Erich Kerr 1

Exploring Process Control Dynamics

The objective of process control engineering is to apply automation in a way that refines processes and reduces overhead. The components of a systems process algorithm, which is a sequence of calculations, allow computerization to come to fruition, whereas in the past, a person would have to radio data to an operative who would manually regulate the systems. Essentially, the goal is to perfect a process, meaning disturbances are eliminated by utilizing a feed-forward control system, which monitors multifarious variables with sensors and relays signals to a master controller to make real-time modifications. By taking a holistic approach to understanding the elements of process control, prospective engineers will be able to overcome constraints through cutting-edge design and instrumentation. In order to conceptualize process control, it is pivotal to master the basics, as in any field, to fully unravel the intricacies of an advanced process control system. Process control, albeit a highly specialized subject matter, has many fundamental phases and particulars that must be taken into consideration when drafting a system, such as the methods to use, what instrumentation to meld into an algorithm, the recalibrations involved, and how to optimize the various controls, including: flow, pressure systems, and temperature. A profession in process control has recently burgeoned into the field of Chemical Engineersthese engineers are routinely regarded as Process Control Engineers in the technical industry. Many techniques can be executed in an industrial system to achieve a set point, which is a desired product result. Common methods used in todays industrial society are batch processing, a sequence of operations executed on a manufactured product, and continuous processing, where operations are performed by continuously changing a controlled variable overtime. For instance, the production of plastic involves the use of both methods, first continuous and then batch processing. Process Control Engineers devised a continuous process method that refines petroleum into its various condensates so that ethylene and propylene may be extracted for further modification. Subsequently, machinery places ethylene and propylene in high-temperature furnaces until they undergo chemical reactions to become a powdery substance, which is referred to as a polymer. Polymers are then intensified into a molten state and, thereafter, cooled. Now the batch processing aspect comes into play. Piece by piece, the plastic is sequentially moved, cut, and modified to specifications. Following the plastic production, the plastic is shipped to manufacturing plants where additional processing is applied to the output, such as blow and injection molding. Besides the two main types of processing, there is the open-loop system and the closed-loop system. Classified by how they control variables, industrial control systems operate manually in an open-loop system or automatically in a closed-loop system. For example, an open-loop system can be illustrated as follows: fluid flows at a constant rate through a pipe, which has a manually controlled valve, into the top of an open tank. Maintaining an ideal set point is the goal, since there is a lower outlet pipe on the opposite side to equate the outflow of fluid to the inflow; however, the query that engineers face with this open-loop system is that an operator must control the valve manually whenever rainfall adds to the tank level or corrosion causes the fluid to flow at a different rate, allowing inaccuracy and inefficiency. As a result, the closed-loop system is used whenever the open-loop system is not adequate. Engineers utilize the closed-loop system when a manufacturing application, such as raw natural gas refinement, requires continuous monitoring and self-correcting action for long periods of time without interruption. This automatic system employs a feedback loop to analyze how closely the system is performing the task it was instructed to perform. The previous pipe

Erich Kerr 2 example can also be used to illustrate a closed-loop operation. To perform automatic control, the controller modifies the system by replacing the manually controlled valve with an adjustable valve connected to a float in the open tank. The valve, the float, and the linkage mechanism provide the feedback loop. The float is connected to the inlet valve by a mechanical linkage, so if the level of the water in the tank goes up, the valve is pushed downward; if the level goes down, the valve moves upward (like the standard flush toilet in every abode). When the float pushes the mechanical linkage lever over the pivot point, the valve moves downward to decrease the fluids flow rate, and when the float lowers, the lever pulls below the pivot point causing the valve to come upward, which increases flow. Most automated processes use closed-loop control and these systems that have a self-regulation capability are designed to effectuate a continual balance. Engineers are duty-bound to analyze all of the modes available and to elect which will be prime for a system, so that appropriate employment of the various instrumentations may be achieved. A myriad of industries apply chemicals in their manufacturing processes; therefore, these processes demand analytical instrumentation in order to control the variables compositions in an algorithm. For instance, fluids, such as raw crude oil, flow through pipes at certain rates, then fill up large storage bins to specific levels, and then are extracted for another process. All of these operations are processes; thus, automatic control devices are needed to efficiently control these processes. A process stream involves the flow of either a gas or a liquid. The instrument used to determine the characteristic of the process stream is called an analyzer. Process analyzers can be categorized as those that analyze gases and those that analyze liquids. The following types of analytical instrumentation processes will be explored: pH, conductivity, combustibility, and humidity. The term pH represents the degree at which a solution is acidic or alkaline. Devices that are used to measure pH values detect the concentration of hydrogen ions. Early techniques involved paper indicators that produced color change; however, this technique will not work on colored solutions, and additionally, it provides no electrical signal to transmit to a controller for automatic applications. For this reason, engineers developed electronic sensors to provide the continuous feedback signal that is in closed-loop systems. The electronic sensors consist of two electrodes, which are conductors of electricity, and an amplifier. One electrode is the active, or sensing device, which produces a voltage proportional to the hydrogen-ion concentration, and the other is a reference device that keeps the first electrode in check. The amplifier boosts the voltage signal from the electrodes to a level that can be transmitted to a controller for modulations. The controller will then either increase acidic or alkaline levels by adding a reagent, or corrective ingredient, to bring the pH to the desired level. In most industrial processes, the pH is controlled along with the conductivity, which is the ability of the solution or matter to pass electric current. All liquids possess conductivity to some degree ranging from high to low. High conductivity indicates that electrons can flow easily through a liquid because they contain a large number of ions. Low conductivity indicates that less current flows because of the higher resistance caused by the presence of fewer ions in the liquid. Controlling conductivity is achieved by altering a substances temperature. Frequently, thermal conductivity systems use conductivity probes to determine which action to perform, by either heating or refrigerating a substance. For instance, decreasing a substances temperature increases its viscosity, or thickness, thereby decreasing the mobility of ions and, therefore, its conductivity. Several industries that use conductivity control are: natural gas, petroleum, electroplating, food processing, and photographic development. Many of the

Erich Kerr 3 chemical reactions in the industries need a lot of energy, which is obtained through a chemical reaction known as combustion. Combustion, referred to as burning, uses a combination of gases and fuel. There are two types of fuel that can react with oxygen for combustion to occur: hydrocarbon fuel, such as methane, propane, butane, or ethane, or a combustible substance, such as ammonia, carbon monoxide, or hydrogen sulfide. The burning operations require precise control conditions to ensure that they are executed effectively and safely. By measuring the presence of gases or their concentration, it is possible to determine if the burning is properly achieved. Varieties of analytical sensors monitor these gases and each type is specifically designed to measure one type of gas. Hydrocarbon gas combustion occurs when any hydrocarbon fuel and oxygen are ignited to form water and carbon dioxide. To achieve efficiency, the proper fuel-to-air ratio must be maintained by using an infrared gas analyzer. This system is inside the flue, or the stack of a combustion chamber, to analyze the gases that are discharged. Whenever the combustion is not efficient, other gases such as carbon monoxide will become present; thus, the infrared gas analyzer will adjust the fuel-to-air ratio accordingly. On the other hand, the thermo-conductivity detector (TCD), which uses heat to analyze the behavior of gases, monitors combustible gases, since each gas has the ability to conduct thermal energy. The system uses a combination of chambers, with one reference chamber, to compare thermal conductivity of gases. The system will output a voltage to balance the gases until it is equal to that of the reference chambers voltage. Moreover, sensors detect leaks in the systems because if gas leakage is present, a spark can ignite an explosion. The sensors take corrective actions by closing valves and having operators seal the leaks. Humidity is another issue that alters combustion results, prompting the need for instrumentation to be added to a system. Humidity, or the amount of moisture in the air, is critical to observe in processes because of the potential risks that it can present if not monitored. If there is too much humidity, mildew and mold can occur; in contrast, dry air causes moisture to evaporate quickly, creating a cooling effect. Furthermore, dry air can cause static electricity, and with it, the chance of a flare-up, or explosion; therefore, a medium is needed. In order to control humidity, sensors trigger automatic humidifiers and dehumidifiers when they do not meet their respective set points. The operation of analytical instruments are crucial components when running a process and engineers have to make sure every aspect and variable is covered with a checks and balances system. The goal is to make a system perfect, but it is impossible to predict every problem; as a result, systems must be regularly recalibrated. To guarantee proper operation of loop feedback systems and other processes, recalibrations must be performed. Instruments throughout a loop system, whether it is closed or open, must accurately produce output signals that represent the value of the measured variable. Due to wearing of components, the signals produced by various instruments may be altered, which creates undesirable results. Engineers design many instruments so that adjustments can be made to compensate for the deterioration of their internal components. Instrumentation technicians typically perform the process of making these adjustments, called calibration. Controllers, the intelligence systems that manage closed-loops, must respond rapidly and precisely when a disturbance or set point alteration occurs, which is dependent upon how well the controller is tuned. The Process Control Engineers are typically responsible for maintaining the controllers and ensuring they have the proper settings of the proportional, integral, and derivative control modes. These three terms are methods of corrections to reach each set point and are used to optimize control processes.

Erich Kerr 4 Optimization depends on how the system reacts and what makes it efficient when controlled. Enabling optimization in the field necessitates quicker control of a system to optimize the loop. Improvements in the performance of a regulatory control systems processes allow for economic gains because reducing the overshoot of an attunement to a process, for example, flow, causes the set point to become more profitable. Investigations of the controls that include flow, pressure systems, and temperature, detail the mishaps that engineers must contend with everyday. Many types of industrial applications involve the flow of resources during the manufacturing process. Flow is the transfer of material from one location to another. The materials can be raw materials, products, or wastes in the form of solids, liquids, and gases. The flow passes through such components as pipes, hoses, or channels. Automated systems that control flow first determine flow rates by various measurement techniques, such as a flow orifice or even something as simple as a propeller that spins, like the Lobed Impeller Flowmeter, which utilizes two blades and multiplies their displacement per revolution times the RPM to calculate the volumetric flow (Bartelt 127). A paradigm of flow control would be a tube that has a set point of 150 gallons per minute but is not meeting the marginal flow. A sensor has flagged this pipe and engineers predict that the pipe has minor corrosion along the interior walls, causing the flakes of rust to slow the water flow to 145 gallons per minute. The system attempts to correct the problem using the proportional, integral, and derivative modes; however, a frequent occurrence in the field is that the system overshoots the set point when it regulates the flow due to changes in the constants, such as the pipes internal consistency. In the given example, the system may project a certain increase, thus the new flow rate becomes 153 gallons per minute. Then, the next system recalculation will get closer and closer until it reaches the set point. The purpose of flow optimization is to reduce the overshooting of the systems, and this can be achieved by making sure all systems are properly tuned on a regular basis. Although flow is an important aspect in the controlling processes, in many cases it is not the only variable monitored. Another variable continuously observed is pressure, since it exists in many manufacturing plants as a control point. The sheer number of pressure gauges and controls will overwhelm anyone who enters a plant, and further, all of these devices assist in controlling different types of processes. Pressure is energy, or force, put forth by a fluid onto a portion of surface area (Bartelt 75). In laymens terms, this is how much a substance, such as raw natural gas, is packed, or pressurized, into a pipe. There are many reasons to apply pressure, including: performing work with a machine such as a pneumatic drill, moving fluids upwards by conquering gravity, or to transform a liquid into a different physical state, such as when nitrogen gas becomes a liquid when enough pressure is applied. Conversely, there are many reasons for decreasing pressure too. Reasons for reducing pressure in a process system are: lifting and lowering objects, such as in a batch processing job; forcing liquid into a container, since a vat with a lowered pressure will help fill it with liquid; and altering the physical states, such as causing a liquid to vaporize. Pressure is created by a compressor, a pump, or by heat. Additionally, a centrifugal pump, which is a process system, creates pressure. This system spins a wheel with veins along the side. Meanwhile, water is fed into the system and the veins catch it and spin it out, creating pressure. Another instance is when heat assists in pressure creation. For instance, pressure cookers may be used in the food industry. Pipes add water into this systems vat, and a lid is screwed on top. Afterward, the bottom of the vat is heated until steam is created, which has a much larger volume than that of liquid water; as a result, pressure is created. The most common types of industrial process systems that employ pressure are hydraulic, pneumatic, vacuum, static, and steam

Erich Kerr 5 pressure distribution systems. Pressure systems are also incorporated into temperature control because of the Joule-Thompson effect, which states that when gas is expanded it cools (like a household refrigerator). Temperature can be detected and controlled by a variety of thermal systems, but the approach taken is dependent upon what operation is under consideration. A general instrument used to gauge temperature is the thermocouple, a device with two wires that has different metals welded together. The thermocouples dual wire has different levels of electricity that flow through and cross checks the voltage with a reference electrode. The voltage detected is then amplified and transmitted to a display that relays the input information to the controller, which calculates what to do. The controller computes whether to add or decrease heat. If a decision to make heat is made, the heater system uses gas to fire a burner to change the temperature. In order to increase heat, fuel must be added; to decrease heat, fuel must be restricted. Two reasons temperature must be controlled are to improve optimization and economy. An instance of this is when a gas or a liquid becomes too hot so it may burn or spoil, and additionally, energy is wasted. Moreover, it may cause an unwanted chemical reaction. For example, refrigerators must be kept at the optimal storage level, so foods do not spoil. Many products manufactured today are the result of a process that involves temperature control; therefore, there is a constant demand upon engineers to accelerate the current processes. In the past, computers were not as fast, so multiple process systems could not compile onto one controller; however, technological breakthroughs have increased computing power and speed for faster calculations, optimizations, and real-time modifications. An instance of what demonstrates computers abilities today would be the combination of the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) and any continuous process. Before, this was not possible, since a PLC system could only perform ladder logic, which is a programming language that models a program by using sequenced graphical illustrations based on the circuit illustrations of relay-based logic hardware (as if the system is climbing a ladder). In essence, the PLC system performs logical operations in a sequence, such as a program list or a set of instructions line by line. The PLC, which is a batch process because of all the switches it turns on and off, like the binary system, can now incorporate continuous process controls such as derivative controls and integral controls. The progress of process engineering has continued to unleash itself from prior constraints due to the ever-increasing computational speeds that are added to the technological field daily, and for that reason, process control engineers continue to integrate systems with other devices, reduce product costs, and further time-benefits. To succeed in process control, the engineer must establish a high-quality understanding of the processes to be controlled. The magnitude of instruments, sensors, and gauges are vital to any given process, since without them, a system would lack in the efficiency that engineers continue to incorporate into todays process control systems everyday. Realization of the complexities involved in a process system compels one to an increasing curiosity in the field of Process Control Engineering. Research continues to evolve as engineers bridge the gap between multiple systems and configure new-fangled visions, effectively bringing them into reality. Process control systems have become essential features in virtually every area of technology, from machine tools to aerospace vehicles. By adapting the fundamentals of dynamic control systems, engineers will be able to amplify their abilities and enhance existing modus operandi.

Erich Kerr 6 Works Cited Albertos, Pedro, and Iven Mareels. Feedback and Control for Everyone. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2010. Print. Altmann, Wolfgang. Process Control for Engineers and Technicians. Burlington: IDC Technologies, 2005. Print. Bao, Jie, and Peter L. Lee. Process Control: The Passive Systems Approach. Berlin: SpringerVerlag, 2007. Print. Bartelt, Terry. Instrumentation and Process Control. Clifton Park: Thomson Learning Inc., 2007. Print. Beall, James. "Improving Control Valve Performance." Chemical Engineering October 2010: 4243. Web. 27 Oct 2010. Clark, Robert N. Control System Dynamics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print. deSa, Douglas. Applied technology and Instrumentation for Process Control. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2004. Print. Marszal, Edward M., and Christopher P. Weil. "Implementing Protective Functions in BCPS." American Chemical Society. (2002): Print. Morris, Kirsten. Introduction to Feedback Control. Burlington: Harcourt/Academic Press, 2001. Print. Ordys, Andrzej W., Damien Uduehi, and Michael A. Johnson. Process Control Performance Assessment. London: Springer-Verlag, 2007. Print. Potter, Merle C. Thermodynamics Demystified. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2009. Print. Willis, Mark J. "Some Conventional Process Control Schemes." Lorien.org. Chemical and Process Engineering. 1999. Web. Oct. 2010.