LUSHPIX

Prototype by ENEA for Urban Mobility

obility in modern metropolitan cities is plagued by overcrowding, producing congestion, low transit speed, fuel consumption, air pollution, and parking problems. One of the causes of these phenomena is the growing market of vehicles of excessive size with respect to their more frequent use. The technological and commercial development of vehicles specifically conceived for urban use, and therefore limited in size, not exuberant in performance, and with low fuel consumption and emissions would certainly be more desirable. Hybrid drive trains are particularly suited to this purpose: properly designed, minimal thermal engines can fit the

Ennio Rossi and Carlo Villante

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MVT.2011.942807 Date of publication: 22 November 2011

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IEEE VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE | DECEMBER 2011

application, giving an electrical driving option when required. The prototype shown in this article has been specifically conceived to be a city car with a so-called series hybrid traction architecturebeing a living example. By combining appropriate and available technologies, modern components, and careful planning, it is possible to achieve results useful for the user and for the community. Urb-e is a prototype of city vehicles employing a series hybrid drive architecture. The name comes from the contraction of the two English words, urban and easy, and defines the nature and vocation of the car. The motivation of prototype is twofold: on one hand is the demand for specialized engines for cities with a high demand of mobility and therefore with traffic problems (Rome was our focus); on the other hand is the technological maturity of hybrid drive systems. It is about a decade, in fact, that metropolitan areas witness birth (and affirmation) of individual transport means, which are essentially inadequate to meet their mobility requirements. First, two-wheeled vehicles were being sold for amusement purpose and/or short-range mobility but became, for most of the metropolitan inhabitants, the only way to get around the city and be able to park, even during the winter and in the rain. Scooters, in fact, are a way to cope with mobility demand, but they increase passengers discomfort and the number accidents. Second, in some European cities, so-called quadricycles are minimal-sized vehicles, which originated in France to solve the rural needs and to assist aged drivers and other people who had lost their driving license. In Italy, their diffusion was essentially confined in the main cities, leading to an actual fleet of approximately 80,000 units. Car market share is currently around 0.5%. So quadricycles in Italy became, despite their high price (about 10,000) and poor technical quality, a status symbol for teenagers and a possible transport means to access limited traffic zones. Major car manufacturers, with the exception of the Mercedes group (with its Smart brand), are now focusing on the potentiality of this market sector and are launching nouvelle two-seat products (Fiat and Toyota). Within this frame, the Italian Energy and Environmental Agency (ENEA) proposed the Urb-e prototype, whose main aim is showing the applicability of hybrid propulsion technologies even in a limited vehicle architecture, leading to a low environmental impact vehicle and also having a purely electric driving mode (Figure 1). Our main design specifications were the following: n footprint less than 3 m in length n weight of 500 kg n low fuel consumption, possibly close to the target of 2 L per 100 km n emissions comparable with Euro 4 passenger car directive (which are not compulsive for this vehicle category) n possibility of driving in electric mode for about 1 km n no gearbox or clutch n acceptable driving performance: maximum speed of 70 km/h, good acceleration, and ability to overcome ramps of 12% n ease of production and industrialization of the vehicle through the utilization of commercial components n exterior aspect that raises curiosity among the nonprofessional public. To these aims, our first design choices regarded the following vehicle architecture: n tubular welded iron chassis, giving required robustness and ease of realization n electrical storage in ultracapacitors (UCs) instead of batteries, because of their higher performance and longer life n synchronous brushless permanent magnet electrical machines, because of their high performance and controllability n working voltage between 40 and 70 V as a compromise between energy losses and availability of commercial components n primary small displacement thermal engine feed by gasoline, normally used for scooter propulsion. The project was developed in collaboration with Rome La Sapienza University and with Roma 3 University, focusing mainly on purely mechanical topics and then on the realization of electric converters for the management of electrical machines and UCs. Almost all assembly, tuning, and testing work were conducted at the ENEA Casaccia Research Center, making use of facilities and testing apparatus of the Low Impact Vehicles Lab. Calibration tests were developed on a dynamometer roller bench and road tests were done in Casaccia running across an internal road network. A small circuit was also realized in the occurrence of Associazione Tecnica dellAutomobile (ATA) 2009 Formula Electric and Hybrid Italy, an event and race held in Casaccia (at which Urb-e took part).

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FIGURE 1 The Urb-e exposed at a 2008 motor show in Bologna.

Vehicle Description
The rolling chassis consists of welded steel tubes with an external diameter of 30 mm, thickness of 2 mm, for the main structure and 20-mm tubes for stiffening triangles (Figure 2). The overall vehicle dimensions are 2.70 m length and 1.40 m width. Both front and rear suspensions were made by a deformable parallelogram composed of higher and lower swinging triangles, coil springs, and coaxial dampers. The

FIGURE 2 The rolling chassis.

chassis has been partitioned with aluminum alloy sheets: on the bottom of the car and in vertical (behind the passengers seats) to create a separation and a protection from the rear engine. Finally, two strong steel plates were placed horizontally to adjust the mechanical parts. A series hybrid architecture was chosen, consisting of n a motor-generator group [generator unit (GU)], composed of a primary combustion engine [internal combustion engine (ICE)] and an electrical generator (EG) mutually connected through a constant ratio belt drive n an energy storage system based on UCs n an electric drive acting on front wheels [traction motor (TM)] n an electric node permitting mutual energy fluxes (referred as link in the following) n three electrical converters n a power management system defining the energy fluxes (Figure 3). As a primary thermal engine, a Piaggio QUASAR 250 cm3, which equips Vespa GTV and GTS models as well as Beverly, MP3, and X7, was chosen (Figure 4). It is a modern engine with four valves and electronic injection, approved for motorcycles according to Euro 3 standards, whose main technical data are given in Table 1. The EG (Figure 5) is a brushless permanent magnet machine produced by ACM based on our technical requirements. The main features of the EG are shown in Table 2. The EG is driven by ICE. To couple the machines, a beltpulley transmission was chosen with a constant transmission ratio (Figure 6). The 1:1 ratio was calculated to optimize the efficiency of the motor-generator group. Also, the electric TM (Figure 7) has been built on our specifications by ACM with the same construction technology. The main features of TM are given in Table 3. The electric motor is rigidly assembled with a differential gear with a final reduction equal to 6.4:1. The UCs were chosen among those sold by Maxwell Technologies: four modules at 16 V and 550 F were used, connected in series (Table 4). Each module, even if made by six elementary capacitors, is rigidly assembled and

ICE UC Storage System TM with Transmission

EG Hybrid Management CPU

FIGURE 3 The traction system layout.

FIGURE 4 The adopted engine.

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TABLE 1 Internal combustion engine.

Type Single Cylinder, Four Stroke 244.3 cm3 72 mm 60 mm Liquid Four valves, single cam 16.2 kW at 8,250 r/min 20.2 N.m at 6,500 r/min Electronic 36 kg Euro 3 Three ways

TABLE 2 Electric generator.

Type Voltage rms Rated power Peak power Rated torque Rotational speed No. of pole pairs Magnets Cooling Weight Synchronous Permanent Magnets 55 V 5 kW 8 kW 20 N m 5,000 r/min 3 NdFeB Liquid 30 kg

Displacement Bore Stroke Cooling Timing Maximum power Maximum torque Injection Weight Emissions Catalytic

boxed in an aluminum housing. An image of the whole system is presented in Figure 8. Each one of the three electrical components (alternator, engine, and UCs) is completed by a conversion group consisting of MOSFET diodes element and an electronic control based on a digital signal processor (DSP). The groups are essentially the same but use different programs to fulfill different tasks. The control electronics and the diode component (made by Semikron) are shown in Figures 9 and 10. To cool the different parts, two separate cooling circuits were required. The first one, with water at about 90 C, is the original equipment of ICE and uses the circulation pump integrated to the engine, the temperature control valve, and a radiator with an electric fan bigger than the original one, which was designed for motorcycle applications. The second circuit, with water at 50 C, cools electrical machines and converters. It uses an electric pump and a radiator with a fan that is always turned on. The electrical architecture of the system was designed to meet several requirements:

FIGURE 6 Housing of the GU on the back of the vehicle. ability to drive the alternator both in current and in speed capability for UCs to work with large-voltage excursions

FIGURE 5 The electric generator.

FIGURE 7 The electric TM.

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TABLE 3 The Electric TM.

Type Voltage rms Rated power Peak power Rated torque Maximum torque Rotational speed No. of pole pairs Magnets Cooling Weight Synchronous with Permanent Magnets 55 V 8 kW 16 kW along 5 min 30 N.m 48 N.m 4,600 r/min 4 NdFeB Liquid 27 kg

FIGURE 9 The electronics of converters. TABLE 4 Ultracapacitors.

Features of a Single Module Producer Maxwell Model BMOD0500 E016 Nominal voltage 16.2 V (six cells by 2.7 V) Capacitance 500 F Spectral energy 3.17 Wh/kg Spectral power 5.4 kW/kg Whole System (Four Modules in Series) Nominal voltage 64.8 V Capacitance 125 F Energy 73 Wh Power 124 kW Size 18.8 L Weight 23 kg

creation of a stable voltage at node of convergence of electrical systems (link) n possibility of torque control of TM. In addition, there are obvious equipments for normal cruising such as reverse driving, energy braking recovery, and pure electric driving. A high-level controller was introduced, which is a programmable logical unit Prometheus. It is a logical multifunctional component produced by Diamond Systems Corporation and includes the following. n Prometheus PC/104 Module: The control unit for industrial processes, scientific instruments, experimental apparatus, and data acquisition. It includes a
n

processor, Ethernet network connection, and equipments for input and output analogical data. It has a flash memory of 2 MB; the first 256 kB of it needs to allocate the BIOS, while the remaining can be used as an external memory, suitable to accept the executable program. n Ruby MM-1612 Module: A D/A signal converter for process control with 16 single-ended outputs. n Jupiter MMSIO Power Supply Board: Provides four levels of stabilized voltages for powering all modules, taking feed from 12-V service battery. n Controller Area Network (CAN) AC2-104 Communication Card: The controller becomes a node for CAN data exchange, allowing the supervisory program to read all the data and send control signals to the components. The communication among components and with the control unit is implemented by a local network that uses the 2.0 A CAN protocol at a speed of 1 Mb/s. The control system of the entire propulsion system is designed as a distributed logic system with a supervision program. It consists of four main subsystems that communicate through CAN. The subsystems are the GU, UC, TM, and Prometheus groups. Figure 11 illustrates the connections between the groups. The four information words that each logical group makes available to CAN (Figure 12) are

FIGURE 8 The front axle of a vehicle with TM and UCs.

FIGURE 10 The diodes of a converter.

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From the GU Group: rotational speed, delivered current, free, and errors W W Tank ICE h h n From the UC Group: UC and link voltage, link current, e e free, and various messages (ok, protection, and errors) Alternator e e l l n From the TM Group: rotational speed, throttle position, brake position, and reverse drive, protection, ac/dc Converter and errors n From Prometheus: set-point GU and TM currents, free, various messages of enabling, and errors from DSP. An analogue output (outside CAN) is used to control 3866 Vdc the ICE throttle, a digital output for the motion of a UCs relay, which gives the consensus for engine start and stop, and a digital input for the pilot to actuate the prodc/dc Converter tection stop of DSP. These three signals are managed by Prometheus (Figure 12). Inverter dc/ac The management of a thermal engine consists of a tor55 Vac Electric Motor que control made by tuning the current supplied by the W W alternator and a closed-loop speed control actuated by h h Differential Gear e e the throttle of ICE. Accordingly, its leverage was motore e ized through a system consisting of a controller, an l l electronically controlled actuator. The management of the hybrid propulsion system is FIGURE 11 The main components and energy flows. realized by the supervision program installed on the Prometheus processor unit that receives data from all sensors, actuators, and devices fitted on the car. The unit has basically the C B dc/dc ac/dc following tasks: A u UC GU Converter Converter n to manage the generator group, N s determining, for a given required n.4 n.4 mission, the power that the GU Words Words has to produce DSP-Based DSP-Based n to manage the level of state of Controller Controller charge (SOC) of the UCs and filtering impulsive power requests to have a sufficient energy ren.4 n.4 serve to cover demand peaks, Words Words while maintaining a sufficient DSP-Based Prometheus capacity to store energy from Controller regenerative braking Pedals n to identify, for each power request for the GU, its best operative conditions for ICE, based on its efficiency maps dc/ac n to perform the appropriate filTM Inverter tering of dynamic operations, particularly regarding the power requests to TM and GU n to create a virtual dashboard to Differential Gear view main measures, eventually permitting some simple manual actuations n to perform safety checks to prevent to exceed electrical and mechanical limit values FIGURE 12 The scheme of an onboard CAN communication.
n

55 Vac

Link 82 V

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to perform data acquisition of all measured parameters during the mission. For implementing the control program, the Matlab Simulink environment was chosen (Figure 13). The software was then compiled and stored on the flash memory of the Prometheus device, which is based on a real-time operating system. During vehicle operation, Prometheus communicates with a host PC, which is installed onboard (a CarPC with a 5-in touch screen was chosen), and implements the virtual dashboard functionalities and acts as a data-storage device. In this way, Prometheus runs the program in real time through CAN acquisition and I/O signals of its electronic boards. The management software consists basically of two types of blocks: blocks that manage and implement the functions of I/O and blocks that define the control logic. The set of blocks by which the software is structured is the following. n CAN Read and CAN Write Blocks and Ruby MM-1612: Needed to manage the input and output functions n TM Block: Deals with the traction and UCs (Figure 14) n GU and ICE Blocks: Involved in the control of motor generator. TM block rules out the demands of throttle and brake by adopting the necessary limitations. In particular, the block allows regenerative braking, which and is progressive with a given law as a function of the position of the brake pedal, enables electric braking only if the speed exceeds a threshold and the throttle pedal is released, and checks whether the current produced by the recovery remains below its limit. The block also controls the capability to absorb the charge from the capacitors and calculates the required recharging power. The GU block manages the generation group and, according to the limits imposed on gradients of capacitors charging and on alternator current, assures that the
n

energy balance in the link is satisfied. This way, it evaluates the power request for the GU group. Then it chooses, based on GU efficiency maps, the best values for its required operative point (rotational speed and torque). Finally, the ICE block receives the value of the set point on GU speed by the GU block and controls it, actuating throttle position within a closed loop by an integral and proportional approach.

Experimental Activity
The utilization of the ENEA dynamometer has been very significant in achieving the goals of stability and performance optimization of the traction system (Figure 15). With this tool, it was possible to monitor and then check in real time the evolution of the main electrical parameters and set the desired running conditions.

GU Mapping
A preliminary activity was the obtainment of an efficiency map of the GU: tests were carried out in 45 different points of the engine map. The result of this first set of tests is summarized in Figure 16(a)(d) as four contour graphs, which are the interpolation of discrete field data collected (denoted by the red dots). It has been possible to define for each desired power the corresponding optimal rotational speed of the group (points indicated by green stars). This curve was imposed as an optimal reference in terms of torque and rotational speed for control software of the GU. In the graphs, n Figure 16(a) shows the hourly consumption of GU, ranging from 420 g/h to 1,920 g/h (at 6 kW, 4,500 r/min). n The measured specific fuel consumption of GU shows a minimum of 270 g/kWh at 4 kW and 3,850 r/min, where the output energy in kilowatthours is measured in ac out of the EG.

CAN Read Accel (%) Brake (%) i GU (A) w TM (rad_s) OK_TM V UC (V) OK_UC OK_DSP OK_ICE w GU (rad_s)

TM Accel (%) Brake (%) SP i TM (A) i GU (A) w TM (rad_s) OK TM V UC (V) SP P TM (W) OK UC CAN Write GU SP P TM (W) SP i GU (A) V UC (V) OK UC OK DSP SP w GU (rad/s) OK ICE SP i TM des (A) SP i GU (A) SP w GU (rad/s) SP TPS (V) w GU (rad/s) ICE Setup CAN-AC2-104 B1 CAN 1/CAN 2 Standard/Extended Ruby-MM-1612 Diamond Analog Output Ruby-MM-1612 1

FIGURE 13 The model of the management software.

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SP i TM (A) 1

T/i TM -K-

2 SP P TM (W)

FIGURE 15 The vehicle in test on a roller bench.

Rate Limiter
n

Accelerator (0% at 0.05, 205 at 0.7, 100% at 1) i Max 0.9447*u 2+ 400 0.607*u0.0054

Regen Brake (0% at 0.05, %05 at 0.7, 100% at 1)

Speed > 2 km/h

0.9447*u 2+ 0.607*u 0.0054

(u 38)/2*400

Brake on

30 i Engine

The specific consumption of the vehicle, measured at constant speed and with ending UCs voltage at the same value than starting one, has a minimum of near 300 g/kWh at 4 kW and 3,850 r/min, where the delivered energy is measured in kilowatthours at the dc entry of the TM. Therefore, consumption does not take into account losses in the inverter and TM itself. Based on a measured average electrical consumption (in subsequent dynamic tests) on the European driving cycle (ECE) of 110 Wh/km, it was possible to estimate the consumption of the vehicle in kilometer/ liter that would be achieved by making the GU work at a fixed point on the ECE. As shown in Figure 16(d), in such a way, you can get a maximum target of specific range for propulsion management system: just a little more than 21 km/L on the ECE. It is obvious, as it will be shown later, that the vehicle could achieve lower consumptions if working on less-expensive conditions in terms of electric power consumption required by vehicle mission.

1 0

+ Min + 7 OK UC OK TM 5

i Max

OK

150

i Max

Dynamic Performance
1

Acc < 5

Some tests were carried out for performance verification. The main performance results are summarized in Table 5.

Braking Characteristics
The brake is set on three stages of operation. 1) Release of the accelerator pedal: The engine brake is set to produce an electrical current outgoing from TM by about 30 A. This corresponds to a constant braking torque if the forward speed exceeds 10 km/h. This value was chosen according to the pleasure of driving experience that must replicate as much as possible the effect of engine braking of a conventional car with a combustion engine. 2) Brake pedal lowered down until you finish the mechanical gaps only and without involving braking friction: A suitable position sensor of pedal position informs the CAN about the percentage of regenerative brake that you are requiring. This provides a

4 w TM (rad/s)

i GU (A) 3 v UC (V) 6

1/100

1/100

FIGURE 14 The TM block.

Accel (%) 1

Brake (%) 2

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Hourly Consumption g/h 8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Steady Motor Generator Specific Consumption g/kWh

P (kW)

(a) Steady Vehicle Specific Consumption g/kWh

(b) ECE-Steady Point-Vehicle Consumption km/L

8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

4. 5 4. 75 3 25 3. 5 3. 75 3 25 3. 5 3. 75 4 25 4. 5 4. 75 1. 5 1. 75 1. 5 1. 75 2 25 2. 5 2. 75 2 25 2. 5 2. 75 4. 3. 3. 2.

P (kW)

w (kr/min) (c)

2.

w (kr/min) (d)

FIGURE 16 Specific consumption of motor generator and selection of optimal operating points. continuous modulation of the current request to the motor (which works as a generator) ranging from 30 to 210 A. This corresponds to a braking capacity proportional to braking percentage. 3) Brake pedal completely and firmly downed: This adds to previous action, the typical friction work of disc brakes. This is the only possible braking in stationary or in reverse driving.

Tests on Urban Part of ECE15

TABLE 5 Vehicle performance.
Pure Electric Range Tests (UCs Voltage Dropping from 65 to 38 V) 833 m starting from still and driving at a steady speed of 10 km/h 776 m starting from still and driving at a steady speed of 20 km/h 652 m starting from still and driving at a steady speed of 30 km/h 505 m starting from still and driving at a steady speed of 40 km/h 400 m in accelerating test starting from still and reaching maximum speed of 52 km/h Pure Electric Maximum Acceleration Tests Constant acceleration from 0 to 50 km/h: adds 10 km/h in 4 s, then 0.7 m/s2 030 m in 9 s 075 m in 14 s 0100 m in 17 s Maximum Speed Test Maximum speed of 68 km/h, with a power limitation on GU of 9 kW

Variable speed tests on the roller test bench were conducted following the urban part of the ECE15, which is characterized by a top speed of 50 km/h (Figures 17 and 18). In these first tests, GU is never stopped during the mission. GU power therefore follows road requirements, properly filtered to limit power gradients for the GU while maintaining a sufficient SOC for the capacitors. This mode will be hereinafter referred to as load following. This preliminary activity led to the following considerations. n Recorded traces of electrical and mechanical measures show the perfect functionality of the UC. In fact, the GU group has a reduced dynamic, and impulsive power surplus (positive and negative) is absorbed by UC. n It results that the operating point of the GU is, for most of the mission, in areas with high fuel consumption. n This is due to the preponderance, in ECE, of phases of arrest and or at reduced power. The use of ICE, such as all Otto engines, is penalized in low power phases

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4.

4 25

50 Speed (km/h) 40 30 20 10 0 0 50 100 (a) 150 200 (%)

150 100 50 0

Accelerator Brake

50

100 (b) Reference Actual

150

200

5 GU (kr/min) 4 iGU (A) Reference Actual 0 50 100 (c) 150 200 3 2 1 0

150 100 50 0

50

100 (d)

150

200

10 Power (kW) 5 VUC (V) 0 5 10 0 50 100 Time (s) (e) TM GU 150 200

60 55 50 45 40 0 50 100 Time (s) (f) 150 200

FIGURE 17 The urban part of ECE15 with load following control strategy. It is evident (compare Figures 18 and 20) that the shift by losses because of air friction for the presence of of operating points is in the lowest fuel consumption zone. the throttle at the inlet manifold. The measured range passes from 14.6 km/L with the load n The control of the GU is quite efficient, both in terms of following strategy to 18.5 km/L with the ON OFF load folcurrent (and torque) and in terms of rotational speed. lowing strategy, with a decrease in consumption of 21%. The speed control was deliberately kept less precise The tests were also repeated limiting in slope the severthan the current one, to avoid too intense transients to ity of transients for power on and power off at 300 W/s. ICE (so obtaining a kind of filtering effect) and also because it was verified that the excessive precision in speed conECE-Steady Point-Vehicle Consumption km/L trol can negatively interact with the 9 precision of current control. This 8.5 8 could also produce (during heavy 7.5 7 load transients) possible instability 6.5 phenomena. 6 5.5 These observations made it 5 possible to conceive a second 4.5 4 control strategy for the GU, which 3.5 compels it to work in the neigh3 2.5 borhood of a power of 4 kW or to 2 remain off. This strategy was 1.5 called ON OFF load following, 1 0.5 since the GU group is either on or 0 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4 4.25 4.5 off, and when it is on is controlled w (kr/min) with the same program strategy than load following (Figures 19 FIGURE 18 The urban part of ECE15 with load following control strategy: working points. and 20).
P (kW)

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50 Speed (km/h) 40 30 20 10 0 0 50 100 (a) 150 200 (%)

150 100 50 0

Accelerator Brake

50

100 (b)

150

200

5 GU (kr/min) 4 iGU (A) 3 2 1 0 0 50 Reference Actual 100 (c) 150 200

150 100 50 0 Reference Actual 0 50 100 (d) 150 200

10 Power (kW) 5 VUC (V) 0 5 10 0 50 100 Time (s) (e) TM GU 150 200

60 55 50 45 40 0 50 100 Time (s) (f) 150 200

FIGURE 19 The urban part of ECE15 with ON OFF load following control strategy. The effect on consumption was indeed light. Additional measurement campaigns are made to assess the effects of these transients on the main vehicle exhaust emissions. The obtained fuel consumption is not far from the maximum target of about 21 km/L, which would be achieved by turning the heat engine in its best operating point just for the time necessary to produce the electricity required by the mission of the vehicle. However, this best value does not take into account the constraints imposed by limited energy content of UCs, whose recharge, as evidenced by the results, could require the delivery by the GU group of a power far greater than optimal for maintaining the SOC sufficiently ECE Steady Point-Vehicle Consumption km/L distant from its minimum limit. Similar tests were conducted (with similar results, as discussed below, in road tests) trying to anchor the ignition and the stop of combustion engine to the achievement of upper and lower limits for the voltage of the UC. The control strategy ON OFF load following was also tested driving at a constant speed (a test called Marathon), providing a greater accuracy and stability of the GU operating point (Figures 21 and 22). 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4 4.25 4.5
w (kr/min)

9 8.5 8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1.5

P (kW)

1.75

Road Tests
FIGURE 20 The urban part of ECE15 with ON OFF load following control strategy: working
points.

To confirm data obtained on the dynamometer rolling bench, we

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50 Speed (km/h) 40 30 20 10 0 0 100 200 300 (a) 400 500 (%)

150 100 50 0 Accelerator Brake

100

200

300 (b)

400

500

5 GU (kr/min) 4 iGU (A) 3 2 1 0 0 100 Reference Actual 200 300 (c) 400 500

150 100 50 0 Reference Actual 0 100 200 300 (d) 400 500

10 Power (kW) 5 VUC (V) 500 0 5 10 0 100 200 TM GU 300 400 Time (s) (e)

60 55 50 45 40 0 100 200 300 400 Time (s) (f) 500

FIGURE 21 The Marathon cycle with ON OFF control strategy.

group is thus allowed to work in a more stable way, with carried out a series of road tests employing the internal certainly beneficial effects on exhaust emissions and on streets at the ENEA Casaccia Research Center. The first area its longevity. Also, tests with ON OFF strategy confirm we chose is rounding a football field that consists of flat and the expectations of low fuel consumption. In these tests, lightly sloping streets, straight sections, very low-speed too, the result of inducing the GU group to work in better curves, and stops. The average road speed of the track is areas has been obtained. very close to 18 km/h. Keeping a driving behavior adequate to the road and the track, we achieve a condition very similar to driving in the urban traffic. It is also comparaContact Speed Test Cycle-Steady Point-Vehicle Consumption km/L ble with an ECE15 test. 9 The length of the track is 710 m 8.5 8 and, in general, has been run across 7.5 several times for each test (Figure 23). 7 6.5 The tests were using both con6 trol strategies and substantially 5.5 5 getting confirmation of fuel con4.5 sumption data obtained at the roll4 3.5 ing bench. As an example, we show 3 some tracks of the tests made with 2.5 2 load following strategy that dem1.5 onstrate the agreement of the sys1 0.5 tem to expectations, particularly 0 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4 4.25 4.5 the ability of UC to replace the GU w (kr/min) in highly dynamical phases, working with positive and negative powers up to 67 kW. The GU FIGURE 22 The Marathon cycle with ON OFF control strategy: working points.
P (kW)

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changes of directionwide ranging but always present or because of the presence of climbs and descents, the results were below expectations (Figures 24 and 25). The latest road tests were performed on the track in Casaccia, which is already used for the competition, ATA Formula Hybrid 2009. The circuit has perfect asphalt and several straight sections. The average speed is more than 18 km/h, and thus the consumptions are slightly higher.

Summary of Results in Terms of Fuel Consumption

In Table 6, the various tests performed and the measured fuel consumption are presented.

Comparisons
We show, for completeness of reporting, some terms of comparison of similar vehicles running on urban conditions: n Volkswagen Fox with gasoline engine: 12.2 km/L n Nissan Micra with gasoline engine: 13.5 km/L n Fiat Panda with gasoline engine: 13.9 km/L n Mini with gasoline engine: 14.7 km/L n Ford Ka with gasoline engine: 15.9 km/L n Opel Agila with gasoline engine: 16.9 km/L n Fiat 500 with 1,300 diesel engine: 17.0 km/L n Smart with gasoline engine: 18.2 km/L n Quadricycle AIXAM with diesel engine: 23.4 km/L. (Data for Fiat 500 and AIXAM have been measured in ENEA, while others are declared by the manufacturer.) Consumption declared by Piaggio for its scooter Beverly, which employs the same engine than Urb-e, is 26 km/L. The scooter however has a mass of 157 kg, while Urb-e weighs 530 kg.

FIGURE 23 The top view of the track. Other road tests were conducted on another circuit obtained in a parking of Casaccia Center. The characteristic of this second track is to be almost perfectly oval, which also allows to perform tests at a constant speed. A trial was conducted on this circuit to run at low speed and using ON OFF strategy to repeat the good results obtained on a dynamometer roller bench. Unfortunately, either because of

Conclusions

The realization program of the Urb-e prototype, even though still improvable on many aspects, has reached a state of completion, and the following conclusions are drawn. n It was demonstrated, through a running vehicle in complete Casaccia Cycle-Steady Point-Vehicle Consumption km/L safety and reliability, the feasi9 bility of the hybrid series trac8.5 8 tion even in the field of city 7.5 cars. The field of application of 7 6.5 this technology has in fact been 6 5.5 so far restricted to large mass 5 vehicles such as buses or trains. 4.5 4 In automotive applications, the 3.5 only ones that have so far found 3 2.5 commercial consensus were par2 allel hybrid cars. 1.5 1 n The possibility of using UCs in 0.5 0 place of batteries has been dem1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4 4.25 4.5 onstrated. These components, w (kr/min) still not well known and little FIGURE 24 The Casaccia cycle with load following control strategy: working points. appreciated, can offer significant
P (kW)

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IEEE VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE | DECEMBER 2011

Casaccia Cycle-Steady Point-Vehicle Consumption km/L 9 8.5 8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1.5

1.75

2.25

2.5

2.75 3 3.25 w (kr/min)

3.5

3.75

4.25

4.5

FIGURE 25 The Casaccia cycle with ON OFF load following control strategy: working points.

TABLE 6 Results in terms of fuel consumption.

Type of Driving Performed on Control Strategy Range (km/L) 14.6 15.5 18.5 21.7 22.4 23.9 25.0 33.1 33.7

ECE15 Free driving ECE15 Free driving Constant speed: Constant speed: Constant speed: Constant speed: Constant speed:

25.6 km/h 24 km/h 25 km/h 20 km/h 17 km/h

Roller bench Street Roller bench Street ATA track Oval track Roller bench Roller bench Roller bench

Load following Load following ON OFF load following ON OFF load following ON OFF load following ON OFF at fixed point ON OFF at fixed point ON OFF at fixed point ON OFF at fixed point

little expense, to get great savings on vehicle operating costs. The series hybrid also allows customization of the program by working on the parameters that can be easily changed. In this way, besides allowing a response of the car best suited to the personality of the driver, you can calibrate the characteristics of the traction system on the road mission. This is particularly useful in a case of repetitive use of the vehicle or in fixed routes when the car is working as a public service. Following these considerations, it can be considered that the proposed series hybrid configuration has proven to be an effective solution applicable to city cars. Knowledge and dissemination of this technology can become an important tool in the hands of designers to improve the economic and productive system of the automobile industry.

P (kW)

Author Information

benefits for their reliability and longevity when compared with batteries. It has been demonstrated that the hybrid series traction allows low fuel consumption. Please keep in mind in evaluating the results obtained that the adopted ICE comes from the motorcycle industry, which, at least until now, was very focused on performance improvement and weight reduction but not in the same way to limit the fuel consumption. An engine designed to this purpose, or diesel or gas fed, could enable still lower consumptions than those achieved with Urb-e. Urb-e would also be an example to encourage small producers to use hybrid architecture. This is suitable to employ commercial components, and their assembly requires no cost-prohibitive manufacturing facilities. In fact, the production of a series hybrid city car is affordable even to small businesses little more than handicraftsman. An illustration of the control strategy has been given. The series hybrid allows a wide possibility of design and software development. Acting on it is possible, with

Ennio Rossi (ennio.rossi@enea.it) graduated in mechanical engineering at the University La Sapienza of Rome in 1978. He joined ENEA in 1984 and until 1994 worked in the wind energy field. From 1994, he has been involved in electric and hybrid vehicles. He is currently working in a program of realization of prototypes of hybrid vehicles. He has published 48 articles on clean mobility. Carlo Villante (carlo.villante@enea.it) completed his Ph.D. degree and is a mechanical engineer of thermal machines, with a special focus on LPG-fueled ICEs. He is a university researcher of ICEs and renewable sources, university professor of renewable energy sources, former professor of safety in industrial plants, and a researcher in ENEA. He is involved in hybrid vehicles and mobility systems group and is an author of more than 40 technical papers.

References
[1] Di Napoli and G. Pede, Hybrid storage system: An optimization case, SAE paper 2002-01-19142002. [2] F. Caricchi, F. Crescimbini, F. G. Capponi, and L. Solero, Study of bidirectional buck-boost converter topologies for application in electrical vehicle motor drives, in Proc. 13th IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conf. and Exposition, Anaheim, Feb. 1998. [3] S. Bersali, M. Ceraolo, and A. Possenti, Techniques to control the electricity generation in a series hybrid electrical vehicle, IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 260266, June 2002. [4] G. Pede, E. Rossi, R. Vellone, R. Giglioli, and M. Ceraolo, Esperienze di controllo e studi di ottimizzazione energetica per un veicolo ibrido serie, RT/2002/4/IDROCOMB ENEA.

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