
'Power '{
lar^ tfta'hp'rEd-ptfwr
foot-pounds per
'minlite.
watt
is
One horse-power is equivalent to 746 watts. The number of watts in an electrical circuit carrying a certain number of
amperes of current under a pressure of a certain number
of volts
volts.
is
If
expressed by the product of the amperes into the we let T equal the torque or twisting moment
60
*
QTTH
where n
is
the
number
_ 6ow7 _
T
zirnT
33000
is
33000
equal
two sides
in
of the belt
feet,
multiplied
by the
radius
of
the pulley
hence
2.
Absolute and
Practical
Units -- Since
distinction
must continually be made between the absolute units and the practical units, throughout this work the capital letters /, E, and R will be used for the practical units, the ampere, the volt, and the ohm, respectively, and the lowercase letters i, e, and r will stand for the absolute (C. G. S.) units of current, pressure, and resistance respectively.
such
that,
when
flowing
through a conductor of one centimeter length, which is bent into an arc of one centimeter radius, it will exert a
force of one
center.
The absolute unit of difference ofpotential exists between two points when it requires the expenditure of one erg of work to move a unit quantity of electricity from one point
This unit of quantity is the quantity which, a second, passes any cross-section of a conductor in which a unit current is flowing.
to the other.
in
The
it
is
offered
by a body when
allows a unit current to flow along it between its two terminals, when maintained at a unit difference of potential.
Current,
E.M.F.,
f= E=
=
/.
10 ioe.
Resistance, JR
It is
loV.
make a
distinction beof
difference
potential.
magnetic
lines
a solution.
But a difference
may exist merely because of an electric curBetween any two points of a conductor carrying a current there is that which would send a current through an auxiliary wire connecting these points, and we call it
difference of potential.
If the current in the original con-
will
this differ-
4
the
conductor.
The word
pressure
is
used for
relevancy.
3.
is
mula
of
amperes flowing
in
an undivided
circuit, E the algebraic sum of all the electromotive forces in that circuit, and R the sum of all the resistances in
The form
law.
of the equation
is
E = IR,
as applied to a por-
tion of a circuit,
the
name
of
Ohm's
is not E.M.F., but differIn this case, however, ence of potential, as explained in the last article. If, in a house lighted by electricity, the service maintains
a constant pressure of 100 volts at the mains where they enter from the street, and no lights be turned on, then at every lamp socket in the house there will be a pressure of
100
volts.
on
less
than 100
tential.
a lamp be turned on, it will be working volts, because of the drop or fall of poIf many lamps be turned on, a considerable drop
If
now
may
occur.
The drop
is
wires carrying the current from the place of constant potential to the place where it is used, and the volts lost have
been consumed
in
That the drop is shown by a simple application of Ohm's law. Let R be the resistance of the line, and
drop caused thereby when a current
doing useless work in heating the wires. proportional to the current flowing is
Ed the
Then
volts
/ flows.
E*
from which it rent when the
is
= IR*
Resistance of Conductors.
is
The
resistance
R of a cono-
ductor
R =
where
is
the resistivity, and depending upon the material and the temperature of the conductor, / is the
constant
length in centimeters, and
cms.
The
is
its purity, and on condition, soft copper having 1.0226 times the physical Lake copper has a high conconductivity of hard copper.
its
ductivity because of
electrolytic copper.
its
pureness.
latter is
This
ance of metals.
for a rise of
In pure metals the increase of resistance C. is about .004 times their resistance at
iron, nickel, and manganese have and do not have so high a temperature
C.
Various alloys of
a-,
copper gives a large thermal E.M.F., which militates against its alloys being used for resistances in measuring instruments.
If in the foregoing expression for
R the
centimeter and
square centimeter be the units of length and cross-section respectively, then the following list gives the value of o- for various metals in microhms (i microhm = TTnJV<yoff ohm).
Copper
Iron
Steel
-594
9.5
13.0
27. 45-
Silver
"
" "
"
A circular mil
is
wire one foot long and one circular mil cross-section is called a mil-foot. The resistance of a mil-foot at o C. of
Copper
Iron
Steel
9.59 ohms,
=58. =82.
of
ohms, ohms.
Electrical Engineers
The American
Institute
has
adopted as its standard resistivity for soft copper one given wire of standard soft copper, of uniby Matthiessen.
form cross-section, of one meter length, and weighing one gram, should have a resistance of 0.141729 international
ohms
at
is
C.
this resis-
said to have 100 per cent conductivity. Copper is tivity frequently found having a conductivity of 102 per cent. It
is
in these cases
5.
Insulating Materials.
used for insulating from each other the various electrical circuits of dynamo electric machines should possess the
following properties
:
insulation resistance,
and
this
resistance should be maintained high over the range of temperatures to be found in machines. They should
furthermore have a dielectric strength sufficient to preclude any possibility of their being perforated by the
voltages liable to exist between the conductors which they
This strength must also exist throughout all probable ranges of temperature. They must possess such physical properties as will permit of mechanical manipulaseparate.
tion, as
Of they must be oftentimes bent and twisted. course the chemical constitution should not be altered by
Mica possesses the highest insuktion resistance and the be found. It requires 1000
mil in thickness.
Its chemical
It
is is
constitution
not,
unaffected by high
temperatures.
oil,
which,
good
have been thoroughly baked, are fairly As water is generally present in their
creases.
good
in-
sulators, but crack upon bending. Vulcanized fibers are made by treating paper fiber chemi-
when dried, they have a fairly high insulation but they readily absorb moisture, and, upon dryresistance, ing, are liable to warp and twist. They furthermore becally,
and,
come
brittle
when
heated.
oil
or preparations of shellac,
when
carefully
constructed
with
lapped
joints,
exhibit
nearly as good insulating and dielectric properties as sheet mica. While not perfect mechanically, these sheets permit of bending better than pure mica.
Vulcabeston, which
ber, exhibits fairly
ties,
and
is
Its
dielectric strength is
6.
Divided Circuits
-- If a
current
I be
flowing through
R
if
the undivided part of the circuit shown in Fig. I, and 7j and 7 be the currents flowing in the shunt resistances 2
RI and R y then / = 7X + Iv and, since the pressure upon each shunt is the same, by Ohm's law,
or Ii
72
<1
^2
currents in the branches of a divided circuit are inversely as the resistances of the branches.
If
shunted resistances
be a single resistance, that substituted for the R l and Rz will leave 7 unchanged, then,
law,
by Ohm's
resistance equivalent to
is
equal
to the reciprocal
of the
RI
sum of the
reciprocals
of the
separate resistances.
00 U O U U
1 I
Fig.
x.
7.
tial e
Power
of Electric Current.
difference of poten-
e ergs of
work
to bring
a unit quantity of electricity from one point to the other. unit of quantity is one absolute unit of current flowing
one second. Hence a current i flowing for / seconds with a difference of potential e does eit ergs of work. Likewise a current / flowing / seconds gives It coulombs of quantity,
for
of potential of
E volts does
or the
Eit
10r ergs
is
7
El
power
absolute units.
The
by Ohm's law
E=
power is the watt, Hence, remembering that IR, the power of a current in
practical unit of
units.
For commercial currents and voltages the watt is a needlessly small expression, hence the kilowatt (= 1,000 watts)
is
generally used as the unit of electrical power. It is represented by the abbreviation K. w. The horse-power is
--
will
is
be
PR watts.
of
often
no
power
is
generally called
the
PR
rise of temperature in the conductor, and the temperature will continue to rise till the heat generated per second by the loss is exactly counterbalanced by the rate of dissipation of heat by con-
PR
duction, convection,
and
radiation.
The necessary
10
the production of heat in their operation (as does also friction and reversal of magnetism), which causes a rise of temperature.
As
ately high temperatures, such machines must be designed to operate without becoming too hot. This is accomplished loss, by increasing the radiating surby decreasing the
PR
face,
and by supplying
Fuses.
ventilation.
9.
cir-
cuits from destruction or damage due to an excessive flow of current through them. They protect them by being
themselves destroyed.
or alloys of lead.
They
is
are generally
made
of lead
Lead
liable to
become
oxidized after
It is then liable to having been installed for some time. form a tube of hard oxide, which is sufficiently strong to hold molten lead in its interior, so as to maintain an elec-
trical contact in
Some
to this objection. These alloys, in the form of wires, strips, or ribbons, are fastened at each
alloys are not open
fit
into fuse
The
link
wire with
is
its
terminals
is
called a fuse
Such a
shown
in Fig. 2.
Fig.
2.
trolley cars,
its
use as a
current which will fuse a wire of lead alloy depends Short lengths in magnitude upon the length of the wire.
The
II
a wire of given cross-section and given material will The heat carry stronger currents than longer lengths. which is generated in the short ones escapes more rapidly, owing to the larger masses of metal commonly forming the
Fuses are rated to carry a given amperage, and the rating is stamped upon the copper terminals. According to the national code the fuses must, howterminals of the fuse.
be able to carry indefinitely without melting such a of amperes that the rated capacity is but 80 per This permits the fuse to carry without melting cent of it.
ever,
number
Fig.
3.
For high voltages, and for large amperages, inclosed fuses are sometimes used, in which the fusible conductor is surrounded by a packing of finely divided powder in which Such a borax is included as an element most desirable.
fuse
is
shown
in Fig. 3.
12
CHAPTER
10. Strength of Magnet Pole one which will repel an equal like
II.
A
pole,
unit
magnet pole
is
when
at a distance
of one centimeter, with a force of one dyne. It follows from this definition that a pole
will repel a like unit pole
with a force of
force exerted between two magnetic poles varies inversely as the square of the distance between them. Hence the force exerted between two magnetic poles of strengths
d centimeters
"
apart
is
F m m' ~d^'
11.
Intensity of
Magnetic Field.
magnetic
field is
pole placed acted upon by a force of one dyne, or when a units strong is acted upon by a force of magnet pole The strength of a field is usually represented dynes.
therein
by
3C.
The space 12. Magnetic Field and Lines of Force. around a magnet where its action is felt is termed the field of that magnet. This field may conveniently be considered as permeated by lines of force. These lines represent the direction of the force exerted by the magnet, and by their closeness to each other show the magnitude of this
force.
13
student must not get the impression that, because the lines spread apart, a point in the field could be chosen
line.
These
lines
may
well be
filling all
the space
The lines of force contained in any plane passed through the magnet pole compose a magnetic spectrum, which can be made visible by the familiar experiment of sprinkling iron filings on a paper, which is laid over a magnet, and by
gently tapping it. By convention one line of force per square centimeter is considered to represent a field of unit strength, the square
centimeter being so taken that it is at all points perpendicHence the strength or intenular to the lines cutting it. 3C of any field can be expressed by the number of sity
per square centimeter. a sphere of one centimeter radius to be circumSuppose Another unit pole at scribed about a unit magnet pole. any point on the surface of this sphere will be acted upon
lines of force
by a force of one dyne. Hence there exists a unit field at any point on this surface. But there are 4 square centimeters on this surface, and each square centimeter will
-n-
be cut by one line of force. Therefore, there emanate from a tmit magnet pole 4 TT lines of force. Similarly a
magnet pole
of strength
A magnetic
field is said to
lines of force.
it
when
has the
when the
lines of force
moved
in a
magnetic
field,
This phenomenon
is
is
the foundation
of all
modern
electrical engineering.
An
be
then during that interval the value of the induced E.M.F. will be
cut,
_ ~
dt
or,
= __
10 dt
vo its.
The negative sign is used because the induced E.M.F. tends to send a current in such a direction as to demagnetize the
field.
When
of
no conwill
meters long moves parallel to itself with a uniform velocity of v centimeters per second across a uni-
form magnetic
3C, its
strength path making an angle a with the direction of the lines of force,
Fig.
4-
field
of
then the number of lines cut per second is 3lv sin a, and since the
is
rate of cutting
uniform, the
e
E.M.F.
sin a.
at
any instant
is
= 3lv
If
there be a non-uniformity in the rate of cutting lines, field or an irregular motion, then
15
be
eav
=-
t to be divided into / equal and small a duration of A/ seconds. Furthermore, periods havirg suppose that during these successive periods A<', A<", A<'",
etc., lines
be cut respectively.
during these periods, which may be represented by /, /', etc., respectively, will be as follows
/
e
= =
^r
'
"
~KT
A/
Adding these /
equation above,
equations,
viz.,
/, gives the
'-
=
7
or
-=
volts
'
The average value of the induced E.M.F. is therefore independent of the magnitude of the instantaneous values.
a loop of wire revolve, uniformly or otherwise, in a magnetic field which is uniform or otherwise, its sides cut
If
The
instantaneous E.M.F.
whole loop
will
be as before.
where
<
is
the
number
i6
14.
Direction
of
Induced E.M.F.
induced
in
The
direction
of
flow of a current
the flux be directed upwards, and the motion of the conductor be to the right, then the E.M.F. will tend
of space.
If
If
any one
of these
conditions be changed it necessitates the change of one of the others, and conversely the change of any two leaves
Moiior
Fig.
5.
Fig.
6.
About the same idea is represented Rule, which is as follows Fleming's Let the index finger of the right hand point in the direction of the flux, and the thumb in the direction of the
:
I/
and
Pass a conductor Stand facing a north magnetic pole. downward. The current tends to flow to the left.
15.
Inductance.
in
Nearly every electrical circuit which it has lines of force linked with it,
When
is
by those
Its
lines,
duction of an E.M.F.
induction.
called the
E.M.F.
of self-
magnitude
field disappears,
placed.
tion of
letter Z,
the circuit.
and
is
change
value
must be multiplied
in order
to give the
is
E.M.F. induced
in the circuit.
Its absolute
numerically represented by the number of lines of force linked with the circuit per absolute unit of current in
Its practical unit
is
that circuit.
number
of turns of wire.
Two
may
other,
called the
E.M.F.
of
mutual induction. In magnitude it depends upon the shape and position of the two circuits, and upon the character
18
of
It is also
dependent
upon a constant which is called the mutual inductance or It is coefficient of muttial induction of the two circuits.
It is that coeffigenerally represented by the letter M. cient by which the time rate of change of the current in one
multiplied in order to give the E.M.F. induced in the other circuit. Its absolute value is numeriof the circuits
is
number
one
The
coefficient of
mutual
in-
number
of turns of wire in
to
16. Quantity of Electricity Traversing a Circuit Due In many dynamo a Change of Flux Linked with it.
tests,
and
in
many magnetic
investigations,
it
is
necessary
to measure, generally by means of a ballistic galvanometer, the quantity of electricity traversing a circuit due to a
change of flux linked with it. If the circuit have a resistance of r and in dt time the flux linked with n turns
changes by d$, then the instantaneous current
dt
idt,
hence
ndd
?=
which
<j> :
is
<
to
2,
So
<P2
if
19
Q = 100
17.
_.
microcoulombs.
J?
Work Performed by
in a
and Moving
Magnetic i be moved
Field.
Suppose
it
to
move
d$
lines of force.
-.
be
The
the circuit against this E.Af.F. during the time dt will idt. Since potential is a measure of work, the work
required to carry dq units of electricity against a difference of potential e is edq ergs. Hence the work in ergs,
dw
Therefore the current
edq
= idt X -p = *>/<.
in
/",
cutting
ergs.
<
w=
From
this
it
i(j>
is
carrying a current and cutting lines of force of the time it takes to cut them.
independent
if
same
for
is
each
instant
of
time.
obtained
independent of time,
immaterial
how
the
The magnetic potential at Magnetic Potential. is measured the work required to bring a unit any point by magnet pole up to that point from an infinite distance.
18.
20
any two measured by the work in ergs required to carry a points unit magnet pole from one to the other. The difference of magnetic potential is a measure of the ability to send
is
The
field.
thin circular conductor carrying a curing a Current. rent forms a magnetic shell. If a unit magnet pole be
taken from the top side of a shell, and carried around to the bottom side, work must be
done, and this
work
is
a measure
shell.
pole be carried from one side of the shell to the other, or the
shell
around the
lines
pole.
is
only,
cut.
by
17,
Work
If there
will
in ergs
/<
TTZ.
be n turns of the conductor, each line of force be cut n times, and the work will be ^irni ergs.
difference of potential between the
shell
is
Hence the
of a thin
two
sides
magnetic
4 imi or
H
.
10
it is
In this expression
to regard
is
a constant, and
convenient
it
nl as a
single variable.
In connection with
the
21
frequently
is
is
Here the same argument holds as in 17, that the intensity of field and the rate of cutting lines will vary as the But the total numpole is in different parts of the path. ber of lines cut is the same in any case, so the expression for work and potential is true, no matter what path the pole
takes.
20.
Current
lar
Force Exerted on a Field by a Conductor Carrying a When a conductor moves in a field perpendicuto itself and to the lines of force, then, from 1 7,
Work
If
/<
ergs.
tance of s centimeters through a uniform field of strength 3C (3C lines per sq. cm.), then
<
/tfC,
and the
Work
But
= Us 3C ergs.
distance
Work
.-.
= force
= Fs = Us 3C.
^=//X = = 10-
//TO
dynes.
21.
coil,
The
Solenoid.
carrying a current
center.
This
coil is
uniformly wound, long, straight produces a uniform field 5C at its called a solenoid, and may be considz,
ered as composed of magnetic shells arranged at equal distances from each other. It takes 471-2' ergs to move a unit
19),
22
of the solenoid.
Work
= force
distance
force, that
is
OC
=
difference of
22.
Permeability.
air.
The same
will
is
magnetic
Iron
meable than
air,
strength
<&,
/n
This ratio is usually represented by /x. As 3C stance. varies directly with the magnetic difference of potential, it becomes a measure of it. Therefore 3C is called the magnetising force and <$> the flux density, the magnetic density, For air, vacuum, or the induction per square centimeter.
/*
i.
For
iron, nickel,
and cobalt
//.
the case of iron, as high has a higher as 3000. Bismuth, phosphorus, water, and a few other substances, have a permeability very slightly less than unity.
value, reaching, in
=o
<,
There
no such substance.
magnetic
flux,
The
area of
is
,
total
is
The
which have a permeability greater than unity. The value of /A, (&, and 3C, which are connected by the relation (& = /xX,
are given in the following table for average commercial
wrought iron, for cast iron, and for steel. The relations which exist between (B and 3C are also shown in Figs. 8, 9, and 10. These curves are technically known as &-5C
curves.
DATA FOR
(B-OC
CURVES.
10
a /per
20 16
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
_2_40.
30
40
Permeability^,
Fig.
8.
CAST IRON
45.5
60
70
80
9C
100
110
MTpercentiint
nl
per
incli
Permeability//
100
Fig.
9-
Fig.
10.
when present in limited amounts, say 2 per cent, increase the value of /u. Aluminum and silicon act in this way.
physical condition of the metal also affects its perChilling in the mold, when casting, lowers it, as meability. does tempering, or hardening the metal by working it. On
The
the other hand, annealing increases the permeability. piece of iron or steel, subjected to a small magnetizing
permeability increased by increasing the temperature until a critical temperature is reached, when it falls off rapidly to almost jmity. For stronger magnetization
force,
its
has
the permeability does not rise so high at the critical temThe perature, and does not fall off so sharply after it.
value of this critical temperature lies between 650 900 C., depending on the test piece.
24.
C. and
is
26
The total reluctance, tending to the passage of magnetic lines under the influence oppose of a magnetic difference of potential, is directly as the
called the reluctivity.
length and the reluctivity of the medium and inversely as its cross-section. Hence the total magnetic resistance or
Reluctance
A
^
cross-section
reluctivity.
Reluctivity
is
usually represented
by p(=_).
Hence
for
a
/
medium
of cross-section
Permeance
permeance
is
* =
*/*
and
p.
It
must be remembered
that p
any one substance, but depend for their values upon the which is acting upon strength of the magnetizing force the substance.
Relation Between Magnetomotive Force, Magnetic These quantities are related to Flux, and Reluctance. each other the same as are E.M.F., current, and resistance,
25.
viz.,
_
this respect
Magnetomotive Force
Reluctance
electric current and magnetic lines are However, while electric circuits, in the main, exist in media of zero electric conductivity, and therefore permit of accurate calculations, there being no appreciable leakage, magnetic circuits must be situated in media which
In
similar.
much
present, and precise calculations are out of leakage In the designing of dynamo electric mathe question. chinery, however, one or more paths of low reluctance are
is
presented to the magnetizing force, and these are protected by being so shaped that leakage paths offer a comparatively high reluctance.
26.
Hysteresis.
If a piece of iron
become magnetized,
Magnetlztng
Fig.
xi.
not become completely demagnetized. certain magnetforce in the opposite direction must be used to bring izing it to a neutral state. This phenomenon has been termed
hysteresis.
Because of hysteresis a
(&
maximum and
28
maximum, and so on, will assume the shape shown 1 1 The distance O A represents the coercivity,
.
in Fig.
that
is,
the magnetizing force necessary to bring the iron from a The distance O C represents magnetic to a neutral state. the retentivity, that is, the amount of magnetic induction
left in
The
the iron after the magetizing force has been removed. area inclosed by the curve represents the energy lost
through one
cycle,
i.e.,
from a maximum
magnetization to a
maximum
and
back
For suppose the magnetization to be due to a current 7 If, in a short interval of flowing in a solenoid of n turns. time dt, a change of d$ be made in the flux which is linked
with the solenoid, then this change will induce an E.M.F. in the solenoid which during the interval of time dt will be
equal to
E=
During
current
this
/,
nd<$>-
ioV/
volts.
and
magnitude
is
io
for Idt represents the quantity of electricity which is transferred from one point to another, between which there exists
a difference of potential E.
Now $ =
A($>
(22) and
hence d$
Ad<$>.
TP/
(21). Hence
Eldt
I0 7 47T
5C
<i<$>
joules.
29
Supposing the magnetizing force to vary cyclically, taking T seconds to make one cycle, then the work per cycle is
EIT=
If
Al
_
r
/
10
VJ
3C</(B joules.
'
._ (R UJ/Hax
f=
in joules
is,
the power
in watts, equals
^/The
^f A
J
f*
^IIHl K
3C^/(B
io'47rj
_(B
79 I0
>7
/*
^/wax
/ volume J/ X./&.
;))aj
-(B,^
is
Steinmetz's
Law
The
pression is dependent upon (&, the kind of iron, and upon its coercivity. Steinmetz has shown that for all practical purposes the value of the integral
may be
'+,.
where
Its
77
is is
value
HYSTERETIC CONSTANTS.
Best soft iron or steel sheets
o.ooi
Good
steel
0.016
0.025
Hard
cast steel
30
The
at first
small,
Its increase
The
increase
may amount
if it
200 per
also
cent.
increases
The magnitude
largely de-
the iron.
To
be of homogein the
ARMATURES.
31
CHAPTER
III.
ARMATURES.
28.
Dynamos
Dynamos may be
defined as machines
to convert
mechanical
means
all
in
commercial machines the mechanical energy is supplied the form of rotation, and the electrical energy is deliv-
ered either as " direct current" or "alternating current." These machines are also frequently called generators.
29.
Dynamo.
If
a loop of
wire be revolved in a magnetic field about an axis perpendicular to the lines of force, as in Fig. 1 2, then each side
(but not the ends) of the loop is a conductor moving across the lines of a magnetic field, and as such will have an E.M.F. induced in it. Since the motion of one conductor
is
up while that of the other is down, the directions of the induced E.M.F. 's in the two sides will be opposite to each
i.
and since they are on opposite sides of a loop, the e., instead of neutralizing pressure will be cumulative
other,
;
each other, the two pressures will be added to each other. If now the two ends of the wire from which the loop is made be respectively connected with slip rings, and a cir-
be completed through contacts sliding on them, a current will flow. When the loop, in its revolution, reaches a
cuit
2)
to
move down-
ward, then the direction of the induced E.M.F. will be changed in both sides of the loop, and the direction of the
Fig.
12.
For each current through the circuit will be changed. revolution the current changes direction twice. complete
an alternating current, and the supposed machine an alternating current dynamo, or simply an alternator.
It
is is
tator
is
a machine
when
it
is
de-
current.
For the
the above
(Fig.
single
Fig.
13.
loop
in
case, the
commutator
13) would consist of two similar cylindrical parts of metal, insulated from each other, and affording sliding contact for
ARMATURES.
two brushes.
33
is
One end
attached
other.
are so placed that at the instant the inE.M.F. in the loop changes its direction, the brushes duced
slide across
The brushes
other,
from one segment of the commutator to the and thus the current, while reversed in the loop, is
Fig.
14.
left
flowing in the same direction in the outside circuit. If the loop were wound double before the ends were at-
tached to the commutator segments, and if the speed of revolution and the strength of the magnetic field were both
maintained constant, twice the E.M.F. would be produced, but no more commutator segments would be necessary
(Fig. 14).
In the above cases at the instants of commutation there would be no E.M.F. produced, and hence the current would If two coils were placed fall to zero twice every revolution.
90
apart,
of force.
one or the other would always be cutting Hence at no time could the pressure be
lines
zero.
34
To
quires four
from this arrangement recommutator segments and a system of connections similar to that shown
in Fig. 15.
In this case
loops,
and correspondingly
the
increase
number
of
commutator segments, we
decrease
Fig,
15.
the
fluctuation
of the E.M.F. until it becomes practically constant. In a bipolar machine with 12 commutator segments the fluctuation is 1.7 per cent of the total E.M.F.
31.
The Armature
is
induced by movement in a magnetic field, which E.M.F. together with the iron core that sustains them, with the necessary insulation, and with the parts connected immediately thereto, constitute the conductors in which the
armature of a dynamo.
The
E.M.F.
armature
is
generated are
An
which both
force, as in
cut lines of
ture.
is
the
16.
Ring
Here
Fig.
ARMATURES.
35
the lines of force emanating from the N. pole of the field magnets flow through the iron core of the ring, and very few across the air space inside the ring. Hence when
wires are
wound on the
ring,
is
revolved
about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the ring, only the wires on the outside face of the ring cut lines of force,
those on the inside serving only to complete the electrical circuit. So a smaller portion of the wire on a ring armature
is
in action
drum armature
its
than on
and of short length has more wire exposed on its ends The pole pieces are sometimes periphery.
and the armature
is
is
Armature.
32.
This type
their
Almost
Fig.
17.
with
36
the armature revolving between. In large machines it is usual to use multipolar field magnets, in which any even
number
of poles alternately N. and S. are arranged in a with their faces concentric with the armature. circle
Bipolar machines
are
made
in
many
forms, a few of
in Fig. 17.
coils
both legs of the magnet, on one leg, or on the yoke which connects the two legs. In the double horse-shoe type there are four windings, one
The magnetizing
may be on
legs.
Such a
field is
sometimes said
33.
Capacity of a Dynamo.
By
13,
in a
bipolar
for the
E.M.F. pro-
^ 8 60 icr
--
where
V is
total flux
In drum
of revolutions per minute, the the loops, and ^ the number of inductors. through armatures 5 = twice the number of loops in ring
<
;
the
number
armatures
5=
the
number
of loops.
is
The
capacity of a machine
it
It is seen can send out, hence the capacity varies as EL of. machine may from the foregoing formula that the any
V, <, or 5.
The
value of
Fis
limited, (i)
by considerations
of
me-
chanical safety and economy, and (2) by the desirability, in the case of a dynamo, of directly connecting it to the steam
ARMATURES.
37
engine or other prime mover, and in the case of a motor the connection of it to the machine it operates. The speed of small machines is greater than that of larger ones but
;
the peripheral velocity, that is, the velocity of a point on the exterior of the armature, for all sizes, lies between 25
and 100 feet per second on belt-driven machines, and between 25 and 50 feet per second on direct connected
machines.
large (say 2,000 K.W.) multipolar machines, diameter of armature, these values are often having great exceeded.
On
The value of depends upon the size of the machine, and the permeability of the metal of its frame. To get a large and economical (B the metal parts of the field magnets
<
The
space occupied by the revolving inductors, are each made The armature inductors are wound upon an iron small.
These cores are frecore of low magnetic reluctance. Besides quently slotted and the windings laid in the slots.
this construction,
reducing, to a certain extent, the magnetic reluctance by a good mechanical means is furnished
and protecting the inductors. Wires wound on the exterior of a plain cylinder, or smooth core, under the influence of high speeds and the "magnetic drag" which
for driving
they experience have a serious tendency to rub one another, and chafe the insulation to its final destruction.
slotted cores,
toothed core armatures, are to be recommended for generators that will be obliged to work under wide variations of
load.
They
cost
more
arma-
tures.
The numbers
of inductors
on an armature can be
in-
38
of
the wire.
in
Sufficient
the inductors to
carry the maximum current of the machine without causing a heating of the armature to such a point as to endanger Good practice calls for from 400 to 800 the insulation.
circular mils cross-section of
pere.
The
smaller values
elevator
are
intermittently acting
The larger motors for example. values are for machines that run continuously, such as
machines
central-station generators.
34.
It is
Eddy
or Foucault Currents in
Armature Cores.
evident that an imaginary axial lamina of the iron core of an armature is a conductor moving in a field, and therefore has in
it
an induced E.M.F.
it-
self
forms a closed
will flow
Foucault or eddy
currents,
in
it,
Fig.
18,
and
will
appear
in the
To
avoid this
is
revolution,
ARMATURES.
another.
39
is proportional the disks or laminae.
to
eddy currents
In
of
armature
reliance
is
usually
placed on the iron oxid that forms on them during their manufacture. Generally every six disks or so a further insulation is interposed by the use of shellac, japan, or
paper.
Milling slots in laminated armature cores after setting up causes burrs. These bridge the insulation between the disks, and militate against the advantages sought after
by lamination. For small armatures the disks are punched whole from sheet -iron, with the teeth and holes for the These punchings are assembled on the shaft, and shaft.
held in place by brass collars set down on either side of the In large pile by nuts on the shaft or by similar devices.
machines, parts or segments of the whole periphery are punched separately, and these are assembled with joints
staggered.
to the shaft, but are
is
is
These large laminae are not directly attached mounted upon a spider, which in turn connected with the shaft. A complete spider and core shown in Fig. 19.
In large armatures it is usual to make ducts or ventilating passages in the core by occasionally separating the disks by the interposition of blocks of insulating material.
Such
rise of
temperature of the
armature when
in operation.
35.
Rating of Machines.
The American
Institute of
Electrical Engineers recommends that all electrical and mechanical power be expressed, unless otherwise specified,
Fig.
19.
ARMATURES.
in kilowatts
;
41
rator be that current which, with the rated full-load voltage, gives the rated kilowatts
ing, regulation,
;
that
all
guaranties on heat-
load,
direct
and sparking should apply to the rated where expressly specified otherwise that except current generators should be able to stand an over;
load of 25 per cent for one-half hour without an increase of temperature elevation exceeding 15 C. above that and that direct current motors specified for full load
;
should, in addition,
Concerning the normal permissible elevation of temperature the following statements are taken from articles 25 to 3 1 of the Institute's Standardization Report
:
"
Under regular
electrical
insulating
temperature should be referred to the standard conditions of a room temperature of 25 C., a barorise of
The
metric
pressure
;
of
is,
of
ventilation
that
be exposed to
pressly specified.
" If the
C.,
the apparatus under test should neither draught nor inclosed, except where ex-
room temperature during the test differs from the observed rise of temperature should be cor25 rected by Thus, with a per cent for each degree C.
room temperature
of
35
C.,
perature has to be decreased by 5 per cent, and with a room temperature of 15 C., the observed rise of tem-
perature has
to
the
increased
thermometer
indicating the
42
be screened from thermal radiation emitted by heated When it is impractibodies, or from draughts of air.
cable to secure
count of an adjacent engine, or other sources of heat, the thermometer for measuring the air temperature should be placed so as fairly to indicate the temperature which the
if it
were
idle, in
after a
run of
sufficient
usually from 6 to
duration to reach practical constancy. This is 1 8 hours, according to the size and conIt
is
permissible, however, to
shorten the time of the test by running a lesser time on an overload in current and voltage, then reducing the load to
normal, and maintaining
it
become
constant.
way motors,
conductors, the rise of temperature should For this be determined by their increase of resistance. the resistance maybe measured either by galvapurpose nometer test or by drop-of -potential method. temperature coefficient of 0.4 per cent per degree C. may be assumed
for copper. Temperature elevations measured in this way are usually in excess of temperature elevations measured
by thermometers.
ARMATURES.
" It
of
is
recommended
maximum
:
values
COMMUTATING MACHINES.
Field and armature by resistance, 50
C.
Commutator and brushes by thermometer, 55 C. Bearings and other parts of machine, by thermometer, 40 C.
a thermometer, applied to a coil or winding, indicates a higher temperature elevation than that shown by resistance measurement, the thermometer indication should
"
Where
In using the thermometer, care should be be accepted. taken so to protect its bulb as to prevent radiation from it,
and, at the
same
applied.
apparatus intended for intermittent serthe temperature elevation, which is attained at the end vice, of the period corresponding to
300
8
full
load,
should
C.
by
resistance
200
in electric circuits.
In the case
of railway, crane,
100
and elevator
can be stated."
The manner
ature elevation
full
is
in
affected
in Figs.
by
size of load
load
is
shown
of stationary surfaces
The temperature rises about 80 when radiating one The rise is but 15 to 20 when the
20 and
21.
44
surface
is
3,000 feet per minute in such a manner as the surface of an armature rotates, and amounts
<u
110
50
.40
30
20
10
ARMATURES.
ter devoted to such machines.
45
Closed-coil
windings are
In this case all the inductors generally used. are engaged all the time, save when short circuited at commutation, in adding E.M.F. to the circuit. Although there kinds of closed-coil windings, they are all alike are many in that the inductors form one or more endless circuits
much more
completely around the armature core. Before showing some of the many types of closed-coil winding it will be well to define some of the terms used.
Fig. 22.
is meant that part of the winding conductor on the face of the armature that sweeps past the pole pieces, and is that part of the conductor in which E.M.F. is induced. In the following descriptions when
By
inductor
lies
which
one inductor
ber of wires
inductors
tions
is
;
in reality
a num-
may
and, again, a loop said to be formed by two be a loop of many turns, but the connecif
actually there
46
It simplifies the diagrams to were only one inductor. treat the subject in this manner. That part of an armature winding which is electrically
segments
is
called a
coil.
is
two-circuit winding
one
in
entering the armature at one brush, finds two paths by which it reaches the other brush. Since a closed-coil
winding
is
endless, there
are used.
or multi-circuit winding is one in which the current finds four or more paths through the armature.
K four-circuit
There are
at least
two
brushes used
commu-
armature to that brush, then the winding is said to be If, however, the windings are so arranged that single. two or more bars convey this current to the brush at once,
or
if
the current
is
commutated
at
two
or
more points on
the contact surface of the brush, then the winding is said to be double or multiple. Triple and quadruple windings
are not infrequent on machines which carry very heavy currents.
by successive
angular advances, all the coils have been laid when an advance of 360 has been made. To be doubly-re-entrant
successive
coils, in
the
order of their winding, is doubled and the whole winding is not complete until the armature has been gone around, On the angularly, twice, i.e., through an advance of 720.
ARMATURES.
second time around the
coils
fill
47
interstices left
up the
by
re-entrant windings are used. around the armature three or four times.
Any
closed-coil
winding, single or multiple, may be singly or multiply reentrant, the re-entrancy being reckoned as great as that of any single winding on the armature.
The two
the
principal
gramme
or ring armature,
37.
Ring-Armature Windings.
As
the
name
implies,
the ring-armature core consists of an annular ring around which the armature conductors are wound in a continuous
more separate but interleaved spirals in These are tapped off at equal intermultiple windings. In ring armatures there is vals to the commutator bars.
spiral,
or
two
or
but one inductor per loop of wire, the return being on the This inside of the ring where there is no magnetic flux.
winding, though less generally used than the
is
drum winding
and
will
simpler and
first.
much more
easily illustrated,
be
treated
Fig. 24.
23 shows the simplest of all dynamo armature It is a bipolar, singly-re-entrant, two-circuit, windings.
Fig.
single winding.
Fig.
24 shows a
48
single winding.
of the
number
the same as Fig. 24 save that the commutator The current that would flow
now
flows out of
seldom used, since it reduces by half the brush contact surface, and thus doubles the heat
one brush.
This form
is
Fig. 25.
to the brush.
26 shows a four-pole four-circuit singly-re-entrant, single winding, where only half as many bars are used as
Fig.
there are
disadvantage is that coils of considerable pressure are adjacent, thus increasing the difficulty of properly insulating them. Ordinarily, if it be desired to halve the 'number of bars, it is better to unite
coils.
difference of
two adjacent
if
coils in series,
and
treat
them
as one.
But
the magnetic distribution be uniform, this method of connecting two coils that are in different parts of the field
ARMATURES.
in
49
and
facilitates spark-
series averages
up the
inequalities
less
commutation.
Fig. 27 shows a bipolar, two-circuit, singly-re-entrant, The advantages of the double winding double winding. current is commutated the are
:
at
two points
of the bearing-sur-
only half as
as
when
;
used
one winding are separated by the width of one bar plus two insulations,
tion
Fig. 27 .
connection
"
series, while in the long-connection type coils twice as far apart are connected together.
Fig. 28
tion,
shows a long-connec-
winding. ferences
Here only
of potential
coils.
slight dif-
exist
be-
tween contiguous
Fig.
29 represents a
ten-pole,
nection types, which are all more or less highly re-entrant, small mention is made of the re-entrancy. Strictly accord-
50
re-entrant nine
Fig.
pole,
30
is
four-
short -connection,
plication
ings, this
form as well
is
as
all
other short-con-
nection
windings,
the
contiguous
the
making heavy
Fig.
31
double-wound
Fig. 30.
Fig. 31.
six-
ARMATURES.
38.
51
Windings. Windings for drum armatures are more varied and more complex than those
for ring armatures,
Drum Armature
dia-
grammatically.
But few
be shown.
in Fig. 33.
The most simple of these windings is shown The diagram shows the drum and inductors
and those of the back
(pulley)
4- are
in
section,
full lines
end
in dotted lines.
Those
supposed to carry a current in the direction from the observer into the paper, and
Fig. 32.
Fig. 33.
those marked with a are supposed to carry a current from Those not marked are parts of the page to the observer.
coils short-circuited
by the brushes. This winding was devised by von Hefner-Alteneck, and may be used on any as bipolar armature having half as many commutator bars If n if it be smooth core, as many bars as coils. slots, or,
be the number of bars and 2n the number of
slots,
then
the wire is started at bar I, passed back through slot I, across the pulley end to slot n (or sometimes n 2, in the
52
figure
8).
It is
2.
then brought forward through slot n, From bar 2 it passes back through
across the back end and forward through slot n 2 and connects to bar 3. Thus passing back through the
and forward through the even-nummade to fill the 2;/ slots and each can be attached to its own commutator bars.
slots
coils
can be
are laid
very similar to the last, save that the wires two layers deep, thus allowing the conductor that
passed through
slot
i
to return
through
this
slot
which
last
is
diametrically
opposite.
Both
are
classed
single
is
one
in
34 -
is
a chord rather
The advan-
winding are that, on a given drum, it decreases the total length of wire necessary to give a definite
of inductors,
number
and that
it
The disadvantage
is that it is impossible to secure a perbalanced winding by this method. This fectly electrically objection does not hold in the case of multipolar generators, hence all multipolar drums are chord wound.
In the following figures the numbered radial lines will represent armature inductors, the lines inside of them will
ARMATURES.
53
represent their connections to the commutator segments, and the lines outside of them will represent the cross
connections
between inductors
at
The
convenience
and
clearness.
Fig. 35 represents a
six-circuit, single
wind-
inductors,
instead of
all
lying be-
would
one
slot.
Fig.
Although
it
is
four pole
circuit,
is
but
it
two
in
which
Fig.
pole,
38
gives
circuit,
six-
two
double
inis
copper
used.
wire
generally
Fig 36
' '
Care
must be taken to well inboth from each other and from the core.
54
Many
these
styles
of
and fastening
so that
of
at these points,
the
movement
the
"magnetic drag"
and
short-circuit
may
lation
the conductors.
Mica
is
used where
flat
the best insulator, and is sheets are needed but its great cost, and
;
it,
and
many
patented manufac-
tured insulators.
reliance
is
Much
and
shellac, especially in
Where very
wires
are
large
used on the
surface of an armature,
set
up
one
Fig
*
them by reason
of
side of
in a stronger field
than
38 '
the other.
wires are
To
wound
avoid this a
number
of smaller insulated
ARMATURES.
one, or
set
55
more economical of space, thin copper bars take the place of the round wire. edgewise In the winding of multipolar armatures it is possible to use formed coils, which are wound on a separate collapsible
what
is
forming block, and are afterward applied to the core. This method is advantageous in that better insulation can be assured, and damaged or burned-out coils can be replaced without disturbing all of the windings. Fig. 39 shows a General Electric Company's formed coil, and Fig. 40 some of the Crocker Wheeler coils.
Fig. 39-
All armatures, whether wound with wire, or formed coils, or shaped conductors, must be banded around to prevent dislodgement of the conductors under influence of centrifugal action.
The
is
gener-
and on ally of hard-drawn brass or of phospher bronze, motors of steel. It is wound over insulating strips railway
forming a band of several turns. The completed turns are often sweated together with solder.
Many
in
each side
is fitted
strip of
maple wood
ARMATURES.
57
Fi2.
Fig. 42.
and acts like a cover to the slot, firmly holding the windings in place, and presenting a neat appearance.
41, 42, 43 show respectively a core, a partially and a completed General Electric wound, Company's armature. Figs. 44 and 45 show small Westinghouse types.
Figs.
Fig.
44.
Fig. 43.
Fig. 45-
ARMATURES.
39.
59
or bars of a
Commutators.
always
of
The segments
drop-forged,
is
commuThere
tator are
or
hard-drawn copper.
The
insulation
between them
;
always of mica.
and
amber-colored mica, which must be free from iron, is to be Besides being a good insulator, amber mica has preferred.
the additional advantage that it wears at the same rate as copper thus after long use it leaves neither elevations nor
;
is
displayed
for they must not displace themselves with reference to the windings, neither must one bar lift so as to be above
If the latter occurs, then, when its neighbors. and as the the bar comes under a brush, it will lift it
the level of
high spot
is
until the spring can reseat the brush. excessive wear and destructive sparking. After a commutator has been for a time in use,
broken
This causes
it
becomes
grooved and pitted, a condition which causes further sparking and wear, and the commutator must be turned down The design of a commutator again to a true surface.
should allow of good operation after
to this treatment.
it
Mechanical
mutator about
secure
friction
and the
accom-
pany commutation
5
will raise
C.
successful operation
must be
de-
number
ence of
exceed
potential
10
volts.
between two adjacent bars shall not This would mean that a loo-volt bi-
The potential polar machine should have at least 20 bars. commutator is 100 between the brushes or around kalffae
60
volts,
There
bar,
but one
may
at least
one inch per 100 amperes. Commutators should be designed so as to expose a sufficient area to radiate the heat which is communicated to
the case of some special commutators, which are supplied with cooling devices, at a peripheral speed of 2,500 feet per minute, the radiation of one watt per square inch of peripheral radiating surface will re-
them.
Except
in
sult
in
rise of
a rise of temperature of 20 C. The permissible 55 C., therefore, allows a radiation of 2.75 watts
The
heat to be radiated
is
due to the
fol-
a.
commutator
bars.
This
is
equal to
/2 :
7T
X 746\
1
33'
the following quantities The radius of the commutator in feet, the speed in revolutions per minute, the coefficient
of friction
between the brushes and the commutator (0.3 and 0.25 for copper brushes), and the
upon the commutashould amount to 1.25 Ibs. per square inch Copper brushes permit 200 amperes
sum
tor.
This
latter
of
rubbing surface.
40 amperes.
b.
The
As there is always a drop of about one volt each point of contact, and as there is a drop at both the positive and negative terminals, the watts represented by
commutator.
at
these contact resistances are numerically equal to twice the current of the machine.
ARMATURES.
c.
6l
represented in the sparking at the brushes and the heat due to waste currents in the short-circuited
The energy
These two
losses cannot
be accurately calcu-
ItTica collar-
under-
segmen
Fig. 46.
46 gives a broken-away view of a General Electric commutator, showing the methods of attachment and insuFig.
lation.
40.
Collecting Devices.
These
Brushes for high potential machines are of carbon. Carbon against copper causes less wear than copper against copper, and further, the greater resistance of a carbon brush results in less sparking when it bridges two commutator bars
than would the lower resistance of a copper brush.
Com-
Carbon brushes are set at an angle generally, though some makers set them radially and in motors that must be re;
62
versed, as
is the case with railroad and elevator motors, are invariably set radially. surface contact of one they square inch per 40 amperes is usual for carbon brushes.
On
of 45
low-potential machines copper brushes, set at an angle with the tangent to the commutator surface at the
point of contact, are invariably used. This is because there is less natural tendency to spark on low voltages, and because the resistance of carbon
brushes would
fraction of the
be too
great
whole resistance of
drop of potential.
Copper brushes
must have
is
and
this
The
accomplished by means
of glasspaper.
of a low-resistance contact
leads,
justment as to position and tension of the brushes, and they should be arranged so that none of the springs shall
get hot and lose temper while in performance of its duties. The tension on carbon brushes varies from i to 10 Ibs. per
The lower
limit
is
to be
found
limit in small
to frequent
coefficient
machines and in and sudden strains, as railway motors. The of friction between brush carbon and copper
from 0.28 to 0.32. Figs. 48 and 49 plainly show a Crocker Wheeler rigging with parallel-motion brush holders. Fig. 50 shows a form of General Electric holder.
varies
ARMATURES.
Fig. 48.
CLAMPING SCREW
BRUSH
PRESSURE SPRING
ADJUSTING
SCREW
Fig. 49-
64
holders,
mutator.
They
are
made
the
by one movement.
and
Oilers.
Fig.
shows
Shafts,
Bearings,
Since armature
shafts generally have high speeds, and almost always are subject to sudden large variations of load, the shafts, the
Fig. 50.
must be well designed. Wiener gives the following approximate diameters of steel shafts for drum armatures
bearings,
and the
oiling facilities
........
2
inch,
inches,
4! inches,
to be turned
It is
and
at the bearings. that the bearing-boxes be exactly in line, necessary a form of self -alignment bearing is frequently used. If
in
down
undue wear
is
apt to
ARMATURES.
sag
till it
65
will
which
ture.
Many
oil
make use
of
some
device, as
shaft revolves in a cylindrical brass with a spherical enlargement at its middle which rests upon
in Fig. 52.
shown
The
P~
I
"
'
"
.,/
*
<r-^*5
A
CT
U '\.m*r
Fig. 51.
a corresponding spherical bed of Babbit metal. This secures self-alignment. Two slots are cut radially in the
brass,
and allow two rings to rest upon the shaft. These are also of brass, and have an inside diameter slightly rings larger than the outside diameter of the brass cylinder.
66
The
As
the
Fig. 52.
carry
shaft revolves, the rings also revolve at such a rate as to a steady stream of oil up into the slots, thereby
FIELD MAGNETS.
CHAPTER
IV.
FIELD MAGNETS.
The parts of a dynamo, Parts of Field Magnets. exclusive of the armature, which make up the magnetic
42.
circuit,
belong to the
ventional bipolar
marked.
netizing
The
field magnets. Fig. 53 shows a conhorse-shoe type with the parts plainly field cores are the iron centers in the mag-
coils. The yoke connects the cores together at one end while the other ends terminate in the pole pieces,
Fig. 54-
one being a north magnetic pole, the other a south. The side of the pole piece embracing the armature is styled the
called
coils
pole face, and the latter's projecting edges are fittingly the horns. Some dynamos have the magnetizing
core.
vail,
In different types different numbers of pieces preall the parts (save the coils) might be cast in
68
In multipolar machines the designation of the parts is somewhat different than in the case of bipolar machines.
The
facturer.
the designation
43.
Magnetic Material.
circuits are three,
The
magnetic
cast steel.
is
cast iron,
wrought
iron,
and
The
machine
cost,
governed by considerations of (a) weight, and satisfactory regulation when (c) economy
(b] first
in operation.
;
Cast iron has the great advantage of cheapness but it is poor magnetically, hence more weight and bulk must be
employed to perform the same service as the magnetically It costs more in copper to magnesuperior wrought iron. tize a cast-iron core, because more turns will be required,
will
be longer than
if
iron is the best magnetic material available. used either in forgings, or in the form of plates punched from the sheet. In either form it is expensive but
Wrought
is
It
is
necessitated
when
metal is used, it is often chosen where portability required, as in the case of the marine dynamos, electric railroad motors, and particularly motors for automobiles.
Cast steel
iron,
is
is
much
employed
good
yoke
practice.
The
is
frame
used
a cast-iron
pieces,
is
iron cores
and pole
pieces.
FIELD MAGNETS.
44.
69
is
Shape
of Field
Magnets.
There
a great vari-
own, and this led to many These freak types are now disappearing, and a few general types are adopted more or
less
by
all
makers.
In
all
cent, or from
234 to 270.
magnets
re-
In general a small
quires less
number
copper in the exciting coil than does a larger and also the fields can be excited more econominumber,
machines successful operation under varying loads requires a large air gap between the This increases the magnetic pole face and the armature. Multireluctance and the energy necessary for excitation.
cally.
But
in large bipolar
Further-
more, increasing the number of poles gives the mechanical advantage of allowing a lower armature speed without lowMultipolar machines ering the potential of the output.
will
operation.
Speaking generally, though it is by no means a rule, bipolar fields are used up to about 10 K.W., four-pole fields from 10 K.W. to 100 K.W., six-pole fields from 100 K.W. to
300
K.W.,
generally used.
45.
Methods
of
of Excitation
to the
of Fields.
Dynamos
of
are
classified
fields
five
methods
are
:
They
generator, Fig. 55, is one in which the a permanent steel magnet, generally of horse-shoe
type.
The
separately excited
dynamo, Fig.
56,
has,
as
its
MAGNETO DYNAMO
Fig. 55-
Fig. 56.
name
by a current other
than that produced by the machine. Alternating current machines are nearly always of this type. The shunt-wound machine, Fig. 57, has a large number
of turns of fine wire
wound on
its
core,
SERIES
WOUND
DYNAMO
Fig. 57-
Fig. 58.
connected to the terminals of the machine, thus being in shunt with the outside circuit. The ampere turns requisite for excitation are obtained by passing a small number of
of turns.
The
series-wound generator,
Fig.
58,
has
all
the cur-
FIELD MAGNETS.
rent
is produced by the armature passed through conductors wound with fewer turns around the cores. large The exciting coils are then in series with the external cir-
that
turns required for excitation are obtained by passing a large current through a small number
cuit.
The ampere
of turns.
Fig. 59,
is
one
in
which there
This
series coils
on the
field
magnets.
varying
loads, as will
ings are of
two classes, the long shunt and the short sJiunt. In the former, the current used in the shunt windings is
COMPOUND WOUND
DYNAMO LONG SHUNT
Fig. 59-
Fig. 60.
main
current.
In the
latter,
passes directly back to the armature, avoiding the series turns. Figs. 59 and 60 clearly show the two methods.
The
short shunt
is
generally preferred.
46.
Field Coils.
The
coils of
supply sufficient ampere This temperature turns to give the required excitation. rise will not be excessive when about o. 3 5 watts are radiated
If no account per square inch of outer surface of the coil. be taken of the ends of the pole and coil, 0.6 watt may be
undue
elevation of temperature,
72
have no ventila-
tion due to their own motion as have armatures, hence about 1000 circular mils per ampere must be allowed in the wire which composes such coils. The cost of copper
is
if
cross-
Fig. 61.
Field coils are usually wound on brass or iron spools, Sometimes, especially in the shaped to slip over the cores.
case of small machines, the coils are
wound on
frames,
which can be collapsed and removed. The coils of series machines and the series coils of compound machines are
FIELD MAGNETS.
73
often wound with copper ribbon instead of wire, or are even made up of forged copper conductors, having a rectangular
because the heavy currents require such large cross-section of conductor that if made of wire much space would be lost between the wires. The rear
cross-section.
This
is
This 61 is a series coil of shaped conductors. shows both the shunt and the series coil, as wound figure
coil in Fig.
for a
compound multipolar
binding which is seen on the shunt in both illustrations should not be mistaken for the
coils.
The
wires of these
and
core,
and between
fiber, fuller
series
and shunt
effected
by the use of
47.
Since air is not an insulator Magnetic Leakage. of magnetism, but is simply much less permeable than
iron,
it
is
evident that
some
of
the lines of force generated by the field coils will not follow
around the desired path through pole pieces and armature, but will
take a path through the
be of no
in
utility in creating
Fig.
Fig. 62.
be the
total flux
caused by the
field coils
and
<
rt
be
coeffi-
*,
=*.'
and
is
74
varies from
in
1.25
to
1.4
in
single horse-
the Edison type of inverted horse-shoe and in double horse-shoe fields it varies from 1.5 to 1.75.
fields,
shoe
and
In multipolar machines X varies from i.i to 1.5. To find the coefficient of magnetic leakage of small or
Arrange the field-coils for separate excitation by a current that can be conveniently commutated. Suppose the
machine to have a
Fig. 63.
Take
field of the double horse-shoe type, as in a few turns of fine insulated wire about
coil,
as
c,
d,
Fig. 63.
ballistic
galvanometer of low
will
sensioility.
low-reading
Suddenly commutate in the field coils. the current The change in direction of the flux in the core, from -f to will induce E.M.F. in the test coil, which will give a throw to the voltmeter needle.
answer.
<j>
<f>,
Weston voltmeter
The
core.
deflection
Repeat
directly proportional to the flux in the with the other coil, and the sum of the deis
flections obtained
from cd and ef
<
is
to the total flux produced r Now same number of turns and of the
make
it
FIELD MAGNETS.
of the
7$
of lines
armature that
is
cut
of force.
Upon commutating
is
<
armature
Hence the
<#> t
coefficient of
magnetic leakage,
defl. at
cd
+ defl. at ef
<f>
deflection at armature
The
exciting current
investigation.
may be found on different parts of the frame. The by difference between the throws observed at any two places
using test coils
is
The
a measure of the leakage between those two places. Clearly the number of lines choosing paths through the
will
air
increases.
decrease as the permeability of the iron circuit An increase in the reluctance of the main
circuit will increase the leakage loss.
magnetic
ditions of load.
in permeability under varying conthe load increases, this change produces an increase in the reluctance of the main magnetic
As
circuit.
This results
in
an increase
of the loss
is,
by
leakage.
The
coefficient of
magnetic leakage
therefore, different
In general practice the and Shoes. cores and the frame of a generator are worked at a cm.
Therefore This is too high a value to use in the air gap. pole shoes are put on the ends of the pole pieces to distribute this flux over a wider area where it has to pass
through the
of the
air,
total reluctance
magnetic
76
49.
Magnetic
Circuit.
Since no
two pieces
joint, there
netic circuit
when
Professor
at low magnetizations the increase of reluctance of a certain bar of 7.5) iron due to a joint was above 20 per cent, and that for
(3C
due to one
is
The
difference
the fact that the pieces under strong magnetizations attract themselves so powerfully as to make a more perfect joint.
Ewing
reluctance of the bar as though the length of been increased by amounts given in the following table
For3C
=
i
7.5
15
30
i.io
50
0.43
70
0.22
cut
...
2.53
OPERATION OF ARMATURES.
77
CHAPTER
V.
OPERATION OF ARMATURES
The simple process of 50. Process of Commutation. commutation as described in 30 is attended with some difficulties in practice. Consider one coil of a plain ring armature with the commutator bars attached thereto as in
In position A, when the brush is on only one of Fig. 64. the bars in question, the action of the other coils of the armature will be to force current in this one coil in the
direction indicated
by the arrow.
is
considered to be
the positive brush. In position D, when the brush has over to the other bar entirely, the direction of the passed
current in this coil
is
in the
other direction.
Now
a
this
coil is in
weak
while
for
it is
the circuit being completed through the coil, the bars and the brush spanning the mica insulation at o.
in position C, If
now
at this
moment
in
many
lines of force.
It
follows that
least
every commutating machine must have at two places where the effective field has a zero value.
Fig. 65.
under the pole pieces and around the armature of a welldesigned bipolar machine, the ordinates of the curve giving in the air gap. the flux density The neutral plane is a plane passed through the axis of
the armature and a point in the field immediately surrounding the armature, where the inductively effective component has a zero value. The coil in position C, Fig. 64
is
supposed to be
a plane passed through the axis of the armature and through the points of contact of the
brushes.
parts of the
are supposed to be connected with armature windings lying on the same radius.
OPERATION OF ARMATURES.
51.
Coil.
79
Influence
of
Self-induction
Fig.
of
the
Commutated
When
the
coil in
64
is in
position
the cur-
rent flowing in it produces magnetic flux in the ring independent of any inductive action of the field magnets of the dynamo, and links the flux with itself. When the coil is
in position
its
direction
D, there is also a magnetic flux and linkage, but has been changed. Therefore, in passing
C,
coil
and the
have decreased to
in
in value
the opposite
This change offlux produces an E.M.F. in the coil indeThis pendent of any action of the field magnets (see 15).
E.M.F.
is
called
an electromotive force
of self-induction
and
pressure with a given flow of current varies as the square of the number of turns in the coil, as the cross-section of
the
coil,
Because of self-induction
take place in the neutral plane, there is a liability that it will be accompanied by excessive currents in the short-cir-
This trouble cuited coils and consequently by sparking. to be avoided by revolving the plane of commutation about the shaft of the machine until a sufficiently strong
is
field acts
upon the short-circuited coil to induce an opposing E.M.F. of the same value as the E.M.F. of self-induction. Both the self-induced E.M.F. and the E.M.F. due to the
rotation of
the armature vary in magnitude during the Their is upon two adjacent segments.
8o
manners
need not be
alike,
and hence
it
may
The
to be
be impossible in
some cases
to
obvious remedy
is
52.
Cross-Magnetiz-
Currents.
dent of
field
Indepen-
magnets
mature
core.
plane of
will magnetize the arthus produced will be in the poles commutation. Fig. 66 shows the magnetizing
The
effect of the
armature turns
its
is
armature
magnetic
fields.
shown
is
OPERATION OF ARMATURES.
less
81
shifted.
limit
lines.
is
The
reached
com-
mutation.
This skewing is a source of loss in the operation of a generator because it increases the magnetic reluctance in the iron at the horns, and two ways, (a) by saturating
thus reducing the permeability, and (b) by lengthening the paths, both in air and in iron, that the lines must follow.
Fig. 69
shows
to
curve similar
Fig.
by a heavy
is
angular displacement of the neutral plane depends in magnitude upon the relative number of armature ampere turns as compared with the effective field
ampere
turns.
53.
82
The angle tating plane in advance of the neutral plane. If an of lag or lead. between them is called the angle
be passed through the armature, making with the neutral plane an angle equal to the angle of lag or lead, but on the opposite side of the neutral plane from the cornmutating plane, then the angular space between this plane
axial plane
is
The armature
last
article,
that tends to
skew the
magnets
They
conductors which
outside the double angle of lead. Those armature lie within the double angle of lead are called the back turns, because, when carrying a current,
lie
their
magnetic tendency
is
to send lines
in
a direction
exactly opposite to the lines of the field magnets. They neutralize in a certain measure the action of the field turns.
This action
is
clearer
shown
in
is is
a crossa north
section of a bipolar
drum armature.
At a
there
pole due to the back turns which lie in the double angle, and at b there is the corresponding south pole. The effect
OPERATION OF ARMATURES.
of these poles
lines flowing
is
83
to neutralize
from
to S.
is
These poles skew the lines from N to S. Compensation for back turns is flowing easily calculated, since the number of back turns times the current in them at any load multiplied by the coefficient of magnetic leakage at that load
number
of additional
field
As shown in 54. Sparking. 51, sparking can be avoided by giving the brushes a lead sufficient to bring the coils they short circuit into fields sufficiently strong to counteract the effects of self-induction.
tion of
machines
is
is
due to
irregularities of the
high bar passing from under a will leave the latter suspended in air a moment, which brush
surface.
will
commutator
suffer melting
commutator bars without any visible sparking. Suppose a coil of low resistance to be short circuited
by a copper brush
as in
chiefly
Fig.
71.
When
bar,
the brush
is
on one
the other very then a very considerable part of the resistance in slightly, the circuit is the transition resistance at the small contact.
and over-laps
Under an E.M.F.
84
magnitude may flow to produce enough heat in the transition resistance to melt the surface of the commutator bar.
The E.M.F. may then disappear before the brush leaves the bar, and there will be no spark visible. Sparking may be due to excessive electromotive force
tion
between the commutator segments undergoing commutadue to the self-induction of the coil and to mutual induction between it and other coils undergoing commutation at the
same
time.
To be
of this induced
and
mutual inductances, and the time rate of suppression of the Parshall and Hobart state that in current in the coil.
practice one may traversed by one
assume that a
coil of a single
turn
when
20
armature lamination.
From
A coil which
maximum
two segments
ends are
is connected through the brush. evidently dependent upon the peripheral speed of the commutator and upon the width of the brush. It is equal to the time that it takes a point of the insulation between the seg-
This time
that
is,
the
equal to the breadth of the brush in the peripheral velocity of the commutator by in inches per second. The reciprocal of this time gives the number of commutations per second, or what is termed
The
frequencies found in
While
all
OPERATION OF ARMATURES.
the current which traverses the coil
is
85
suppressed in one-
variation
is
unknown.
Parshall
An assumption of the current strength falls sinusoidally. a uniform decrease with the time yields results quite in
The value of the induced voltage accord with practice. then will be equal to the product of the value of the cornmutated current and the sum of the mutual and
self-induc-
tance divided by one-half the time occupied in completing commutation. This value should not exceed 6 volts.
Prevention of Sparking The limit of the capacity be excessive sparking instead of excesof a machine may sive heating, and therefore the suppression of sparking by
55.
is
:
of utmost importance.
Sparking
a.
may
be prevented
By shifting the brushes till the short-circuited coil is just under the fringe of the pole piece. This counteracts the effects of self-induction as explained in The 51.
reversal of the direction of flux in
short-cir-
cuited
coils is
E.M.F.
By having
that is, a field so strong as to because of the armature cross skewing then no lag. In practice, air-gap magnetic
stiff
field,
lines per square centimeter. higher densities are to be found in the larger machines. There is a general tendency to increase the density.
The
c.
nearly saturating the teeth of the armature core. When the core teeth are nearly saturated, an increase of load increases the reluctance very markedly, and the demag-
By
is
restrained on increase
86
and
railway generators and other machines that have to stand severe changes of load without change of position of
brushes.
In using brushes of carbon, brass gauze, etc. machines of over 100 volts, carbon brushes are always
d.
By
Besides their good wearing qualities, their resistance prevents the flow of a large current in the short-circuited
used.
coil in
commutation,
of
the
In very lowbrushes will not result in so violent a spark. machines, as has already been said, carbon brushes potential
impracticable, because their resistance causes a too So in these machines copper strip great fall of potential.
are
When too much brushes are employed when possible. occurs with plain copper brushes, a brush of somesparking
what greater resistance
brass, brass gauze,
etc.,
is
the case.
e. By slotting the pole pieces longitudinally. This increases the reluctance offered to the lines due to armature
reactions,
f.
The distribuproperly shaping the pole pieces. tion of flux should be such that a coil enters a weak field
By
first,
and so gradually comes to the strongest part. If the allowed to crowd into the trailing-pole
If the horns are gradual transition is impossible. farther from the armature surface than the body of the
pole face, then the air gap and consequently the reluctance at the horns is increased, and the lines are compelled to
distribute themselves
more symmetrically.
A place
suit-
OPERATION OF ARMATURES.
able for commutation
is
87
One
also resort to the shaping of the pole pieces by champfering the corners, or by making the pole faces with a circle of greater radius than the armature.
may
The Sprague
Electric
Company,
under full load, due to cross magnetizing turns, by making use of a specially designed pole piece. Fig. 72 represents a cross-section of this generator, and shows the construction
of
The magnetic
flux
which
enters the pole piece, divides between the two paths a and b. Owing, however, to the greater span covered by the
shoe belonging to the part marked b, the magnetic reluctance of that part is much smaller than that of the part
marked
a.
As
itself
The part of the pole piece equally between the two paths. marked b under increasing excitation becomes saturated
y
before the part marked a. At normal excitation, the flux density at b is above 16,000 lines per square centimeter, while the flux density in a is but about 10,000 lines per
In other words, b is pretty well satusquare centimeter. while a has not been brought to a magnetization as rated, This saturahigh as the knee of the magnetization curve.
tion of half of the pole piece
is
effective in preventing a
This is shown in where Fig. 73 represents the development Figs. 74, of a 50 kilo- watt Lundell generator, and Fig. 74 shows the
skewing
of the field
73 and
line
xy
of Fig. 73.
The
dotted line represents the distribution at no load, and the heavy line the distribution at full load. This small distorting effect of the cross turns permits the a small air gap without serious sparking.
employment of
88
Fig. 73.
OPERATION OF ARMATURES.
89
Ryan compensates for the magnetizing effects of the armature winding by surrounding the armature with a stationary winding, which passes through perforations in the These stationary windings carry the whole pole faces. This method prevents all sparkcurrent of the machine. due to the distortion of the field, but it does not preing
vent the sparking which is due to self-induction and mutual induction of the armature coils. The latter sparking is to a certain extent by inserting a lug between prevented
the pole horns, which
is
Pig. 74.
Besides the energy Energy Losses in Operation. in exciting the field coils, there are losses of expended energy in the armature and connections, as follows
56.
:
friction and the windage. This loss is considered independent of load, but it is quesgenerally tionable whether the friction does not increase somewhat
a.
The bearing
under loads.
This
loss is
from
The
continued reversal of the direction of magnetism therein. According to Steinmetz's Law, the hysteresis loss in watts,
90
where Fis the volume of iron in cubic centimeters, & the flux density, n the number of magnetic reversals per second, and rj a constant depending in value upon the character of the iron.
table of values
is
The
value of
&
places, as
cannot
be said to be proportional to the speed or any power of The hysteresis loss is from 1 5 per cent to the voltage.
40 per cent
c.
Eddy currents in the iron and the copper conductors. These might be expected to vary as the square of the
speed, but they do not for the same reason as in b. cause of the laminated structure of the core, and
Bethe
slight angular breadth of the conductors, this eddy loss is of small magnitude, from 2 per cent to 10 per cent of the
It may amount to 50 per cent of the losses in losses. the case of smooth-core armatures. Eddy currents in the
pole faces, which may be due to any variation in the reluctance encountered by the lines passing through the poles, are reduced by an increase of air-gap length. They are greatest with armature cores having slots with large openings at the top, and least with armatures whose in-
/ is
The armature resistance loss. This equals I^R, where the resistance the total current of the machine, and
armature measured between points rubbed by the This is exbrushes which are drawing the current /.
of the
In
500
K.
w. machines the I 2
In
5
total output.
K.
in smaller
e.
The
OPERATION OF ARMATURES.
91
This loss varies about as the speed, and its importance is Carbon brushes press upon the generally underestimated.
commutator with a force of from I to 12 pounds per square inch of contact. Railway motors and similar machines have the larger value, while central-station generators have the smaller. The coefficient of friction between carbon and copper varies from 0.28 to 0.32. f. The resistance of the brushes and the transition resistance of the brush contacts.
The
is
first
loss varies as
of considerable magni-
The
transition resistance
seems to vary inversely as the current, thereby always causing a constant drop of voltage amounting to from i
to 1.5 volts per transition.
The
vection,
armature
heat produced by losses b, c, and d, being in the itself, must be dissipated by the conduction, con-
and radiation. Experience shows that from 2 to watts can be radiated from every square inch of arma2.\ ture surface without causing a dangerous rise of temperafound that about 500 circular mils per ampere in the armature conductors brings the loss d to such a point that, added to the losses c and
ture in the armature core.
It
is
by they together give about 2 watts per square inch of armature surface hence this value of 500 circular mils per ampere is the mean of what is usually adhered to in winding
;
92
CHAPTER
The
VI.
EFFICIENCY OF OPERATION.
57.
Efficiency.
is
of efficiency
following definition and discussion taken from the report of the committee on
standardization of the
American
Institute of Electrical
En-
gineers
"efficiency" of an apparatus is the ratio of its net power output to its gross power input. Electric power should be measured at the terminals of
The
the apparatus.
Mechanical power
of
in
power
The magnitude
including of bear-
ing friction and windage may be considered as independent The loss of power in the belt, and the inof the load.
excluded.
crease of bearing friction due to belt tension, should be Where, however, a machine is mounted upon
the shaft of a prime mover, in such a manner that it cannot be separated therefrom, the frictional losses in bearings and in windage which ought, by definition, to be included in
them
satisfactorily.
The brush friction, however, should be included. Where a machine has auxiliary apparatus, such as an exciter,
EFFICIENCY OF OPERATION.
93
be charged to the machine, but to the plant consisting of machine and auxiliary apparatus taken together. The
plant efficiency in such cases should be distinguished from
The
efficiency
all
the
losses individually,
derive the input, or subtracting to derive the output. All losses should be measured
or
reduced
the temperature assumed in continuous operaor in operation under conditions specified. tion,
to,
This has sometimes Coefficient of Conversion. 58. been called the efficiency of conversion, but because of the
definition of the last
paragraph
it
is
word
efficiency.
The
coefficient of conversion
the ratio
energy developed in the armature to the total mechanical energy expended. winding
where
the power expended in watts, /< the armature current in amperes, and the E.M.F. in volts, developed in
is
the armature,
always less than unity, because of the friction and windage of the armature, because of the eddy currents in the core and conductors, and because of the
ft is
This coefficient is equal to 59. Economic Coefficient. (rj) the ratio of the useful electrical energy to the total electrical energy developed in the armature circuit. It is always less than unity because of the necessary loss of energy in
the exciting coils and in the armature
of a series
coils.
In the case
dynamo,
if
we
let
94
t
economic
coef-
/ amperes
is
E ^-JE,-^:
IE _
For shunt dynamos,
IE
Where /is
the current in the outside circuit, /^the current the pressure at the terminals of the
machine, and
The
ft
and For a
rj.
series machine,
/
t
=
t
/ and
(
fE
/^=^r
, =
E =
t
IE
-p'
+ If
I and
t)
-=
~
(I+I )E f
77
t
P
machine
is
for either
the
definition of efficiency.
At a constant speed 60. Separately Excited Dynamos. and constant exciting current a nearly constant total pressure (E ) is generated and it is almost equal to the pressure that is, on open circuit. This at the terminals at no load
t ;
where
is
the
number
<j>
of
oo number of
the
inductors,
EFFICIENCY OF OPERATION.
number
of pairs of poles.
If
95
sure will vary proportionally if no load is on the machine. a current be taken off, then the demagnetizing If, however,
effects
of
the
armature
currents
become evident
will
in
change
and there
be a falling
off of
pressure.
The amount
of this deviation is
dependent upon
100
30
40
AMPERES
Fig. 75-
This effect
is
where
X direction, and
the pressure in the direction, the conditions of speed and current remaining constant. exciting
Let
E = E
t
the total volts produced, the volts at the terminals of the machine, the resistance of the armature, the resistance of the external circuit, and
Ra = R =
/
96
E = IR,
El
and
and
PR
In determining the efficiency of a separately excited machine the energy lost in the exciting coils must be
charged against the coefficient of conversion. The operation of any dynamo can best be studied by inspection of a curve which shows the relation existing be-
tween the current generated or supplied by the machine, and the voltage under which it operated. Such curves are called Characteristic Curves and they are generally
>
plotted with currents for abscissae and volts for ordinates. The characteristic curve for a separately excited dynamo is that shown in Fig. 75.
Magnetos. separately excited dynamo whose maintained by a permanent magnet, instead of an These machines electric magnet, is called a magneto.
61.
field is
from their
similarity,
should be mentioned together. Magnetos are, however, current machines with slip rings ingenerally alternating
stead of commutators.
They
num-
bers in telephone subscribers' sets, and in many electrical businesses for testing out the continuity of concealed conductors,
and
in
some cases
for
is
determining
defective
insulation.
To
the armature
affixed a pinion,
meshing
The
EFFICIENCY OF OPERATION.
duced
97
is passed through the circuit whose continuity it is desired to determine, and then passes through a polarized bell which is caused to ring
high as 50,000
ohms without
the handle.
undue
effort
at
The
before, represent
by
Rf
Fig. 76.
the
of the brushes
resistance of the field winding, and by resistance b the and transition contacts. Then
E = IR, E=
t
Rf + Ra
whence
*
it
follows
- El
EJrj
,
The
increases as R m R b and Rf approach zero. be of greater importance than is imagined. b In low-tension machines all the resistances are small, and
value of
is
liable to
care must be taken that R b does not unduly increase the denominator of the expression for rj in other words, copper brushes should be used on low-voltage machines.
;
The
value
of
;
rj
varies as R,
rj
inis
versely as
hence
is
maximum when
98
minimum, and
Fig.
when
R=
oo,
or there
17
is
no
load.
77
is
and
load.
1.0
LOAD
Fig.
77-
Characteristic Curve of a Series Machine. Fig. shows the curves of a series dynamo. The curve of 78
63.
total volts
is
magnetic
circuit
made
It
up
of iron chiefly.
falls
below
(a)
such
curve
because
causes
in-
saturation
and
of
hence the
<f>
value
in
the
equation^,
"
1OAD
=
and
is
not proportional to
total
flux,
Fig.
78.
the
(b) because of the demagnetizing and cross magnetizing The curve E, starts effects of the armature currents.
above zero because of the residual magnetism in the cores If operated under constant load, a
EFFICIENCY OF OPERATION.
series
99
dynamo
will
speed.
The
R R
a,
b,
and Rj.
Since drop of potential is proportional to the resistance, this is a straight line, and must pass through the origin. This loss line can be established by a point found by as-
suming the
resistances
volts
lost volts
I
a
from
if
the equation
For example,
the
10
lost in them only when 50 amperes were line drawn through the origin, flowing through them. and a point on the characteristic curve diagram whose
would be
coordinates were 10 volts and 50 amperes, would at every point give the volts lost in sending the corresponding num-
at the terminals of
the machine as a function of the current output is found by subtracting the ordinates of the loss line from those of
and using the differences as the ordinates of E. In cannot be directly found but the terminal volts practice and the current can be measured, thus giving the curve E, and from a knowledge of the loss line the curve E can be
t
derived.
The
will
be discussed
operation of some special forms of series machines in the chapter on arc-lighting machines.
64.
Power Lines.
Where
volts
points of constant product of the two, representing watts or power. Fig. 79 shows such lines drawn for one, two,
and three
kilowatts.
If
E be the
external characteristic of
100
a dynamo, then the curves make it apparent that the machine cannot generate 3 K.W., but that for most values
under
K.
w.
same
65.
voltage.
Shunt Dy-
namos.
chines
In
cur-
shunt-wound mathe
rent in the arma-
ture
is
the
sum
and
of
of ex-
AMPERES
that
ternal
in
the
Fig. 79-
circuit,
or
Ia
If +
For sake
we
will
E*
R
IE,
IjE
+ i*,
+R
A
~f? J\.
+ ~& + J\
-L\-n
A *
-J\.
J?
J\.j
+~J?+~K J\.f
will
To determine what
value of
maximum economic
EFFICIENCY OF OPERATION.
,,
Ipl,
place the differential coefficient of rj, in respect to sidered as a variable, equal to o and solve for
con-
dR
The
external resistance must be a
mean
proportional becoefficient is
tween
R a and R
fy
V^
To
get
satis-
66.
Characteristic Curve of a
is
80 the curve E
running
at various loads.
factory results, one should begin with an infinite resistance in the external circuit, which is then reduced step by step.
it
extreme elevation of temperature due to excessive currents. As a rule, only the upper and lower values of E, corresponding to currents between o and a definite
maximum
value, can
'
102
be obtained.
before
in
is
series
t>
is
to those
The drop in is at first due chiefly to the drop refrom armature resistance. As the current increases, sulting the effects of armature reaction and saturation of the
of E.
magnetic
affected
circuit
become
at
evident.
At
is
by
a decrease of the
potential
shunt-field current
due to
the
fall of
field circuit.
This soon becomes the predominating cause of drop, and to such an extent that the curve turns back toward the origin.
When
zero resistance
is
no
current flows through the field, and the few volts then produced are due to residual magnetism. It must be
remembered
it is
that while
is
a double-valued function of
a single-valued function of R. The voltage of a shunt machine generally increases more An increase of speed not only inrapidly than the speed.
creases primarily the number of volts generated, but also increases the armature flux because of increased excita<
tion.
The
saturation
shall
condition of the magnetic circuit as regards determines whether this secondary influence
small.
be great or
103
CHAPTER
VIL
which
is
there or elsewhere,
is
used
energy
for purposes
in con-
consumption
stant pressure motors, and for trolley-car propulsion. The great sensitiveness of the candle power of incandescent lamps to a change in voltage, the candle power varying
as
voltage, requires that the pressure in lines used for lighting must not vary
the
fourth
power or more
of
the
by more than 3 per cent of its rated value. In street-car work, where the load suffers tremendous variations, constant potential supply
is
tory operation.
68.
Potential
For
tried,
accomplishing many devices have been the more important of which are
:
b Automatic change of the position of the brushes and commutating plane. c Automatic variation of armature speed.
IO4
d Hand
field coil.
e Self-regulation.
Of these the
and
either
first
hand regulation or self-regulation or both toare relied upon to maintain the constant voltage gether
under varying
69.
loads.
Inspection of the characteristic curves of either the shunt or the separately excited dynamo
Hand Regulation
shows a drop in the voltage as the load increases. This is due to the internal resistance of the armature and the In the formula demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.
ri
for the
E.M.F.
is
of a machine,
E=
is
</>.
jr.
,
tity that
practical
to vary
is
carried
which are
may be
It is desirable to keep the pressure at these station. points at a constant value, irrespective of the varying loss of potential that is going on because of the resistance of
To
105
Edison system employs feeders to carry the current to the Each feeder is accompanied by a pilot wire feeding-points. imbedded in the insulation. At the feeding-point the pilot
wires are attached to the feeder terminals, and at the sta-
end are attached to a voltmeter, so that one can, in the station, regulate the pressure not at the machine tertion
Field Rheostats
fields of
in
the
shunt
dynamos,
"L.
*MiiiiiniiiriunnH
Fig. 82.
which are mounted on the switch-board along with indicatA form of such rheostatic regulators is ing instruments.
the so-called Packed Card Rheostat, manufactured by the General Electric Company. This derives its name from
io6
tube of asbestos, inthe method of constructing it. a steel mandrel, is wound with a chosen amount of closing
German-silver wire or ribbon.-
The tube
is
then removed
from the mandrel, and pressed into the form of cards as shown in Fig. 82. These cards are then assembled, with
interposed asbestos, in sufficient numbers to make up the Iron plates, somewhat required resistance of the rheostat.
Fig. 83.
by
wider than the cards, are introduced at intervals, and thus The whole is held together increase the radiating surface. iron end and bolts, as shown in Fig. 83. Con-
plates tact bolts are connected with various points of the conduc-
connected ting part of the rheostat, and these bolts are a wiping-finger with the field circuit. Fig. 84 shows through a rheostat of this type built for regulating a railway geneto be placed on the back of a switchrator and
arranged
ID/
in
handle projecting
front.
For the
made
of iron grids of
employed.
Both
these
When
have their
large generators, such as are used in railroad work, field circuits opened, the E.M.F. self-induced
by the disappearance of the flux in the fields is liable to reach such a magnitude as to pierce the insulation of the To obviate this, field coils and destroy their usefulness.
is broken, the field coils are connected (Fig. 85) through a high discharge resistance, and It is the current in them is allowed to die out slowly.
io8
The Edison
Company
of
New York
Another form
Rheostat,
discharge themselves through an arc light. of field rheostat is the Carpenter Enamel
Electric
Company.
Parallel Resistance"
Rheostat Switch
Pilot" Lamp
Oc=
Tietd
/Irmatur-e
Fig. 85.
from the surface of the wire, but is conducted to a supporting plate, which then becomes the radiating surface.
The
them
to
corrosion.
Owing
the increased radiating surface thus obtained, a shorter and smaller wire can be used for a given volt-ampere capacity
ICQ
air.
No
con-
Fig. 86.
it is
supported and
To
Fig. 87.
ing surface, the back of the plate is provided with raised annular ribs. The'makers claim that this rheostat can radi-
no
10 by
500 watts.
method
large
amounts
of heat
is
to be found in
the rheostats of
ufacturers.
Wirt
other by means
mica.
By
tial
Fig. 88.
far
the
most elegant
is
method
of constant poten-
regulation
that
in
is
utilized
in
maintaining constant the magnetic flux through This is accomplished by passing all or armature.
the
the
greater part of the current produced in the armature a few times around the field magnets, so that an increased
load on the armature increases the
magnetizing ampere
coils.
These
series turns,
when
rightly
proportioned, can be made to compensate for a part, for even more than all of the drop. This device all, or for can be used in connection with any other form of
excitation,
as
permanent
or
shunt
excitation.
excitation,
dynamo
is
Ill
the machine
at
some
machine
terminals, the
be over-compounded, since the potential at the terminals will rise on increase of load.
is
machine
said to
frequent in machines used to supply lighting circuits, and 10 per cent over-compounding is usual in railway generators.
3
5
is
From
to
72.
To
circuit,
the resistance of the shunt-field, and a the resistance of the armature. Then assuming that the cursi
is
circuit,
an assumption which
cial
is
warranted
in
machines,
Considering
for a
as a variable dependent on
of
77
77,
and solving
maximum
dR
-,-.
R + &^ &
+_
coefficient is
is
Hence
it
is
maximum economic
obtained,
when the
external resistance
the geometric
12
mean between
Under these
sum
of
and
of the armature.
4-2
73.
Efficiency of
efficiency
of a generator increases with the size, being quite low on small machines, and sometimes very high on the larger dynamos. Since the distribution of the magnetic and electrical losses of
a generator
lies
designer,
100
it is
point of
maximum
effi-
one-fourth
load.
The
two following cuts show the relations between efficiencies and loads on two
different machines.
than
load.
To
counteract this
Wheeler Company employs a device which is termed a compounding rectifier. It consists of a suitable resistance
shunted across the
minals of the series
coils.
terfield
100
f
The
full
armature
between
coil
this
rectifying
and the
series coils.
As
the load
increases,
more
coils
current
each,
through
are
so
designed
resistance to increase,
while the
resistance of
20
40
80
100
120
140 160
Pig. 90.
unaltered.
Thus, as the load increases, a larger proportion of the whole current passes through the series coils, and this compensates for the sag in voltage that would otherwise have
existed.
70.
Theory
of
Self -Regulation.
To
determine the
in
number
be used
field
the series
regulating coils
magnets of a
compound machine,
Let n
114
fsh = I=
coils.
E= E=
t
current in the armature and also in the series coils, since they are practically the same.
total pressure
developed.
A.
(R
= =
pressure at terminals. the coefficient of magnetic leakage. the reluctance of magnetic circuit when armature
is idle.
Then
/in armature.
(H
nl sh
<, <', <",
Let
flux in the
ditions of working.
When
no current flows
,
in the armature,
*
=
/ flows
'
io<RX
2C 5
fltt"
When
(RX
the current
in the armature,
-X7 1 H/
where
-=
a
^-
Jl?
nSsh
f?,
hence
rt:
The
latter
value
is
than
The flux in the armature which is due to the shunt coils only, when a current I flows in the armature circuit, is
115
is
decreased in the
<j>
i.
The
series turns
must make up this loss, and also compenback turns and for the electridue to the resistances of the armature and the
series coils.
Now
and
For convenience
*
let
term of the right-hand member can be written k (i knlsh a) nfsh in which the expression knl^ represents the total voltage developed by the machine at no
The
first
load,
which
is
or in other words
to be
therefore the terminal voltage at that load, is the voltage for which the machine is
for the terminal voltage
compounded.
at the load
E = knl
Evidently,
if
k
is
(i
a)
nl sh
\ka (n
at
B]
l?a + s] I.
to equal
knlsh
load,
- k(i -a) nl sh
whence
n
B)
a+s]
/= o,
~a
ka
Il6
Remembering
of electrical
-g?
and
energy loss
n'
in the field/
-j 100,
*
100 a
n'
A, pn
R _L 4- JB -\
nI* R* +
=
term gives the number of series turns required to overcome the skewing due to the cross turns the second term gives the series turns necesturns and the sary to compensate for the armature back
In this value for
the
first
;
;
third
loss
series
coils.
The
lies
in finding a
This
having according to Jackson a value of from .75 to .85 at It is of course dependent on the load, and has a full load.
value of unity for no load.
76.
Views
of
the
American
Institute
of
Electrical
The following statements concerning the Engineers. regulation of direct current apparatus are taken from the report of the Standardization committee of the Institute
:
The
ration
of
regulation of an apparatus intended for the geneconstant potential, constant current, constant
is
speed, etc.,
of potential,
to be
current,
full
range from
ditions of operation as give the required full-load values, the condition of full load being considered in all cases as
117
regulation of an apparatus intended for the generation of a potential, current, speed, etc., varying in a definite manner between full load and no load, is to be
measured by the maximum variation of potential, current, speed, etc., from the satisfied condition, under such constant conditions of operation as give the required full-load
values.
If
the
manner
in
in potential, curis
between
load
and no load
not speci-
e.,
should be assumed to be a simple linear relation ; undergoing uniform variation between full load and no
it
load.
regulation of an apparatus may, therefore, differ Thus the regulation according to its qualification for use.
of a compound-wound generator specified as a constantpotential generator will be different from that it possesses when specified as an over-compounded generator.
The
given in percentage of the full-load value of potential, current, speed, etc. and the apparatus should be steadily operated during the test under the same
regulation
is
;
The
The
regulation of generators
is
to be determined at con-
stant speed.
The regulation of a generator unit, consisting of a generator united with a prime mover, should be determined at
the prime mover i. e., constant steam pressure, head, etc. It would include the inherent For this reason the speed variations of the prime mover. of a generator unit is to be distinguished from regulation
constant
conditions of
the regulation of either the prime mover or of the generator contained in it, when taken separately.
Il8
At constant excitation in separately excited fields, With constant resistance in shunt-field circuits, and
;
With constant resistance shunting series fields i.e., the field adjustment should remain constant, and should be so chosen as to give the required full-load voltage at fullload current.
maximum
the rated full-load value (occurring within the range from full-load to open circuit), to the full-load terminal voltage.
is
the ratio
full-
maximum
load value (occurring within the range from short circuit), to the full-load current.
load to
ratio of the
machines, the regulation is the difference in voltage from a straight line connecting the no-load and full-load values of terminal voltage as function of the current, to the full-load terminal
In over-compounded
maximum
voltage.
77. Direct
The tendency
of
modern engineering
to
install
lighting gene-
rators which are directly connected with the steam engines which drive them. Owing to the inherent speed of engines
being smaller than that of generators, direct connected armatures are designed to run at a lower speed than belt-
Economical construction demands that they be of the multipolar type. They require less floor space per kilowatt than the belt-driven machines and this is a
driven ones.
;
in
many
installations.
119
a higher efficiency of operation consequent the elimination of losses in belting and counter-
shafting.
They
from belt-driven machinery would not be tolerated. In order that standard generators may be easily connected with engines of any make, and vice versa, committees from the American Societies of Electrical Engineers
and of
Mechanical
Engineers
have
recommended the
and arma-
Sizes in K.
W.
Capacity
120
are held together by cast-iron end plates. The disks and end plates are mounted upon a cast-iron spider, which also The spider is fitted so as to be carries the commutator.
it.
The
con-
Fig, gi.
ductors are bars of copper, which are forged into shape on cast-iron formers wound and insulated with mica and fullerboard.
Figs. 92
of a
121
The General Electric Company's Form L generator. of a circular form, is divided in a horizontal plane, frame,
and
is
made
To
it
Fig. 92.
A
is
skeleton, circular,
disk-like brush-holder
means
of three slots
is
capable of sufficient
122
the brushes.
receives the
Fig. 93.
It is open so as to offer disks and the armature windings. no obstruction to the free and thorough circulation of air
through
it,
which permits
of a perfect ventilation.
The
123
supported by flanges which protect them from mechanical The commutator shell is pressed upon the armainjury.
ture spider.
Fig. 94.
Electric
Company's
direct-con-
nected and belt-driven generators differ from others which have been described, chiefly because of the shape of the field-magnet frame and the method of armature winding.
The
field
frame shown
in Fig.
94
is
circular in form,
and
is
124
These frames are of cast divided in a horizontal plane. and have short internal flanges on each side, which mechanically strengthen the frame, and offer considerable
iron,
The protection from mechanical injury to the field coils. round poles are of cast steel, cast-welded into the frame.
They are provided with removable cast-iron shoes, which are clamped in place after the field coils have been put on. The armatures, instead of being bar-wound, are wound
Fig. 95.
through tubes which are placed one upon the other, and which are made of micanite cloth and press-board rolled up on a
sizes,
which are
threaded
triple
are
form and glued together. The brush holders and brush rigging were shown in Figs. 48 and 49. The Sprague Electric Company manufactures two types of Lundell generators, both for direct connection and for
belt
connection.
They
are,
down
in
paragraph
55
125
single-coil
and the
of the type, which takes its name from the peculiar shape field frame and poles, which permits of the use of but a
single field
coil.
circular
type,
Fig. 96.
in
horizontal plane,
and the single-coil type being divided in a vertical plane which is perpendicular to the axis of the armature. A
split
pole,
with
coil is
its
compound
The windings, is shown in Fig. 95. placed nearer the shoe than the shunt
126
and both are kept in place by lugs, as shown Fig. 96 shows a 6-pole, single-coil type figure.
coil,
magnet frame with its coil inclosed in the frame. The brush holders which are employed on both types of machine are
illustrated in
Fig.
127
clamping them
to the holders.
Manufacturing Company's direct connected generator, Fig. 98, has an external appearance
similar to that of the generators of
The Bullock
Electric
other companies.
It
from them, however, in having peculiarly constructed poles. These poles are made up of laminated
is
different
steel
much
narily used, and which have the peculiar shape shown in In assembling these stampings to form the pole, Fig. 99. every alternate one is reversed from the position which is
128
indicated
the
figure.
The method
it
of
will
shown
in Fig. 100.
After assembling,
the face of the pole for a short depth contains but one-half as much iron as the main body of the pole. This results,
under normal excitation, in a saturated pole face. It has the same effect in preventing distortion of the field under the influence of armature reaction, as saturation of the
teeth of the armature core.
The
Fig. 99-
Fig. 100.
operated at a smaller magnetic flux density. sis losses in the teeth can accordingly be
The made
hysteresmaller.
The
the stampings, and the ideally perfect lamination of the pole face, permit the use of a smaller
thinness of
ratio of tooth
width to
slot width,
loss in the pole face which would occur in The possibility of using narrow teeth machines. ordinary results in a reduction of the inductances of the armature
eddy current
coils.
This
facilitates effective
commutation.
129
CHAPTER
VIII.
Direct
Current
lights
Arc
Lighting
Generators.
For
where considerable energy is e: pended at the points of illumination, and where these points are separated from each other by considerable distances, it is sometimes economical and desirable to connect
lighting
by arc
the lamps in series and use a constant current. single line then completes a circuit of all the lamps (Fig. 101).
-X
X-
pressure
circuit
cir-
for
on a constant
as the
current
power
O
Fig. 101.
;
remaining unaltered while in a constant pressure circuit an increase of load is met by an increase of current, and the wires of the line have to be of
sufficient size to safely carry the maximum. The size of wire necessary is dictated, not by the energy transmitted, but by the current flowing, hence a wire large enough to
supply just one lamp of a constant pressure circuit can supply all the lamps of a constant current circuit.
130
The more general forms of arc lamps have what is termed a spherical candle-power of 800, 1200, or 2000. Lamps used in search-lights and in light-houses often exceed this in candle-power, and
arc lamp of 800 candle-power takes a curamperes. rent of 4.5 amperes, that of 1200 candle-power 6.6 to 6.8 amperes, and that of 2000 candle-power 9.6 to 9.8
The
amperes.
An
for
its
supplying a circuit of say 2000 candle-power lamps with n such lamps in the circuit must be capable of generating a constant current of
It
A generator
9.8 amperes.
between the
in order that
limits
it
may
The
nor
fall
below
is
its
;
the load
varied
normal value, no matter how suddenly for the slightest change, even for a very
lamps.
It is
applied to an ordinary shunt -wound generator to cause it to give constant current, either by changing the position of
the brushes or by varying the ampere turns of the field coils. However, any such device would be slow of operation,
circuit
current to flow before the regulator completed its action. It is, therefore, necessary to rely on the armature reactions
for regulation, since they vary simultaneously with the current.
The machine
is
designed with
13!
a field of very great magnetizing power, the armature reactions are very great, and thus the total flux effective in
slight increase of current producing E.M.F. is reduced. in the armature materially increases the armature reactions.
The
thus reduced, and the pressure falls Thus the until the current returns to its normal value. machine is completely and instantly self-regulating. Since
effective flux
is
the field magnetization is kept constant and the machine produces constant current the field coils are series wound
generators, and the cores of the field are worked at a very high magnetic density, since magnets the magnets are then more insensible to slight changes in
on
all
arc-light
In commercial machines the denthe magnetizing force. sities in the field cores are from 17,000 to 18,000 lines per
square centimeter for wrought iron or
to
1
steel,
In the armature high magnetic density is also required to prevent a sudden rise of voltage when the circuit is
broken.
With no current
mag-
neto-motive force of the field magnets would be effective in producing E.M.F., and a destructive rise of pressure would result, since the total M.M.F. of the field magnets
But a greater than the normal effective M.M.F. in the armature core leaves the latter high magnetic density incapable of receiving such an increase of flux, and thereis
much
ture core
designed to have a density of from 1 5,000 to 20,000 lines per square centimeter at its minimum crossis
section.
A
less
consideration of
132
much
the
M.M.F. cannot be
lines of
must be long and of small area, so readily changed (d) the path of the force due to armature magnetization must be short
;
and
M.M.F.
change
and
(e)
Evidently extreme difficulty is found in so designing the different parts of the machine as to give proper consideration to each of the conditions
and yet produce a machine This that will regulate for constant current at all loads. leads to the introduction of automatic mechanical devices
considered as being the sole regulators, for in every case they are secondary to the natural self -regulating tendency
of the armature.
In general they regulate for the gradual load, while the armature reactions
There are two general systems of regulating arc dynamos. first method is to cause the machine to develop an E.M.F. in excess of that required for the load, and to then
The
collect
is
an E.M.F.
This
done by shifting the brushes from the neutral plane (50). In a closed-coil armature this causes a counter pressure to
conductors lying between the neutral This reduces the pressure planes. In an open-coil armature the desired amount.
in those
be developed
to
when
in the
maximum
position,
connect to the
have the
maximum E.M.F.
By
shift-
133
ing the brushes either way coils can be connected to the circuit which have some E.M.F. less than the total
E.M.F. generated
in them,
of
shifting
of arc-light dynamo regulation is to the magnetizing force in the field magnets just enough vary Since the magto put the required pressure on the line.
netizing force
coils, it
is dependent on the ampere turns of the field can be varied either by cutting out or short circuit-
some of the turns or by changing the current in them means of a variable resistance which is shunted across by In practice both these methods have the field terminals.
ing
been used.
of the brushes, or
Whether regulation is effected by changing the position by changing the field excitation, sparking will occur at the points of collection of the current if means
are not provided to avoid it. Non-sparking collection could be obtained if the field were perfectly uniform all around In general this condition is impracticable, the armature.
since
by
requires almost the whole armature to be covered the pole faces, and it requires the density in the gap
it
Considerations of magnetic
leakage and armature reaction render almost impossible the Another and more pracsatisfying of these conditions. tical method is to employ for collection at one terminal of These are the machine two brushes connected in parallel.
moved
single
center
brush of varying circumferential contact, whose can always be kept in the neutral plane. This
The
is,
device
is
There
134
9.
i6o-light
generator,
Electric
Company.
The armature
Fig. 102.
opposed pole faces of two sets of poles are opposed to each other.
field
magnets.
flux,
Like
The
therefore,
takes a path out of the opposing pole faces into the arma-
135
ture core, and then circumferentially through the core and out into the next pair of opposing pole faces.
Fig. 103.
armature, Fig. 103, consists of a number of coils or bobbins placed on a ring core of greater radial depth than
breadth, and the pole faces cover the sides instead of the
The
Fig. 104.
circumference.
ing box,
The bobbins
in Figs.
shown
104 and
by any masses
of metal.
is
This
136
and tends
disturbance, insures exceptional ventilation of the armature, " to prevent the " roasting out of the coils when
This machine is of relatively slow subject to an overload. the larger sizes running at only 500 R.P.M. speed,
Fig. 105.
At
magni-
Fig. 106.
The commutator,
Fig. 106,
is
so
designed that it connects the coils of highest E.M.F. in series with each other to the external circuit, and connects the coils of medium E.M.F. in multiple with each
137
by means
of
rings.
Since the
Fig. 107.
To this end the play in the bearings must be prevented. commutator end of the shaft is turned with six thrust collars,
by correspond-
13*
Regulation on these machines is effected by a variable resistance in shunt with the field coils; and as the field
current
is
is
also
changed, not to collect current at a lower voltage as described in These 78, but to obtain sparkless collection.
(Fig. 108),
Fig. 108.
attached directly to the frame of the machine. consists of a rotary oil-pump driven by a belt from the armature shaft, a balance valve of the piston
is
which
The mechanism
and a rotary piston in a short cylinder, which is directly connected to an arm sweeping the contacts of the
type,
field-shunt
rheostat.
The
valve
is
operated by a lever
139
actuated by a controlling electro-magnet which is energized by the whole generator current. At normal current the valve is centrally placed, and the oil from the pump flows
around the overlapping ports into the reservoir without If the current rises above the noreffect (See Fig. 109).
mal, the armature of the controlling
magnet
is
attracted,
oil
Fig. 109.
moving the rotary piston in a clockwise shaft of this piston moves the arm of the
direction.
The
rheostat, cutting
out resistance and thus lowering the field exciting current. At the same time a pinion on the shaft, seen in Fig. 1 10,
actuates a rocker
to a
position such that the collection by the brushes will be When the current returns to normal the sparkless.
adjusting spring, seen in Fig. 1 1 1, returns the lever and balance valve to the central position. If the current falls
140
Fig. in.
141
The below the normal, these operations are reversed. tension of the adjusting spring can be regulated from the outside of the dust-proof case by a hard rubber knob.
From
It is
lubricated.
claimed for this regulator that it can bring the current back to normal from a dead short-circuit in from 3 J to
4 seconds.
80.
Fig.
1 1
For
facilitating
transportation and repairs the yoke parts in the middle on a horizontal plane. The bearings are of the selfoiling, self-aligning
shown
The armature 41. type described in is of the open-coil 3 type, which gives a unidirectional but not absolutely continuous current. The
in Fig.
1 1
slight pulsations
of
the current
affecting the steady mean value of the current, cause a slight constant vibration in the mechanism of the lamps
that helps
stick or a failure to
unique feature of this armature consists in its having two separate sets of windings on the same core, each set having its own commutator. The coils
and commutators are so arranged that while a set of coils of one winding is being cut into or out of the curcuit a set
of the other
winding is supplying current to the line. It is claimed for this method of connecting open-coil armatures, that it yields a more satisfactory current, and obviates the
commutator found
in
other types
142
of
The armature
is
made
of lami-
nated steel sheets punched with T-shaped teeth between the winding slots. The armature coils are wound on
Fig. 112.
molds, and
insulated
1 1
4. They are held in place by wooden forced into the loops left at the ends of the armawedges This construction admits of removing one coil for ture.
shown
in Fig.
any
143
from
that
it
is
excited,
small
100
too
volts.
possibility of
danger from a
resulting
circuit.
is
high
pressure
from an open
Regulation
careful
design,
just
the
de-
proper
field
proportions,
78.
is
as
scribed in
The
current
exciting regulated to
means the
if
line
current
can
without
affecting
the self-regulation.
Fig.
1 1
commutator
Fig. 116
constant current
dynamo
144
load.
may be removed
Fig.
n4
ing, and its temperature does not rise more than 40 C. above the temperature of the room. This armature is of the closed-coil type, requiring a commutator of many seg-
145
This
fact,
of
two brushes
full
in parallel, as
explained in
78, obviates
sparking.
pressure at
all
off
This allows of "regujust such potential as is necessary. without making use of rheostats, separate exlation
citers, wall
The
regulating
Fig. 115.
mechanism
is
set in operation
by a
sensitive
and rather
powerful electro-magnet excited by the main armature This attracts a lever which is restrained by an current. current variation in the adjustable coiled spring.
strength causes this lever to throw into train one or the other of two oppositely revolving fiber friction cones, which, acting through gears and levers, shifts the brushes the re-
146
quisite
collecting extent.
are inclosed in the pillar supporting the commutator end of the armature shaft, and are thereby protected from
Fig. 116.
injury, dust,
and
grit.
The wearing
and the speed is slow, so that wear is reduced to a minimum. Without any change of adjustments this regulator will operate when run either way, which is an advantage when two or more dynamos are run from one
lator are all large
engine, and
economy
of space
is
essential, or in case of
147
1 1 7, is a closed-coil ring armature generator, having pole faces that cover both the sides and the circumference of
the armature.
The
is
The proper potential is supthe method of regulation. both methods of control in conplied to the line by using
junction that is, sections of the field windings are cut in or out of circuit, and at
;
The
proper
of
motion of the
lator
field
arm and
is
reguthe
brush holder
obtained
by means of a small motor whose field is " sneaked " the from main
is
magnets
of
the
machine.
This motor
operated by a device
in Fig. 118.
is
shown
The
whole device
in series
inserted
The
is
Fig. 117.
right-hand
insulating
material,
lever
of
blocks
a and b properly placed upon it. The left-hand lever is of conducting material, and is capable of being attracted by the electro-magnet which is excited by the main The magnet and spring are so adjusted that current.
current
is
flowing,
both
a and
are
with the
left lever,
in the
R R
If
now
the line current becomes too strong the magnet it and the contact at a is broken.
KV
>/l
To Line
From Dynamo
Fig. Il8.
Immediately the current flowing through b divides at the brush x, part going through J\z and part through the motor armature and F^. The motor will then revolve in a given
direction,
will
cut out
sections of the field windings, and will shift the brushes until the normal current is flowing, when contact is again
149
a and the controlling motor stops. If the line current drops below normal, the spring pulls the lever away from the magnet and the contact at b is broken. Part of the current then flows from y to x through the
therefore revolves in a direction opThe brushes on the posite to that which it had before. dynamo are shifted back again, and more sections of field
motor armature.
It
circuit.
In practice the levers and the magnet are mounted on the wall or the switch-board, while the regulating motor is
When
the current
is
broken at a or
b,
there
is
no serious
two
the break.
The whole
;
current of the
are and the resistances R, z v and so proportioned that only a small portion of that flows through a or b.
83.
Fig. 119
shows a double
armature, automatic regulating constant current generator, made by the Ball Electric Company. Two independent circuits, each automatically controlled, can be operated
it
arid regulators.
arrangement is that the pressure has to be but half as high as if the two circuits were united and fed by a single Yet if it be undesirable to bring the ends of armature.
two
in series,
series,
and fed by the two armatures also connected in and then the voltage per armature will be half that
of a single armature
machine giving
like results.
The armatures
The
air
150
151
minimum
of magnetic excitation.
The commutator is built up of a great number of segments, the potential between any two adjacent segments not exThis assures sparkless commutation. ceeding fifteen volts.
This generator
is
pressure of a suitable magnitude is collected. magnetic body placed in a magnetic field will tend to
is
parallel to the
magnetic
lines
This principle
follows
applied to the Ball regulator as magnetic portion of the brush carrier is made a
is
part of the magnetic circuit, and is placed in a recess of the dynamo frame. It tends to assume an axial position with a force varying as the flux through it. As the line current
is
mounted on
required
brushes the
amount. The impulse to regulate is applied to the brush holder, instead of being communidirectly cated to it by by a more or less complex mechanism. The
magnetic tendency to
gravity.
shift the
brush holder
is
opposed by
The ThomsonThe Thomson-Houston Dynamo. Houston arc generator is of a type entirely different from
84.
the other machines here described, not only in appearance, but also in method of armature winding and of regulation.
A view
of this
machine
is
given in Fig.
20.
Each
field
coil has for its core an iron tube, flanged exteriorly at each end to form a recess for the windings, and fitted at the
armature end with a concave iron piece that surrounds part of the armature. This tube, with the flanges and the cupshaped
end., is
The
farthermost flange
152
bolted to a
number
of wrought-iron
connecting-rods which hold the magnets in place, protect the field windings, and take the place of the yoke of other machines in completing the magnetic circuit. The magnets are
legs
and bearing
supports for the armature shaft. The armatures of the older machines of this type are spheroidal in shape, while the more recent ones have ring
armatures which are more readily repaired or rewound. The winding of either form of armature is peculiar in that
only three coils are employed, set with an angular disIn the ring placement from one another of 120 degrees. armature no difficulty is found in properly winding these
but in the old spherical armature the following device was employed to secure the windings, and give each
coils
;
of them the same average distance from the pole face. hollow spheroidal iron core was keyed on the shaft. The had three rows of externally projecting wooden pins. core
were wound, half of coil A 20 degrees distance half of coil B was wound, covering parts of coil A. Then at 120 deOver grees from both A and B all of coil C was wound.
coils
1
being wound
then at
this,
but in
its
coil
proper angular position, the other half of finally the rest of coil A was put in
place.
coil
By this arrangement the average distance of each from the pole face or from the iron core was the same. In either type of armature the inner ends of the three coils
are joined to each other, and are not attached to any other conductor, an arrangement unique in direct current dynaoutside ends are connected to the segments of a three-bar commutator, from which the current is collected
mos.
The
in multiple.
153
Regulation is obtained by shifting the brushes in the Fig. 1 2 1 shows the two possible relafollowing manner.
Fig. 120.
tions
between brushes and commutator that may exist at Both brushes of each set may rest on one any commutator bar, or the brushes of one set may span the
instant.
154
If peated three times at each brush for each revolution. the dotted line shows the position where the maximum
E.M.F.
is
generated in the coils, then in Fig. 121 a the coils are connected in series with the out-
side circuit, while the coil near the position of least activity out of circuit. In Fig. i2ib the two less active coils are
in multiple
active
coil
circuit.
In
practice
the
Fig. 121.
brushes of a set are 60 degrees apart, leaving 120 degrees between the leading brush of one set and the following
set
out of circuit at
and since 1 20 degrees is the angular of a commutator bar, there is no normal load, two being always in
a third.
If
parallel
and
in
series with
above the normal the leading brushes move a small angle forward, while the following brushes recede through three This will shorten the time that a single times that angle.
coil gives its whole E.M.F. to the circuit, and will place it more quickly in parallel with a comparatively inactive coil. But such a movement will reduce the angular distance be.
155
tween tne nearest brushes of the opposite sets to less than 1 20 degrees, hence the machine will be short circuited six times per revolution, since one brush of each set will touch one segment of the commutator at the same time. If the
falls below normal, then the brushes and the time that a coil is in series is lengthened, and the time that it is in parallel with an
close together,
field
Fig. 122.
the brushes
is
shown
in
increase of current merely to help avoid sparking. The brushes are moved by levers actuated by a series magnet
A.
This magnet
pass circuit.
On
normally short circuited by the byan undue rise of current this circuit is
is
broken by the series magnet B. A then becomes more While the powerful, and the levers separate the brushes.
machine
is
vibrating,
C is
156
carbon resistance
at that point.
shunted across
to prevent sparking
As might be expected, with but three parts to the commutator and collection made with small regard to the
neutral point, the sparking of this machine is such as to speedily ruin the commutator and the brushes, if means
are not taken to suppress it. rotary blower is mounted on the shaft, and is arranged to give intermittent puffs of The air, which at the right moment blow out the spark.
insulation
being
left
between the segments is air, considerable gap between them, and through these gaps the
Western Electric Arc Dynamo. Fig. 123 represents machine, which is regulated by means of shifting the
brushes.
of a link
ball
and socket
This screw
held in position by a nut. When the current is normal, both the nut and screw revolve at the same rate, and consequently there is no end movement of the
screw.
The
brush, therefore,
remains stationary.
An
electro-magnet, energized by a coil which is in series with the main circuit, attracts an armature whose movement
is
which
is
susceptible of regulation.
armature
ordinarily.
its
volving nut, and thereby prevents the revolution of the nut until the resulting longitudinal movement of the screw has
shifted the brushes sufficiently to bring the current to its
normal value.
which
is
If the current be too weak, the spring attached to the magnet armature overpowers the
157
The resulting movement of electro-magnetic attraction. the armature stops the rotation of the screw and permits the rotation of the nut. This results in a longitudinal
movement
of the screw
and a shifting
of the brushes in
The stopping and starting of the the opposite direction. nut and screw is accomplished through the medium of
Fig. 123.
small triggers controlled by the armature of the series rotated from magnet. The triggers are fastened to a gear with stops on the the main shaft a belt.
by
They engage
nut and screw respectively. and the Fig. 124 gives a sectional view of the regulator,
158
Fig.
124.
159
160
shown
at n,
and
con-
the one which engages with the nut is shown at m. Fig. 125 represents the details of the armature
struction.
The
latter is ring
wound with
a large
number
MOTORS.
161
CHAPTER
MOTORS.
86. Principle of the
IX.
namo
will act as
a motor
external source.
direct current dywith current from some supplied This source may be a constant E.M.F.
Motor
if
Any
The
system, a constant current system, or any other system. rotation of the armature is a direct consequence of the
conditions laid
down
in
20.
It is
evident that
if
the
with the corresponding terminals of some external source of supply, the direction of flow in the armature will be
reversed.
of the
method of armature winding, the electro-dynamic actions between the field and all the currents in the inductors will conspire to produce rotation in one direction.
Direction of Rotation
of
87.
of
To determine
the direction
movement
employ a modification of Fleming's rule. Thus in a dynamo the thumb and two first fingers of the right hand determine the direction of induced E.M.F. as shown in Fig.
1
26.
But
in
a motor the
first
fingers of the
left
as
shown
If in
dynamo the
162
altered,
ing in the
same
the armature be supplied with a current flowdirection as when the machine was operated
as a dynamo, the direction of rotation will be reversed. Thus, if the positive brush of a dynamo be connected to
if
the negative brush be connected to the negative terminal, then the direction of current flow in the armature will be
reversed.
The
FICLO
MAGNET
FIELD MAGNET
DYNAMoTlRIGHT HAND.
Fig. 126.
series-wound machines, since the field flux has its direction In shunt-wound, separately also changed, will be reversed.
excited,
altered. Compound-wound machines will have the same or reversed direction of rotation, depending upon whether
the magnetizing effect of the shunt coils is stronger or weaker than that of the series coils. In a compound generator the actions of the shunt coils and the series coils are
cumulative,
i.
e.,
in the
same
direction
i.
opposed to each other. Motors are also wound so as to have cumulatively acting
differential,
e.,
MOTORS.
88.
163
Speed Conditions
If
with electrical energy, it vary its rate of rotation until it has attained such a speed as will produce an equality bewill
tween the input of energy and the output of energy. The In the latter appears both as useful work and as losses.
case of a motor, speed acts toward electrical energy like Temperature temperature in the case of heat energy. rises until the heat energy which is produced is always
is
disposed
of
by con-
The
is
electrical
energy which
communicated to a motor
transformed, a, into useful mechanical energy, which is taken from the armature shaft either by a belt or by direct
bearings and at the brushes; r, into windage; d, into foucault and eddy currents; and finally e, into ohmic heat energy in the motor's electrical
connection
b,
required per unit of time to overcome friction, windage, hysteresis, and foucault and eddy currents increases as the speed of rotation increases. Nearly all
circuits.
The energy
or another
upon a motor machinery in one form an increase of power for an increase require of speed. Therefore, if a given amount of electrical power be communicated to a motor under load, the armature will assume some speed of rotation, so that a balance between
the input and the output of energy is maintained. If the variation of losses and useful 89. Counter E.M.F.
energy with the speed were the only conditions governing the speed, then there would result in practice variations of
speed through enormous ranges.
dition affecting the speed.
But there
is
another conits
The
armature, by varying
speed, not only governs the rate of expenditure of energy, but also governs the amount of electrical energy received.
164
The armature of a motor revolving in a field under the influence of supplied electrical energy differs in no respect
from the same armature revolving
generated in
tity of flux.
it
in a field
under the
is
in-
There
an E.M.F.
which is determined by the speed and quanFor the same speed and the same flux there would be generated the same E.M.F. in the case of a motor
as in the case of a
is,
dynamo.
The
direction of this
E.M.F.
opposite to that of the current flowing under the influence of the external supply of E.M.F., according to 87. Therefore this pressure which is induced in the armature of
a motor
is
The
current
which
through the inductors of an armature is therefore equal to the difference between the supply E.M.F.
will flow
of the
_
E*
_
c
~^r
For example, an unloaded i K.W. shunt motor having an armature resistance of I ohm, when connected to a constant source of potential supply of 100 volts, would not take
a current of 100 amperes as dictated by
its
Ohm's
law, unless
armature were clamped so as to prevent rotation. If undamped, its armature would assume such a speed that it would have induced in it a counter E.M.F. of say 97.5
volts.
The
ioo
c 07. -
2.5
amperes.
viz.,
The power
watts,
2.5
X ioo
would
be expended
in
the machine.
MOTORS.
90.
I6 S
Armature Reactions
and
flux,
direction of rotation
therefore the
effect
of
is
the motor
to
skew the
as in Fig. 128.
magnetic density
tip,
and decreases
in the trailing
tip.
operation, a
backward
If
lead, or a lag,
of the brushes.
in the
same place as when the machine was operated as a generator, the direction of armature current
having been reversed, then the demagnetizing or back turns of the
Fig. 128.
generator would become magnetizing turns for the motor but with the brushes shifted to
;
a position of lag, then the motor has also demagnetizing or back turns.
91
Efficiency
Let
R&
8
^a+
V= number of revolutions per minute, T = torque given off at the pulley in pound feet, E supply voltage,
fn = / =
no-load armature current in amperes, and armature current when torque is yielded.
166
electrical
useful
:
power input
hence,
The useful power can be expressed as the difference between the power input and the losses. Now at no load, when there is no useful power output, the following relations exist
:
EIn -f
and
<Ksh
^- = power
in the
input,
I^Ra+s
=P =
r
power
coils.
the windage, the foucault current, and the hysteresis losses to be constant and the same as at no load, we have for their value a constant loss = the
Assuming the
friction,
the variable
loss.
Hence,
The
where
constant loss
= Pf = EIn + P sh
P'
P =
sh
^^sh
The
will therefore
be
El + PA
In a shunt motor only
;
Ra +
e
hence,
I =sh
In a series motor
P =
hence,
MOTORS.
In the
first
I6 7
of these
value of
/ which
we have
sh }
(EI+P
(E
-2S
a+s)
- (EI-P -I* f
sh
a+8 )E
dl
whence
EI+P
,
_ =
o,
"
"
E*
E'
Fig. 129 gives a set of curves indicating the performance of a motor whose fixed losses are large. Fig. 130
Fixed/Losses
in
Shunt
and
hysteresis.
Pouter
Input
Fig. 129.
gives a set of curves for an exactly similar machine save that the fixed losses are smaller. They might be considered as taken from the same machine as the first, but
oiled,
The
difference
in
the efficiency
curves
noticeable.
i68
Abscissae in
cases represent
power
input.
The
ordi-
nate of
load.
P at
The
The
any
constant ordinate of
fixed
losses,
consumed by the
loads.
ordinates of
V,
Pouter Input
Fig. 130.
law
PR a+sy
represented by the
difference between
Fat
that load.
The
the power input and the losses gives the useful power, which is represented by the difference of the ordinates of
P and
V.
The
power
^^
curves of the two machines, it is seen that to get a high efficiency at full load the variable loss must be kept small, while to obtain a good efficiency at small loads, the fixed
MOTORS.
losses
169
of the efficiency
must be made
small.
The shape
by a proper adjustment of the relation which exists between the fixed and the variable
controlled
losses.
curve can be
When the armature of a motor no counter E.M.F.; and at the instant of closing the circuit a destructive current would flow if a resistance were not first inserted in the circuit, except in the
92.
Starting Rheostats
is
at rest there is
moments
case of very small motors whose armatures have small of inertia. As the speed increases the resistance
can be lessened without allowing too severe a current to flow, and when full speed is obtained the resistance must
all
loss.
may be generated from the start, the shunt field circuit must first of all be closed. These ends are obtained by the
use of a starting-box or rheostat, the wiring of the ordinary
type of which
131.
tact
Its
arm pivoted
at
its
center,
and revolving through almost 1 80, making various contacts. This arm is connected to one
terminal of the supply as shown.
As
end
it
is
it
of
Then the
a
other
end
coils
makes
contact
which closes
series
the armature
and
through the
of
maximum
the
resistance
the
starting-box.
As
the
Shunt
speed increases,
revolving
p^
,3,
is
made
by
piece, until
is
finally all
run-
ning independent of the starting rheostat. Fig. 132 shows such a starting-box as made by the Crocker Wheeler Company. The brass contact points
the top of an
open-work cast-iron box which contains the resistances in the form of spiral coils of bare wire. The
wire
is
German
one of
the
special iron
A
have
Fig. 132.
shunt
its
motor
may
coils
armature
destroyed by an excessive rush of current resulting from a dropping or ceasing altogether of the supply voltage followed by a sudden renewal
after the speed of the
armature has
fallen.
These condi-
through accidents to mains or because of a too heavy load on mains of insufficient cross-section. An armature may also be burned out by an excessive curtions
may
arise
rent due to overloading the motor. The resulting lowering of its speed is accompanied by a corresponding lowering
of the counter
E.M.F.
which might result from some cross or other accident might cause a destructive rush of current. To meet these conditions, starting rheostats are often
MOTORS.
I/I
Release Magnet)
Fig. 133-
Fig. 134.
172
Some have both attachments, but it is modern practice to remove the overload attachment from the starting-box and Fig. 133 is a diagram of the put it on the switchboard.
Armature
Details of Release
Magnet
e
Fig. 135-
wiring of a starting rheostat for a shunt motor with automatic release and low-voltage attachment. Fig. 1 34 gives When the startinga front view of this same instrument.
MOTORS.
handle
is
173
field circuit
it
placed in the "on" position, the magnet in the holds it there, although a spring tends to throw
back.
If
field
and magnet becomes weak, the magnet is no longer able to " detain the handle, and the spring throws it to the " off position, where it stays until the motor is again turned on
Fig. 136.
ments.
The former
is
similar to the
while the overload attachment consists of a magnet in the armature circuit which on overload becomes strong enough
to attract to itself a pivoted iron arm supplied at its end with a device which short circuits the field current around
174
to
let
the
93.
shunt
and having the motor, having a small a and a large sh field well saturated, will give a fairly constant speed under all loads, if supplied from a constant pressure circuit.
,
This
is
in
Fig.
37,
a bipolar, shunt-wound,
shunt
started cold
which
gradual
field
heating
of
the
resistance.
& TORQUE CURVES
SIZE IOC. 230V. BI-POLAR SHdNT MOTOR CROCKER-WHEELER COMPANY
This allows
to
EFFICIENCY, SPEED
less
current
.
flow
in
13
magnetic
Therefore
flux
is
less.
the
armature
must rotate
erate the
faster to gen-
as explained in
89.
textile
In silk-mills and other Compound- Wound Motors factories where any slight variation in the speed affects the character of the manufactured product, com94.
pound motors give a satisfactorily constant speed. The object of the compounding coils is to weaken the flux in
the armature as the load increases.
If,
at a given load,
MOTORS.
would
fall
175
a certain per cent of the speed at no load, then the armature flux must be lessened by the same percentage
bring the speed up to its original value. the number of series turns, account must calculating taken of the fact of
in order to
In be
magnetic
since
coils
leakage,
regulating the field
the
are on
compoundare used
wound motors
order
to
llu_
Fig.
i 3 s.
$&$
obtain
large
starting
torque.
of
The
series
influence
coils is
the
attained.
95.
field circuit of a shunt motor can be used to vary the An increase speed of the motor at will, as in Fig. 138.
of the
coils.
resistance
will
field
As
it will require a resistance of some considerable size, say twice as large as the field resistance, to cut the current down enough to materially reduce the Motors of older make seldom flux and increase the speed.
had
fields
There-
fore they are very susceptible to the slightest change of If the demagnetizing resistance in their field circuits.
large,
it is
possible for a
motor
This
is
due
Speed Regulation by Series Resistances. The speed of a motor on a constant pressure circuit can easily be varied over a wide range, Series from rest to full speed, by
96.
ff.
T
Source
in series
of this
method
is
not to
for
ex-
be
advised
save
QJMMiU
Field Coils
ergy.
The 7 2
regulating
loss in
the
is
resistance
Fig- 139-
sometimes considerably more than the power actually used. Fig. 139 shows the
wiring for this style of regulation.
97.
of
This
system
and
equipments requiring a
of
and precision
stoppage.
is Fig. 140 shows the arrangement of such a system. excited all the time from a motor whose field is separately G is a dynamo which a source of constant potential, E.
generates power for the armature of motor M. The armature of the dynamo G is maintained at approximately constant speed by the prime mover S, which may be a steam
The
from
generator
is
E and
controlled
MOTORS.
177
When
it is
weakly excited by moving the controller so generator This that a high resistance is in circuit with the field.
is
to send current of low potential to the armature of the motor M. The latter then starts to move
causes the
dynamo
slowly.
To
more
resistance
is
cut
The
Since the power represented by it the motor's speed. the current required to excite the field of G is at most
dDJ
Fig. 140.
but a small fraction of the useful power given out by the 2 loss in the resistance C is very much less motor, the 7 than would be the loss in a series regulating resistance as
It is
first cost of this system is offset repairs, since violent stresses and
operate, without the intervention of belting or reducing Slow speed is also of advantage where absence of gears.
many stops and starts are to Slow speed can always be obtained from an but it is generally expensive, since the electric motor of motors as well as of dynamos is high. Innatural speed crease of magnetic flux and increase of armature diameter
jarring
is
desired or where
be made.
is
The
increase of
ma-
:::
Fig. 141.
terial increases
both the
first
cost
operation.
The power
multiplied
of a
motor
is
its
torque or turning
;
moment
by the number
of revolutions
MOTORS.
same output
ment.
of work,
179
many
revolutions as
another must have twice the turning moThese conditions make it imperative that the ma-
terials of construction,
current densities respectively, in In general order to economize in first cost and weight.
of low-
speed
with
motors
those
of
do
not
compare
favorably
motors
current
2
EFFICIENCY AT VARIOUS 'SPEEDS OF SIZE 2-100 MOTOR.
motor
tion.
will furnish
CROCKER-WHEELER
ELECTRIC CO. AMPERE. N. J.
minute, 4
at
200 R. horse-power and the quotient P.M., of its speed per minute
by its power
full
is
load horseto
100
200
300
10J
600
600
Fig. 142.
equal
the
50.
constant
quantity
Its
efficiency
increases
as the
142.
For cranes, elevators, and hoists, 99. Brake Motors. where it is necessary to hold the load after raising it, and for looms and printing-presses, where it is important to
secure a sudden and accurate stop instead of a gradual slowing down, it is desirable to use motors with a brake
attachment.
i8o
machine, or too late and allow the load to an automatic brake is desirable.
Fig.
143 shows the construction used by the Crocker Wheeler Company. One of the pole pieces is pivoted at its base, and thus has a slight motion to or from the armature.
coil
It is
spring, and
normally held from the armature by a heavy in this position tightens the brake band.
The moment
field
coils,
that current is allowed to pass through the the poles attract each other, overcoming the
OFF
Fig. 143.
resistance of the spring, and the brake band is thus loosened. The spring and band may be adjusted to allow a few revolutions before stopping, or the
armature
may be clamped
if
is
turned
off.
may be
the friction
on the free end of the brake against the drum tightens the whole brake, thus increasing its effect. This action is
MOTORS.
only obtained the fixed end.
181
of the
drum
is
away from
To
brake
is
employed.
This
is
op-
erated by the
movement
of
one
pole piece as before, but the ends of the brake band are attached
to a
may become
Fig.
This construction
shown diagrammaticallyin
44.
When
the brake
is
applied,
the friction
causes
the whole
until the sliding link attached to
is
band
to follow the
drum
the band,
is
tightened
by the
ers
on one of the
145
is
imprac-
I45 .
182
chines
it
by a pivot
is
joint
undesirable to interrupt the magnetic circuit hence a solenoid brake is employed. This
;
simply a
in
ally
spring actuated friction brake kept normengagement. On current being supplied to the
The
opera-
clearly seen
Fig. 146.
An
type of automatic brake is that consumes electrical energy all the time that the machine
objection to
this
it
is
in motion.
recording watt-hour meter, Fig. 147, is coming into extensive use, both as a station instrument and as a measurer of the quantity of energy
loo. Recording Meters.
The
adjusted
compound-wound motor,
circuit.
magnetic
When
MOTORS.
of the watts or
183
power
is
registered,
by means
of a train of
such
meter are
of
the
supply.
The
a
field
coils are
in series with
the
service,
giving
strength proportional to
current,
is
the
Fig. 147.
effort
proportional to the product of the two or to the watts The shunt field coils are added to compensate supplied.
for the friction of the
moving
parts.
rent
is
always
flowing in
Fig. 148.
shunt
field coils,
the motor
is
184
If it wires the armature almost, but not quite, moves. were not for this constant excitation, a small, though continuous, current could be drawn off the mains without
operating the recording mechanism because of its friction. To control the speed a copper disk is mounted on the
armature shaft and between the poles of two or more When the adjustable and permanent horseshoe magnets.
armature revolves, Foucault currents are set up in this By moving the plate, and cause the proper retardation. of these horseshoe magnets from the center to the poles
circumference of the disk, a variation of about 16 per cent in the speed for a given watt consumption can be effected.
Advantage
ments.
is
in adjusting
the instru-
When the instrument carefully protected from dust. is in a position where it is subject to jars or vibrations that reduce the friction of standing to such a point that
the constant excitation causes the armature to revolve a
little,
the machine
is
said to "creep."
The remedy
is
to
mount on a rubber or other non -vibrating' reduce the number of shunt field turns.
base, or to
SERIES MOTORS.
185
CHAPTER
X.
SERIES MOTORS.
101 .
Series Motors.
is
a heavy current at a very low speed, a series-wound machine is far superior to one that is shunt-wound. For work that requires good effort at widely
starting, that
when
there
different
is
particularly adapted.
electric
hoists,
For
where a good effort A series-wound machine is required at a varying speeds. can be used on either a constant current circuit or on a conbut a series motor is seldom run on stant potential circuit
in all other places
;
and
a constant potential circuit unless it is directly or very solidly coupled with its load, as in the case, for instance,
of
a
if
railroad
motor.
If
connected by means of a
slip off,
belt,
and
race and
itself
damage might result. This difficulty does not when series motors are used on a constant
As
constant pressure the armature speed of a series motor will increase circuit, until it reaches a value where the counter E.M.F. cuts
in the case
shunt
motor, on
86
equal to the
sum
mechanical power.
sufficient to
compensate for a
motors.
speed on removal of the load, as in the case with shunt It in this manner increases the counter E.M.F.
resulting decrease of current results, however, in a
The
to
Thus a
load
400 g
o
Ul
motor.
300 200 1
wound
relations
mill
motor,
exist
the
be-
which
10
SO
30
40
50
60
70
tween speed, current, and useful torque (turning moment) are shown
149.
in
j?ig.
149.
Fig.
There
is
also given
a curve of the efficiency of the machine including gearIt is evident that if, while the motor is at rest, ing.
the circuit be closed, an enormous rush of current would Destructive heating occur, giving an enormous torque.
result.
To
prevent damage
therefore necessary, in the operation of these motors, insert a series resistance at the start which may be cut to
is
out after the speed has risen enough to give a sufficient In practice controllers are used as decounter E.M.F.
scribed later.
SERIES MOTORS.
103.
series
187
Railroad Motors
Experience has
shown
that
550
volts, furnish
motors operating on a constant potential circuit of a very satisfactory motive power for the
propulsion of trolley street-cars and electric railroad motorAt the time of this writing there are nearly two cars.
million horse-power of street-car motors in service in this
country.
The
and
is
reasonably
many
must be mechanically
will
When
satisfactor-
geared to the wheel axle, the motor can be suspended by springs on one side only, the other side being of necesRailway motors are sity mounted directly on the axle.
ily
The
series resistance is often cut out rapidly before the car has
an opportunity to accelerate. As a result there is an enormous current and torque with little speed. This severely
strains the
motor and
is
armature windings.
The
mud, the water and the slush through which cars must often run. Furthermore a railway motor should permit of quick, convenient, and accurate alignment of parts and adjustment of the intermediate driving mechanism. The method of suspending the motors from the trucks
is
In practice four a matter of considerable importance. styles of suspension are used, viz., the side bar, the cradle,
In every case one the nose, and the yoke suspensions. end of the motor frame contains bearings which run on
188
SERIES MOTORS.
189
190
the wheel axle and keep the pitch circle of the armature shaft pinion always tangent to the pitch circle of the gear which is mounted on the axle. The side-bar suspension,
shown in Fig. 150, consists of two parallel side-bars which are mounted on the truck through heavy springs, and
which support the motor
in the line of its center of gravity.
motor-axle bearings are thus relieved of the weight of the motor, and the latter is held without undue strains.
The
Fig. i53.
The
cradle suspension, Fig. 151, is very similar to the side the difference being that the two side bars are replaced bar,
by one U-shaped piece. This, at its curved end, flexibly on a part of the truck frame which
is
mounted
turn
is
in
springs.
The nose
its
suspencenter of
weight
is
is
axle
bearings.
The
rest
mounted member
of the truck
SERIES MOTORS.
cast in the
191
motor frame.
all,
The yoke
dispensed with and the spring-supported of the truck is bolted rigidly to the motor frame.
is
house Company, the yoke or nose by the General Electric Company. The size or style of truck frequently requires a
particular type of suspension.
Fig. 154-
GE-6/ railway motor, made by the General Electric Company, is shown in Figs. 153 and 154. This machine will develop 38 horse-power when operated on a 5<DO-volt circuit without heating more than 75 C. above the sur-
The magnet rounding atmosphere after one hour's run. frame is hexagonal, with rounded corners, and is cast in
two pieces from
soft steel of high permeability. The are hinged together so that the lower part may be parts
192
swung down
The
up-
per part has cast on it two lugs, shown clearly in Fig. 153, Nose pierced with two holes each for bolting to the yoke. covered opening however, be substituted. suspension can,
over the commutator permits removal of the brushes without disturbing the rest of the machine. The bearings,
Fig. 155-
rings or shells, with Babbitt metal swaged into them, and are arranged for lubrication by both oil and grease. The
oil is
by
felt
oil-
The grease is fed through a slotted opening in the wells. top of each bearing from a grease-box directly over each bearing, and means is provided for the passage of the
The lubricant from the bearing after it has been used. armature bearings are 3" x 8" at the pinion end and 2f" x
SERIES MOTORS.
193
6\" at the commutator end. The motor-axle bearings are The pole pieces are built of soft iron lameach 8" long.
and are securely bolted into The coils are spool wound, place on the magnet frame. and are held in place by steel flanges. These magnetically
inations,
riveted
together,
imperfect constructions are rendered necessary by severe service the machine is expected to stand.
the
is built up of thin, soft iron laminations, and keyed to the shaft. At each end is a castjapanned,
The armature
keyed to the
shaft.
The
core
is
hollow,
by
is
air
which enters
at the pinion
left
in
the
1 1 1
The winding
of the series
drum
type,
being used, which are connected to a commutator of The number of turns to a coil depends segments.
class
upon the
coils are
of service the
motor
is
to render.
The
made up
rately
The
secured in place by tinned steel wire bands held by chips and soldered together. Where the windings cross the ends of the core, they are protected by canvas.
coils are firmly
On the pinion end, a projecting flange protects the windThe brushes slide ings from injury by careless handling. in finished ways in a brass brush holder, and radially
are held in contact by independent pressure fingers. All the leads to the motor pass through rubber-bushed holes
in
fit
The pinion has a taper the front of the magnet frame. on the armature shaft. It, as also the gear on the axle,
made
of steel,
of 4^" face and 3" pitch. on a truck with the ordinary 33properly inch wheels, there is 4-J-" clearance between the bottom of the motor and the top of the rails. The shapes of the
is
When mounted
194
exploded
Fig. 156.
motor for railway service, very similar in design to one just described, is No. 49, made by the Westingthe house Electric and Manufacturing Company. This motor,
shown
in
Fig.
hinged to
mutator.
open
plane through
its
center,
The upper half is cast with lugs for side-bar or cradle suspension, and also with a lug for nose suspension. The pole pieces are of laminated soft iron, are four in
number, and are secured to the frame by having the latter The lathe-wound field coils are secured cast around them.
on the pole pieces by brass castings, which are bolted to the frame.
The armature is of the slotted drum type, having a laminated core with three ventilation passages parallel to The coils are wound on formers, insulated in the shaft.
sets of two,
is
and then applied to the core. This armature constructed as light and as small in diameter as is pracfor
ticable,
of
decreased
centrifugal
strain
on the armature
stopping the car. energy is stored in the armature and other revolving parts, as in a fly-wheel and when the car is stopped, this energy
parts in
;
wasted, and causes wear and tear on the pinions and In street-car service, where stops are frequent, bearings.
is
by no means inconsiderable. Hence the armature of a street-railway motor should not be built with a great fly-wheel capacity. The high speed
this loss
and
this
wear
is
of car-motor armatures makes the operating expenses for car acceleration and retardation considerable.
SERIES MOTORS.
195
196
SERIES MOTORS.
104.
197
It is general practice to equip each Controllers. car with at least two motors, and to regulate trolley the speed of the car in the following manner First, the
:
in series.
The
resistance is then cut out step by step until the two motors are operating in series on 500 volts. Since, with all the
'
NOTCH
ROUE *
^AW
1
R2
w,
m ow ow^
.
MOTOR
'
MOTOR
2.
R3
ARMA
F 'E<->
ARMA.
FIELD
CK
RUNNING).
NOTCH
RUNNING),
NOTCH
^^A^WVF^VV^
NOTCH
RUNNING UNNING)
NOTCH
i*
Fig. 158.
is
no unnecessary I^R
loss, this is
running connection, and the controlling mechanism To further increase said to be upon a running point.
the speed, the motors are placed in parallel with a resistance in series with both. This resistance is then cut out
step by step until the motors are each operating on 500 volts. This, again, constitutes a running connection.
further change
is
198
out.
field flux,
and causes a
E.M.F.
four running On heavy cars, such as are used in elevated connections. or inter-urban service, four motors are used on railway
car governed in this
way has
each
In this case, the motors are governed in two series-parallel combinations, as if there were two separate
car.
The connections for a cars governed by one controller. two-motor car having nine speeds, a three-part series resistance, and a field-shunt resistance, are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 158.
The
Each different operates a handle on top of a controller. combination is called a point or a notch. pointer affixed to the controller handle indicates at what notch the car is
A con-
Fig.
almost invariably placed at each end of the car. 159 shows the interior of a General Electric
The wires Company's k-io series parallel controller. from the trolley, from the fields, from the armature, and from the different terminals of the series and shunt resistances are brought
connecting-board
motor.
in
On
an injured motor without interfering with the operation of the other motor or motors. From the connecting-board conductors are
to cut out
Mounted on an run to terminals, called fingers or wipes. which may be revolved by the coninsulating cylinder,
troller handle, are insulated contact pieces,
which
at various
SERIES MOTORS.
199
angular positions of the cylinder make electrical connections between various wipes, and give the proper con" notches." nections for the various "points" or
Fig. 159.
smaller cylinder connected to a reversing-lever, is situated to the right of the main cylinder. This has contact pieces which are arranged so as to enable the motorman to re-
them out
entirely.
200
trolling handle is in such a position that connection with The controlling handle also cannot the trolley is broken.
to
be moved, if the reversing handle is not properly set either go forward or to go backward. The reversing handle
cannot be removed from the controller, save when the smaller cylinder is in the position that cuts out both motors.
circuit of
upon breaking a the contact pieces and wipes are sepa500 rated from adjacent ones by strips of insulating material
serious arcs are liable to develop
volts,
As
and which fold into place when the cover is closed. These The power are to be seen at the right of the figure. should never be turned off by a slow reverse movement of
the controller handle, as
destructive
arcs are
liable
to
To lessen the speed of a car, occur upon a slow break. the power should be completely and suddenly shut off. Before the car has slackened its speed too much the conThe troller handle can be brought up to the proper point.
which form upon disconnection pretty effectively blown out by the
arcs,
at
field
an electro-
magnet whose
right.
coil is
105.
biles
For
electric
automo-
invariably employed.
storage battery of
of
40
or
44
cells is
power
The
In a convenient and economical means of speed control. the case of a single motor, for the first controller notch, the cells
may be
SERIES MOTORS.
nected in
parallel.
2OI
other series parallel combinations, and finally the last and highest speed notch would correspond to a connection of
all
the cells in
series.
By
this
arrangement one
cell is
as any other, and they are discharged at As the voltage supplied to the motor is rates. equal varied without recourse to a series regulating resistance,
used just as
much
there
is
no useless I^R
speed.
loss in starting or
running at less
than
full
Often a series
used.
that each
tion
The advantage of using two motors on an automobile is may drive a wheel, allowing independent rotaon turning curves, while
of differential gear
if one motor only is used must be employed to allow But the efficiency of one motor is in for sharp turns. than the efficiency of two motors of half general greater the power, and the gain in efficiency by using one motor more than balances the cost and complication of a differ-
some form
ential gear.
question of efficiency in these motors is of great importance, for practice has shown that it is profitable to
The
purchase
cent increase of motor weight. This is because the ratio of the battery weight to the motor weight is such that a
decrease of
duces
its
per cent in the capacity of the battery reweight more than 10 per cent of the motor
i
Since lightness is a prime object, only the very weight. best materials can enter into the construction of a successful automobile motor.
The magnetic
circuit
must be
202
bility to
tion.
not infrequently used in the shaft bearings, but their liawear and the consequent regrinding is an objec-
general practice to rate these motors at 75 volts, or 37 \ volts if two are used. Since 40 or 44 cells of battery in series can fall to 75 volts without injury, this is the lowest
It is
pressure on which the motors will be expected to run for any length of time at full speed. Hence this voltage is used as the basis for rating. For the best motors the
rating
is
or
60
C. on an in-
definite run.
100 per cent overload for half an hour, 150 per cent for ten minutes, and a momentary overload of 400 or 500 without overheating
will carry
motor so rated
or
damage
to the insulation.
The
battery of
It
40
or
44
cells is well
bile purposes.
can conveniently be
required capacity, and it may be charged from any 1 1 5volt direct current, incandescent lighting circuit with very little resistance in series and hence a small I^R loss.
of these
motors
is
somewhat low
and the
liability
Fig.
biles
The pole pieces, also made shape and made of cast steel. of cast steel, are fastened to the frame by bolts and
steady pins.
The armature
is
coils
SERIES MOTORS.
sets of brushes.
203
the existence of a window in the end plate. pinion which is mounted upon the armature shaft meshes with
an inside gear placed upon the wheel of the recess in the exterior of the magnet frame is
ceive
vehicle.
fitted to re-
some
fastening to this
the vehicle.
volts,
Clamps for frame are provided to suit the character of The motor is intended to be operated on 75
and
is
Fig. 160.
revolutions per minute. Its weight is 142 Ibs., and it has an efficiency of 79^ per cent at full load. At 100 per cent over-load it has an efficiency of 76^ per cent, and at
Mill Motors.
mill
work
re-
quiring great torque at low speed, reversibility, and wide variation of speed, the series-wound motor is well adapted.
Since mill motors are to be used in places where dust, grit, and small particles of metal are apt to be floating in
the
air, it is
204
SERIES MOTORS.
205
206
that they be inclosed after the fashion of railway motors. Mill motors differ from shunt-wound machines in that they
are capable of giving a turning-power, when slowed down or started from rest, many times as great as that given
at full speed.
Fig. 161
mill motor,
is
and Fig.
It
a bipolar
drum
armature machine, designed for about 800 R.P.M., and giving without overheating an intermittent horse-power of
14 or a continuous horse-power of
It is
5.
rated in this way, since frequent stops and starts are expected in the use of such a motor. The
hotter a motor gets during an interval of use the
off
more
it
will cool
a mill motor heats up much more rapidly and severely than does an
open motor where the air circulates around the fields and the armature.
Since these motors are reversible the brushes can have no lead.
Sparkless running
is
accomplished
by a long
wound
Fig. 163.
and the speed is reduced correhence commutation is readily effected. spondingly, These motors are controlled by a variable series resistance, the various connections being made in a controller, such as is shown in Fig. 163. The circuits are made by contact pieces
on a cylinder coming
in contact
with fingers or
SERIES MOTORS
2O/
wipers which are mounted on a board forming the back of the controller. The controller illustrated is also a reverser.
in either direction
by moving the
208
CHAPTER
XI.
DYNAMOTORS, MOTOR-GENERATORS,
AND BOOSTERS.
107. Dynamotors. dynamotor is a transforming device combining both motor and generator action in one magnetic field, with two armatures or with an armature
They are generally suphaving two separate windings. plied with a commutator at each end, which are connected
to the
armature
Either winding of the respectively. be used as a motor winding, and the other may These machines occupy the same as the dynamo winding.
two windings
is occupied That is, transformers in alternating current practice. by enable one to take electrical energy from a system they of supply at one voltage, and deliver it at another voltage
to a circuit
ever,
where
it is
to be utilized.
They
cannot, how-
As the currents in the efficiency as a transformer does. armatures flow in opposite directions, and' the machines two
are so designed as to have practically the same number of armature ampere turns when in operation, there is practically
no armature reaction.
The
field,
therefore,
is
not
distorted so as to require a shifting of the brushes, nor is there sparking present as a result of a change of load.
which
These machines are more efficient than motor generators, will be described later, as they have but a single
DYNAMOTORS.
field.
209
They cannot be compounded so as to yield a conE.M.F. at the dynamo end. A cumulative series coil would tend to raise the E.M.F. at the dynamo end, but it would lower the speed of the armature as a motor
stant
by a corresponding amount.
The Bullock Teaser System. Dynamotors are used extensively by the Bullock Electric Manufacturing
1 08.
Teaser system of motor-speed This system is used in driving large printingpresses from supply circuits, which are at the same time used for lighting and other purposes. Large printing-
Company
in their so-called
control.
moments
of inertia.
and possess very These large machines require torque on the part of the motor to start
many
sets of gears,
it is
as
is
much
called
upon to produce
at full
Now, the torque which is exerted by a motor is dependent upon the current which flows through its armaspeed at which this torque is applied is As dependent upon the impressed electromotive force. the current, which is required to produce the normal runture, while the
ning torque
ble that
is
some
The employed to avoid the excessive starting current. Teaser system accomplishes this by making use of the dynamotor. The motor winding is designed for five times
the electromotive force of the
is
dynamo winding. Its field excited directly from the supply mains. The winding brush of the motor side is connected with the negative
positive brush
of the
dynamo
side.
2IO
At starting, the main motor, ance to the supply mains. which drives the press and which is generally a cumulatively compound-wound motor, is supplied with current from the dynamo end of the dynamotor. The voltage with which it is supplied is somewhat less than one-fifth that of the main supply, depending upon the magnitude
This low
voltage permits of the application of a proper amount of Furthermore, the drain of current torque at a low speed. from the supply mains is but about one-fifth that which
passes through the main motor. By manipulating the dynamo regulating resistance, the electromotive force supplied to the
the speed. The highest speed of the main motor which can be attained by this arrangement is such, that, when attained, the mois
main motor
raised,
and with
it
tor's connections
may be
DYNAMOTORS.
211
The
165,
ment of the apparatus is shown amount of current which is taken by the main motor as compared with the amount of current which is drawn
from the supply mains
presented in Fig. 164.
gulation
of
is re-
in
Fig.
arrangeand the
AMAMAA/VV\
Re-
the
of
resistances
and changes
aid
of
connection
controller.
The
/XAAAAA/WJ
by the
Fig. 165.
man
has at his
is
command
means
which
not complicated.
for Electro-Deposition of Metals.
it
109.
Dynamotors
In
in-
is
common
to
troduce a dynamotor, whose two armature circuits are exactly similar, and under ordinary excitation give 5 or 10
brushes, collecting devices, and The leads are generleads are of necessity quite massive. be placed in ally so arranged that the two armatures may
volts.
The commutators,
series with
of platers
exciting.
makes
It
is
The low voltage each other, or in multiple. it impracticable to have a machine self-
practice in cities to excite these machines from no-volt lighting circuits, with a regulating
common
rheostat
whose resistance
is
of
such a magnitude as to
212
permit of the variation of the voltage of the machine over a range of 25 per cent of its full-load value. Fig. 166 shows a dynamotor constructed by the Eddy Electric
Manufacturing Company for the electro-deposition of copEach armature winding gives 10 volts and 4,500 per.
tig.
amperes.
pulley at
It is designed to be belt -driven through a large small pulley one end of the armature shaft.
upon the other end is for the purpose of receiving a belt connected with a small separate exciter. The large split
clamps connected with the leads are for the reception of
the terminals of the main conductors.
is
a dynamotor having a single field which is excited from a 22O-volt circuit, and a single armature core upon which is
wound two
distinct
1 1
o-volt
armatures.
One armature
DYNAMOTORS.
has
its
213
commutator on one end of the shaft and the other The machine is used in connection with a 22O-volt generator, to enable one to use it for supplying
at the other end.
tem.
energy to a three-wire, no-volt, incandescent lighting sysThe principle of its action can be seen from an
inspection of Fig. 167.
When
the system
is
unbalanced,
Fig. 167.
that side which has the smaller load has the lesser drop, The and therefore the higher difference of potential.
armature winding of the dynamotor which is connected with that side acts as a motor, runs the armature, and
causes the other armature winding to act as a generator in Obviraising the pressure of the heavier loaded side.
ously the employment of this system can, in result in a considerable saving of copper.
some
cases,
dynaThe motor motors (Fig. 168) for use in telegraphic work. is designed to be supplied with electrical energy from street service mains, or from the house-lighting mains in the
case of isolated plants.
The Crocker
line of
The
214
of different machines. These machines are designed to take the place of batteries of a large number of gravity cells such as were used, in large quantities, a few years ago. The cost of operation of a dynamotor for this service is
it
is
the
machine occupies
is
but
79
Fig. 168.
They
on the ground
of cleanliness.
Their
reliability,
when
mains
supplied
is
by
electric
city service
equal to that of the cells. The same cannot be said in the case of small towns. The telephone companies
are also rapidly adopting the dynamotor for the purpose
of charging storage cells. With some forms, the charging of the cells can go on continuously, they being at the same
DYNAMOTORS.
215
time used for telephone purposes. Dynamotors also furnish a convenient and satisfactory means of heating Cautery knives take from 3 surgeons' electro-cauteries.
to 8
1
to
amperes at 5 volts, while dome cauteries take from 20 amperes at the same voltage.
Motor-Generators.
together.
They have
Fig. 169.
dynamo armature can be made to assume almost any by means of a resistance placed in
field-winding and capable of variation. can furthermore, besides being separately excited,
with
its
They
They
are
used
the Ward-Leonard system of motor which was described in paragraph 97. They speed control, In this case are also used for charging storage batteries.
2l6
they are almost always shunt wound. They are also used in electro-plating establishments. In this case they are
separately excited, as the voltage generally employed in such places is too small to give satisfactory self-excitation.
For general laboratory work on tests which require large current at a low voltage or a small current at a high voltage, motor generators are of inestimable value.
113.
Boosters
A booster
its
is
change voltage, and may be driven either an electric motor, or otherwise. In the former case it is a by motor-booster. This machine is used very extensively on Edison three-wire incandescent lighting systems which
in a circuit to
to feeding-points at a great distance, if supplied by current from the same bus bars as shorter feeders, will have too
small a difference of potential at the feeding-points to give booster with its field and armature satisfactory service.
windings
add
magnitude proportional to the current flowing in the feeder, that is, as the current increases the field excitation will increase and with it the
E.M.F.
to the feeder
which
in
The machine may, be so designed as to just compensate for any therefore, drop which is due to the resistance of the feeders and to
E.M.F. produced by the armature.
the current flowing through them. As all the current of the feeder must pass through the booster armature, the collecting devices must be massive and must be designed to carry these heavy currents. The rating of a booster is of course
determined by the voltage which it produces, and the total current which passes through it and the feeders. Boosters
are also used in the central stations of trolley companies to
DYNAMOTORS.
2I/
raise the voltage which is supplied to the feeders connected with distant sections of the line. They are also being in-
troduced in
office
buildings in connection
with electric
elevator service.
When
from the same generators as the lights and fans in an office building they give to the generators what is called a lumpy
load.
The
excessive currents
demanded by the
elevator
motors on starting produce wide fluctuations of voltage in A booster inserted in these mains may be the mains.
made
to add
occasions.
218
CHAPTER
XII.
MANAGEMENT OF MACHINES.
114.
In general a dynamo is much more efficient when operated at its full load than when operated at one-half or one-quarter
load.
rule, It is usual to install in central stations,
which, as a
electrical
energy
number
of smaller units
enough to supply the total By this means any load can be handled by a energy. machine or a number of machines all operating at about their
unit
large
maximum
of efficiency.
It is well, therefore, to
consider
the methods of combining two or more machines on one The simplest and most usual method of connecting load.
dynamos
stations.
is
Here a number
1
on one pair of bus bars. The figure shows shunt machines with hand The various external circuits are connected in regulators. to the bus bars. This practice is frequently parallel
are arranged as in Fig.
modified by separating those machines which supply the circuits that deliver at the more distant points from those that operate the shorter circuits. This is because the maintaining of a constant and uniform pressure at all distributing points requires a higher pressure on the station ends of
When
a machine
MANAGEMENT OF MACHINES.
is
219
tion,
field magnetization the machine gives the same pressure is then adjusted as exists between the bus bars, and the main switch is then
first
till
H-BUS
which puts the machine in circuit. The proper pressure at which to throw in the new machine may be
closed,
roughly determined by comparing the relative brightness of its pilot lamp with that of the lamps operating on the
circuit.
m ic
is
to
of a
ter-
+ BUS
the
one across
the
bus bars.
The most
meter."
convenient
way
is
Fig. 171.
two forms, the zero galvanometer and the differential galvanometer. The zero galvanometer, shown with connections in
Fig.
171,
has a single
coil
the pressure of the machine the bus bars a current will flow one
When
is
220
is
the needle will be correspondingly deflected. When there no deflection, the machine may be thrown into circuit.
is
This instrument
it
requires that
one terminal of the machine be permanently connected to a bus, which is not always desirable. The differential galvanometer, Fig. 172, has two high resistance coils, one in shunt across the bus bars, and one in shunt across the
machine terminals.
equal pressures are impressed on each of the
coils,
When
___^
I
BUS
they,
by
their differ-
but
when one
more
pres-
subject to
more
costly
and more
Fig. 172.
complex than the last, but it has the advantage that a twopole switch may be used to cut in or out the machine.
When
parallel,
it
is
expected that they will all be kept at the same pressure. If they are not, no serious damage is likely to occur, since
the lower pressure machine merely fails to take share of the load. If the pressure of one machine low that it is overpowered and run as a motor,
its full
falls
still
so
no
damage
will
result, save
same whether
it
be desired to regulate a number of machines together by one regulator, it may be accomplished by bringing the
positive ends of the field coils to one side of the regulator
MANAGEMENT OF MACHINES.
221
Shunt machines may be operated in series by connecting the positive brush of one machine to the negative brush of the next, and connecting the extreme outside brushes with
the line wires.
When
this is
regulated separately to generate any portion of the pressure. If it be desired to regulate all the machines thus connected
uniformly and as a unit, the field coils of all the machines may be put in series with one regulating rheostat, and shunted across the extreme brushes of the set. In the
Edison three-wire system two ii5-volt direct-connected shunt machines are mounted on one engine shaft. The
Series-wound dynamos may be operated in series without any difficulty, though it is not customary to do so. Series generators are used almost exclusively on constant current (arc light) circuits, and it is usual to have as many
circuits,
enough
to operate that circuit alone. new form of Brush generator supplies several series circuits from its
terminals,
of them.
and regulates
If
it
for
all
be attempted to
If
Fig. 173-
the
machines
start
with
proper distribution of load among them and one does not generate
and, since
is
series
wound,
a decrease in load
222
The
until
the
machine
overpowered and
Since
when run
only remedy the magnetization in any one machine will remain the same as in the other machines, even though
field coils so that
its
pressure
falls
To
accomplish
must all be placed in parallel. This be done by means of an equalizer, which is a wire of may small resistance connected across one set of brushes, and by placing the fields in parallel, as shown in Fig. 1 74. Two
this the series fields
Fig. 174.
dynamos may be run in parallel without an equalizer by resorting to mutual excitation, that is, by letting the curseries
In this
case
if
falls
and
its
load thereis
compelling the
Series
to maintain
its
in parallel in practice,
its
introduced because of
application
compound-wound dynamos. The use of compound generators for constant pressure circuits is very common. Since these have series coils
they cannot be run in parallel without special arrange.
MANAGEMENT OF MACHINES.
ments.
It is
223
usual to
fit
The
two ma-
115.
Connections of
for
Motors
Combined
Output Any number of shunt motors may be placed in parallel across mains of a constant pressure, and their operation will be satisfactory
they be connected through proper ratios to one shaft. Shunt motors will operate in series on a constant pressure
circuit
when
off,
positively
if
con-
slips or
comes
that
motor
will race,
and rob
its
mates of their
is
This arrangement
not
common.
Series motors will operate satisfactorily on constant pressure circuits but when two or more such machines, that are arranged in parallel on a constant pressure circuit, are connected to one shaft an equalizing connection is
:
sometimes used.
Series
motors
in
series
on constant
pressure mains will operate satisfactorily, dividing up the total voltage between them according to the load each is
carrying.
If
it
at
equally they must be geared together so that each rotates the speed corresponding to its share of the voltage. Series motors only are used on constant current circuits.
of these
Any number
may be
224
circuit
series
A individually or connected to a common shaft. motor on a constant current circuit may be over-
it stops without harm, since a constant current flows at any speed. Compound-wound motors are coming into quite general use, and they are invariably operated on constant pressure
loaded until
circuits,
its
own
load.
In ordinary electric railroad practice, as has been stated, there are two series-wound motors to a car, operating
either in series or parallel, according to the position of the
controller
Each
handle, on a constant pressure of 500 volts. of these motors is geared to a separate pair of driv-
Since under ordinary conditions the rate of ing-wheels. rotation of the two motors is the same, the E.M.F. supplied to each
is
the same
is
when they
When
common they divide the work evenly. the pressure on each is 500 volts, and since the rotations are the same the currents will be the
in parallel
will
be divided evenly.
is
It
often occurs
when the power is applied at starting. This occurs when the motors are in series and the current
is
common
to the two.
of rotation of
it to generate a greater counter E.M.F., thus lowering the pressure acting on the rear
motor.
Thus more
front motor,
the friction
electric energy is consumed in the and the surplus of work turns into heat from between the slipping wheels and rails. When
the car gains such a velocity that the front wheels bite the rails, the work is again evenly distributed between the two It should be remembered that this occurs only motors.
when
MANAGEMENT OF MACHINES.
116.
225
Care and Operation of Machines In what follows on the operation of motors and dynamos, it is assumed
that the machine
is
upon to perform. For satisfactory operation, the machine must be connected with an appropriate circuit and one of the voltage or amperage Further it is for which the machine was designed. assumed that the mere mechanical details have been looked
capacity for the
is
work
called
to,
such as proper foundation, proper alignment with shafting, and good lubrication. Only electrical trouble will be
If trouble
treated.
at
once
In central generating stations, one of the most positive rules is not to shut down while any possible means is left to keep running.
In such plants there are always one or two units held in reserve, and one of these may be started and substituted
for a
machine developing a
may
be
shut
down and
its
fault remedied.
it
Sparking at the brushes is the most general trouble, and has more causes than any other. The brushes must
contact with the commutator, they must be
surface.
make good
true,
The commutator
is
must be
dust,
is
Any
sure to
cause sparking.
very thin layer of good oil, free from On a bipolar machine the brushes advantageous.
opposite, on a four pole exactly
must be diametrically
apart,
etc.
is
90
by actual measurement or by If counting the commutator bars between each brush. the brushes of one set are "staggered" they may cover too much armature circumference and cause sparking.
machine
either
226
proper point.
This
is
accomplished while the machine is in operation under its The rocker arm, which carries all the required load.
is moved carefully back and forth until the minimum sparking is found. Sometimes there is quite an arc of movement in which sparking is not The brushes should then be set at the center observed. of this arc, since heating occurs when the brushes are off
brush holders,
point of
the proper commutating point, even if sparks be not seen. Sparking may be due to fault in the commutator.
high-bar,
a low-bar,
or flat,
projecting mica,
rough or
grooved surface, eccentricity, or any condition of surface which causes the brushes to vibrate and lose contact with
If sparking the commutator will surely cause sparking. to go without correction, it will pit the commube allowed
tator
of surface be slight,
and aggravate these conditions. If the irregularity it may be cut down by sandpaper held in a block cut to fit the commutator. (never emery)
the surface be very bad, it must be cut down by a machine. small armature may be swung in a lathe but
If
must be left in its own bearings, and a tool held against the commutator by some special device. A true commutator may act eccentrically toward perfectly New the brushes because of wear in the shaft bearings.
a large one
bearings will remedy this fault. If a coil of the armature be short-circuited, periodic The coil is liable to burn out if the sparking may result.
machine
may
is not The short circuit immediately stopped. occur from breakdown of the insulation within the
;
armature, in which case rewinding is necessary or it may be caused by metal chips or the like at or near the com-
MANAGEMENT OF MACHINES.
When
a
coil is
22/
broken very violent sparking occurs, since half the armature current is broken every time the commutator bar connected to the broken coil passes from under
Such a break may occur within the armature, requiring rewinding but it is more likely to occur where If the coil end is attached to the commutator bar lug.
a brush.
;
the break be at this place, the wire needs but to be screwed or soldered to the lug and the machine is repaired.
If
is
E.M.F.
is not generated, and excessive current flows and The weakening of the fields may occur causes sparking. from a short circuit in the field coils or two or more
grounds between the field coils and the pole piece, or by a broken field circuit (shunt coils) which reduces the magnetism to almost zero.
In any case, unless the trouble
is
is
necessary.
Heating of machines
trouble.
The
the bearings depends on the flashing-point of the lubricant used, but a well designed and lubricated bearing ought always to run cooler than the commutator or armature.
ture depends on
may be allowed in the armathe " baking "-point of insulation used, and also on the melting-point of the solder used if the
limit of
The
temperature that
coil
good
general rule is this If you can hold your hand on any part of the machine for more than a few seconds, that
Of course metal feels warmer not dangerously hot. than insulating cotton for the same temperature, and If a burning smell or allowance should be made for this.
part
is
smoke comes from a machine, the safe temperature limit has been far exceeded, and the machine should be shut
228
down
a short
machine
is
lies
Heat
is
quickly conducted all over a machine and when heat is detected in one place the machine should be felt all over,
the hottest part probably being the part at fault. The brushes of a machine should not be set too tight, for, besides reducing the heat from friction.
efficiency
greatly,
than
Machines that operate on constant pressure circuits are liable to overheat because of too much current flowing
through some parts of them. This may result from overloads, in which case the remedy is obvious, or because of short circuits in the machines, in which case rewinding is
In the case of constant potential generally necessary. a short circuit of the mains will produce a sudgenerators
den and severe overload, which can only be remedied by tracing out the lines and removing the short circuit.
When
it
Carbon brushes usually indicates the need of attention. chatter and spark sometimes when the commutator is
sticky, the action
being something like a bow on a violin HumCleaning the commutator will cure this. string. and vibration result when the revolving parts are ming
not revolved about their center of gravity.
This
may be
MANAGEMENT OF MACHINES.
229
because of faulty construction or warping after completion. If the fault be with the pulley, it may be turned out or
counterweighted. straightened or a
If
the
shaft
be
If
sprung
it
may
be
new one
used.
windings be out of balance, there is not much help for Slower speed will reduce the noise from this cause.
may occur from the armature rubbing or striking This is a serious matter, and if not the pole faces. against attended to results in the destruction of the immediately
Noise
armature.
bearings,
trouble.
It
is
caused
in
which case
Sometimes it results from a sprung shaft, which case the shaft must be either straightened or
placed.
may be
because of an
machine, or because of the armature rubbing against the pole face. variation in the pressure supplied to a motor causes a variation in speed. If the field magnetism
will revolve
too fast
when
will
not
full load,
and
take
circuit
weak field may be caused by a short which cuts out some or all of the field turns, or by a broken field circuit. If the load be removed from a series motor on a constant current circuit it will race badly
excessive current.
its field coils
unless
are shunted.
Practically such a
motor
should not be used in any position where it may be suddenly relieved of its load, as by the slipping of a belt.
shunt motor, whose fields are not excited, will run either forward or backward when a current is allowed to flow in
230
the armature, according to the relative magnitudes and directions of the residual magnetism and the armature reactions.
may
ally
Ordinarily, however, if a motor runs backward, it be assumed that the connections are wrong. Usu-
the brushes change their signs without changing any other connections, will make the motor change its direction of
rotation.
series
its
direction
by changing the
current flow
in
On
build
starting up, a self -exciting dynamo is supposed to up its voltage to normal, having at first no excitation
dynamos, or after being the magnet frame may have lost all its residual hammered, In this case the machine does not build up magnetism.
revolved.
when
By
passing
current
from
will
another
may be thrown
off
generate dynamo Then the exciting current and the self-excitation thrown on, when
If
field coils
the
the residual
what
little
be passed in the wrong direction, then voltage may be generated will, when connected
such a direction as
will
field,
and building up
be
shunt machine builds up better the less impossible. the outside load, since at no load the terminal voltage is the greatest and the most likely to send a magnetizing current
in
the
field coils.
is
up better when Such a machine may even to make it build up. For a
MANAGEMENT OF MACHINES.
231
given voltage resulting from residual magnetism, the current in the field coils is greater the less the resistance in the
circuit.
If
field coils in
bipolar machine be reversed, causing two poles of the same This polarity, the machine will of course fail to generate.
condition
detected by the use of a compass needle. Small machines sometimes generate at starting a few volts,
may be
showing proper connections and the presence of some residual magnetism, but refuse to build up beyond this It is sometimes convenient to materially increase point.
the speed of such a machine, whereupon it will build up rapidly, and the speed may then be reduced to normal, and the
sure.
dynamo
will continue to
generate at
its
normal pres-
232
CHAPTER
XIII.
Different
down a
dynamo
machinery.
of
This
is
because the
are
specified
conditions
in
seldom alike
called
two
upon
to design a
designing engineer may be machine of a given output at a given frame, however, to be chosen from one of a
cases.
;
required that the machine shall be direct connected, the output, the voltage,
set already in stock
it
and again
may be
of
rotation
being given
still,
again,
the
gross weight, and the efficiencies of at various loads, may be specified, as in the case operation or he may be called upon to design of an automobile motor
;
maximum
a machine of a given output and voltage, which shall operate at a satisfactory efficiency, and which shall have a the manufacturer to successfully compete with others in the sale of his products. Throughout the calculations the engineer is obliged to refer to his
first
cost
which
will enable
experience or the experience of others in determining the values of different quantities which must be assumed before
there can be any further progress on the design.
Further-
more, after having assumed certain values, results which are arrived at later on in the work will necessitate the rejection of these values
of
new
ones.
233
Oftentimes what one might desire as a value for one quantity is undesirable, because it conflicts with the adoption of
a value for some other quantity which is more desirable. In the following paragraphs a method is given for designing a machine under the conditions specified.
118.
Specifications.
The
following
:
specifications
are
The type
frame,
its
machine as regards the shape of its bearings, and the method of its being driven
of
;
field
;
its
output
in kilowatts
;
no load
field
its
terminal voltage at full load and at the materials from which are to be constructed its
its
frame,
its
pole pieces,
its
its
armature core,
its
its
brushes,
its
shaft,
;
its
bearings,
con-
ductors
various parts.
The design will be 119. Preliminary Assumptions. based upon an assumption of the values of four different
quantities.
assumption is that of the value of the flux denwhich will be represented by ($>g The value which will be chosen will depend somewhat upon the
first
The
method Almost
employed for obviating armature reaction. designers rely upon a stiff bristly fie Id \.Q assist in preventing a distortion of the field when under load, and
all
y
to be
pole pieces are made of wrought iron or of cast steel than when they are made of cast iron. The densities are greater
the case of multipolar machines than in the case of and they increase, within limits, with the size of bipolar
in
;
the machine.
chosen.
value between
234
is a value for the peripheral F' of the armature in feet per minute. The comvelocity mon assumption in the case of drum armatures for all sizes
above five K.W. is 3000 feet per minute. High-speed ring armatures have a higher value, ranging between 4000 and 6000. The larger value is to be used in the case of large
machines.
The
in
third assumption
is
large
of
number
of
many
of
them
from 500 to 800 circular mils per ampere. Sometimes as small a cross-section as 200, and in other cases as large
as
1
200
The
used in the case of machines subjected to loads of short duration. This is the case with periodic
elevator
low value
motors,
dental
drill
pump motors, sewing-machine motors, The motors, and motors on special machinery.
used on machines to be used
in central stations
high value
is
for lighting or
specified output in the full-load terminal volts gives the by total current output of the machine at full load. This,
power purposes.
The
kilowatts divided
divided
by the number
of
armature
circuits, gives
the cur-
by each conductor at full load. This current multiplied by the assumed value of the number of circular mils per ampere gives the cross-section of the
conductor
in circular mils.
is
conductor
made up
of
The
multiplicity
wires
affords
pliability
in
eddy currents.
is
sulated
by the use
of
micanite,
board,
or
other
cross-section sketch of a
235
The
fourth assumption
polar span,
s represents the
is
covered by the faces of the poles. This value varies considerably within narrow limits, but
unless there
is
circumference which
some
may be
taken.
120.
specific
To determine the 1. Design of the Armature induced E.M.F. in volts per foot of active conE' =
ductor.
j^>
jffi,
X 30.5
^-
volts.
where the first term in the right-hand member represents the velocity of the moving conductor in centimeters per second, the second term represents the average induction
density of the flux which enters the armature, and the
third term consists of constants to reduce feet to centi-
meters, and
II.
c.
g.
s.
units to volts.
I in feet.
1
-= X number of armature
L
circuits.
III.
upon
the armature.
Let
ly
= the = the
the
number of layers in the armature winding. assumed ratio of the length to the diameter of the
armature core.
d=
(In the case of a smooth-core armature represents the width of the armature conductor
236
resents the width of one tooth plus the width of one slot divided by the number of conductors in
one
slot in
one
layer.)
The
ft.
The
hence
number
the total
of
armature conductors
of
vet
in
w
IV
number
armature conductors
"*
Since
In practice the width of the tooth ranges from 50 per In some cases cent to 80 per cent, the width of the slot. The value for 5 it has a width equal to that of the slot.
yielded by this formula must, in nearly all cases, be altered by either the addition or subtraction of a few conductors
in order to
which
sitate
make it possible to employ the type of winding seems desirable to adopt. The change may necesa slight alteration of one of the assumed values, and
it
it.
is
prescribed, as
is
the case
may
237
5=
where
is
to be obtained as de-
IV.
the armattire
d in
inches.
Sw
d = -2
7T
inches.
In
case
the
minute
Fbe prescribed,
1
speed of the armature in revolutions per as is the case with direct connected
machines, the preliminary assumption of the peripheral velocity V immediately gives a value for the armature
diameter.
d
V.
yt
Vv
ft.
^,
^
inches.
I in inches.
Vtr
VI.
To determine
armature
In determining this quantity a value for the flux density in the armature core (Ba must be assumed. Wiener states that in incandescent dynamos, in railway
generators, in machines for
bution,
varies
and
in stationary
densities than
drum
pairs of poles,
238
that is, the surface of the armature in square centimeters times the average gap density divided by the number of poles. Considering that but 75 per cent to 80 per cent of the length of the armature core is made up of iron, the
due to the spaces between the laminations and the width of the ventilating ducts, the radial depth of the armature core is
rest being
d-d =
r
-54)
2
&a /0. 75
VII.
(2. 54)
losses.
The armature
as already determined would theoretically operate satisfactorily, but there is a possibility of its heating excessively
load.
supplies of heat, namely, that due to ohmic resistance and that due to hysteresis and eddy currents. There are also two avenues for the escape of heat, namely, radiation
and
air convection.
An
equilibrium
is
established
when
that temperature is reached which will make the escaping heat per unit of time equal to the amount of heat generated in the same time. Concerning the escape of heat
by
radiation,
it
radiated vary as the difference in temperature between the radiating body and the surrounding atmosphere and as the
There emissivity and the area of the radiating surface. also on starting a conduction of heat to neighboring bodies. After a short time, however, a static temperature
is
The power
loss in hysteresis
armature
is
P =
h
i
_
IO
-np
>a*-r- v watts.
DO
239
where ^ equals the hysteretic constant of the iron (0.002), v equals the volume of the armature core in cubic centimeters.
The assumption
ture core
is
is
made
uniform.
This
that the flux density in the" armais not true for the main core, as
was shown by Goldsborough, and in the teeth the density is much greater. When the volume of the latter is a relatively large amount of the total core volume, a correction should
be made.
same
quality of iron
to be used,
much
hysteresis loss per cubic inch at various densities from tables made up to suit the iron. The power loss due to
ohmic resistance
=( number of
\number
"
ar armature circuits
where Imax is the full-load current of the machine in amperes, and R a is the resistance of all the armature conductors arranged in series. Before getting must determine the values in VIII. to XL
and
one
VIII.
minute.
To obtain the armature speed V in revolutions per This quantity is prescribed in the case of direct
In other cases
in
connected machines.
may be determined
by the formula
IX.
To obtain
tJie
centimeters.
where z
is
and insulating
240
oxide on the plates amounts to 10 per cent, therefore under these circumstances z = 0.9. The introduction of ventilat-
ing ducts reduces this value by an amount which can be readily determined.
X.
ohms.
To obtain the resistance of the armature wire in The total length of the armature wire,
/,
= f X k,
a constant greater than unity, which takes into account the amount of dead wire employed in making the
is
where k
end connections. This value depends upon the value of In the case of formed p and upon the method of winding. coils its value may be determined from measurements upon
a
than
This value is generally slightly greater coil. Considering that the resistance of a hot mil foot is 11.5 ohms, the resistance of the armature
single
2.
XI.
in square inches,
2 to 2\ watts can be radiated per square inch of armature surface without excessive heating, the value of
XII.
As
_j_
is
yi
properly de-
signed or not.
the fraction
is less
than
2,
the armature
is needlessly large, and should be redesigned. If the fraction is greater than 2\, the armature will heat excessively, and should also be redesigned.
241
XIII.
Dimensions of the
poles
The
ment and experience on the part of the designing engineer, and an acquaintance with the various machines of the type being designed. One must assume values for the following
the flux density in the poles fl^, the flux the coefficient of magnetic the magnet frame density leakage A, and the ratio of the length of a pole to its diameter in case it has a circular cross-section, or to some other
quantities
:
in
dimension
in
case
it
is
not circular.
is
The assumption
It
is
is
made here
of a circular type,
and
of circular cross-section.
(&p
customary
be carried over the knee of the magnetization curve. In the case of (By-, however, it is customary to choose a value somewhat below the knee. The coefficient of magnetic
careful design leakage for this type of machine is 1.4. a knowledge of the distribution of the leakreally requires
experience enables one to make allowthis. From these assumed values one gets a value for the cross-section of a pole,
Long
A = <M
<Bp
sq. centimeters,
whence
it
d p
2.54 V/ T
inches,
<M Af = -?2
(jjf
XIV.
circuit.
After mak-
ing a provisional scale-drawing of the field-magnet frame with its poles and the armature core, exercising judgment
derived from experience or from the inspection of other
24 2
drawings, determine the average length in centimeters of the path of the magnetic lines in the frame, in the poles,
in
Fig. 176.
the length in centimeters From the assumed of the parts marked Fig. 176. values of the flux density, and from the magnetization
f Represent by l
,
l , p
lg , lt
and
lt
in
curves of the metals from which the various parts of the magnetic circuit are constructed, one can get the respective permeabilities.
The
reluctance
may
then be calculated
as follows
(Rp
=
(R/-
of the air of
gap
(R
243
determine the reluctance offered by the teeth and winding-slots, it is convenient to assume that the total flux
to the fringing of the field at the pole tips, not merely the teeth immediately under the pole face carry the flux from that pole, but, with very short air gaps, an extra tooth takes part in the transcarried
alone.
by the teeth
Owing
244
mission.
The value of the permeability obtained from take part. the flux density which is calculated upon the above astance based upon
sumption would be too small. The value of the relucit would in consequence be too large. The flux density arrived at will have to be corrected by
The
23000
permeability, ^
tt
21000
SB
20000
19000
18000
17000
100
200
300
400 40
500
600
700
800
900
10
20
30
50
60
70
80
90
120
130
.140
150
'160
[i
Fig. 178.
ity
245
is
one pole corrected for fringing. The reluctance, the flux through which must be maintained by the field-windings
on one
pole, is
made up
ture and a bi-parallel path in the field frame, both arranged in series with the pole, the gap, and the tooth reluctances.
This reluctance
is
equal to
The ampere turns per Magneto-motive force. nl^ necessary to produce the flux a in the armature pole
<f>
XV.
at
no load
is
equal to
coil
on
XVI. SJiunt Coils. Assuming that sumed in the field regulating rheostat,
-"*=
n
volts
are con-
E E
'
IA
circular mils'
Whence,
The
cross-section in circular mils
II '5
//
^ 2/
b
>
t
Where n
7sA
!sh
number
= the current in the shunt at no load, and = the mean length of one field turn in feet.
coil,
circular mils
1000
and
1000 n
circular mils
246
From
be attained
ence to the preliminary drawing will enable one to determine whether the assumed length of the pole lp is too
Space must be left for the compound This occupies about one-half as much space as the If l seems of unsuitable shunt coil. length it should be p
small or too great.
coil.
and the calculation should be again gone over. XVII. Compound Coils. The method of calculating the number of compounding turns is so similar to that in
altered,
The compound
coils
coil,
in
reluctance due to skew by saturation. The back armature turns, when multiplied by the coefficient of magampere
ampere turns necessary to It should be borne in mind that compensate the maximum possible lead brings the brush no farther
for them.
tip.
To compensate
percentage requires that the density in raised by that same percentage. This
increase of
all
the densities.
The
tance and the increase of each corresponding flux must be cared for by the series windings. The coefficient of magnetic leakage varies with the load.
variation
it
The manner
of its
may be unknown.
may
is
The
enters, are such a small per cent of the total, that its
variation
The
by students
in
designing,
247
Engineering
8,
and
covering the
work of
important
details.
: end elevation, longitudinal cross-section, plan, and diagram of the armature-winding must also be given.
to be
....Designer
Submitted
25. 26.
SPECIFICATIONS.
1.
Type
of Machine
2.
3. 4.
5.
Number
27.
Terminal volts
Terminal volts
at
no load
load
28.
29.
Length over conductors Length of core over laminations and ducts Net length of iron
at full
Number
of ventilating ducts
ventilating-duct
6.
7.
Amperes
at full load
30.
Width of each
31.
Thickness of sheets
32.
Number
Depth Width Width Width Width
face
Size
of slots
MATERIALS.
33.
Armature core Armature spider 10. Armature end plates n. Armature shaft 12. Commutator segments
8.
34.
35. 36. 37.
9.
of
tooth
at
armature
Commutator
Pole piece Pole shoe
spider
38.
Magnet frame
39.
ductor
Size of conductor insulated
6.
40.
41.
17.
1
Brushes
Brush-holders
8.
per slot
42.
43. 44.
19.
Brush-holder yoke
Commutator
insulation
Number Number
ductors
45.
DIMENSIONS.
Armature.
23.
between
all
24.
bottom of
slots
46.
Length
in center
248
47. 48. 49.
Length Bore of
78.
79.
Length
Width
Thickness
Minimum
clearance
80.
Pole Shoe.
50. 51. 52.
81.
Arn ature.
82.
83.
53.
Minimum
thickness
Poles.
84. 85.
Length of pole
Number
Number
Type
of sections
Width or diameter
Lenpth
Magnet
of pole
86.
parallel to shaft
Spool.
87.
88.
57. 58.
59.
Number
of spools
89.
90.
circuits
91.
92.
60.
Depth of winding-space
Magnet Frame.
External diameter
Internal diameter
Style of winding Circular mils per ampere Mean length of one turn
93.
94.
61.
62. 63.
20
95.
C.
ohms
ohms
Thickness
70
ribs
ribs
C.
64.
65.
Diameter over
Thickness of
Shunt
Coils.
66.
96
97.
98.
&
S.
Gauge
67.
68.
Diameter
Number
Width Width
99.
of segments
100.
Mean
69.
commu
101.
102. 103. 104.
Total turns
Total length of wire Total weight of wire Total lesistance at
.
70.
71.
20
C.
72. 73.
ohms
Total resistance
.
at
... 70 C.
segments
74.
75.
ohms.
current
06.
107.
Maximum
am-
76.
77.
Number Number
of sets of brushes
in
08.
one
set
109.
ampere
249
temperature C.
133.
Estimated
rise of
.
.
.
10.
in.
112.
1
at full load
134.
and
bear-
13.
Field Coils.
114.
1 1 1 1
Number
Mean
of layers
135.
5. 6.
117.
1 1
Total turns
137.
sq. in.
Total radiating
sq. in.
surface
ohms.
.
138.
.
1*R shunt
. .
coils
and rheostat
watts
20.
Total resistance at
.
70 C.
139.
watts
.
ohms.
current
.
I*R
series
121.
Maximum
am-
140.
Total
J*R
watts
in.
.
122. 123.
141.
Watts
radi-
ating surface
142.
ampere
Estimated
at full
rise
load
of temperature C.
.
HEATING.
Commutator,
Armature.
143.
Brush
friction
watts
watts
. .
124.
sur-
144.
Brush contact
watts
sq. in.
145.
sur-
125.
sq. in.
126.
MAGNETIC.
.
.
146.
.
fyi at
open
circuit
127.
/'/'full load
.
watts
147.
148.
fa
a< full
load
128. 129.
130.
Eddy
Hysteresis currents
. . .
watts
. .
watts
149.
<fcf
</" at
Total
Total
full
watts
core loss at
150.
load
turns
131.
J"R and
load
.
Ampere
shunt
required
for
watts
151.
132.
Watts per
Ampere
series
turns
required
for
250 RELUCTANCES
POLE.
5 |
*
'2
>
IS
tfi
.
^ U
dVO'l
CJ CO Tf tr> \O ^O MD
ON
^2
i*
.S
3
^
O'tf
fa
3
CJ
Hs
Q\
"3 ts
io \O vo
O M
TESTS.
251
CHAPTER
TESTS.
122.
XIV.
Determination of a
(B-OC
Curve.
is
The most
exact
laboratory
method
ment
is the test piece in method. the form of an annular ring, having a mean circumference of /
It
Over these ary turns of wire. three or four secondary test turns of wire lead off to the ballistic
series cirgalvanometer G. cuit is formed of a storage bat-
Fig. 179.
E. M. F., B, a variable resistance R, the primary coil of the test piece, an ammeter A, and a com mutating switch C. The last is used for reversing the direction of the current
in the
If
by
is
252
If
now
the lines of
many more
set
up
in the
opposite direction.
Each
upon
commutation, a pressure in each turn of the test coil. This induced E.M.F. furnishes a means of measuring the
flux of lines in the test piece or the flux density
(B.
By
16,
one
may
obtain
Where
J?t
coil,
the
test
piece
in
Though the most accurate method, the ring method is not generally employed in commercial practice because of the cost and the time required in preparing a test
piece.
The
TEST
COIL V TO V--MEAN_CENGTH L OF TEST PIECE
divided-bar
method
l8
into
two
pieces.
A
coil
heavy
wound wrought-iron yoke, Fig. 180, has a magnetizing inside of it. Through snug-fitting holes in the ends of
the yoke, the two halves of the test piece are inserted,
TESTS.
253
handle.
one being secured, and the other being fitted with a The test coil is so mounted on springs as to side when the test pieces are slightly fly suddenly to one It thus cuts all separated by a pull on the handle.
the flux in the piece, and affords a means of measuring The yoke is so massive, and has such a small relucit.
formula 3C
=
10
/
is
practically true,
where
/ is
the
mean
length of the test piece which is traversed by magnetic For (B the formula is twice what it was in the lines.
ring method, since the test coil cuts the flux but once, or
tkO.
The method
this
of reversals could
method.
a machine for measuring the flux in a test piece by measuring the force necessary to detach it from another part of the magnetic ciris
The permeameter
cuit.
Fig.
machine.
The magnetizing
supplied by the coil C the same as in The test coil the divided bar method.
and galvanometer are done away with. The bottom of the yoke Y is surfaced to receive flatly the end of the test rod
T.
When
is
flowFig. x8x.
254
any number of lines of force varies as the square of that number, it is easy to calculate the flux, and since
<
area
The
value of 3C
is
Determination of
the Ballistic
Constant.
The
means
vanometer.
of determining the constant of a ballistic galIf the capacity of the condenser C, and the
it is
voltage at which
also
known.
It is
0,
EC.
The
coil of
its field
it,
a current in a direction opposite to that of the current that produces the throw, and which, therefore, shortens the
The magnitude
of this
damping current depends, of course, on the resistance of the galvanometer circuit hence the constant k should be
;
in
the gal-
vanometer
value of
&
being made.
To
is
shown
accomplish this an arrangement of apparatus such as in Fig. 182, may be employed, the particular feais
ture of which
This key
is
TESTS.
255
In this position the normally held up against a contact. galvanometer circuit is open, and the condenser is in series
with
a
charging
battery.
As
the
lastly
gal-
the
is
galvanometer
closed
priate
circuit
through
an appro-
amount
ballistic
of resistance
in the rheostat.
The
constant
may
also
be determined by the
use of a long solenoid, with a few turns about its center for a test coil. series circuit is formed (Fig. 183) of
fomrnmsm
^
Fig. 183.
and a key.
The ends
/
sets
solenoid,
whose
intensity,
256 where
the
If
of primary turns. be the area in square centimeters of a cross-section of the solenoid perpendicular to the axis, then
number
If
coil,
and
be
the resistance of the galvanometer circuit in ohms, then upon closing the circuit and upon establishing the flux <f>, a
quantity of electricity will pass around the secondary cuit which is equal to - - n
cir-
^
8
where
is
the current
Therefore,
If the solenoid
is
be
less
not accurate, owing to the influence of the ends of the solenoid upon the value of JC.
deterinten-
There have been described numerous methods for mining k which depend upon a constant and definite
sity of the earth's magnetic field. Nowadays the fact that the earth's field is constantly changing, both in direc-
and magnitude, due to the prevalence of iron and steel buildings, and the extensive use of electric currents for
tion
trolley, lighting,
practically worthless.
The Determination of the Hysteretic Constant. most hysteresis curve for any sample of iron may be found
124.
The arrangement
TESTS.
save that the rheostat
257
must be so designed that the cirnot open, even for an instant, in passing from cuit does The method of operation one resistance point to another.
is
as follows
The
is
rheostat
is set
for a
maximum
current
determined by means of an ammeter. The rheostat handle is then quickly moved back one point.
strength which
force proportionately.
This reduces the current and the dependent magnetizing There is an accompanying decrease
This decrease
is
determined by the
Change
in <&
^-^- kO.
an^
The ammeter
current
is
again read
galvanometer comes to rest, the resistance is increased by another step, and the throw of the galvanometer is observed. After the current has been reduced step by step to zero, it is then commutated, and increased by steps until the maximagnetization is obtained in a direction opposite to that at the beginning. The current is again cut down by steps to zero, is afterwards commutated for a second time,
again increased until the magnetic condition of the which prevailed at the start is again attained. Giving to (B a plus or minus sign, according to the direction of the
is
mum
and
iron
galvanometer throw, the algebraic sum of all the changes of (B must equal zero. Therefore the algebraic sum of
all
observations.
simple In practice,
the
of the plus throws may differ from the sum of the minus ones by three per cent without seriously affecting the final result. Having the maximum value of (B, the (B's corto each can readily be found by subtracting the responding
sum
258
Upon
plotting a cyclic
The
gives the ergs loss of energy in carrying one cubic centimeter of the iron under test through a cycle of magnetization be-
tween the
limits of
>
max
and
($>
max
According to the
Steinmetz formula,
h
= rj^max
where h
the loss by hysteresis in ergs per cycle per cubic centimeter. Hence, to find the hysteresis constant 17 of the sample used in the foregoing test, one uses the formula
is
where and
=.
V'= volume
U ague fixing
Fig. 184.
TESTS.
259
of
A much
ment
less laborious
method
measuring
rj,
and one
which does not introduce the errors attending the measureof the area of a curve, is the wattmeter method. Since
is
that the test occurs under the conditions which the iron
in its working. the ring be made of annular stampings of sheet metal well shellacked before assembling, then the loss due to eddy currents will be negligible. The arrangement of apparatus,
will
If
meet
in Fig. 185, consists of a source of alternating cura wattmeter, an alternating current ammeter, an alterrent, nating current voltmeter, and the test ring, all connected
shown
as shown.
Fig. 185.
Let
R
n
= number of turns in this coil W = the watts indicated by the wattmeter /= the current indicated by the ammeter; E = the pressure indicated by the voltmeter
;
V= the
A=
volume of the
meters
oidal,
then,
to
be sinus-
and
of frequency
y cycles
per second,
Vf
260
E wing's
Its chief
shown
in Fig. 186.
advantage
by
3".
This
test
piece
is
made
to rotate be-
tween the poles of a permanent magnet, which is mounted on knife edges on an axis coincident with the axis of
revolution of the test piece.
sulting
The
of
re-
angular
is
displacement
the
hysteresis
calibration
loss
in
the
curve
plotted
by using
two
Fig. 186.
known
It is found that hysteretic constants. small variations in the thickness of the test piece do not affect the results, and that no correction need be made
for
such variations.
The machine
results.
125.
Determination of Leakage
Coefficient.
The
ratio
by a field magnet to the flux the armature, that is, the leakage coefficient, passing through
which
is
may be found
in
with an
Fig. 187
where the
few
test coil of a
field
through
all
may
to pass. similar coil is passed around the armature, in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the flux,
sumed
through which
all
In the
passed
TESTS.
through the
mutation.
field
261
magnet, with arrangements for rapid comIn this case, if one test coil have its ends
attached to a galvanometer or a low-voltage voltmeter, and if the current in the field coil be commutated, a deflection,
which
is
The same
proportional to the change of flux, will be observed. will happen if the other coil have its terminals
observed
the
field
and
coils
the
re-
armature
spectively,
fore,
test
then,
as
be-
and
2
'
k6a
2
;/
Fig. 187.
the two test coils be constructed alike as regards number of turns and resistance, then the values of R, n# and k are
If
coef-
Hence the
ratio of the
This method
part of the
may
any
magnetic
and
it
any whose
type of machine.
field
It may also be modified to apply In the case of large machines, currents cannot be commutated, a cyclic in-
crease and decrease of exciting current can be produced by means of cutting out and in of resistance in the field
262
circuit.
then the time constants of large field coils are so great as compared with the period of swing of ballistic galvanometers, that the method is impracticable.
126. Magnetic Distribution in the Air Gap. Since armature reactions distort the magnetic field, it is desirable to know the actual distribution of the flux. This may be
666
664
LOAD
Fig. 188.
determined by the use of a pilot brush, as shown in Fig. 1 88. voltmeter is connected between one of the main
brushes
and the
pilot
brush,
and the
latter is
moved
opposite brush difference in the voltage of any two consecutive readings is proportional to the magnetic flux
reached.
The
within
the
two readings.
Two
pilot
brushes
may be used
as in Fig.
89.
In this
case the voltage is proportional to the flux corresponding to the angular distance between the two brushes. By
TESTS.
applying these brushes at successive intervals 1 80 the flux distribution can be determined.
263
through
127.
Measurement of Resistance
a.
By voltmeter alone.
For
insulation resistances, or
about 5000 and be obtained by arranging the unknown resistance x and a 0-150 voltmeter in series with a source of constant potential
of about 115 volts.
any resistances lying between 100,000 ohms, a fairly accurate result may
ance
is
The
resist-
& noted.
If
Maximum
accuracy
is
obtained
when x
R.
AWIAMWI
*-^
Fig. igo.
Fig. 191.
b. By the Method of Wheatstone's Bridge. If an unknown resistance :r, two known resistances a and b, and a known adjustable resistance R be connected as shown
galvanometer G and a battery cell B, a Wheatstone's bridge is formed and, if the resistance R be so manipulated as to prevent a flow of current through
;
is
true
264
It is usual to make the ratio a b equal to some multiple In this case the value of or submultiple of 10. is read with the decimal point suitably placed. directly from
By ammeter and
voltmeter.
Resistances of ordinary
magnitudes are most conveniently measured by measuring the pressure impressed on the resistance and the current caused to flow thereby. This is the most practical method
for finding the resistances of
of dynamos.
It
is
method
so
rapid
the value
of
hot
re-
sistances
may
be found, and
Fig. 192.
is in operation. Fig. 192 shows an arrangement of apparatus for measuring the resistance of an armature, including the brush and contact resistances.
E be
128.
voltage necessary to break down a sample sheet of insulating material, the sample is placed between two flat metallic surfaces, which are connected respectively with the two terminals of a high-voltage transformer, whose voltage can be varied at will. An air gap between needle-point ter-
TESTS.
265
minals which can be adjusted in length is connected in The distance between parallel between the two terminals.
these points serves to limit the voltage which can be impressed upon the conductors on each side of the insulating
material.
For small variations of gap length the voltage between the needle-points is
266
TABLE OF SPARKING DISTANCES IN AIR BETWEEN OPPOSED SHARP NEEDLE-POINTS, FOR VARIOUS EFFECTIVE SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES, IN INCHES AND IN CENTIMETERS.
KlLOVOLTS.
TESTS.
plied
267
Fig. 194 illustrates a
this
by an alternating
current.
manufactured for
purpose by
type,
and
Fig. 194.
of
it
is
wound the
low-tension circuit,
while upon the other is wound the secondary, consisting of four coils, each wound and insulated independently. The
four coils are assembled upon a sleeve of heavy insulating
268
material.
The transformer is immersed in oil, and its wound in two parts so that it may be used upon primary The adaptation to either of a 52 or a 104 volt circuit. these circuits is rendered possible by means of a porcelain
is
which is placed inside the the top of the apparatus is a box with a glass window, which incloses a micrometer spark gap, which is connected in shunt across the high-potential
series multiple connection board
inclosing case.
On
Fig. 195.
terminals.
into
so arranged that the lifting cover for the purpose of adup of this justing the spark gap entirely discon-
apparatus
The nects the spark gap from the high-potential circuit. connections of this apparatus to a sample under test are
shown
in Fig. 195.
This apparatus may also be employed in determining whether a given sample of insulation will withstand an imThe pressed electromotive force without breaking down.
TESTS.
269
length of the gap is set so as to represent the value of the is subjected prescribed electromotive force, and the sample to the pressure which maintains a spark across the gap.
In case of break-down the spark at the gap will cease. In case it is desired to test the dielectric strength of the sample at some other than normal temperature, the sample
may be
pressed between two surfaces of the apparatus shown in Fig. 196, which was described by Mr. Charles F.
Fig. 196.
Scott. carefully faced blocks of cast iron are reand D' of asbestos-wound cessed so as to receive coils
Two
wire.
These
coils
which
raises the
eddy currents and hysteresis losses. Upon shutting off the current, the disks and insulating material soon assume
a uniform temperature, which can be measured by means of a thermometer whose bulb is inserted in a hole in the
upper
is
disk.
The two
disks are
made the
terminals of the
high-tension circuit.
used for heating purposes must of course be removed during the test.
270
report of the committee on standardization of the Institute of Electrical Engineers gives the fol" The dielectric lowing strength or resistance to rupture should be determined by a continued application of an
The
American
:
alternating
"
E.M.F.
The
be made with
the completely assembled apparatus and not with its individual parts, and the voltage should be applied as fol-
lows
ist,
Between
electric
circuits
and surrounding
electric cir-
2d,
between adjacent
The
report further
recommends
the following
CAPACITY.
TESTING VOLTAGE.
. .
volts volts
less
less
Under 10 K.W.
200 volts 200 volts
1000 1500
volts.
volts.
than
Under
10 K.W.
less less
than
Any Any
(
3500
volts.
Any
<
(
Synchronous motor fields and fields of converters started from the alternating current side
5000
volts.
The values in the table above are effective mean square reduced to a sine wave of E.M.F.
ploy the
machines or apparatus are to be operated in series, so as to emof their separate E.M.F?*, the voltage should be referred to this sum, except where the frames of the machines are separately insulated both from ground and from each other.
When
sum
Determination of the Magnetization Curve of a To find the relation between the exciting Shunt-Dynamo
129.
TESTS.
2/1
Fig. 197.
an ammeter.
out the
test.
Run
If
the machine at a constant speed througha voltmeter be placed across the armature
terminals a pressure can be read corresponding to each exciting current, and a curve can be plotted using volts as
ordinates and amperes
as
abscissae.
Because of residual
HELD CURRENT
Fig. 198.
magnetism there are some volts with no exciting current, and hence the curve, Fig. 198, does not pass through the
origin.
If
by steps
maximum,
2/2
decreasing, step
two curves
the descending curve will lie above the other as in Fig. 1 99. This is because of the hysteresis or magnetic retentivity of
the iron of the magnetic
circuit.
Fig. 199.
The
efficiency
excited motor.
of
ammeter and voltmeter readings determine the electrical The arrangeinput, the motor having no load upon it. of apparatus is shown in Fig. 200. ment The power put
in represents the
PR
and the
field
plus the losses which are generally considered as constant at al loads. These constant losses are those due to fric1
tion,
hysteresis, Foucault
currents,
and windage.
They
armaare equal to the no-load input minus the no-load ture and field losses. The losses can be calculated at
PR
PR
TESTS.
any useful
load.
273
is
The
equal to
sum
of the constant
ADJUSTABLE RESISTANCE
SERVICE MAIN
Fig. 200.
losses
PR
losses.
The machine
at the time
it
same temperature as
efficiency
is
being
Run
its
Measure rated speed and temperature. the electrical input by a voltmeter and an
ammeter.
by a Prony brake.
Then the
efficiency,
_ watts at brake
watts input
There are many kinds of brake or absorption dynamometers that may be used for this test. The most satisfactory one
for
Fig. 201.
motors
of
small
size
is
the
strap-brake
Fig.
20 1.
A
all
balances are
absorbed power
Watts
2TrrV(P-P'} X ^
33000
746,
where
r=
2/4
V= number
(P
P')
of revolutions per
minute
= the
difference of
the
two-scale readings
in
pounds.
Fig.
ger
machines.
for
is,
The
for-
mula
sorbed
the
power ab-
Watts
2 - irrVP X -
746,
33000
the perpendicular distance from the center of the the pulley to the line of action of the scale in feet, the number of revolutions scale reading in pounds, and
where r
is
per minute.
The brake
the spring at
may be made with a metal strap having blocks on its under surface that screw down against spaced the wheel, and for the spring balance one may use a platform scale having a prop extending to the lever arm of the For large machines the heat generated by the brake.
absorption of considerable power at the face of the pulley It is necessary causes an excessive rise of temperature. to find some means of carrying the heat away. This is
generally accomplished by flanging the inside of the brakewheel, forming a trough in which water is kept running.
no
load.
Centrifugal force throws the water against the internal circumference of the wheel and prevents spilling. The
water
is
removed
either
by a properly placed
scoop, or
it
may
c.
convenient method of finding and separating the losses of a machine is one which makes use of a rated
TESTS.
motor,
i.e.,
275
any
given electrical
a motor whose mechanical output is known for input. By reading the volt-ampere
input of the motor the power expended on the machine to be tested can be found. Run the machine by the rated
motor at the proper speed. If the brushes be removed from the machine, and no current be flowing in the field coils, then the power expended on it is the loss due to
friction at
brushes be
set,
the bearings and to windage. Now let the then the power expended is the loss due to
windage, bearing friction, and brush friction. traction the brush-friction loss is found. This
particularly in small machines, than
is
By
is
sub-
greater,
generally supposed. Now let the fields be separately excited by the normal current, and the losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents
are
included
in
the
From a knowledge of the hot resistances of the machine, one can calculate the I 2R loss for any useful load in both
armature and
the
field
windings.
sum
and
all
efficiency of the
d.
machine
a,
b,
at that load.
The methods
and
c all require
some outside
This requirement can be avoided by the use of a transmission dynamometer to measure the power input of any machine, and the power output can be read by
electric power.
This method
is
seldom
re-
since transmission
dynamometers
Goldsborough has recently devised a very ingenious dynamometer which consists simply of a coiled
Professor
or helical spring with the center line of the helix corresponding with the center of the shaft. This spring con-
2/6
nects the driving and driven members. Readings are made by means of two instantaneous contact points mounted,
one on the driven and one on the driving-shaft, which are connected in series with each other and with a battery and telephone receiver. As the spring becomes deflected by a load, the contact on the driven shaft falls back,
and the corresponding brush must be same angle in order to obtain a click
This angle
e.
set
back by the
in the telephone.
is
be calibrated at
The
efficiency of direct
by using the indicator card from the steam-engine to determine the power input, and by using a voltmeter and an ammeter for determining the electrical output. Even if
the engine losses were exactly known, the measurements yielded by an indicator card are hardly exact enough to
afford a fair basis for testing the efficiency of a generator.
In other than direct-connected units it is not frequent that one finds a generator driven by an engine that does no other work.
INDEX.
Air-gap, 69, 8 1, 85. distribution in, 262, 87.
Coercivity, 28. Coil:
compound,
field, 71.
71, 246.
formed, 55.
Collection of currents, 61.
Commutation,
84.
Commutator
179.
construction
losses at, 59.
of, 59.
Brake on motors,
prony, 273.
solenoid, 182.
strap,
1
segments
of, 33.
:
80.
Compounding
windings
in.
130.
Conductivity,
of copper, 6.
Connections
for
combined output,
218.
Chord winding,
Coefficient
:
52.
of motors, 223.
series
Circuits, divided, 7, 8.
dynamos
in series, 221.
economic, 93.
of series dynamo, 97. of compound dynamo, of shunt dynamo, 100.
1 1 1
Constant
determination
of
ballistic
by
of conversion, 93. of magnetic leakage, 73, 260. of self and mutual induction,
17, 18.
ballistic
by
of temperature,
5.
256.
277
2/8
Constant
:
INDEX.
Direction of induced E. M.
F., 16.
Drop,
4.
Drums,
34, 51.
:
Dynamo
Controller
Brush, 134.
Westinghouse, 141.
Wood,
143.
Excelsior, 147.
Ball, 149.
determination of
B-H,
251.
124.
determinization of
tion, 270.
magnetiza-
Dynamotors, 208.
armature, reaction
in,
208.
Dyne, definition
Efficiency, 92.
of, i.
of
for, 247.
of
methods
of, 232.
determination
M.
F.
constant
supply
of,
103.
INDEX.
E.
279
:
M.
in
F.
Hysteresis
in separately excited
95-
dynamos,
Inductance,
17, 18, 84.
in series
dynamos,
97.
Induction:
electro-magnetic, 13.
of induction, 14.
of self
mutual,
8.
Input, 92.
Intensity of magnetic
Jig, for filing
field, 12.
armature, 32.
unit of,
3.
Energy,
i,
89.
brushes, 62.
Erg,
i.
Law
Fall, of potential, 4.
of Steinmetz, 29.
Lead, 82.
Feeding-points, 104.
Field, magnetic, 12, 21, 67.
compound motor,
175.
F., 34.
magnetomotive,
units of,
i.
i.
Foot-pound,
Frequency of commutation,
Friction of bearings, 89.
of brushes, 60.
armature, 238.
commutator,
fixed, 167.
I 2 R, 9.
59.
Fuses, 10.
in operation, 89.
Gap, air, 69, 81, 85, 233. Generators [see dynamo], 31.
variable, 167.
Lubrication, 65.
Heat
of current, 9.
Magnet,
280
Matthiessen, standard
of, 6.
INDEX.
Rating of machines, 39. Reaction of dynamo armature, 80.
of
dynamotor armature,
208.
Mica,
7, 59.
Mil, circular, 6.
-foot, 6.
Rectifier,
compounding,
compound wound,
counter E. M. F.
hand, 104.
self,
of, 163.
110-113.
(see speed).
circuit, 242.
of the
American
Insti:
Motor-generators, 215.
Oilers, 65.
Operation, care
Output, 92.
in,
225.
on efficiency, 92. on regulation, 116. on spark-gap voltages, 266, on temperature elevation, 40. on testing dielectric strength,
270.
Over-compounding, in.
coils for, 246.
measurement
Resistivity, 5.
of, 263.
Retentivity, 28.
commutating,
neutral, 78.
overload, 172.
packed
controller, 197
card, 105.
Point, running
on
starting, 169.
Ward Leonard
108.
Electric
Co.,
Power, lines
unit of,
of, 99.
of electric current, 8.
2.
Wirt, no. Rise of temperature, 41, 91, 60. Rockers, 61, 64.
Rule, Fleming's, 16.
Pressure,
4.
INDEX.
Shape of pole
pieces, 86,
28l
Skewing of
field, 81.
Slip-rings, 31.
Solenoid, 21.
brake, 180.
mechanical, i. of current, 3.
of potential difference, of resistance, 3.
pole, 12.
3.
Vulcabeston,
7.
52.
76.
Steinmetz, law of, 29. Strength, test of dielectric, 264. Surface, for radiation in armature,
240.
closed-coil, 45.
cross-connected, 48.
drum,
51.
open-coil, 44.
ring, 47.
short-connection, 49.
shunt, 70, 97.
Teeth, 85.
Temperature,
measurement
Work,
Yoke,
i, 9,
19.
of, 42.
36, 67.
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