ME 306 Manufacturing Technology II

S. N. Joshi
Office: D 203 E-mail: snj@iitg.ernet.in Phone: 2678

Course syllabus
Metal Cutting: mechanics, tools (material, temperature, wear, and life considerations), geometry and chip formation, surface finish and machinability, optimization Machine tool: generation and machining principles, Setting and Operations on machines: lathe, milling (including indexing), shaping, slotting, planing, drilling, boring, broaching, grinding (cylindrical, surface, centre-less), thread rolling and gear cutting machines Tooling: jigs and fixtures, principles of location and clamping Batch production: capstan and turret lathes; CNC machines Finishing: micro-finishing (honing, lapping, super-finishing) Unconventional methods: electro-chemical, electro-discharge, ultrasonic, LASER, electron beam, water jet machining, Rapid prototyping and rapid tooling

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Course syllabus
Texts: 1. G Boothroyd, Fundamentals of Metal Cutting Machine Tools, Tata McGraw Hill, 1975 2. Production Technology, H M T Publication Tata McGraw Hill, 1980. 3. P C Pandey and C K Singh, Production Engineering Sciences, Standard Publishers Ltd. 1980. 4. A Ghosh and A K Mallik, Manufacturing Science, Wiley Eastern, 1986.

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Course structure
Quiz(s) and tutorials: 15% Course project: 15% Mid-semester exam: 25% End-semester exam: 45%

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Machining
Machining of materials
Higher surface finish Close tolerances Complex geometric shapes

Metal cutting: expensive one

INDISPENSABLE

Substantial amount of work removal from workpiece Lot of energy will be expended
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Machine tools
Machine tool (Mother of machines): It is a machine with a tool(s) and tool holding device produces the job of required dimensions (size), shape, and surface finish. Machine: Converting the source of power from one form to the other. Manufacturing in 21st Century: Microelectronics technology- CNC technology
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Brief history of machine tools

1775 - John Wilkinson- Horizontal Boring Machine 1794 - Henry Maudsley - Engine Lathe 1817 Roberts Planer 1818 - Eli Whitney - Milling Machine 1840 - John Nasmyth - Drill Press 1845 - Stephen Fitch - Turret Lathe 1869 - Christopher Spencer - Automatic Turret Lathe 1880 - Surface Grinder 1952 Numerical Control

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Manufacturing processes
Casting , Metal working and Metal removal (machining) processes Casting and metal working processes converts first shape into intermediate shape Metal removal processes converts Intermediate into final shape Assembly- mating surfaces: required forms and surface finish

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Material removal processes

(20th Century)

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Machine tools
Turning machines (Lathes) Drilling machines Boring machines Milling machines Grinding machines Shaping and Planing machines Gear cutting machines Sawing machines Unconventional machining machines

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Some facts
Metal cutting operations share about 80% of total material removal About 15% of material removed is converted into chips Research in Metal cutting
Before 19th century Tresca, Thime maalock etc. After 19th century F. W. Taylor (ASME, 1907)

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Rake and clearance angles

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Rake angles

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Chip formation
The metal in front of the tool rake face gets immediately compressed first elastically and then plastically. The actual separation of the metal starts as a yielding or fracture, depending upon the cutting conditions, starting from the cutting tool tip. The chip after sliding over the tool rake face would be lifted away from the tool, and the resultant curvature of the chip is termed http://electron.mit.edu/~gsteele/mirrors/www.nmis.org/EducationTr as chip curl.
aining/machineshop/physics/intro.html
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Possible deformations

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Piispanen's Model
He considers the undeformed metal as a stack of cards which would slide over one another as the wedge shaped tools moves under these cards. A practical example is when paraffin is cut, block wise slip is clearly evident.
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Types of chips
Discontinuous chip Continuous chip Continuous chip with built-up-edge (BUE)

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Discontinuous chips

When brittle materials like cast iron are cut, the deformed material gets fractured very easily and thus the chip produced is in the form of discontinuous segments.

Cutting force becomes unstable with the variation coinciding with the fracturing cycle. Higher depths of cut (large chip thickness), low cutting speeds and small rake angles are likely to produce discontinuous chips.
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Cutting forces in discontinuous chip formation

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Continuous chip
Continuous chips are normally produced when machining steel or ductile metals at high cutting speeds. Continuous chip is possible because of the ductility of metal flows along the shear plane instead of rupture. Sharp cutting edge, small chip thickness (fine feed), large rake angle, high cutting speed, ductile work materials and less friction between chip tool interface through efficient lubrication.
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Continuous chip with built-up edge (BUE)

When the friction between tool and chip is high while machining ductile materials, some particles of chip adhere to the tool rake face near the tool tip. When such sizeable material piles up on the rake face, it is termed as built up edge (BUE). As the size of BUE grows larger, it becomes unstable and parts of it gets removed while cutting. The removed portions of BUE partly adheres to the chip underside and partly to the machined surface

Low speed, high feed rate, low rake angle Hardenability

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BUE cycle

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Shear zone
Thin shear plane model
Easier for analysis

Thick shear plane model

More realistic

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Orthogonal cutting
Oblique cutting is more practical while orthogonal cutting is convenient for analysis.

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Example of orthogonal cutting

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Mechanics of orthogonal cutting

The current analysis is based on Merchant's thin shear plane model considering the minimum energy principle. This model would be applicable at very high cutting speeds, which are generally practised in production.

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Assumptions
The tool is perfectly sharp and no contact along the clearance face. The surface where shear is occurring is a plane. The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of motion and generates a plane surface as the work moves past it. The chip does not flow to either side or no side spread. Uncut chip thickness is constant. Width of the tool is greater than the width of the work. A continuous chip is produced without any BUE. Work moves with a uniform velocity. The stresses on the shear plane are uniformly distributed.
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Merchants analysis
Fv-Force perpendicular to the primary tool motion (thrust force) Fs-Force along the shear plane Ns-Force normal to the shear plane F -Frictional force along the rake face N -Normal force perpendicular to the rake face R = R'
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Free body diagram of chip

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Tool materials
Need
to meet the growing demands for high productivity, quality and economy of machining to enable effective and efficient machining of the exotic materials that are coming up with the rapid and vast progress of science and technology for precision and ultra-precision machining for micro and even nano machining demanded by the day and future.
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Capability and overall performance of cutting tools

Cutting tool materials Cutting tool geometry Proper selection of materials and geometry Machining conditions and environment

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Productivity of various cutting tool materials

(Courtesy NPTEL, IIT Kharagpur, http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcoursecontents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Manuf%20Proc%20II/New_index1.html) Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

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Chronological developments of cutting tool materials (Courtesy NPTEL, IIT Kharagpur http://nptel.iitm.ac.i n/courses/Webcour secontents/IIT%20Kh aragpur/Manuf%20 Proc%20II/New_ind ex1.html)
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Cutting tool materials: required properties

Higher hardness Hot hardness Wear resistance Toughness Low friction Better thermal characteristics

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Carbon tool steels

C (0.6 to 1.5%) + Mn + Si + W + Mo + Cr + V Earliest tool steel After 200o C, not working Low speed cutting, 0.15 m/s Machining of wood, brass, aluminium Easy to manufacture angles by grinding

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HSS (High speed steel)

Taylor and white in early of the 20th Century Machining speed 0.5 m/s, 3 to 5 times more than Carbon tool steel W+Mo+V+Cr High hardness and good abrasion resistance High hot hardness After 650o, hardness drops Can be made by using Powder Metallurgy technique
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Typical compositions of HSS

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Variation of hardness of various cutting tool materials

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Cast cobalt alloys (Stellites)

Cutting of non-ferrous metals Cr + Mo + W + C + Mn + Si + Ni + Cobalt Can be manufactured by powder metallurgy technique Form tools At elevated temperatures provides good hardness and toughness Provides cutting speed of about 25% more than HSS
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Typical compositions of Stellites

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Cemented carbides
1926, Germany: important invention in cutting tool industry, Contributes largest % share nowadays Cemented carbides are produced by the cold compaction of the tungsten carbide (WC) powder in a binder such as cobalt (Co), followed by liquid-phase sintering. High hot hardness. Higher Young's modulus. Carbides are more brittle and expensive The usual composition of the straight grade carbides is 6wt% Co and 94wt% WC with the cobalt composition ranging from 5 to 12wt%.
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Cemented carbides
Addition of titanium carbide (TiC) increases the hot hardness, wear resistance, and resistance to thermal deformation, but decreases the strength. The usual composition is about 525wt%. Choose a grade with the lowest cobalt content and the finest grain size consistent with adequate strength to eliminate chipping. Use straight WC grades if cratering, seizure or galling are not experienced in case of work materials other than steels.
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Cemented carbides
To reduce cratering and abrasive wear when machining steel, use grades containing TiC. For heavy cuts in steel where high temperature and high pressure use a multicarbide grade containing W-Ti-Ta and/or lower binder content Cemented carbides being expensive are available in insert form in different shapes such as triangle, square, diamond, and round.
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Tool-insert assembly

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Coated carbides (WW II)

Hard and refractory coatings on conventional tool materials Since late 60's thin (about 5 m) coating of TiN has been used on cemented carbide tools. Ceramic coatings used are hard materials and therefore provide a good abrasion resistance. They also have excellent high temperature properties such as high resistance to diffusion wear, superior oxidation wear resistance, and high hot hardness.
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Schematic of multi-coated Hardness and cemented carbide refractoriness

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique Ion-by-ion deposition

Strength and toughness

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Coated carbides

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Coated carbides

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Role of coating even after rupture

http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcoursecontents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Manuf%20Proc%20II/New_index1.html Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

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Coated carbides
Share : 40% of all cutting tools used in industry Multiple coatings
Higher tool life Broader range of materials

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Ceramics
Ceramics are essentially alumina (Al2O3) based high refractory materials introduced specifically for high speed machining of difficult to machine materials and cast iron. These can withstand very high temperatures, chemically more stable and have higher wear resistance than the other cutting tool materials. The main problems of ceramic tools are their low strength, poor thermal characteristics and the tendency to chipping.
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Diamond
Diamond is the hardest known (Knoop hardness ~ 8000 kg/mm2) material that can be used as a cutting tool material. It has most of the desirable properties of a cutting tool material such as high hardness, good thermal conductivity, low friction, non-adherence to most materials, and good wear resistance. Artificial diamonds which are basically polycrystalline (PCD) in nature. These are extensively used in industrial application because they can be formed for any given shape with a substrate of cemented carbide.
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Diamond tool

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Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)

Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) next in hardness only to diamond (Knoop hardness ~ 4700 kg/mm2). It is not a natural material but produced in the laboratory using a high temperature/ high pressure process similar to the making of artificial diamond. These are more expensive than cemented carbides but in view of the higher accuracy and productivity possible for difficult to machine materials, they are used in special applications.
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Cutting tool materials

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Cutting temperatures
Sources of generation
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/ Webcoursecontents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Ma nuf%20Proc%20II/New_index1 .html

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Distribution of heat generated

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Effects of high cutting temperatures

Rapid tool wear, reduces tool life Plastic deformation of the cutting edge Thermal flaking and fracturing of cutting edges Formation of BUE Dimensional inaccuracies of job due to thermal distortion Surface damage by oxidation, rapid corrosion and burning Induction of thermal residual stresses and microcracks on machined surface.
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Cutting temperature distribution

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Effect of cutting speed on Temperature

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Effect of feed rate on cutting temperature

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