1) Explain the Generalized Tectonic Units of India ?

India broadly consists of three distinct geological units namely the tertiary mobile belt namely, the Himalaya-Arakan Yoma-Andaman Nicobar Island Arc, the Indo-Gangetic plain and the Indian shield. It is now well established that Himalayas are a result of collision between the Indian and the Eurasian plates about 50-60 Million years ago (Valdiya 2001). The current penetrating rate of the Indian plate into the Eurasian plate is estimated to be 45 mm/year (Bilham 2004). Due to this continuous under-thrusting of the Indian plate beneath the Eurasian plate, stresses are increasing and accumulating progressively in the Himalayas. This makes the Himalayas seismically very active. The 2,500 km long Himalayan mountain chain is convex southwards and embodies big bulges and knee-bends at the ends (Valdiya 2001). The width of this unit extending from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh varies from 250 to 300 km. In the northeast, the Himalaya takes a bend and meets the Indo-Burmese arc. This eastern extremity of the Himalaya is known as the Assam syntaxis. Similarly, the turning point of the Himalayan mountain system in the north-western region is known as the Hazara syntaxis, where the northwest end of the Himalaya meets the Pamir-Hindukush region. The structure and tectonics of these two syntaxis zones are complex and largely unknown (Chandra 1978). Moreover the geology at the two syntaxis zones is quite different. These syntaxis zones are also the locations of high stress concentrations and intense seismic activity. The Chaman fault in the west and Sagaing fault in the east cut the Himalayan mountain chain at its two extremities. These faults are further linked to much longer and fundamental faults of the Indian ocean and they act as links in transmitting the movements of the oceanic faults to the Indian plate. A general tectonic picture of the Indian region with the topography is presented in Figure 2.2. The plate collision process gave rise to several active faults in the Himalayan region, namely the Main Central Thrust (MCT), the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), and the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (Valdiya 1976). The location of these faults as per the Seismotectonic Atlas of India (GSI 2000) is shown in Figure 2.3. The Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ) is considered to be the plate boundary where the Tethys Ocean was consumed by the subduction process. The Main Karakuram Thrust (MKT) marks the southern boundary of the Hindu Kush and the Karakuram. The curvilinear ITSZ and MCT are traced to the south of MKT. The Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) in the Hazara syntaxis is the western extension of the MCT. The Chaman fault joins the Herat fault and the two bend eastward and split into the Karakuram and the Altayan Tagh fault systems in the Pamir region (Figures 2.2 and 2.3). The Balochistan arc comprising of Sulaiman and the Kirthar ranges are aligned in a north-south direction. The fault plane solutions in Himalayas have thrust solutions with nodal planes dipping toward the north, indicating under thrusting of the Indian plate along the entire

Himalayan region. The Indo-Gangetic plain also known as the Himalayan fore-deep lies in between the Indian shield and the Himalayas (Figure 2.2). The formation of Aravali hills in Indo- Gangetic plain is related to tectonic movements before 2500 BC which changed the drainage pattern of the Northwest India drastically (Valdiya 2002). The Vedic River Saraswati which flowed from the Himalayas to the present day Rann-of-Kutch in the Holocene period got desiccated due to tectonic activities in the Indo-Gangetic plain. This East-West tectonic basin is characterized by several hidden faults and ridges in the basement of the Ganga basin (Gansser 1974; Valdiya 1976). The Delhi-Haridwar ridge which is demarcated by a pair of faults is the continuation of the Aravali Mountain into the Himalaya through Haridwar. Similarly Faizabad ridge and Munger-Saharsa ridge denotes the prolongation of the Bundelkhand and Satpura massifs. All the ridges are bounded by faults and are in tectonic continuation from the Indian shield. The North- South Dhubri fault in northeast India separates the north Bengal basin from Shillong plateau. These faults have oblique and transverse alignment across the Himalayan tectonic trend. Gansser (1974) pointed out that Gangetic plain is not a sediment filled fore-deep, but it represents the depressed part of the peninsular shield in which several hidden faults exist.. The earthquake activity in the Gangetic plain is broadly associated with strike-slip faulting (Gupta 2006). The Gangetic plain is moderately seismic when compared to the Himalaya (Quittmeyer and Jacob 1979). North East India (NEI) is considered as one of the most intense seismic regions in the world. This part of India has an extremely complex tectonic and geologic set up. Most of the earthquakes in NEI are caused due to the southnorth and the westeast movement of the Indian plate (Chen and Molnar 1990). The most striking feature in this region is that the Himalaya takes a sharp bend along the Assam syntaxis and continues in a broadly north-south arcuate direction to the east of Burma and joins the Andaman arc giving rise to a complex plate boundary. Another important geomorphologic feature of NEI is the Brahmaputra River which runs almost parallel to the MBT along the Assam valley, and suddenly takes a 900 turn to run parallel to the Dhubri fault (Figure 2.2). The Shillong plateau and Mikir hills are considered as fragment of Peninsular Shield which moved to the east along the Dauki fault. Due to its proximity to Himalayas and Burmese arc, the earthquakes in the Shillong Plateau and Assam valley area may be referred to as plateboundary earthquakes (Kayal 2008). The seismic activity in this region is very high compared to the shield area of other part of peninsular India. The 5000 km long Andaman-Sumatra-Sunda arc from Burma to Sumatra and Java to Australia defines the boundary between the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates (Fitch, 1970; Curray et al., 1979). The under thrusting of the Indian plate in northeast direction beneath the Andaman-Nicobar Islands can be observed in the focal mechanism solutions of earthquakes of this region. The nature of convergence in the

Andaman-Sunda arc is of oceanic type, where as in the Indo-Burmese arc, it is continental type (Kayal 2008). This region is highly active and falls in the zone of most severe seismic hazard. The AndamanSunda arc has produced great earthquakes in the past which have generated damaging tsunamis. The IndoEurasian collision resulted in the flexure of the Indian plate. The flexural stresses along with the northwest compressive stress of collision are responsible for sporadic earthquake occurrences within the Indian plate (Bilham et al 2008). The great structural disturbances during the geological past resulted in the development of local zones of weakness along which crustal adjustments are likely to take place. It is generally held that seismic activity is more at the intersections of the Dharwar, Aravalli and Singhbhum proto-continents which together constitute Peninsular India (Rao and Rao 1983). These three proto continents are separated by rifts. The most striking feature in the fault map of Peninsular India is the SonNarmada-Tapti (SONATA) rift zone which is an ENE-WSW trending zone and runs across the Indian shield from west coast to east coast Figure 2.2). This rift zone of about 1600 km in length separating the northern and southern blocks of the Indian shield is a region of moderate seismic activity with infrequent earthquakes. In Southern India, sporadic and low-level seismicity is observed along the old shear zones. The faults associated with the Godavari Graben namely, the Kaddam Fault and the Gundlakamma Fault near Ongole on the coast trending NW-SE are regarded to be moderately active in PI. These faults separate the Singhbum and the Dharwar protocontinents. Another prominent rift zone in PI is the Kutch rift located at the northwest margin of the Indian shield. The formation of Kutch, Cambay and Narmada rift basins in PI is mainly attributed to the reactivation of Precambrian structures during the rifting of Gondwanaland in the early Jurassic or late Triassic period. The structural trend of the Kutch rift basin is controlled by a number of E-W faults. The 26th Jan 2001 (Mw 7.7) intra-plate earthquake occurred in this region. The focal mechanisms of some earthquakes in this region indicate reverse faulting. The Kutch region is bounded by the south-dipping Nagar Parkar fault in the north and the north-dipping Kathiawar fault in the south. The other major faults in the region are the E-W trending Allah Bund fault, Island Belt fault, Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF), Kathiawar Fault, Nagar Parkar Fault and Katrol Hill Fault (Figure 2.3). Among these, the Allah Bund Fault, KMF and Katrol Hill Fault are active and have been associated with devastating earthquakes in the past. Apart from the Kutch and the SONATA rifts and Godavari Graben, the Cambay Graben, the West Coast Zone, the Cuddapah Basin, and the parts of southern India are known areas of significant seismic activity. Earthquakes in PI can be classified into rift and non-rift events. The Koyna (1967) and the Killari (1993) earthquakes were non-rift events where as the Jabalpur (1999) and the Kutch (2001) earthquakes were rift events. Based on the occurrence of earthquakes, it is

observed that the hazard in PI is less severe than in the\ Himalayan region, but the damages caused due to intraplate events are generally very high. These events are also felt over a much larger area than the Himalayan earthquakes (Singh et al 2004; Kayal 2008). Grady (1971) notified a submerged volcano in Bay of Bengal which reportedly had erupted in the 17th Century. He indicated that this volcano might be located near a hidden fault in the sea (Fig. 2.2). Recently Balakrishnan et al (2009) based on three dimensional geophysical data located this hidden fault in the Bay of Bengal, as marked in Fig. 2.3. Some past events with their epicentres in the Bay of Bengal (Fig. 2.1) may be attributed to this fault.

2) Explain the working principles of Seismograph with neat sketches ? A seismograph detects, amplifies, and records earthquakes as well as other ground motion. The word seismograph is often used synonymously with seismometer, but there is a distinction. The seismometer is the ground-motion detector part of the seismograph system. In the drawings in Figure 1 and in our simple animations the seismometer includes the inertial mass and the spring, and the seismograph is the entire assembly that also amplifies the slightest movements in the earth and records the signal (the seismogram). Seismograph Principle Seismographs operate on the principle of inertia of stationary objects, such as the inertial mass in Figures 1 and 2, and in the animations. The inertial mass remains stationary unless a force is applied to it. The weight thus tends to remain stationary following sudden movement, while the frame and drum move with the ground. Seismometers used in earthquake studies are designed to be highly sensitive to ground movements, so that movements as small as 1/10,000,000 centimeters (distances almost as small as atomic spacing) can be detected at very quiet sites. The largest earthquakes (such as the magnitude 9.1 SumatraAndaman Islands earthquake in 2004) create ground motions over the entire Earth that can be several centimeters high thousands of miles away from the epicenter. Seismograms (Figure 3) are the graphs of the motion of the ground versus time. They are the squiggles left by the pen or produced by digital computer records. Seismograms are used to calculate the location and magnitude of an earthquake.

Seismogram. The horizontal axis = time (measured in seconds) and the vertical axis = ground displacement usually measured in fractions of millimeters (nanometers). When there is NO earthquake reading there is just a straight line except for small wiggles caused by local disturbance or noise. Also, old-style rotating drums make a small marker jump every minute.

Three-component Seismometers Following an earthquake, the ground responds to P, S, and surface waves by moving in all directions, not just up and down (Figure 4). A single seismograph pendulum works in only one direction, and cannot give a complete picture of wave motions from other directions. To overcome this problem, modern seismograph stations have three separate instruments to record motion in the x, y, an z axes: one to record the horizontal north-south waves

another to record horizontal east-west waves, and a vertical one that records up-down ground motions.

This combination of instruments tells a seismologist the general direction of the seismic wave source, the
magnitude at its source, and the character of the wave motion. Instruments at other stations must be used to get a precise fix on the earthquakes epicenter.

This three-component seismogram was recorded from an earthquake about 10,000 km (6,000 miles) from the seismometer. The initial wave (P wave) arrives at about 6 minutes from the start of the plot. The signal is largest on the vertical component showing that the movement is largely up-down. The subsequent S wave, at about 16 minutes, is largest on the two horizontal components (north south and east-west), which shows that this shear wave has more sideways movement than vertical movement. The surface waves are much slower and arrive about 15 minutes later. The first surface wave, at about 30 minutes, includes primarily horizontal motion (Love wave) while the second surface wave at 35 minutes includes both horizontal and vertical motion (Rayleigh wave).

Photograph of a modern three component borehole seismometer. Three seismometers are stacked inside a tube with electronic circuitry. The instrument is encased in a vertical drill hole. The seismometers detect the motion and send a signal to the seismograph to be amplified and recorded

3) Explain the Seismic Zones of India? The varying geology at different locations in the country implies that the likelihood of damaging earthquakes taking place at different locations is different. Thus, a seismic zone map is required to identify these regions. Based on the levels of intensities sustained during damaging past earthquakes, the 1970 version of the zone map subdivided India into five zones I, II, III, IV and V (Figure 3). The maximum Modified Mercalli (MM) intensity of seismic shaking expected in these zones were V or less, VI, VII, VIII, and IX and higher, respectively. Parts of Himalayan boundary in the north and northeast, and the Kachchh area in the west were classified as zone V.

The seismic zone maps are revised from time to time as more understanding is gained on the geology, the seismotectonics and the seismic activity in the country. The Indian Standards provided the first seismic zone map in 1962, which was later revised in 1967 and again in 1970. The map has been revised again in 2002 (Figure 4), and it now has only four seismic zones II, III, IV and V. The areas falling in seismic zone I in the 1970 version of the map are merged with those of seismic zone II. Also, the seismic zone map in the peninsular region has been modified. Madras now comes in seismic zone III as against in zone II in the 1970 version of the map. This 2002 seismic zone map is not the final word on the seismic hazard of the country, and hence there can be no sense of complacency in this regard. The national Seismic Zone Map presents a largescale view of the seismic zones in the country. Local variations in soil type and geology cannot be represented at that scale. Therefore, for important projects, such as a major dam or a nuclear power plant, the seismic hazard is

evaluated specifically for that site. Also, for the purposes of urban planning, metropolitan areas are microzoned. Seismic microzonation accounts for local variations in geology, local soil profile, etc,.

5) What are the causes earthquakes?

The earth is divided into three main layers - a hard outer crust, a soft middle layer and a center core. The outer crust is broken into massive, irregular pieces called "plates." These plates move very slowly, driven by energy forces deep within the earth. Earthquakes occur when these moving plates grind and scrape against each other.

In California, the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate meet. The Pacific Plate covers most of the Pacific Ocean floor and the California coastline. The North American Plate stretches across the North American continent and parts of the Atlantic Ocean. The primary boundary between them is the San Andreas Fault. It is more than 650 miles long and extends 10 miles deep. Many smaller faults, such as the Hayward Fault, branch from the San Andreas Fault.

The Pacific Plate grinds northwestward past the North American Plate at a rate of about two inches per year. Parts of the San Andreas Fault system adapt to this movement by a constant "creep" resulting in frequent, moderate, earth tremors. In other areas, movement is not constant and strain can build up for hundreds of years resulting in strong earthquakes when it is released.

Unlike other natural disasters, there is no warning for earthquakes. Future earthquakes are a serious threat to Californians, which is why the Fire Department recommends preparing before an earthquake hits.

6) Describe the Soil Structure Interaction ? The soilstructure interaction is a well-known phenomenon especially in dynamic analysis and design of structures when subjected to various dynamic forces such as earthquakes. In the literature, a large number of studies are presented to emphasize the significance of soilstructure interaction. The soilstructure interaction has considerable influence on the dynamic response of structures especially supported on medium to soft soil conditions. On the other hand, it has been well-understood in the last three decades that the surface shapes and geological features of the soil medium have a significant influence on strong ground motion and dynamic response of structures, especially massive structures such as bridges and dams during seismic events. The effects of topographic irregularities have been repeatedly shown to be detrimental to structures. In the event of a strong earthquake, structures located at the top of hills, ridges or canyons, suffer more considerable damage than those located at the base. However, structures standing near the edge of irregular soil surfaces, such as cliffs and canyons, are affected significantly more than those at some distance from the edge. Severe structural damage due to topographic features has been observed in numerous earthquakes: Tokachi-oki (Japan) 1968; San Fernando (USA) 1971; Friuli (Italy) 1976; Miyagikenoki (Japan) 1978; Irpinia (Italy) 1980; Chile 1985; Eje-Cafetero (Colombia) 1998; Athens (Greece) 1999 and Bingol (Turkey) 2003. See details in Ohtsuki&Harumi 1983; Ohtsuki et al 1984; Celebi 1987; Kawase & Aki 1990; Gazetas et al 2002; Assimaki et al 2005; Ulusay & Aydan 2005. It has been considered that such severe structural damage is due to the large amplification of seismic waves associated with local topography and surface soil properties (Ohtsuki & Harumi 1983; Ohtsuki et al 1984). There are a large number of analytical and numerical studies which have provided supporting evidence of the significance of topographical effects. The finite difference method is used by Boore (1972) to model site effects for P-SV waves and for an arbitrary shape of topographical feature. Analytical solutions are obtained for SH wave scattering for semicylindrical

canyons by Trifunac (1973) and for semi-elliptical canyons by Wong & Trifunac (1974). The scattering and diffracting SH wave problems are extended by Wong & Jennings (1975) to arbitrarily-shaped canyons under ground motion by using boundary integral techniques and Fourier transforms. The diffraction of P, SV and Rayleigh waves by a circular canyon and an elliptical canyon is studied by Wong (1979). Effects of topographical and subsurface inhomogeneities are examined by Ohtsuki & Harumi (1983) on seismic SV waves and by Ohtsuki et al (1984) on seismic Rayleigh waves by using the hybrid method combining a particle model with finite elements. The effects of canyon topographies and geological conditions on strong ground motion are studied by Chuhan & Chongbin (1988) by using finite and infinite elements. A procedure is presented by Aviles & Perez-Rocha (1998) for representing the site effects and soilstructure interaction in alluvial valleys by using the one-dimensional (1-D) theory of shear wave propagation. An experimental study carried out in 1993 near Corinth in Greece is presented by LeBrun et al (1999) to investigate a scale effect of the dimensions of the hill, by comparing the results of an experiment carried out in 1992 around Sourpi and to compare the observed amplification level with those already reported in the literature. Complex site effects are studied by Chavez-Garcia & Faccioli (2000) to explore how to modify seismic spectra in order to take into account site effects of a two-dimensional (2-D) nature on sine-shaped sedimentary valleys. They concentrated on evaluating the additional amplification that 2-D site effects produced on ground motion. Gazetas et al (2002) carried out a case study to determine topography and soil effects in Adames region during 1999 Parnitha (Athens) Earthquake. Havenith et al (2003) examined the effects of various geological factors on the seismic ground motion, such as the presence of surface layers, 2-D and 3-D topography and of a fault zone located at the bottom of the hill. A case-study is carried out by Assimaki et al (2005) to illustrate the role of material inhomogeneity, soilstructure interaction and local stratigraphy in altering the energy mechanism at the different topographies. Another case-study is carried out by Stewart & Sholtis (2005) to determine the effects of topography and geological amplification on single-faced slopes. Nguyen & Gatmiri (2007) carried out a parametric study on the 2-D scattering of seismic waves by arbitrary topography by using boundary and finite elements. Gatmiri & Arson (2008) carried out a parametric study to quantify the site effects in 2-D sedimentary valleys by using an optimized 2-D boundary and finite element method.

In the evaluation of the topographic effects, previous studies generally focused to quantify crest/base amplification for free soil surface, but limited papers dealt with the soil structure interaction associated with local topographic conditions (e.g. Assimaki et al 2005; Aviles & Perez-Rocha 1998). However, existence and location of a structure on irregular soil surface may also have an effect on dynamic response of the system. Therefore, there is a need for a better understanding of the influence of soilstructure interaction associated with local topographic irregularities on both strong ground motion and dynamic response of structures. Aiming at this goal, a parametric study is carried out in this study to determine the effects of surface shapes and geotechnical properties of the soil on the dynamic response of 2-D soilstructure systems which have different canyon-shaped topographies. A numerical procedure is employed to evaluate whole system response. In the numerical treatment, finite and infinite elements with three wave types (Yerli et al 1998) are used. This infinite element type includes three different wave (pressure (P), shear (S) and Rayleigh) character (Yerli et al 1998). In the modelling of the structure and near soil region, finite elements are used, while far off soil region is modelled by infinite elements. The soil region is assumed to be homogeneous, isotropic and linear-elastic layer. Because of the damping effect is not under particular interest, it is not taken into account. For the ground motion acceleration data acting horizontally on the soil-rigid base interface, RickerWavelet signal is chosen. A parametric study is carried out to determine the effects of topography and soil properties, on the response of both soil and the structure. The formulation is performed in the Laplace transform domain. Solution in the time domain is obtained by using Durbins numerical inverse Laplace transform technique (Durbin 1974).

7) Explain the Importance of Ductility in earthquake resistance design of R.C structures ? Ductility can be defined as the ability of material to undergo large deformations without rupture before failure.Ductility in concrete is defined by the percentage of steel reinforcement with in it. Mild steel is an example of a ductile material that can be bent and twisted without rupture. Member or structural ductility is also defined as the ratio of absolute maximum deformation to the corresponding yield. This can be defined with respect to strains, rotations, curvature or deflections. Strain based ductility definition depends almost on the material, while rotation or curvature based ductility definition also includes the effect of shape and size of the cross-sections.

Each design code recognizes the importance of ductility in design because if a structure is ductile it ability to absorb energy without critical failure increases. Ductility behavior allows a structure to undergo large plastic deformations with little decrease in strength. In general the ductility is increased by, An increase in compression steel content. An increase in concrete compressive strength. An increase in ultimate concrete strain.

And is decreased by, An increase in tension steel content. An increase in steel yield strength. An increase in axial load.

SIGNIFICANCE OF DUCTILITY If ductile members are used to form a structure, the structure can undergo large deformations before failure. This is beneficial to the users of the structures, as in case of overloading, if the structure is to collapse, it will undergo large deformations before failure and thus provides warning to the occupants. This gives a notice to the occupants and provides sufficient time for taking preventive measures. This will reduce loss of life. Structures are subjected to unexpected overloads, load reversals, impact and structural movements due to foundation settlement and volume changes. These items are generally ignored in the analysis and design. If a structure is ductile than taken care by the presence of some ductility in the structure. The limit state design procedure assumes that all the critical sections in the structure will reach their maximum capacities at design load for the structure. For this to occur, all joints and splices must be able to withstand forces and deformations corresponding to yielding of the reinforcement. DUCTILITY CRITERIA FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURES The performance criteria in most earthquake code provisions require that a structure be able to : Resist earthquakes of minor intensity without damage. A structure would be expected to resist such frequent but minor shocks within its elastic range of stresses.

Resist moderate earthquakes with minor structural and some non-structural damage. With proper design and construction, it is believed that structural damage due to the majority of earthquakes will be limited to repairable damage.

Resist major catastrophic earthquake without collapse. Tension steel ratio pt The ductility of a beam cross-section increases as the steel ratio p or (p-p0) decreases. If

excessive reinforcement is provided the concrete will crush before the steel yields, leading to brittle failure corresponding to m0=1.0. In other words, a beam should be designed as under reinforced. The ductility is directly affected by the values ra, sck, and dy. the ultimate strain eu is a function of a number of variables such as the characteristic strength of concrete, rate of loading and strengthening effect of stirrups. The code recommends a value of 0.0035 for eu. Ductility increases with the increase in characteristic strength of concrete and decrease with the characteristic strength of steel. In fact, ductility is inversely proportional to square of dy. It suggests that Fe 250 grade mild steel is more desirable from the ductility point of view as compared with the Fe 415 grade or Fe 500 grade high strength steels. Compression steel ratio pc

Compression steel ratio is an important parameter defining the ductility ratio. The ductility increases with the decrease in (p-p0) value, that is, ductility increases with increase in compression steel. Shape of cross-section

The presence of an enlarged compression flange in a T-beam reduces the depth of the compression zone at collapse and thus increases the ductility. Lateral reinforcement

Lateral reinforcement tends to improve ductility by preventing premature shear failures and by confining the compression zone, thus increasing deformation capability of a reinforced concretebeam. Ductility can be increased by Decrease in the% tension steel (pt). Increase in the % compression steel (pc). Decrease in the tensile strength of steel.

Increase in the compressive strength of concrete (But very high grades of concrete are undesirable). Increase in the compression flanges area in flanged beams. Increase in the transverse (shear) reinforcement.

DESIGN FOR DUCTILITY Following certain simple design details such as can ensure sufficient amount of ductility: The structural layout should be simple and regular avoiding offsets of beams to columns, or offsets of columns from floor to floor. Changes in stiffness should be gradual from floor to floor. The amount of tensile reinforcement in beam should be restricted and more compression reinforcement should be provided. The latter should be enclosed by stirrups to prevent it from buckling. Beams and columns in a reinforced concrete frame should be designed in such a manner that inelasticity is confined to beams only and the columns should be remain elastic. To ensure this, sum of the moment capacities of the columns for the design axial loads at a beam-column joint should be greater than the moment capacities of the beams along each principal plane. The shear reinforcement should be adequate to ensure that the strength in shear exceeds the strength in flexure and thus, prevent a non-ductile shear failure before the fully reversible flexure strength of a member has been developed. Closed stirrups or spirals should be used to confine the concrete at sections ofmaximum moment to increase the ductility of members. Such sections include upper and lower ends of columns and within beam-column joints, which do not have beams on all sides. If axial load exceed 0.4 times the balanced axial load, spiral column is preferred. Splices and bar anchorages must be adequate to prevent bond failures. The reversal of stresses in beams and columns due to reversal of direction of earthquake force must be taken into account in the design by appropriate reinforcement.

Beam-column connections should be made monolithic.