DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

CHAPTER - 4

How To Construct Durable Structures

4.1 Achieving durability: The durable structures are to be conceptualised, specified, designed, contracted, constructed and maintained. To achieve the design life of the structure at reasonable maintenance cost, the following aspects are required to be taken care of: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) 4.2 The structure should also be designed for environment loads and detailing done. Selection of proper construction materials. The concrete should be impermeable, with designed crack width due to shrinkage, thermal forces or loads. The good construction practices should be followed. Selection and application of correct coatings to reinforce bars and concrete surface. Planned maintenance. Proper specifications.

Selection of durable construction materials:

4.2.1 Cementitious material : The cementitious material should be properly selected depending upon nature of work, prevailing environment etc.. This has been dealt in greater detail in the Chapter No. 6. The terminology cement, cementitious material, blended cements, cement + mineral admixtures have been used and can be used to mean one and the same thing. 4.2.2 Aggregates: Aggregates should confirm to specification as laid down in IS : 383 . The coarse aggregate should be well graded and free from Alkali reactivity. The sand should be free from silt, salt, moisture and gravel and its F.M. should be between 2.6 and 2.9. The sand dredged from sea bed may contain large amount of chlorides and other impurities. Thus, it is preferable to avoid use of sand dredged from sea bed. If at all it is used, it should be used only after washing and drying. Washed sand should be tested for salt content, silt, moisture etc. and conform to IS:383. The water used for washing of sand also needs to be tested, prior to its use. The designer should take account of grading after washing of sand. 4.2.3 Water : Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from injurious amount of oils, acids, alkalis, salt, sugar, organic materials or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or steel. Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing concrete. However, it should be tested for quantities of solids, which should not exceed value as laid down in IS : 456 Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

4.2.4 Admixtures : Chloride free admixtures like super plasticizers etc. may be used to improve the quality of fresh concrete to achieve desired workability at low water cement ratio. Admixtures containing chlorides may increase total chloride content in concrete, making it corrosion prone. Thus chloride free admixtures only should be used. 4.2.5 Steel : Steel should confirm to IS 432/1786 for RCC work and IS 1785/6003/6006/14268 for PSC work. Increase in Carbon content in steel increases corrosion proneness of steel. Therefore, it is necessary that the steel supply is taken only from the reputed firms. The test certificate are necessary for each lot. Independent test checks from each lot is essential to ensure quality as per relevant IS Standard. It is harmful to use Corroded / Pitted steel should never be used. The detailed sample specification for steel are given in Chapter 13. 4.2.6 Welding of reinforcement steel : As far as possible, reinforcing steel should not be welded, as welded joint may not have full strength as of reinforcing steel. Welding may also affect strength of reinforcing steel. If at all welding is done, it should be done after approval by the design engineer, who should examine the weldable quality of steel. 4.3 Permeability : 4.3.1 The most important aspect to achieve durability is to produce impermeable concrete. The fig 4.1 shows the factors affecting the permeability and the strength of concrete. The 6 Cs are most important for permeability . i) Cementitious material : Content & w/c ratio ii) Cohesion iii) Compaction iv) Curing v) Cover vi) Crack Width In addition, detailing is also one of the important factor to obtain impermeable concrete. The distance between reinforcement bars should permit flow of concrete. 4.3.2 Cementitious material content and water cement ratio (w/c ratio) : With higher level of cement content, the binding capacity of concrete against attack by carbon dioxide and chlorides will be increased. Moreover, a certain minimum cement content is necessary to get the necessary workability, while maintaining low w/c ratios. Curing sensitivity is also affected by the minimum cement content and is more sensitive at low cement contents. Considering these factors, the present trend is to stipulate higher minimum cement content, depending upon the type of environment. The effect of cementitious material content and w/c ratio, compaction and curing on permeability is indicated in fig 4.2. Good quality concrete means

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

1.CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL Its content W/C ratio Heat of hydration C3A content

2.COHESIVE CONCRETE Cohesiv e Workabl e

3.COMPACTION m Min Voids

4. CURING Gel formation

5.COVER Extent Integrity

6.CRACK WIDTH

( a) Factors affecting permeability

1 Cement Quality 1 W/C ratio 1 Air Voids

(b)

Factors affecting the strength

Fig. 4.1 Factors affecting permeability and strength of concrete

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

an adequate cement content and a low W/C ratio, full compaction and uniform and thorough curing. The mixes on site must be consistent, not prone to segregation and be easily placed. Concrete that contain slag or pozzolanic fly ash (pfa) require longer curing than OPC concrete. 4.3.3 Effect of curing and w/c ratio on permeability: Concrete produced with low water to cement ratio displays low coefficient of permeability of concrete as compared to concrete produced with high water cement ratio.(Fig. 4.2) Table - 4.1 gives the coefficient of permeability of concrete made using same materials but with different W/C ratios. Table 4.1 Coefficient of Permeability for different W/C ratio Sr. No. 1 2 3 Water Cement Ratio 0.35 0.50 0.65 Coefficient of (Valenta) 1x 10 -3 10 x 10 -3 1000 x 10 . 3 Permeability

The above table clearly indicates that lower the W/C, lower is the permeability. The coefficient of permeability increases about 1000 times with the increase in w/c ratio from 0.35 to 0.65 Table 4.2 Effect of curing on permeability and porosity Permeability ( m/sec unit X 10
Curing (days)/ W/C 0.32 0.40 0.50 1 3 7 28
-17

)
90 1 3

Porosity (%)
7 28 90

5.60 18.70 214.00

0.30 0.59 14.70

0.12 0.07 2.35

very low 0.07 0.19

very low

20.80 33.30 43.50

19.7 28.6 37.8

14.4 20.9 32.2

9.80 16.80 20.80

5.90 11.10 14.50

From the table - 4.2, it is very clear that with w/c remaining constant, permeability and porosity rapidly reduces with increase in curing period. At the same time, with the increase of w/c the permeability and porosity also increase at the same curing period. 4.3.4 Concrete cover: The quality of the concrete between the reinforcement and the shuttering can be poorer than that in the main body of the concrete, due to difficulties in the placement of the concrete and to the segregation of coarse aggregates by the steel bars. This again emphasises the need to select a mix that is suitable for the job, taking into account not

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

only the performance of the plain concrete but equally the quality that can be achieved close to the surface of the concrete. The cohesivity of the mix and aggregate sizes is of prime importance. It also emphasises the importance of reinforcement detailing that will facilitate the placing of the concrete and the achievement of impermeable concrete. 4.3.5 Cracks: The cracks can be minimised by using low heat of hydration blended cements, proper control of concrete temperature, wet curing and well graded aggregate and air-entraining agents (if required). 4.3.6 Permeability test: As durability of concrete depends upon permeability, it is necessary that permeability test is made mandatory for all RCC / PSC works to control permeability. Permeability test may be conducted as per specification laid down in DIN-1048 PART I. The test is described briefly as given below. Water permeability test (DIN-1048 PART I) : This test is used to measure the penetration of water in the concrete test specimen under pressure. The test is carried out as per the procedure given below : i ii iii iv v vi A test specimen, cylindrical in shape, 200 mm dia and 120 mm height is cast from the fresh concrete-like a test cube. The test specimen is wet cured for 28 days. After 28 days of curing, test specimen is fitted in the machine. bar pressure for 48 hrs. then 3 bar pressure for 24 hrs. and then 7 bar pressure for 24 hrs. is applied. The specimen is split into two halves. Penetration of water is measure. The maximum value of water penetration is the permeability of concrete.

Fig 4.3 Permeability Test

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

A permeability value of less than 25 mm indicates very impermeable concrete. The equipments for testing permeability are readily available nowa-days or can be manufactured. 4.4 Good construction practices: A safe and substantial design may be entirely ruined by careless and shoddy execution, and the failure of the structure may very possible be the result. Careful attention to the details of construction is ,therefore, as important as the preliminary investigation and design. The following finer details need meticulous attention and implementation at site: i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x xi xii xiii xiv xv Form work and false work- Layout, design and drawings. Concrete laboratory- equipments, skilled lab technician, codes and permeability equipment. Sand dredged from sea bed. Mock up:- Actual trial by casting one element, to verify cover, space for compaction etc. All- in- aggregate curve- To see the gradation. Quality cover blocks and binding wire. Concreting sequence Cold joints- Concreting by Forward flowing method. Construction joints- horizontal and vertical Permit for pouring concrete. Method statement. Traffic over reinforcement- Platforms for traffic to be erected which will not transfer load on rebars. Grouting of cables. Sealing ends of HTS wires/strands. SQC- Statistical Quality Control charts to be plotted for all test results, calculate mean value, Standard deviation and Co-efficient of variation.

4.4.1 Form work and false work: Fig 4.4 (i, ii, iii) shows typical layout plan of formwork for 12.5m span. No form work and false work should be erected without proper layout plans, designs and drawings. The form work should be leak proof. A sponge of 10mm thick should be pasted at the junction of two shuttering plates and with other surface to prevent leakage of grout. 4.4.2 The concrete laboratory: Fig 4.5 shows typical concrete site lab. It should be manned by a skilled technician. A well managed and modern lab is a must for quality concrete. 4.4.3 Sand dredged from sea bed: It cannot be used without washing by potable water. Sand should be silt free, salt free, moisture free, gravel free and its FM would be between 2.6 and 2.9. Washed sand should be tested before use for silt and chloride content.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

4.4.4 Mock up: It is a good practice to do a full scale mock up trial to test the cover, working of equipments, behaviour of plasticizers, workability and the final product. 4.4.5 All-in-aggregate: It should be plotted before each pour, well graded aggregate will give cohesive mix and impermeable concrete, Fig 4.6 gives a typical all-in-aggregate curve. 4.4.6 Quality cover block & binding wires: Generally, the quality of concrete of the cover block is of lower standard than that of the structure. Due to the inferior quality of concrete cover blocks, concrete structures have weak spots where the environmental failure do effect concrete / steel adversely. It is therefore necessary that cover block concrete should be of same permeability and strength as that of concrete. They should be cured for 28 days. Their strength and permeability tested. The binding wires should be G.I or treated by CECRI coating. Corroded binding wires are not permitted. Their ends should be bent towards the centre of element. The shape of cover blocks can be cubical, cylindrical or frustum of a cone. 4.4.7 Concrete sequence: Concreting sequence should be decided in advance. The layer thickness should be decided, so as to ensure that concrete will not set, before the next layer is placed and compacted. This depends upon the capacity of mixers, initial setting time of concrete and man power etc. 4.4.8 Cold joints: Fig 4.7 shows the forward flowing method of concreting. This will provide homogeneous impermeable concrete. 4.4.9 Construction joints: On vibration, the slurry rich in cement and with very high w/c ratio rises up. This is called laitance and is very permeable. This thin layer is removed by wire brush and the aggregates are exposed without dislodging them. 1/3 rd of aggregate should be visible on the surface. This is called hacking of joints. The mortar around steel and from corners is removed either by soaking or by compressed air, before placing the next layer of concrete. Cement slurry should never be sprinkled before concreting. A construction joint, if prepared as explained above, can be provided at any location. Fig 4.8 shows the details. 4.4.10 Permit for pouring concrete: The contractor is responsible for constructing the structure as per specifications. All big works are awarded to them, after verifying their experience and skilled man power. The contractor should certify that all aspects, before concreting are in order. The railway engineer should test check and give permission for pouring the conrete. If permission is not given the reasons should be recorded and permission denied in writing within one hour. Sample pour card is enclosed as annexure 1 to the chapter.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

4.4.11 Methods statement: It is vital to have a detailed methods statement prepared by the construction agency and approved by the owner's Engineer. Such a statement will detail the method of construction, equipment to be employed, the various durability requirements and the means to achieve the same, and the quality assurance measures planned. A greater degree of mechanisation should be insisted upon with a view to obtaining the product of requisite quality. Engineers at various levels both from the clients' as well as the contractors' side should be adequately trained in various aspects of prestressed concrete construction as well as quality assurance. 4.4.12 Traffic over reinforcement : Neither anybody should walk nor the vibrators etc kept over reinforcement. Proper walking platforms should be planned and laid in advance. 4.4.13 Grouting of cable ducts: The extra length of strands, leaving 20mm. projection beyond the wedge, is cut by an electric cutter. The cable ends are sealed by 1:3 cement : sand mortar. The ducts are washed fully and then grouted by fresh Ordinary Portland Cement grout. OPC grout used shall not be older than four weeks. The composition of the grout shall be Strength W/C ratio Cement Admixture Pressure of grouting As per specification As per design Ordinary Portland Cement Conbex-100 at 227 gms. per bag of cement 5 bars

4.4.14 Sealing of anchor ends: After the grouting of cables, the anchor plates wedges etc., are cleaned by sand blasting. Two coats of solvent-free coal-tar epoxy (Araldite GYL 225- 100parts hardener XY 45-100 parts by weight) should be applied on two successive days. On the third day, the strand ends, bushes and wedges are covered by an epoxy putty (Araldite GY 255, hardener XY-45 and silica flour in the ratio of 100:100:200 respectively). A third coat of coal-tar epoxy is applied over the putty and quartz sand mix No. 10 is sprinkled with hand over the painted area to make it rough so that concreting to be done over the anchor heads shall develop a good bond with the strands and anchor plates. The anchor plates are covered by concrete, so as to give strand ends a cover of 75mm. The concrete area covering strands is also painted with 2 coats of coal-tar epoxy. These two items i.e. grouting of cables and epoxy painting of anchor ends, will ensure that no ingress of moisture take place. 4.4.15 SQC charts: Statistical Quality Control charts should be plotted to monitor the deviations and to take corrective action, well before the values are likely to exceed the acceptable limits. This is to be used for all tests, dimensions etc.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

4.4.16 Defect Survey: After each stripping of form work, a joint defect survey should be conducted to note down defects, find out reasons, for corrective action for future and decide about the repairs. 4.4.17 A work done which is not conforming to specifications should be rejected. Any attempt to hide/repair or accept will aggravate the situation in future. 4.5 Selection and application of correct coatings to steel and concrete: The subject has been covered in chapter No.8. 4.6 Planned maintenance : The structures need proper maintenance and monitoring . 4.7 Proper specifications: This subject is dealt with in chapter 12 and 13. Proper and detailed specifications are required to be drawn for each work. 4.8 Other aspects: Though following aspect are not directly related to construction of durable concrete, they will certainly help indirectly in obtaining durable concrete structure. 4.8.1 Empowerment: Permeability and diffusion are the 2 most important properties which effect the corrosion process of steel in concrete. These properties depends upon the total quality of concrete, which in turn depends upon various parameters, as mentioned in para-4.3. Thus, in order to obtain durable concrete total quality control is most important. Quality control needs to be exercised right from planning/ design stage to construction stage to ensure that all the material used in concrete are as per specification and construction is done as per standard procedure with all precautions. Such quality control can be achieved by training design engineer/ supervisors in total quality control concept. Thus, in order to achieve total quality control, the design engineers/supervisors detailed to execute work, should be trained in durability and corrosion at IRICEN, Pune in association with research institute such as CECRI, Karaikudi etc. They should be trained before they are allowed to supervise any work on the project. They should be trained in following topics. i Durability ii Corrosion iii Mix Design iv Blended cement v Concreting in Hot/ Cold weather vi Quality control techniques vii Permeability and how to achieve impermeable concrete - Good construction practices. viii High performance concrete. After training, engineers/supervisors should be examined by a panel of

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

experts for knowledge, skills and aptitude for quality construction and if found suitable, they should be issued a competency certificate. Engineers in possession of competency certificate should only be allowed to execute the work. 4.8.2 Adequate number of supervisors: For effective supervision, adequate number of supervisors/ technicians should be available at site of construction depending upon works need. They should be trained in construction techniques and possess competency certificates. 4.8.3 Quality control cell: Quality control cell under each Zonal Railway is essential to carry out surprise checks to ensure quality construction. Quality control cells which were created under the Zonal Railways have not proved to be very effective in many cases. Thus, there is need to reactivate the quality control cells with required expertise. Such cell should carry out surprise check on construction site regarding quality control aspects and submit its report to project incharge. 4.8.4 Specification: There have been considerable advances in concrete technology in recent years. In order to take advantage of advances it is necessary that Specification for each project are written afresh. The specification must be drawn by an engineer of proven ability. 4.8.5 Contracting: i) Most of the civil engineering works are executed by private agencies. Thus, the quality of work depends upon the quality of agency who executes the work. Therefore, a system needs to be evolved essentially so that only such agencies, who have excelled in quality construction, gets the contract. The contractors should be asked to obtain ISO- 9000 certificate. ii) In order to ensure quality of work, it is necessary that quality control is inbuilt at each stage during construction. It is, therefore, necessary that quality control manual is prepared in advance and attached as a part of tender document. This manual should clearly spelt out tests to be conducted at each stage. iii) There should be provision in tender document for establishment of a site laboratory for checking quality of ingredients and concrete parameter. It is suggested that : For works costing more than Rs. 20 Lakh - There should be provision of site lab in contract condition. For works costing more than Rs. 50 lakh - There should be provision of Site lab and Lab technician, in contract condition. For works costing more than Rs. 5 crore - There should be provision of Site lab., Lab technical and third quality audit in contract condition.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

4.8.6 Health Monitoring: Effect of corrosion of steel in PSC bridges/works may be disastrous, as slight decrease in cross section of wire may lead to collapse. Corrosion of reinforcement in RCC works gives prior indication. If corrosion is detected in early stage, remedial measures may be taken to avoid further deterioration of concrete structures. In normal course, Inspector of Works can not inspect all the buildings/bridges in detailed with regards to corrosion and other health aspects. Therefore, it is necessary that health monitoring of all important structures i.e. bridges and high rise building is done through reputed agencies like CECRI, CBRI, ACC etc. Health monitoring shall include corrosion monitoring, deterioration of material, system damage and retrofitting. The frequency of health monitoring may be as suggested in table - 4.3. Table 4.3 Frequency for health monitoring Aggressive environment (Severe, Very severe & Extreme) First Survey Subsequent surveys interval 5th year At 5 years interval Non- Aggressive environment (Mild and Moderate) 5th year At 10 years

4.8.7 Master Schedule of Rates: The master schedule of rates should be updated to include items like - high performance concrete, coatings for steel and concrete, testing of soils, monitoring of corrosion, non-destructive testing, curing compounds, admixtures, diaphragm wall construction, sand washing, fibre reinforcement, use of blended cement, coal tar epoxy coatings etc. Inclusion of these items in schedule of rates will help field engineers in maintenance of concrete structure. 4.8.8 Inspection of buildings and structures: All buildings and structures need to be inspected as per the prescribed schedule. Periodic inspection will help in detection of defects in early stage. Thus, remedial measures can be taken up before the defects become critical. The structures identified as distressed as a result of inspection may be classified under two categories as under: Category I - requiring urgent repair/ replacement Category II - requiring planned repairs. Distressed structures falling under Category -I should be replaced/ repaired urgently even on out of turn basis. Structures falling under CategoryII should be planned and programmed for execution in a specified time schedule.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES