Nomonde James 20014495 Development Studies 3 A Assignment 3: week 8-11 Due Date: 09 May 2012

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Introduction: There is a multitude of issues that affect development and power imbalances related to social status of states, culture, politics and economic status. The authors discussed here address the different issues and each provides various solutions to these problems. In the following essay, the views of these authors will be compared on their level of agreement and the degree to which their arguments are democratic and their contributions to the study of development. Recommendations and similarities in the arguments will also be addressed. P.T Bauer (Pieter, Tam`as) The early days of foreign aid were characterised by high expectations and which now is seen as absurd optimism and foreign aid is seen to promote dependency and is wasteful (Bauer, 2008:p.266). It was thought that foreign aid would after a long time ensure that the recipients have sustainable economic development and therefore there would be a less need for external assistance (Bauer, 2008:p.266). Foreign aid is not usually taken seriously and the behaviour and consumption of foreign aid by the user is rarely discussed (Bauer, 2008:p.267). This means, that careful spending of foreign aid is not closely monitored; therefore it is not quite known how the aid really helps developing countries. Bauer asserts that foreign aid is not crucial to achieve development, yet he also believed that to some degree private capital cannot finance infrastructure (Bauer,2008:p.167). Instead, , he argued that infrastructure is not a requirement for development, but rather, infrastructure occurs in the process of material progress, in other words development must occur first in order to accumulate infrastructure (Bauer,2008:p.167). Since he believed that markets should be allowed to do their own thing and the state to be limited in their restrictions to the market, it seems to be a more democratic practice of the economy. However, one needs to question whether it is morally correct for richer states to not support those states that are in great need. According to Bauer (2008:268) the consequences of foreign aid include the following: politicisation life in poor countries and there by contributing to social and political tension, it is also perceived to be damaging to material progress because

these governments prohibit highly productive and economically successful minorities from participation (Bauer,2008:p.268). Aid often supports wasteful projects which result in losses, people in poor countries do not pay attention to their ability of developing themselves, instead they adopt external traditions, and aid reduces the capital that could have been used in the donor country, foreign aid is a financial burden (Bauer,2008:p.269). (Bauer,2008:p.271) aid does not improve livelihoods in the long-term and certainly does remove resources from donor countries but this does not automatically mean that the standard of living will be improved in underdeveloped countries, to make the rich poorer does not make the poor richer (Bauer,2008:p.271). Moreover, he also believes that the existence of foreign aid is because foreign countries feel they have an obligation to help poorer countries to decrease their level of poverty and grief (Bauer, 2008:p.274). John Williamson: Williamson speaks about the term Washington consensus which is a term rejected by many and this is because it was claimed that it was not universally endorsed in Washington and therefore not a consensus (Williamson, 2008:p.289). He recommended that the term universal convergence would be more fitting and less challenged (Williamson, 2008:p.289). Furthermore, the Washington consensus was criticised because it claimed that it had figured out what to do and had generalised inadequately (Williamson, 2008:p.289). Williamson asserts that the real division occurs between those who are concerned with promoting an equitable income distribution (left) and those concerned with the defence of already established privileges (right) (Williamson,2008:p291). He adds that the ultimate divide on economic issues is not between capitalism and socialism or between laissez-faire and state controlled markets and that the Washington consensus/ Universal convergence does not remove politics but merely helps remove the anti-social style of politics and provide more civilised politics (Williamson,2008:p.294).

More careful attention should be paid about how we use terms in economics and development studies and not attract negative responses and accept that every country is unique and realise the importance of not generalising. James Scott: James Scott (2008:298) addresses the hubris tendencies of states in their attempts of achieving uniformity, improving the human condition, modernisation; and how this leads to oppression and exploitation. These tragedies are associated with optimistic views of progress (Scott, 2008: p 298). Another reason for these tragedies is the widespread character of the high-modernist faith (Scott, 2008:p.298). He helps us see how ignorance can harm progress and development and how an authoritative approach can harm the creativity and freedom of citizens in a particular country. The Hayekian option is based on Spontaneity or impulsiveness (Scott, 2008:p299). Michael Edwards Michael Edwards challenges the relevance of development studies because it seems of as though we are moving backwards than forward (Edwards, 2008:p.306). He also mentions that the use of the term progress is equally fragile (Edwards, 208:p306). Michael Edwards (2008:306) asked the following question: why is that our increased knowledge about the third world does not enable solutions to be found? One of the reasons may be that unfortunately the solutions and the power to take control lies within those who possess knowledge (Edwards,2008:p.307). Problems are specific in their complexity and local therefore, Indigenous knowledge should not be side lined, what is needed is peoples science which is indigenous knowledge to explore native solutions to local problems (Edwards,208:p.308). In addition to the problems that the technocratic approach to knowledge is the rejection to incorporate the role of emotion in understanding the problems of development (Edwards,2008:p.308). According to Michael Edwards (2008:309) there is a monopoly of knowledge and the control of power that exists in the field of development studies as it is dominated by the north and to a lesser degree by the third world by people whom have been trained and sponsors of the north. Dani Rodrik

Dani Rodrik looks at institutions and governance and how this affects development and how the Washington consensus may be Washington confusion. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) set out a document that revealed that in Washington there is not much consensus but confusion (Rodrik,2008:p.343). the document showed a decrease in growth and also states that the problem is not with the approach taken to the reform, but results from not looking deep and far enough (Rodrik,2008:343). Reforms should maintain uniformity, and symmetry with the original Washington consensus (Rodrik,2008:343). It has been protested that the determent of whether or not a country will be rich depends on the security of property rights (Rodrik,2008:343). An alternative to foreign aid is reform strategy offered by the U.N Millennium project (2005), which viewed the current status of foreign aid to be poor and hinders the achievement of global poverty reduction and thus there is a need for increased foreign aid. Jean C. Oi Jean Oi focuses on the fiscal reform and the economic foundations corporatism in china and he argues that the problem faced by local government was which is the best way to generate revenues (Oi,2008:p.364). He believes decollectivisation diminished agriculture as a feasible source of making revenue (Oi,2008:p.364). The institution of the responsibility system made it harder even for local government to gain legitimacy to access all income from agriculture (Oi,2008:p.364).The success of the local government in China forces one to look at the significant relationship between economic growth, property rights and state intervention (Oi,2008:p. 366).

Patrick Heller Patrik Heller (2008:372) stated that in the past decades, the majority of third world countries have shifted from authoritarian rule to democracy, and the new freedoms and liberties have been celebrated. But what does this mean for development? There is great concern in terms of whether democracy will help in in increasing development and how it can assist in the removal of economic inequalities that are prominent in developing countries (Heller,2008:p.372).

These questions must be explored to help understand the implications of democracy and two main problems have been identified (Heller, 2008:p.372). The first problem is that western European writings are mainly concerned with patterns of aggregation especially in the dynamics and the effects of lower class formation and claim that political rights are the same as social rights (Heller,2008:p.372). The second problem democracy brings as stated by Heller (2008:373) is the institutional character of democratic countries, meaning that these countries have previously had bureaucratic institutions and they have adopted leadership style from their previous authoritarian rule and it will become increasing harder to be open to participation by subordinate groups. Tools and indigenous knowledge is needed for developing countries to truly enjoy some degree of freedom. The people know their own specific and unique difficulties. Thus, it is better if native people find solutions on their own and formulate their own standards of living and how they should be. Democracy without the means to develop is in vein. David Mosse According to David Moss (2008:385) the most important principle of participation is the involvement of local peoples knowledge into programme planning. The PRA literature on participation assumes that peoples knowledge can transform top-down bureaucratic planning systems (Moss, 2008:p.385). Non-nationals should not interfere and not dominate a lecture but facilitate one and actually listen and learn from what is said (Moss,2008:p.385). Moreover, outsiders should not transfer technology but share methods with local people so they can use it to their benefit (Moss, 2008:p.385). The non-interferences may result in the reversal of hierarchies of power in development thinking and development blueprints to be rejected and local peoples knowledge to be recognised and embraced (Moss, 2008:p.385). Yet, there could still be power imbalances in a given society for example: there is a strong threat for manipulation of peoples planning especially in rural peoples knowledge being shaped by dominant interest groups who aim to influence them (Moss,2008:p.389).

David Moss and Michael Edwards both agree on the free market concept as well as Jean Oi. They are both arguing against bureaucratic planning systems and agree that indigenous people should use indigenous solutions to help solve indigenous problems. Martin Wolf Martin Wolf (2008:402) advocates globalisation and believes it has positive implications on development and facilitates an integrated economy. Even though land cannot move around, but goods and services can, even people who purchase them as tourists (Wolf, 2008:p.403). Global transactions must be seen as individual or firms, even though states regulate them economically and politically (Wolf, 2008:p.404). Another point raised here is that states will have competitive advantage when they specialise in a specific production that they will be able to master. What about those nations who do not participate in the global economy? Are they doomed to be underdeveloped? Robert Hunter Wade Robert Hunter Wade is more concerned about whether globalisation can reduce poverty and if so how. According to R.H Wade (2008:411) the neoliberal argument asserts that the income distribution over the worlds population has become more and more equal and extreme poverty has decreased. Nevertheless Wade (2008:419) disagrees and claims that globalisation does not decrease extreme poverty and has resulted in even more inequalities. There might be some confusion that could have happened in the head count of the poor from the World Bank. Different institutions may come up with differing results and Wade (2008:418) argues that the Bank has been inaccurate as there is a significant difference in the headcount that would result from the use of PPP conversion factors based more closely on the real costs of living of the poor. He argues against what Martin Wolf believes about globalisations contribution to development. He believes that globalisation is bad and cannot rapidly succeed in developing underdeveloped countries. Partha Dasgupta

There are studies done by the World Bank which have given estimates of genuine investment in a number of countries and it is called genuine saving (Dasgupta, 2008:p.428). These can be made through commodities, nature and services. Amartya Sen At birth, more boys are born than girls everywhere in the wold, but further in life women than men survive longer despite receiving similar health care, nutrition and medical attention (Sen,2008:p.433). This trend is due to societal attitudes, social and environmental structures towards gender roles and lifestyle differences between genders (Sen, 2008:p.433). Gender roles affect development because for example, in many countries such as Japan male children are preferred over female children (Sen, 2008:p.437). This is basically because male persons expected to work and bring in some sort of income and provide economic security to even provide for their aged parents and women are made to look after the home (Sen,2008:p.437). It is important to note that both gender roles are important and there needs to be balance to achieve a reasonable standard of living. Bina Agarwal Bina Agarwal answers the question why gender is important and the element of collectivism in achieving development. Three important measures for judging the performance of community institutions for environmental management is the degree of community participation in decision making, equity distribution of costs and benefits and their efficiency in protecting and restoring the resource (Agarwal,2008:p443). Womens participation is typically low (Agarwal, 2008:p.444). There is a lack of balance even in equity distribution. Inequalities may lead to underdevelopment as others unfortunately miss the chance of accumulating some degree of economic wealth. Brooke Grundfest Schoepf The rapid spreads of HIV/AIDS in Africa is related to political and economic crises and thus lead to a health crises (Schoepf, 2008:p.452). The virus reaches new populations through trade ,tourism, migration and war, in addition the virus spreads because carriers are often unaware and infect other people (Schoepf,2008:p452). Women are more susceptible to the disease because of biological vulnerability and

social roles and perspectives of how different genders are to behave and the male tendencies to dominate women. Gender equality is important and mind sets of different societies need to be altered and AIDS education is equally vital, although this task is difficult, complex and would take years to accomplish.

Charls Hirsschkind and Saba Mahmood Feminists gathered and protested against the Talibans brutal treatment of Afghan women (Hirsschkind & Mahmood, 2008:p.465). Women are forbidden from all forms of employment, designated schools for girls have been abolished including attendance of universities, women are forbidden from leaving their homes unless they are accompanied by a male close relative and they are forced to wear a burqa that covers the whole body with a mesh opening to see through(Hirsschkind & Mahmood, 2008:p.466). The question here lies with whether this is gender equalities or purely cultural and religious and people from other parts of the world should be more sensitive to other peoples ideas of how things should be. All of the following authors Amartya Sen, Bina Agarwall, Brooke Grundfest Schoepf, Charls Hirssckind and Saba Mahmood are concerned with gender roles and factors that contribute to gender inequalities. The focus is on gender equalities and how it contributes to the oppression of one gender in which inequalities lead to poverty because of the imbalance of interests and gender roles. The unfortunate structure of a highly diverse society is challenging to try and gear them towards a direction that will benefit everyone as a whole and also because change will not happen overnight. Gender equality is supposed to contribute to democracy and collectivist societies. Conclusion Development takes a while to occur and different issues raised assists in developing and integrating new ideas of how things should be done. From letting local people

decide what their standard of living should be, promoting or disapproval of globalisation, implications of democracy, gender inequalities, collaboration and participation in decision making and even the HIV/AIDS epidemic. All these issues need to be publicly discussed to allow a window for new ideas to emerge and lead to the understanding that even though nations may have the same problems, there is a need to find solutions that will be unique to that nation.

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