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INTRODUCTION

Chapter No 1:

INTRODUCTION

1.1 WHAT IS DAM? A dam is a barrier that divides waters. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates, levees, and dikes are used to prevent water flow into specific land regions. 1.2 HISTORY The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities. Some of the grandest and largest dams were constructed in Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Dams in Yodha Wewa and Parakrama Samudra of Sri Lanka were the largest until the 20th Century. As per Needham, Abhaya Wewa is the oldest reservoir that was made by the use of a dam, which has been dated to 300 BC. Most of the first Dams were built in Mesopotamia up to 7,000 years ago. These were used to control the water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and could be quite unpredictable. The earliest recorded dam is believed to have been on the Sadd Al-Kafara at Wadi Al-Garawi, which is located about 25 kilometers south of Cairo, and built around 2600 B.C. It was destroyed by heavy rain shortly afterwards. The Romans were also great dam builders, with many examples such as the three dams at Subiaco on the river Anio in Italy. Many large dams also survive at Merida in Spain. The oldest surviving and standing dam in the world is believed to be the Grand Anicut, also known as the Kallanai, an ancient dam built on the Kaveri River in the state of Tamil Nadu located in southern India. It was built by the Chola king Karikalan, and dates back to the 2nd Century AD. The Kallanai is a massive dam of unhewn stone, over 300 meters long, 4.5 meters high and 20 meters (60 ft) wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri. The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Cauvery across the fertile Delta region for irrigation via canals. The dam is still in excellent repair, and served as a model for later engineers, including the Sir Arthur Cotton's 19thcentury dam across the Kollidam, the major tributary of the Cauvery. The land area irrigated by the ancient irrigation network, of which the dam was the centerpiece, was 69,000 acres (280 square
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kilometers). By the early 20th Century the irrigated area had been increased to about 1,000,000 acres (4,000 square kilometers). Du Jiang Yan in China is the oldest surviving irrigation system included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 B.C. In ancient China, the Prime Minister of Chu (state), Sunshu Ao, is the first known hydraulic engineer of China. He served Duke Zhuang of Chu during the reign of King Ding of Zhou (606 BC-586 BC), ruler of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. His large earthen dam flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir (62 miles in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today. In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from entering the marsh lands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often gave rise to the respective place's names in Dutch. For instance the Dutch capital Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam) started with a dam through the river Amstel in the late 12th Century , and Rotterdam started with a dam through the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, believed to be the original place of the 800 year old dam, still carries the name Dam Square or simply the Dam. 1.3 TYPES OF DAMS Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure. 1.3.1 By size International standards define large dams as higher than 15 meters and major dams as over 150 meters in height. Small Dam: - has an embankment less than 20 feet in height and reservoir capacity less than 100 acre-feet. Medium Dam: - is any dam that is neither small nor large. Large Dam: - has an embankment height greater than 50 feet or a reservoir capacity greater than 10,000 acre-feet.
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1.3.2 By purpose Intended purposes include providing water for irrigation or town or city water supply, improving navigation, creating a reservoir of water to supply industrial uses, generating hydroelectric power, creating recreation areas or habitat for fish and wildlife, flood control and containing effluent from industrial sites such as mines or factories.
A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary

dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or saddle through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.
An overflow dam is designed to be over topped. A weir is a type of small overflow dam

that can be used for flow measurement.

A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion.

Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.
A dry dam is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and

allows the channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.
A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river

from its natural course. 1.3.3 By structure Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as timber dams, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.

a). Arch dams

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In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above.

Fig. 1.3.3.1 ARCH DAM For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock. The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected. b). Gravity dams In a gravity dam, stability is secured by making it of such a size and shape that it will resist overturning, sliding and crushing at the toe. The dam will not overturn provided that the moment around the turning point, caused by the water pressure is smaller than the moment caused by the weight of the dam. This is the case if the resultant force of water pressure and weight falls within the base of the dam. However, in order to prevent tensile stress at the upstream face and excessive compressive stress at the downstream face, the dam cross section is usually designed so that the resultant falls within the middle at all elevations of the cross section (the core). For this type of dam, impervious foundations with high bearing strength are essential.

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Fig. 1.3.3.2 A). GRAVITY DAM

B). GRAVITY DAM

Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow." The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Gravity dams can also be classified as "overflow" (spillway) and "non-overflow." Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Itaipu Dam is a hollow gravity dam. A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam, an arch-gravity dam, for areas with massive amounts of water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam. c). Embankment dams Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earthfill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like the gravity dams made from concrete.

Fig. 1.3.3.3 A). EMBANKMENT DAM d). Timber dams

B). EMBANKMENT DAM

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times by humans due to relatively short lifespan and limited height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to build are those where timber is
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plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American west, but most have failed, been hidden under earth embankments or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.

Fig. 1.3.3.4 A). TIMBER DAM

B). TIMBER DAM

Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log

house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water.
Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction

methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks. Very few timber dams are still in use. Timber, in the form of sticks, branches and withes, is the basic material used by beavers, often with the addition of mud or stones. e). Rock-fill dams Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a large percentage of large particles hence the term rock-fill. The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during construction can
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lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during construction

Fig. 1.3.3.5 A). ROCK FILL DAM f). Earth-fill dams

B). ROCK FILL DAM

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen, rolled-earth or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight core.

Fig. 1.3.3.6 A). EARTHFILL DAM

B). EARTHFILL DAM

Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region of permafrost within it. Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials found on-site or nearby, they can be very cost-effective in regions where the cost of producing or bringing in concrete would be prohibitive. This makes it better for the environment too.
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g). Asphalt-Concrete Core A third type of embankment dam is built with asphalt concrete core. The majority of such dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built world-wide since the first such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent performance record.

Fig. 1.3.3.7 ASPHALT CONCRETE CORE DAM The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plastic material that can adjust to the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlements in the foundation. The flexible properties of the asphalt make such dams especially suited in earthquake regions. h). Cofferdams A cofferdam is a (usually temporary) barrier constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam may be demolished or removed. See also causeway and retaining wall. Common uses for cofferdams include construction and repair of off shore oil platforms. In such cases the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the space, displacing the water allowing a dry work environment below the surface. Upon completion the cofferdam is usually deconstructed unless the area requires continuous maintenance.

i). Steel dams

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A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around the turn of the 19th-20th Century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load bearing beams as the structure.

Fig. 1.3.3.8 STEEL DAM Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams. j). Beaver dams Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land, beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially during the winter. 1.4 DAMS IN PAKISTAN Pakistan is an agricultural country. It has one of the largest irrigation systems in the world. Irrigation system consists of dams, barrages and canals. Pakistan has various types of dams including small and major dams. In Pakistan mainly rock fill and earth fill dams are constructed. 1.4.1 SMALL DAMS

a). Dohngi dam Dohngi Dam lies 2 kilometers northwest of Gujar Khan in Rawalpindi, Punjab.Pakistan. The Dam is a local tourist attraction for residents of Gujar Khan.

b). Hub dam

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Hub Dam is a large water storage reservoir constructed in 1981 on the Hub River on the arid plains north of Karachi on provincial border between Balochistan and Sindh, Pakistan. The reservoir supplies water for irrigation in Lasbela District of Balochistan and drinking water for the city of Karachi. It is an important staging and wintering area for an appreciable number of waterbirds and contains a variety of fish species which increase in abundance during periods of high water. The Mahseer (Tor putitora), an indigenous riverine fish found in the Hub River, can grow up to 9 feet in length and more than 110 lbs. The Hub reservoir can grow up to 32 square miles and provides for excellent angling. Hub Dam was designated a Ramsar site on May 1, 2001. c). Khanpur dam Khanpur Dam is a dam located on the Haro River near the town of Khanpur (NWFP), about 25 miles (40 km) from Islamabad, Pakistan. It forms Khanpur Lake, a reservoir which supplies drinking water to Islamabad and Rawalpindi and irrigation water to many of the agricultural and industrial areas surrounding the cities. The dam was completed in 1983 after a 15 year construction period believed to have cost Rs. 1,352 million. It is 167 feet (51 m) high and stores 110,000 acre feet (140,000,000 m) of water. d). Mirani dam Mirani Dam is located in Gwadar District, Balochistan, Pakistan. Mirani Dam multipurpose project, is located on Dasht River, about 30 miles west of Turbat in Makran Division of Balochistan, it envisages provision of dependable irrigation supplies on the two banks of the river. The project has been completed in November 2006 and inaugurated by President Pervez Musharraf of Pakistan. e). Simly dam Simly Dam is located around 30 kilometer (19 miles) north of Islamabad. About 10 to 15 minutes drive from Convention Center Islamabad towards Murree

1.4.2 MAJOR DAMS TERBELA DAM

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Table 1.4.2.a) Salient features of TERBELA Dam Location Purpose Reservoir Area Design Flood Discharge Total Storage Capacity Live Storage Capacity Total Generating Capacity Dam Type Max. Dam Height Dam Crest Length Dam Crest Width Year of Completion Total Volume of Dam Haripur, River Indus Irrigation & Power 95 Sq. miles 14,10,000 cusecs 11.3 M.A.F. 9.4 M.A.F. 3478MW Earth & Rockfill 470 ft 9000 ft 40 ft 1976 158,268x103 C.yards

MANGLA DAM (JHELUM RIVER)

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Table 1.4.2.b Salient features of MANGLA Dam Location Purpose Reservoir Area Design Flood Discharge Total Storage Capacity Live Storage Capacity Total Generating Capacity Dam Type Max. Dam Height Dam Crest Length Max. Water Level Total Volume of Dam Year of Completion Off-Taking Canal 1.5 BASHA DIAMER DAM Recognizing the water and power crisis in the country, Government of Pakistan (GOP) with Azad Kashmir on River Jhelum Irrigation & Power 100.0 sq. miles 11,00,000 cusecs 5.88 M.A.F. 5.34 M.A.F. 2400 MW Earthfill 454 ft 11,000 ft 1202 ft. S.P.D. 144000x103 1967 Upper Jehlum Canal

the assistance of Canadian Government through Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), engaged Montreal Engineering Co Ltd. (MONENCO) to undertake study of Indus, Jehlum and Swat rivers for identification of possible dam sites and determine their ranking. Monenco carried out the study in 1982 and identified 25 promising sites for the hydroelectric power generation. The ranking of the dam sites for storage and hydroelectric power generation concluded that Basha Diamer Dam (revised name) site ranked first. The GOP and CIDA agreed to this recommendation. This was followed by the feasibility study carried out by Monenco in year 1984. The Basha Diamer Dam was declared technically feasible and economically sound. An earth core rockfill dam (ECRD) 210 meter high, creating a reservoir of 9 BCM (7.3 MAF) capacity, having power generation capability of 3360 MW was recommended.
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1.5.1

LOCATION

The Basha Dam project site has been identified about 314 km upstream of Tarbela dam on the River Indus and about 165 km south of Gilgit City. The development of a high dam at Basha will create significant storage capacity in the Indus valley between Rakhiot bridge and Dasu-Sazin gorge. The selected axis is the first suitable site for the construction of such a dam downstream of the relatively wide and flat reach of the river dominated by the town of Chilas. The dam site is located on a pronounced bend of the Indus River, in a section with steep rock slopes covered locally with a thin veneer of talus and acree. At the dam axis, the river is some 160 metres wide. The maximum depth of the river bed alluvium is 55 metres near the right bank. The bedrock has high strength, moderately jointed norite (a form of gabbro) and is suitable as foundation and embankment material. The material constituting the riverbed is also compact and has low compressibility. However, its location requires the laying of long distance transmission lines to connect the hydel power generated to the national grid. 1.5.2 Stage I Additional comprehensive technical, financial, social and environmental investigations and studies were proposed to be carried out to fully assess the feasibility. This would also facilitate the selection of an appropriate project layout to develop the hydroelectric potential of the Indus River at Basha. The activities of this stage are expected to be completed in 54 months. Stage II The detailed engineering design of the selected project layout will be prepared to the level required for tendering purpose in this stage. Tender documents of all major contracts will also be completed. This stage will take another 42 months, with the possibility of overlap of a period of 12 months. PLANNED STAGES OF DIAMER BASHA DAM

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Fig. 1.5.1 Location of Diamer Basha dam 1.5.3 FEASIBILITY STUDIES

Initial Feasibility Report of Diamer Basha Dam Project was prepared by Canadian Consultants Montreal Engineering Company (MONENCO) during 1981-1984. WAPDA appointed Local Consultants in December, 1989 for up-gradation of the Initial Feasibility Report. The work on the project was stopped in January 1990 due to interference of local people. WAPDA appointed M/S NEAC Consultants, a joint venture consisted of local & foreign firms, NESPAK (Lead Firm) for up-gradation of the Initial Feasibility Study. The Upgraded Feasibility Report of the Project was submitted by M/s NEAC on 31st August, 2004. International Panel of Experts declared that the Project is technically feasible. The contract for review of Feasibility Studies, Detailed Engineering Design and preparation of Tender Documents awarded to M/S Diamer Basha Consultants (DBC) (Joint Venture of local & foreign firms, with M/s Lahmeyer a leading firm). The DBC mobilized on 5th September, 2005 and the assignment is scheduled to be completed by March, 2008. 90% detailed Engineering Design Work has been completed upto February 2008.
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In the coming chapters we will discuss the layout planning, hydraulic aspects of Diamer Basha Dam project, Environmental impacts, Problems & constraints, economic & financial Evaluation and findings & recommendations.

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Fig. 1.5.3 Feasibility Report

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CHAPTER No. 1 1.5.4 GENERAL FEATURES OF BASHA DAM

INTRODUCTION

Location Purpose Reservoir Area Design Flood Discharge Total Storage Capacity Live Storage Capacity Total Generating Capacity Dam Type

Chilas, on River Indus Irrigation & Power 27,700 acre 682,000 Cusecs 7.3 M.A.F. 5.7 M.A.F. 2400 MW Zoned earth-rockfill with central core & concrete cut-off to bedrock.

Max. Dam Height Dam Crest Length Min. Operating Level Full Supply Level Total Volume of Dam Spillway Type

660 ft 3018 ft 3560 ft 3806 ft 58x106 C.yards Overflow, with concrete lined chute, flip bucket & plunge pool.

Spillway Gate Design Discharge Sill Elevation

6 No. (54.5x65.6) 6,82,000 Cs. 3740ft

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