L

Energy and respiration

a) Outline the need for energy in living organisms as illustrated by anabolic reactions, active transport, movement and the maintenance of body temperature 1. All biological macromolecule such as carbohydrates, lipid, protein etc contain carbon. All living organisms needs a source of carbon 2. Autotroph is an organism which can use inorganic carbon source in the form of CO2 3. Heterotroph is an organism which need ready-made organic supply of carbon 4. Organic molecules can be used in two ways a. As building blocks in making other organic molecules that are essential to the organism b. As chemical potential energy which can be released by breaking down the molecules in respiration 5. Work in a living organism includes: a. Synthesis of complex substances from simpler one (anabolic reactions) b. Active transport of substances against a diffusion gradient such as the activity of sodium potassium pump c. Mechanical work such as muscle contraction and other cellular movement of cilia and flagella d. By bioluminescence and electrical discharge e. Use thermal energy from metabolic reaction to maintain a constant temperature 6. Complete oxidation of glucose to CO2 and water has a very high energy yield, but the reaction does not happen easily. Glucose is stable and this is because of the activation energy it has to overcome. 7. In living organism this is overcome by lowering the activation energy using enzymes, and also raising the energy level of glucose by phosphorylation

b) Describe the structure of ATP as phosphorylated nucleotide 1. Structure of ATP is shown on the right. It consists of adenine (an organic base), and ribose (a pentose sugar). Both makes up a nucleoside. It combines with 3 phosphates which makes ATP a nucleotide. 2. ATP is a small, water soluble molecule which easily transported around the cells 3. Energy released by the removal of each phosphate is shown on the right. The energy does not come simply from breaking the bond but rather from changes in the chemical potential energy of all parts of the system

c) Describe the universal role of ATP as the energy currency in all living organisms 1. ATP is the universal intermediary molecule between energy yielding and energy requiring reactions used in a cell 2. In a resting human, we use 40kg of ATP in 24 hours but at any time, we only contain 5g of ATP. During strenuous exercise, ATP breakdown may be as much as 0.5kg per minute 3. Energy transfers are inefficient. Some energy is converted to thermal energy whenever the energy is transferred 4. An energy currency acts as intermediate donor of energy to the cells energy requiring reactions. An energy storage molecule is a short term (glucose) or long term (glycogen, starch etc) store of potential energy

d) Explain that the synthesis of ATP is associated with electron transport chain on the membranes of the mitochondrion 1. Energy of ATP synthesis can be available by 2 ways a. Energy released by reorganising chemical bonds during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle b. By using electrical potential energy. It is from the transfer of electron by electron carriers in mitochondria and chloroplast 2. How (b) occur? a. The energy is stored as a difference in hydrogen ion concentration across phospholipids membranes in Mitochondria and Chloroplast which are essentially impermeable to hydrogen ions b. H ions are allowed to flow down the concentration gradient through a protein which spans the phospholipids bilayer c. Part of the protein act as an enzyme which synthesis ATP and is called ATP synthase (shown on the right) d. Transfer of 3 H+ ions allow the production of 1 ATP molecule provided that ADP and inorganic phosphate present inside the organelle e. The process is called chemiosmosis 3. The structure of ATP synthase It has 3 binding sites and a part of the molecule that rotates as hydrogen ions pass This causes structural changes in the binding site and allows them to pass sequentially through three phases o Binding ADP and Pi o Forming tightly bound ATP o Releasing ATP 4. How ATP works in active transport? 50% of ATP in a resting mammal is devoted to maintain the ionic content of cells Sodium potlssium pump o It is a protein which has binding sites for Na+ and ATP in the inner side and for K+ on the outer side. The protein act as ATPase which catalyse the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and inorganic phosphate releasing energy to drive the pump

o Change in shape of protein will move K+ and Na+ across membrane o Each ATP used move 2K+ into and 3Na+ out of the cell. This causes negative inside with respect to the outside. Both will leaks back down conc gradient however the plasma membrane is less permeable to Na+ ions than K+ ions so this increase the pd of the membrane 5. How ATP works in muscle contraction? There is only small conc of ATP in resting and contracting muscle During contraction ATP is continually regenerated by a system which involves PCr (Creatine Phosphate) ADP prodcuced reconverted ti ATP by transferring phosphate group from PCr leaving Cr Limited supply of PCr, make it adequate for few seconds It must be replenished via ATP from respiration If aerobic respiration cant occur, then lactate pathway is used to allow formation of ATP e) Outline glycolysis as phosphorylation of glucose and the subsequent splitting of hexose phosphate (6C) into two triose phosphate molecules, which are then further oxidised with a small yield of ATP and reduced NAD 1. Respiration is a process where organic molecules are broken down in a series of stages to release chemical potential energy which is then used to synthesise ATP 2. The stages of glucose breakdown is divided into 4 stage a. Glycolysis b. Link reaction c. Krebs cycle d. Oxidative phosphorylation 3. Glycolysis is the splitting of glucose. The process is shown on the right a. Phosphorylation glucose is phosphorylated with ATP. Glucose is quite stable and doesnt react easily. To tap the bond energy of glucose, energy must first be used t make the reaction easier. b. Pyruvate , the end product contains a great deal of chemical potential energy which will enter link reaction

f) Explain that when oxygen is available, pyruvate is converted into acetyl 2C coenzyme A, which then combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to form citrate (6C) 1. In the link reaction, pyruvate passes by active transport from the cytoplasm into mitochondrial matrix i. It decarboxylated, dehydrogenated, combine with coenzyme A to give acetyl coenzyme A 2. Fatty acid can also produce ACA. It is broken down in mitochondrion in a cycle of reaction. Each turn of the cycle shortens it by 2 C acetyl unit. This react with coenzyme A to produce ACA and enter the Krebs cycle 3. Coenzyme A acts as a carrier of acetyl groups to the Krebs Cycle.

g) Outline the krebs cycle, explaining that citrate is reconverted into oxaloacetate in a series of small steps in the matrix of mitochondrion 1. Krebs cycle diagram is shown on the right 2. The most important contribution is the release of hydrogen which can be used in oxidative phosphorylation to provide energy to make ATP Pyruvate to acetyl CoA: oxidative decarboxylation With presence of oxygen, pyruvate formed at the end of glycolysis is converted to acetylcoenzyme A. In the process, carbon and hydrogen is removed Entering Krebs cycle 2 Acetyl CoA diffuses from cytoplasm into mitochondria for each molecule. The coenzyme A help acetyl fragments to enter the cycle and then detaches. Oxidative decarboxylation and the reduction of NAD and FAD Acetyl fragment combine with oxaloacetate to form citrate. Citrate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation where C combine with oxygen to form CO2. Hydrogen is stripped off and taken by NAD of Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide. The citrate will be converted back to oxaloacetate and the cycle goes on Synthesising ATP Redox reaction exergonic release enough energy to synthesis 1 ATP for each cycle. It is called substrate level phosphorylation. The addition of P to ADP is coupled with exergonic breakdown of high energy substrate molecule. Besides, the release of hydrogen provide reducing power which generate more ATP in ETC. The net effects of Krebs cycle For each glucose 2 FAD, 2ATP, 4CO2, 6 NADH

h) Explain that these process involve decarboxylation and dehydrogenation and describe the role of NAD 1. NAD are also known as Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide. It is shown on the right It is made up of two nucleotides One of the nucleotide has nicotinamide ring which can accept a hydrogen ions and 2 electrons thereby becoming reduced 2. While NADP, has phosphate instead of hydrogen on carbon 1 of ribose ring. It is used as hydrogen carrier molecule in photosynthesis. NADP = Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate 3. FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotides) made up of one nucleotide containing ribose and adenine and one with a linear molecule (ribitol) instead of ribose

i) Outline the process of oxidative phosphorylation including the role of oxygen 1. ETC is shown on the right 2. The final stage, i. Reduced NAD and reduced FAD passed to the ETC ii. Hydrogens are removed from the two H carriers and each is split into its constituent H+ and electron iii. The electron is transferred to the first series of electron carriers while the hydrogen ion remain in the mitochondrial matrix iv. Once the e- transferred to oxygen, H ion will be drawn from the matrix to reduce oxygen to water 3. It happens in inner membrane of mitochondria in which electron carrier is embedded. The transfer of e- along series of electron carrier makes energy available. This is used to produce ATP. 4. As an electron passes from a carrier at a higher energy level to one that is lower, energy is released 5. 25% of energy yield from e- transfer is used to transport ADP into mitochondrion and ATP to the cytoplasm. Therefore, each NAD produce 2 ATP while each FAD produce 1 molecules of ATP The main purpose of KC is to feed electrons into the next stage of aerobic respiration A chain of redox reaction NADH and FADH2 become oxidised by losing hydrogen and its electron while the next carrier become reduced by gaining hydrogen. At one point in ETS, hydrogen atoms split to hydrogen ions and electrons. Oxygen is the final electron and proton acceptor which then forms water. Since the process involve the removal of hydrogen and the formation of high energy phosphate bond, this ATP formation is also known as oxidative phosphorylation Acceptor Cytochromes, iron containing pigmented molecules give cells rich in mitochondria brownish colour The oxidative phosphorylation synthesis ATP by using the energy released from

redox reaction. The final redox reaction is catalyse by cytochrome oxidase. Cyanide can inhibit the action of this enzyme. Mitochondrial structure and function 1. 0.5-1 micrometer / the mitochondria can change shape / number of mitochondria depends on cells activity 2. Surrounded by 2 phospholipid bilayer / the inner is folded to form cristae so it will have large total surface area 3. Outer membrane permeable to small molecule / inner membrane is less permeable/ inner m studded with ATP synthase 4. The intermembrane space has low pH bcos the H+ ion released to it by the activity of ETC 5. Matrix has enzyme for both link reaction and Krebs cycle

j) Explain the production if small yield of ATP from anaerobic respiration and the formation of ethanol in yeast and lactate in mammals, including the concept of oxygen debt 1. When free oxygen is not present, hydrogen cant be disposed by the combination with oxygen. ETC stops working therefore no further ATP is produced by oxidative phosphorylation 2. To gain ATP through glycolysis, it is important to pass the hydrogen from the reduced NAD in the glycolysis. There are 2 anaerobic pathways that solve the problem of dumping hydrogen :Ethanol pathways H from reduced NAD is passed to ethanal Then ethanal is reduced to ethanol by alcohol dehydrogenase. This is irreversible Lactate pathways H is passed to pyruvate (H acceptor), then converted to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase

3. Since both are toxic, anaerobic respiration does not last long. Lactate is carried by the blood plasma to the liver and converted back to pyruvate. Liver oxidise 20% of lactate to CO2 and H2O via aerobic respiration. While the rest is converted to glycogen. Oxygen is needed in the removal of lactate and this is called oxygen debt

k) Explain the relative energy values for carbohydrates, lipid and protein as respiratory substrates Glucose Lipid and amino acids Neurones in brain, red blood cells, lymphocytes Other cells

1. Energy value of respiratory substrates comes from the oxidation of H to water when FAD and NAD are passed to ETC. So, the more H in the structure, the greater the energy value. 2. Lipid for example has greater energy value per unit mass or energy density bcoz its large number of hydrogen 3. Energy value is determined by burning a known substance in oxygen in a calorimeter. Energy liberated determined by the rise of temp of water Respiratory substrate Energy density (kJg-1) Carbohydrate 15.8 Lipid 39.4 Protein 17.0

l) Define respiratory quotient 1. Respiratory quotient is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide produced to the volume of oxygen produced during the same period of time 2. Respirometers are device that measure the rate of respiration typically by measuring the oxygen consumption and CO2 output. 3. Spirometers commonly used to measure human subjects in diff condition. It able to measure the depth and frequency of breathing
Protein 0.9 4. Anaerobic respiration of glucose has RQ more than 1. Carbohydrate 1.0 Fat 0.7

m) Effect of temperature and respiration rate on RQ 1. Respirometer is used to measure the rate of O2 consumption of small terrestrial invertebrates at different temp. 2. CO2 produced in respiration is absorbed by potassium hydroxide so any decrease in volume is due to oxygen consumption 3. Change in temp and pressure will alter the volume of air in the apparatus so the temperature of surrounding must be kept constant while readings are taken. This can be done by using water bath. Since respiration needs the role of enzyme, increase in temp will increase the rate of respiration up to a certain optimum temp. 4. Control tube with same volume of inert material to the volume of the organism used help to compensate the change in atm pressure Measuring RQ 1. Find oxygen consumption at a particular temp x cm3 min-1 2. Set the respirometer again with same organism at same temp without the potassium hydroxide to absorb CO2 3. No change of volume means rate of CO2 produced = O2 intake Increase in volume means rate of CO2 produced > O2 intake 4. The RQ then can be calculated