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COMPANY PROFILE

INTRODUCTION
Today, BSNL is the number one telecommunication company and the largest public sector undertaking of India and its responsibilities includes improvement of the already impeccable quality of telecom services, expansion of telecom services in all villages and instilling confidence among its customers. Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. formed in October, 2000, is World's 7th largest Telecommunications Company. Presently it is one of the largest & leading public sector units in India.

Telephone Exchange, Ambala Cantt; has following divisions: Power Plan M.D.F Switching Units Transmission Unit Broadband Centre Customer Care Cell

Telecommunication refers to exchange of information between any two points via a medium. Information can be signals, images, data, voice etc. Medium can be copper wire, cable, directional radio links, satellite, optical fiber etc.

2.1 Switching Exchanges 2.1.1 Electronic Exchange:


To overcome the limitation of manual switching exchange, electromechanical components were developed. The first automatic exchange appeared in 1892 in La Pote (Indiana). Though it improved upon the performance of a manual exchange, it still had a number of disadvantages, viz. a large number of mechanical parts, limited availability, inflexibility, bulky in size etc. As a result of further research and development in 1926, a large no. of moving parts in the registers, market, translator etc. were replaced by a block of single computer. The first digital electronic local exchange E-10B was commissioned in a public telephone network in France in 1970. The most rapid adoption of digital switching took place from 1974 to 1976 in the field of customer them to new to telephone switching field introduce successful products. In the field of telecommunications, a telephone exchange or telephone switch is a system of electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical building used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make telephone calls "work" in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech information. Power without interruption is very necessary for the whole system. The power plant is a very vital organ of main and RLU exchanges. The main E-10B exchange power plant requires all the units of regular power plant used in other exchanges for -48 volt DC supply and in peripheral devices. The telephone is a telecommunications device that transmits and receives sound, most commonly the human voice. It is one of the most common household appliances in the developed world, and has long been considered indispensable to business, industry and government. The word "telephone" has been adapted to many languages and is widely recognized around the world. The device operates principally by converting sound waves into electrical signals, and electrical signals into sound waves. Such signals when conveyed through telephone networks and often converted to electronic and/or optical signals enable nearly every telephone user to communicate with nearly every other worldwide.

2.1.2 Basic principles:


A traditional landline telephone system, also known as "plain old telephone service" (POTS), commonly handles both signaling and audio information on the same twisted pair of insulated wires: the telephone line. Although originally designed for voice communication, the system has been adapted for data communication such as Telex, Fax and Internet communication. The signaling equipment consists of a bell, beeper, light or other device to alert the user to incoming calls, and number buttons or a rotary dial to enter a telephone number for outgoing calls. A twisted pair line is preferred as it is more effective at rejecting electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk than an untwisted pair. The telephone consists of an alerting device, usually a ringer, that remains connected to the phone line whenever the phone is "on hook", and other components which are connected when the phone is "off hook". These include a transmitter (microphone), a receiver (speaker) and other circuits for dialing, filtering, and amplification. A calling party wishing to speak to another party will pick up the telephone's handset, thus operating a button switch or "switchhook", which puts the telephone into an active (off hook) state by connecting the transmitter (microphone), receiver (speaker) and related audio components to the line. This circuitry has a low resistance (less than 300 Ohms) which causes DC current (48 volts, nominal) from the telephone exchange to flow through the line. The exchange detects this DC current, attaches a digit receiver circuit to the line, and sends a dial tone to indicate readiness. On a modern telephone, the calling party then presses the number buttons in a sequence corresponding to the telephone number of the called party. The buttons are connected to a tone generator circuit that produces DTMF tones which end up at a circuit at the exchange. The phone's ringer is connected to the line through a capacitor, a device which blocks the flow of DC current but permits AC current. This constitutes a mechanism whereby the phone draws no current when it is on hook, but exchange circuitry can send an AC voltage down the line to activate the ringer for an incoming call. When a landline phone is inactive or "on hook", the circuitry at the telephone exchange detects the absence of DC current flow and therefore "knows" that the phone is on hook with only the alerting device electrically connected to the line.

When a party initiates a call to this line, and the ringing signal is transmitted. When the called party picks up the handset, they actuate a double-circuit switchhook which simultaneously disconnects the alerting device and connects the audio circuitry to the line. This, in turn, draws DC current through the line, confirming that the called phone is now active. The exchange circuitry turns off the ring signal, and both phones are now active and connected through the exchange. The parties may now converse as long as both phones remain off hook. When a party "hangs up", placing the handset back on the cradle or hook, DC current ceases to flow in that line, signaling the exchange to disconnect the call. Calls to parties beyond the local exchange are carried over "trunk" lines which establish connections between exchanges. In modern telephone networks, fiber-optic cable and digital technology are often employed in such connections. Satellite technology may be used for communication over very long distances. The resulting current is transmitted along the telephone line to the local exchange then on to the other phone (via the local exchange or a larger network), where it passes through the coil of the receiver. The varying voltage in the coil produces a corresponding movement of the receiver's diaphragm, reproducing the sound waves present at the transmitter. From the telephone Exchange one pair of cables is connected to the telephone called Tip and Ring. The potential drop across tip and ring is always -48V dc. A telephone can be in 2 states:
1. ON HOOK: Receiver is on the telephone set.

In telephony, the term on-hook has the following meanings: The condition that exists when a telephone or other user instrument is not in use, i.e., when idle waiting for a call. Note: on-hook originally referred to the storage of an idle telephone receiver, i.e., separate earpiece, on a switchhook. The weight of the receiver depresses the spring loaded switchhook thereby disconnecting the idle instrument (except its bell) from the telephone line. One of two possible signaling states, such as tone or no tone, or ground connection versus battery connection. Note: if on-hook pertains to one state, off-hook pertains to the other. The idle state, i.e., an open loop of a subscriber line or PBX user loop.

An operating state of a telecommunication circuit in which transmission is disabled and a high impedance, or "open circuit", is presented to the link by the end instrument(s). Note: during the on-hook condition, the link is responsive to ringing signals.

2. OFF HOOK: Due to capacitor action of C and high impedance (DC resistance more than 10 mega ohms), it acts as an open circuit though 48V dc is always present across the ringer circuit. In telephony, the term off-hook has the following meanings: The condition that exists when a telephone or other user instrument is in use, i.e., during dialing or communicating. Note: off-hook originally referred to the condition that prevailed when telephones had a separate earpiece (i.e., receiver), which hung from its switchhook until the user wished to activate it. The weight of the receiver no longer depresses the spring loaded switchhook, thereby connecting the instrument to the telephone line. One of two possible signaling states, such as tone or no tone and ground connection versus battery connection. Note that if off-hook pertains to one state, on-hook pertains to the other. The active state, i.e., a closed loop of a subscriber line or PBX user loop. An operating state of a communications link in which data transmission is enabled either for (a) voice or data communications or (b) network signaling. When the exchange sends the ring signal to telephone, approximately 75V ac rms (frequency from 15Hz to 70 Hz) is sent over -48V dc (superimposes over -48V dc). Due to ac signals, dc blocking capacitor in ringer circuit works as short circuit. So circuit is complete and it works.

Figure 2.1 Telephone Circuit If the receiver is picked up when the telephone is ringing, cradle switch gets connected to the dialing and speech circuit which is of very low resistance approximately 200 ohms; this will vary in practice from between 150 to 1000 ohms. This sudden change from high impedance to low resistance is sensed by the telephone exchange that the telephone is in off hook position and its stops sending the ring signal. Due to voltage drop across low resistance, 20ma dc is generated in circuit (though a constant current sources circuit in the line card of exchange takes care of it). Once telephone is in off hook position, it sends dial tone to the telephone, indicating the user (subscriber) that exchange is ready to take the input (dialing). When a telephone is taken off the hook, the line voltage drops from 48 volts to between 9 volts and 3 volts, depending on the length of the loop. If another telephone in parallel is taken off the hook, the current consumption of the line will remain the same and the voltage across the terminals of both telephones will drop.

2.1.3 Dialing:
Dialing can be of two types: Pulse/Decadic type DTMF, (which is of less error rate and very fast)

Pulse type:

Once telephone is in off-hook position means 20 ma is present in the circuit. In Decadic dialing, 20ma dc which is present in telephone gets cut in a pre-defined speed and interval (dialing circuit in telephone takes care of it) means circuit is toggling from low resistance to high resistance and vice versa. [International standard for (speed: pulses per second) pps is 10. make/break ratio is 33/66 percent and IDP is 400 milliseconds]. Most fixed-line phones now use dual tone multi frequency (DTMF, also called touch tone or tone dialing) rather than pulse dialing, but most telephone equipment retains support for pulse dialing for backward compatibility. Some models of keypad phones have a tone/pulse switch which can be toggled to switch between the two, making these phones usable in areas where DTMF dialing is not accepted.

DTMF dialing:
DTMF signaling is used for telecommunication signaling over analog telephone lines in the voice-frequency band between telephone handsets and other communications devices and the switching center. DTMF (Dual Tone Multi Frequency) dialing works in a different manner. It is a matrix (telephone keypad). For example, say 4 is dialed means column 1 and row 2 are shorted & pre-defined dual frequencies (the 770 Hz tones) are sent together to the telephone exchange which decodes that 4 is dialed from this pair of tones. Speech (Transmission/Receiver) is converted to an electrical signal which rides on 20ma dc & it is also used to provide bias current to the carbon granule microphone and receiver.

Figure 2.2 DTMF keypad matrix The impedance of the microphone varies according to the speech thereby causing modulation if the direct current which is demodulated at the receiving end in the receiver circuit of the telephone.

2.1.4 Digital Transmission of Analog Signals:


We will begin by describing the process for converting an analog voice waveform into a digital format. Analog Waveform (Loudspeaker): An analog waveform is illustrated below. It is represented in this example as the motion of the diaphragm of a loudspeaker (and the corresponding motion of the air that contacts it) expressed as a function of time.

Figure 2.3 Analog waveform

The conversion of this analog waveform into a digital voice channel takes place in four steps as described:

Step 1Take a Sample


At the time indicated by the sample command we capture the value of the waveform. In this example it is 48.

Figure 2.4 Sampling

Step 2Digitize the Sample into One Byte


We then convert that decimal analog value into its binary equivalent. In this case 48 (base 10) = 0011000 (base 2)

Figure 2.5 Digitizing

Step 3Push the 8 Bits out One at a Time


We convert the 8-bit binary number (Byte) into a digital electrical signal.

Figure 2.6 Quantizing

Step 4Do it Again


We repeat the process every .000125 seconds (8000 repetitions/second).

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2.1.5 Switching:
Switches connect to the subscriber for speech. Basically, these perform two types of functionsPrimary functions include routing, call charging; Auxiliary functions include announcement of dial tone, busy tone etc.

2.1.6 Role of a switch:


With the introduction of switching systems, the subscribers are not connected directly to one another; instead they are connected to the switching center. The main function of the switch is to provide connectivity. When a subscriber wants to communicate with another, a connection is established between the two at the switching system. In other words, the switch or the exchange provides the connectivity between the two subscribers. In this configuration, only one pair of wires per subscriber is required between the subscriber and the switching system and the total no. of such pairs is equal to the capacity of the exchange. There are various functions performed by the switching system in establishing and releasing connections. These are called control functions. E-10B, C-DOT and OCB are various switching units which fulfill these tasks.

2.1.7 Switch design:


While traditionally, telephone switches connected physical circuits (e.g., wire pairs), modern telephone switches use a combination of space- and time-division switching. In other words, each voice channel is represented by a time slot (say 1 or 2) on a physical wire pair (A or B). In order to connect two voice channels (say A1 and B2) together, the telephone switch interchanges the information between A1 and B2. It switches both the time slot and physical connection. To do this, it exchanges data between the time slots and connections 8000 times per second, under control of digital logic that cycles through electronic lists of the current connections. Using both types of switching makes a modern switch far smaller than either a space or time switch could be by itself.

E-10B:

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The E-10B system is the culmination of a massive R&D effort in the field of switching system over many years in FRANCE. The E-10B was imported from the manufacturer M/S CIT ALCATEL of France. These equipments have been installed at 23 stations. The first system (model) was commissioned at ALTTC1 Ghaziabad in July 84 & first commercial E-10B local exchange of 10,000 lines capacity was commissioned at Bombay in April 85. The version supplied to India is the 384-pcm versions. At present in Ambala SSA total 171 Exchanges are working with a capacity of 221484 lines. The total working lines are 170252 lines. The Alcatel 1000 E10 (OCB283) exchange, also known by its shorter name as the E10 (OCB283), is designed to cater for evolving networks and the need to rationalize equipment operation. Its modular architecture means that new services can be added and processing capacity can be increased without interrupting operation of the exchange.

2.2 OCB Architecture:


The SMs (control stations) are the hardware modules of the E10 (OCB283). An SM is a set of boards in a sub rack which are powered via converters. The boards supporting the processors and the memory boards are linked together via a bus. Each SM is connected to the communication local area network.

2.2.1 Types of SM: 1. SMT (Trunk Control Station):


It connects the PCM links.

Functions Performed:
Connection and management of 128 x 2Mbit/s PCM links, Management of exchange termination unit, Reception and transmission of signaling, Pre-processing of channel-associated signaling.

2. SMA (Auxiliary Equipment Control Station):

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It supports the auxiliary functions.

Functions Performed:
Call processing, Reception of the frequencies (inter-switch signaling), Processing of the frequencies (inter-switch signaling).

3. SMX (Matrix Control Station):


It comprises the switching network.

Functions Performed:
Connection between any incoming channel and any outgoing channel, Simultaneous distribution of tones and recorded announcements to more than one outgoing channel.

4. SMM (Maintenance Control Station):


It operates and maintains the system.

Functions Performed:
Storage of system data, Man-machine communication processing, Overall initialization and re-initialization.

5. SCH (High Rate Matrix Control Station): Function Performed:


Comprises the switching network.

6. SMC (Main Control Station):


The switching functions (translation, charging etc.) are supported by the main control station.

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Role of main control station:


The Main Control Station (SMC) supports the following functions: MR (Call handler): call processing, TR (Translator): database, TX (Charging): charging for communications, MQ (Message Distributor): message distribution, GX (Matrix System Handler): management of connections, PC (SS7 Controller): signaling network management.

According to the configuration and the traffic to be handled, one or more of these functions may be supported by the same Main Control Station. Switching of voice channels is accomplished in digital domain. The two types of switch are time division and space division, these are described as under:

Time Division - Time Slot Interchange


The TSI switch can change the order of time slots (voice channels) in a T1 frame as illustrated below:

Figure 2.7 Time Division - Time Slot Interchange

Space Division - Time Multiplexed Switch


A TMS switch can move a voice channel from a particular time slot in one frame to the same time slot in a different frame as illustrated:

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Figure 2.8 Space Division - Time Multiplexed Switch

2.2.2 Signaling:
Signaling in the area of telephony implies the transmission technology for the transfer of the signals. All the signals which are needed for setting up of the calls and other services offered by the exchange. In the field of telecommunication, signaling has the following meanings: The use of signals for controlling communications. In a telecommunications network, the information exchange concerning the establishment and control of a connection and the management of the network, in contrast to user information transfer. The sending of a signal from the transmitting end of a circuit to inform a user at the receiving end that a message is to be sent.

2.2.3 Need & Importance of signaling:


The main purpose of using signaling in modern telecom networks, where different network nodes must cooperate and communicate with each other, is to enable transfer of control information between nodes in connection with all of the following: Traffic control procedures as set-up, supervision, and release of telecommunication connections and services, Database communication, like, database queries concerning specific services, roaming in cellular networks, etc, Network management procedures, for example, blocking or deblocking trunks, Monitoring the line condition On hook / off hook,

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Call attempt, Call disconnect, Call answer etc, Request the distant exchange for call connection / routing, Called subscriber busy signal to originating exchange etc.

The basic information to be interchanged between a subscriber and an exchange or between exchanges to process a call is called signaling. Signaling is required to draw the attention of the exchange to establish or release a connection. Signaling is the means by which two points (i.e. subscriber & exchange or two exchanges) understand each others requirements for establishing or releasing a connection. Signaling exists in the telephone network to expedite telephone traffic between subscribers. This is a complex process and places high demand for fast and reliable signal transfer between exchanges and between exchange and subscribers. Thus we have a definite need for signaling and for efficient technology for signal transfer. Signaling is done in both the directions Forward Backward

2.2.4 Types of Signaling:


Traditionally, external signaling is divided into two basic types: Access signaling (for example, Subscriber Loop Signaling) This means signaling between subscriber terminals (telephone) and the local exchange. Trunk signaling (that is, Inter-Exchange Signaling) This is used for signaling between exchanges.

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Figure 2.9 Types of Signaling Access Signaling: There are many types of access signaling, for example, PSTN analogue subscriber line signaling, ISDN Digital Subscriber Signaling System (DSS1), and signaling between the MS and the network in the GSM system. Signaling on the analogue subscriber line between a telephony subscriber and the Local Exchange (LE) is performed by means of on/off hook signals, dialed digits, information tones (dial tone, busy tone, etc.), recorded announcements, and ringing signals. The dialed digits can be sent in two different ways: as decadic pulses (used for old-type rotary-dial telephones), or as a combination of two tones (used for modern pushbutton telephones). The latter system is known as the Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF). The information tones (dial tone, ringing tone, busy tone, etc.) are audio signals used to keep the calling party (the Asubscriber) informed about what is going on in the network during the set-up of a call. Digital Subscriber Signaling System No. 1 (DSS1) is the standard access signaling system used in ISDN. It is also called a D-channel signaling system. D-channel signaling is defined for digital access lines only. The signaling protocols are based on the OSI (Open System Interconnection) reference model, layers 1 to 3. Consequently, the signaling messages are transferred as data packets between the user terminal and the local exchange.

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Due to the much more complex service environment at the ISDN users site, the amount of signaling information and the number of variations differ greatly from the arrangement used for the ordinary telephone subscriber signaling, described above. This fact is reflected in the number of parameters included in D-channel messages. The Inter-exchange Signaling information is usually transported on one of the time slots in a PCM link, either in association with the speech channel or independently. There are two commonly used methods for Inter Exchange Signaling: 1. CAS 2. CCS However, on basis of trunk signaling, signaling can be of two types. 1. Subscriber exchange signaling 2. Exchange exchange signaling

Subscriber exchange signaling:


The different types of information exchanged between a subscriber and the exchange are listed below:

1. Calling subscriber (A) exchange


Subscriber line condition, i.e., hook switch position. Called subscribers (B) number.

2. Exchange Subscriber (A)


Exchange ready to receive Bs number Congestion / Routing Line condition of B ringing / engaged Reversal (CCB) / pulses for subscriber premises meter

3. Exchange Subscriber (B)


Ring

4. Called subscriber (B) exchange


Hook switch position All these above mentioned information are exchanged between the subscriber and the exchange in the form of changes in the line condition, dialing and various tones. 18

Exchange Exchange signaling:


When the called subscriber is connected to a different exchange other than that of the calling subscriber, then signaling between exchanges is required to establish / disconnect the connection. This signaling is mainly for informing the exchanges involved of what is to be done to process the call. The signaling between exchanges can be done by two different techniques namely: Channel Associated Signaling - CAS Common Channel Signaling CCS Regardless of the signaling technique used, there are a number of signals that must always be exchanged. This is called the basic information.

2.3 Transmission:
With some 750 million telephone connections in use today and then umber of Internet users continuing to grow rapidly, network providers have been faced with the task of trying to deal effectively with increased telephone traffic. In response to the growing market needs a number of methods and technologies have been developed within the last 50 years to address these market needs in as economical a way as possible. In the field of communications engineering, this resulted in the introduction of frequency division multiplex (FDM) systems whereby each individual telephone channel was modulated with a different carrier frequency. The signals could then be shifted into different frequency ranges enabling several telephone connections to be transmitted over a single cable. Modern telephone systems employ digital transmission, in which time-division multiplexing (TDM). Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a type of digital or (rarely) analog multiplexing in which two or more signals or bit streams are transferred apparently simultaneously as sub-channels in one communication channel, but are physically taking turns on the channel. The time domain is divided into several recurrent timeslots of fixed length, one for each sub-channel. A sample byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is transmitted during timeslot 1, sub-channel 2 during timeslot 2, etc. One TDM frame consists of one timeslot per sub-channel. After the last sub-

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channel the cycle starts all over again with a new frame, starting with the second sample, byte or data block from sub-channel 1, etc. is used instead of FDM.

2.3.1 Transmission using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):


In circuit switched networks such as the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) there exists the need to transmit multiple subscribers calls along the same transmission medium. To accomplish this, network designers make use of TDM. TDM allows switches to create channels, also known as tributaries, within a transmission stream. A standard DS0 voice signal has a data bit rate of 64 kbit/s, determined using Nyquists sampling criterion. TDM takes frames of the voice signals and multiplexes them into a TDM frame which runs at a higher bandwidth. So if the TDM frame consists of n voice frames, the bandwidth will be n*64 kbit/s. Each voice sample timeslot in the TDM frame is called a channel. In European systems, TDM frames contain 30 digital voice channels, and in American systems, they contain 24 channels. Both standards also contain extra bits (or bit timeslots) for signaling (see Signaling System 7) and synchronization bits. Multiplexing more than 24 or 30 digital voice channels is called higher order multiplexing. Higher order multiplexing is accomplished by multiplexing the standard TDM frames. For example, a European 120 channel TDM frame is formed by multiplexing four standard 30 channel TDM frames. At each higher order multiplex, four TDM frames from the immediate lower order are combined, creating multiplexes with a bandwidth of n x 64 kbit/s, where n = 120, 480, 1920, etc. With the advent of semiconductor circuits and the continuing demand for telephone capacity, a new type of transmission method, pulse code modulation (PCM) was developed in the 1960s. With PCM (multiple use of a single line by means of digital time-domain multiplexing), the analog telephone signal is first sampled at a bandwidth of 3.1 kHz, quantized and encoded then transmitted at a bit rate of 64 kbps. When 30 such coded channels are collected together into a frame along with the necessary signaling information, a transmission rate of 2048kbps is achieved.

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2.3.2 Digital Multiplex Hierarchy:


In telecommunications, a digital multiplex hierarchy is a hierarchy consisting of an ordered repetition of tandem digital multiplexers that produce signals of successively higher data rates at each level of the hierarchy. Digital multiplexing hierarchies may be implemented in many different configurations depending on; (a) The number of channels desired, (b) The signaling system to be used, and (c) The bit rate allowed by the communications media. Some currently available digital multiplexers have been designated as Dl-, DS-, or Mseries, all of which operate at T-carrier rates. In the design of digital multiplex hierarchies, care must be exercised to ensure interoperability of the multiplexers used in the hierarchy. The demand for greater bandwidth however, meant that more stages of multiplexing were needed throughout the world. A practically synchronous, or plesiosynchronous, digital hierarchy was developed in response. As there are slight differences in timing signals, justification or stuffing is necessary when forming the multiplexed signals. Earlier used this Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) is a technology used in telecommunications networks to transport large quantities of data over digital transport equipment such as fiber optic and microwave radio systems. The term plesiochronous is derived from Greek plesio, meaning near, and chronos, time, and refers to the fact that PDH networks run in a state where different parts of the network are nearly, but not quite perfectly, synchronized. PDH allowed transmission of data streams that nominally run at the same rate, but allow some variation on the speed around a nominal rate. PDH is typically being replaced by Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) or Synchronous optical networking (SONET) equipment in most telecommunications networks. Towards the end of the 1980s, the synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) was introduced, paving the way for a worldwide, unified network structure. SDH is ideal particularly for network providers, a sit deliver sane efficient, economical network management system that can be easily adapted to accommodate the demand for bandwidth-hungry applications and services.

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Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Lower rates can also be transferred via an electrical interface. The method was developed to replace the PDH system for transporting larger amounts of telephone calls and data traffic over the same fibre wire without synchronization problems. With the introduction of PCM technology in the 1960s, communications networks were gradually converted to digital technology during the years that followed. To cope with the demand for ever-higher bit rates, a multiplex hierarchy or plesiosynchronous digital hierarchy (PDH) evolved. The bit rates start with the basic multiplex rate of 2 Mbps with further stages of 8, 34, and 140 Mbps. In response to the demand for increased bandwidth, reliability, and high quality service, SDH developed steadily during the 1980s eliminating many of the disadvantages inherent in PDH. In turn, network providers began to benefit from the many technological and economic advantages this new technology introduced including.

2.3.3 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH):


Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) was developed as a standard for multiplexing higher order frames. PDH created larger numbers of channels by multiplexing the standard Europeans 30 channel TDM frames. This solution worked for a while; however PDH suffered from several inherent drawbacks which ultimately resulted in the development of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH). The requirements which drove the development of SDH were as follows: Be synchronous All clocks in the system must align with a reference clock. Be service-oriented SDH must route traffic from End Exchange to End Exchange without worrying about exchanges in between, where the bandwidth can be reserved at a fixed level for a fixed period of time. Allow frames of any size to be removed or inserted into an SDH frame of any size. Easily manageable with the capability of transferring management data across links. Provide high levels of recovery from faults. Provide high data rates by multiplexing any size frame, limited only by technology.

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Give reduced bit rate errors.

SDH has become the primary transmission protocol in most PSTN networks. It was developed to allow streams 1.544 Mbit/s and above to be multiplexed, so as to create larger SDH frames known as Synchronous Transport Modules (STM). The STM-1 frame consists of smaller streams that are multiplexed to create a 155.52 Mbit/s frame. SDH can also multiplex packet based frames such as Ethernet, PPP and ATM. While SDH is considered to be a transmission protocol (Layer 1 in the OSI Reference Model), it also performs some switching functions, as stated in the third bullet point requirement listed above. The most common SDH Networking functions are as follows: SDH Crossconnect The SDH Crossconnect is the SDH version of a TimeSpace-Time crosspoint switch. It connects any channel on any of its inputs to any channel on any of its outputs. The SDH Crossconnect is used in Transit Exchanges, where all inputs and outputs are connected to other exchanges. SDH Add-Drop Multiplexer The SDH Add-Drop Multiplexer (ADM) can add or remove any multiplexed frame down to 1.544Mb. Below this level, standard TDM can be performed. SDH ADMs can also perform the task of an SDH Crossconnect and are used in End Exchanges where the channels from subscribers are connected to the core PSTN network. SDH network functions are connected using high-speed optic fibre. Optic fibre uses light pulses to transmit data and is therefore extremely fast. Modern optic fibre transmission makes use of Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) where signals transmitted across the fibre are transmitted at different wavelengths, creating additional channels for transmission. This increases the speed and capacity of the link, which in turn reduces both unit and total costs.

2.3.4 Optical fiber:


Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms 23

an electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information. First developed in the 1970s, fiber-optic communication systems have revolutionized the telecommunications industry and have played a major role in the advent of the Information Age. Because of its advantages over electrical transmission, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications in core networks in the developed world. An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that acts as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers. Optical fiber typically consists of a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those which can only support a single mode are called singlemode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,050 meters (3,440 ft). Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing them together with an electric arc. Special optical fiber connectors are used to make removable connections. 1. Consists of a small core of glass or plastic surrounded by a cladding layer and jacket. 2. Fibers are unidirectional (light only travels in one direction) so two fibers are used one for sending and one for receiving. Kevlar fibers are placed between the two fibers for strength. 24

3. Good for very high speed, long distance data transmission. 4. NOT subject to electrical interference. 5. Cable can't be tapped and data stolen => high security Fiber-Optic Cable Single mode: One stream of laser-generated light (100 km) Multimode: Multiple streams of LED-generated light (2 km) 100+ Mbps Most expensive Small Up to 2 km Speed and throughput: Average cost per node: Media and connector size: Maximum cable length:

Outer Jacket

Kevlar Reinforcing Material

Plastic Shield

Glass Fiber and Cladding

Figure 2.10 Optical Fiber

2.3.4.1 Advantages of Fiber Optics:


Why are fiber-optic systems revolutionizing telecommunications? Compared to conventional metal wire (copper wire), optical fibers are:

Less expensive - Several miles of optical cable can be made cheaper than
equivalent lengths of copper wire. This saves your provider (cable TV, Inte Thinner - Optical fibers can be drawn to smaller diameters than copper wire.

Higher carrying capacity - Because optical fibers are thinner than copper
wires, more fibers can be bundled into a given-diameter cable than copper 25

wires. This allows more phone lines to go over the same cable or more channels to come through the cable into your cable TV box.

Less signal degradation - The loss of signal in optical fiber is less than in
copper wire.

Light signals - Unlike electrical signals in copper wires, light signals from
one fiber do not interfere with those of other fibers in the same cable. This means clearer phone conversations or TV reception.

Low power - Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, lower-power


transmitters can be used instead of the high-voltage electrical transmitters needed for copper wires. Again, this saves your provider and you money.

Digital signals - Optical fibers are ideally suited for carrying digital
information, which is especially useful in computer networks.

Non-flammable - Because no electricity is passed through optical fibers,


there is no fire hazard.

Lightweight - An optical cable weighs less than a comparable copper wire


cable. Fiber-optic cables take up less space in the ground.

Flexible - Because fiber optics are so flexible and can transmit and receive
light, they are used in many flexible digital cameras.

The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following basic steps: Creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, relaying the signal along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or weak, receiving the optical signal, and converting it into an electrical signal.

2.3.5 Comparison with electrical transmission:


The choice between optical fiber and electrical (or copper) transmission for a particular system is made based on a number of trade-offs. Optical fiber is generally chosen for systems requiring higher bandwidth or spanning longer distances than electrical cabling can accommodate. The main benefits of fiber are its exceptionally low loss (allowing long distances between amplifiers/repeaters), its absence of ground currents and other parasite signal and power issues common to long parallel electric conductor runs (due to its reliance on 26

light rather than electricity for transmission, and the dielectric nature of fiber optic), and its inherently high data-carrying capacity. Thousands of electrical links would be required to replace a single high bandwidth fiber cable. Another benefit of fibers is that even when run alongside each other for long distances, fiber cables experience effectively no crosstalk, in contrast to some types of electrical transmission lines. Fiber can be installed in areas with high electromagnetic interference (EMI), such as alongside utility lines, power lines, and railroad tracks. Nonmetallic all-dielectric cables are also ideal for areas of high lightning-strike incidence. For comparison, while single-line, voice-grade copper systems longer than a couple of kilometers require in-line signal repeaters for satisfactory performance; it is not unusual for optical systems to go over 100 kilometers (60 miles), with no active or passive processing. Single-mode fiber cables are commonly available in 12 km lengths, minimizing the number of splices required over a long cable run. Multi-mode fiber is available in lengths up to 4 km, although industrial standards only mandate 2 km unbroken runs. In short distance and relatively low bandwidth applications, electrical transmission is often preferred because of its

Lower material cost, where large quantities are not required Lower cost of transmitters and receivers Capability to carry electrical power as well as signals (in specially-designed cables)

Ease of operating transducers in linear mode.

Optical fibers are more difficult and expensive to splice than electrical conductors. And at higher powers, optical fibers are susceptible to fiber fuse, resulting in catastrophic destruction of the fiber core and damage to transmission components. Because of these benefits of electrical transmission, optical communication is not common in short box-to-box, backplane, or chip-to-chip applications; however, optical systems on those scales have been demonstrated in the laboratory. In certain situations fiber may be used even for short distance or low bandwidth applications, due to other important features:

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Immunity to electromagnetic interference, including nuclear electromagnetic pulses (although fiber can be damaged by alpha and beta radiation).

High electrical resistance, making it safe to use near high-voltage equipment or between areas with different earth potentials.

Lighter weightimportant, for example, in aircraft. No sparksimportant in flammable or explosive gas environments. Not electromagnetically radiating, and difficult to tap without disrupting the signalimportant in high-security environments.

Much smaller cable sizeimportant where pathway is limited, such as networking an existing building, where smaller channels can be drilled and space can be saved in existing cable ducts and trays.

Optical fiber cables can be installed in buildings with the same equipment that is used to install copper and coaxial cables, with some modifications due to the small size and limited pull tension and bend radius of optical cables. Optical cables can typically be installed in duct systems in spans of 6000 meters or more depending on the duct's condition, layout of the duct system, and installation technique. Longer cables can be coiled at an intermediate point and pulled farther into the duct system as necessary.

2.3.6 Advantages of SDH:


1. Transmission rates of up to 10Gbps can be achieved in modern SDH systems making it the most suitable technology for backbones the superhighways in today's telecommunications networks. 2. Compared to the older PDH system, low bit rate channels can be easily extracted from and inserted into the high-speed bit streams in SDH. It is now no longer necessary to apply the complex and costly procedure of demultiplexing then remultiplexing the plesiosynchronous structure.

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3. With SDH, network providers can react quickly and easily to the requirements of their customers. The network provider can use standardized network elements (NE) that can be controlled and monitored from a central location via a telecommunications management network (TMN) system. 4. Modern SDH networks include various automatic back-up circuit and repair mechanisms which are designed to cope with system faults and are monitored by management. As a result, failure of a link or an NE does not lead to failure of the entire network. 5. SDH is the ideal platform for a wide range of services like mobile radio, and data communications. It is also able to handle more recent services such as video on demand and digital video broadcasting via ATM. Optical fibers are the physical medium most commonly used in SDH networks. The advantage of these fibers is that they are not susceptible to interference and can transmit at very high speeds. The disadvantage is in the relatively high cost of procurement and installation. Single mode fibers are the medium of choice in the first and second optical windows (1310 nm and 1550 nm). SDH signals can also be transmitted via radio link or satellite paths a flexible option when setting up transmission paths quickly, as part of a mobile radio network or in difficult terrain. However, the limited bandwidth (currently up to STM-4) and complexity in linking such paths into the network management system are a disadvantage.

2.3.7 Broadband:
BSNL is India's no. 1 Internet service provider with more than 17 lakh subscribers, providing Internet service throughout the entire country (except in New Delhi and Mumbai) under the brand name of Sancharnet. In earlier days, the maximum downloading speed used to be 64kbps through dial-up connections. However due to traffic complications, the achievable bandwidth was hardly 20kbps. But with introduction of broadband, speeds as high as 2mbps are available. 29

2.3.8 ADSL modem:


Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Loop modem along with a Splitter are among the hardware equipments one requires to access a broadband connection, besides an ISP (Internet Service Provider or an ISP is an agency that provides Internet access and other net related services.) Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) is a form of DSL, a data communications technology that enables faster data transmission over copper telephone lines than a conventional voiceband modem can provide. It does this by utilizing frequencies that are not used by a voice telephone call. A splitter or microfilter - allows a single telephone connection to be used for both ADSL service and voice calls at the same time. ADSL can generally only be distributed over short distances from the central office, typically less than 4 kilometers (2 mi), but has been known to exceed 8 kilometers (5 mi) if the originally laid gauge allows for farther distribution. At the telephone exchange the line generally terminates at a DSLAM where another frequency splitter separates the voice band signal for the conventional phone network. Data carried by the ADSL is typically routed over the telephone company's data network and eventually reaches a conventional internet network.

2.3.9 Splitter:
A splitter or DSL filter is an analog low-pass filter installed between analog devices (such as telephones or analog modems) and a telephone line, in order to prevent interference between such devices and a DSL service operating on the same line. Without DSL filters, signals or echoes from analog devices at the top of their frequency range can result in reduced performance and connection problems with DSL service, while those from the DSL service at the bottom of its range can result in line noise and other issues for analog devices. Thus, with the co-ordination of these parameters, one is able to enjoy broadband connection which is at par with other dial up connections as it does not hinder the speech transfer if data transmission is going on. In nutshell, with broadband, both data and speech transmissions can take place.

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2.4 RESULT:
On the basis of all the study done during the training period, it is drawn out that switching and transmission are the first and foremost interests of a telephone exchange. Switching deals with the customer-to-exchange portion of telephony, whereas, transmission is all about exchange-to-exchange portion of setting up a network. Also it is summarized that some other secondary functions include providing latest services like broadband, besides making consistent fruitful amendments in the services for the ease of customers. 31

CONCLUSION:
The vision of the industry is to become the largest telecom Service Provider in Asia. The industry has the following missions waiting to be fulfilled in the coming years: 1. To provide world class State-of-art technology telecom services to its customers on demand at competitive prices. 2. To Provide world class telecom infrastructure in its area of operation and to contribute to the growth of the country's economy. The future objectives also include:

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1. To be the Lead Telecom Services Provider. 2. To provide quality and reliable fixed telecom service to our customer and there by increase customer's confidence. 3. To provide mobile telephone service of high quality and become no. 1 GSM operator in its area of operation. 4. To provide point of interconnection to other service provider as per their requirement promptly. 5. To facilitate R & D activity in the country. 6. To contribute towards: National Plan Target of 500 million subscriber base for India by 2010. Broadband customers base of 20 million in India by 2010 as per Broadband Policy 2004. Providing telephone connection in villages as per government policy. Implementation of Triple play as a regular commercial proposition.

REFERENCES:
1. G.E. Keiser Optical fiber Communication Mc Graw-Hill, 3rd Ed.
2. J. Gowar Optical Communication PHI, 2nd Ed. 3. John M.S Senior Optical fiber Communication PHI, 2nd Ed. 4. Simon Haykins Communication Systems 4th Edition. 5. Walter J. Goralsk Sonet/Sdh McGraw-Hill/OsborneMedia, 3rd edition.

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6. Wilson & Hawkes Optoelectronics PHI, 2nd Ed.

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