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Learning Outcome 1

Diodes and Special Devices













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LEARNING OUTCOME :

1. Explain the basic structure of atoms

2. Explain semiconductors, conductors, and insulators and how they basically differ

3. Explain covalent bonding in silicon

4. Describe how current is produced in a semiconductor

5. Describe the properties of n-type and p-type semiconductors

1.0 P-type and N-type semiconductor

1-1 ATOMI C STRUCTURE

Figur e 1-1: Atomi c str uctur e

An atom i s the smallest parti cle of an element that contai ns three basic parti cl es:
(a) Proton: posi ti ve charge
(b) Neut ron: uncharged parti cle - that make up the nucleus (core) of the atom
(c) Electron: negati ve charge that orbi t around the nucl eus
i. Atomic Number
An atom has a fi xed number of shells where each shel l has a fi xed maxi mum number of
electrons accordi ng to thei r atomic number . The atomi c number i s the number of protons
i n nucl eus whi ch equals to the number of electron i n neutral state (net charge of zer o).

ii. Electr on Shells and Orbits
Electrons orbi t t he nucleus of an atom at cert ai n distances from the nucleus on thei r own
orbi tal paths or shells. The outermost shel l of an atom i s known as valence shell and
electrons i n thi s shell are cal led valence electr ons, which are l oosely bound to the atom.


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Electrons that thei r distance, d whi ch i s farther from the nucleus, have hi gher energy and are
less ti ghtly bound to the atom than those closer to the nucl eus. Thi s i s because the force of
attracti on between the posi ti vel y charged nucleus and the negati vel y charged electron,
a
F
decreases wi th i ncreasi ng distance, d from the nucleus.

d
F
a
1

Therefore, electron wi th the hi ghest energy l evel exi sts i n valence shell of an at om. I n other
words, as di stance of the electron from the nucleus, d i ncreases, the energy of t he el ectron,
E also i ncreases.
d E


Figur e 1-2: Ener gy i ncr eases as the di stance fr om the nucleus i ncr eases
1-1-1 I onization
I f the valence el ectrons absorb suffi ci ent external energy and escape from the shel l to
become fr ee electrons, thi s process i s known as ionization whi ch result i ng to a posi ti vely
charged atom, positive ion. When the free electron l oses energy and fall s i nto the outer
shell of a neutral atom, the atom becomes negati vely charged, negative ion. Therefore, the
val ence el ectrons contri bute to chemi cal reacti ons and determi ne i t s el ectri cal properti es.

1-1-2 Number of Electr ons in Each Shells
Maxi mum number of electrons that can exi sts i n each shell

2
2n N
e
=

where = n number of shell




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1-2 CONDUCTOR, SEMI CONDUCTOR AND I NSULATOR

Materi al can be categori zed i nto 3 broad groups:
(a) Conductor
(b) Semi conductor
(c) I nsulator

1-2-1 Conductor
Conductors are materi al that easi ly conducts electri cal current. They have one valence
electron that loosely bound to the atom. Thi s valence electron can easi l y break away from
thei r atoms and become electron. E.g.: copper, si lver, alumi num, gold.

1-2-2 Semiconductor
Semi conductors are materi al that i s between conductors and i nsul ators i n i ts abi li ty to
conduct electrical current. They are characteri zed by atoms wi th four val ence electrons. E.g.:
si li con, germani um, and carbon.

1-2-3 I nsulator
I nsulators are materi al that does not conduct elect ri cal current under normal condi ti ons.
The valence electrons are ti ghtly bound to the atoms. E.g.: si li con di oxi de.

1-2-4 Energy Bands
Energy band represents a band of energy level s whi ch i s confi ned by the valence electron.
When an electron acqui res enough addi ti onal energy, leaves the valence shel l, become a free
electron and exi sts i n conduction band.

The di fference i n energy between the valence band and the conducti on band is called an
ener gy gap. Thi s i s the amount of energy that a valence electron must have i n order to j ump
from t he val ence band to the conducti on band.






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Figur e 1-3: Ener gy band diagr ams for thr ee types of mater i al s

Energy band di agrams for the three types of materi als:
(a) i nsulators have a very wi de energy gap
(b) semi conductors have a much narrower gap
(c) conductors have an overlap energy gap
Therefore, the conclusi on i s, there are no valence el ectron i n conducti on band for i nsulators
and for conductors, there is always a large number of free el ectrons.

1-2-5 Compar ison of a Semiconductor Atom to a Conductor Atom
Taki ng si li con as a type of a semi conductor and copper as a type of a conductor for
compari son, refer to the Fi gur e 1-4 below:


Figur e 1-4: Si li con and copper atoms
The core of the si li con atom has 4 valence electrons and the core of the copper at om has one
val ence el ectron accordi ng to thei r atomi c number. Therefore, the valence electrons i n si li con
feel more force from the core, t ryi ng to hol d a valence electron to the at om compared to the

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val ence el ectron i n copper. I n addi ti on, the valence electron i n copper has more energy than
val ence el ectron i n si li con because i t is i n t he fourth shell, whi ch i s greater distance from i ts
nucleus than the si li cons valence electron i n the thi rd shell. These make i t easi er for valence
electron i n copper to escape from thei r atoms and become free el ectrons i n the conducti on
band than i t is i n si li con.

1-2-6 Compar ison of Silicon and Ger manium
Taki ng si li con and germani um as a type of semi conductors for compari son refer to the
Fi gur e 1-5 below:


Figur e 1-5: Si li con and ger manium atoms

Si licon i s the widely used materi al i n semi conducti ve materi al s. Bot h si li con and germani um
have the characteri sti c of four valence electrons. But the valence el ectrons i n germani um are
i n hi gher level than those i n si li con because the electrons i n germani um are i n fourth shell
compared thi rd shell i n si li con, whi ch require less energy to escape from the atom. Thi s wi ll
make the germani um more unstable at hi gh temperatures and thi s i s the basic reason why
si li con i s the most wi dely used.










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1-3 COVALENT BONDS

Fi gur e 1-6 and Fi gur e 1-7 bel ow show how each si li con atom posi ti ons i tself wi th four
adj acent si li con atoms to for m a silicon cr ystal. A si licon atom wi th i ts four val ence
electron shares an electron wi th each of i ts four nei ghbors. Thi s creates ei ght val ence
electrons for each at om and produces a state of chemical stabil ity and covalent bonds
that hol d the atoms together. An intr insic crystal i s one that has no impur ities.



Figur e 1-6: Si l i con cr ystal



Figur e 1-7: Covalent bonds i n si li con cr ystal







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1-4 CONDUCTI ON I N SEMI CONDUCTORS
Each shell around the nucleus corresponds to a certai n energy band and i s separated from
adj acent shells by energy gaps, whi ch no electrons can exi st.



Figur e 1-8: Ener gy band for unexci ted for i ntr i nsic si l i con cr ystal
1-4-1 Conduction of Electr ons and Holes
When a val ence electr on has suffi ci ent energy to j ump to the conducti on band it wi ll become
free or conducti on electron. When thi s happen, a vacancy i s left i n the val ence band wi thi n
the crystal and thi s vacancy i s known as hole. This creates an electr on-hole pairs.


Figur e 1-9: Cr eati on of el ectr on-hole pai r s i n si li con cr ystal. El ectr ons i n conducti on band
become fr ee electr ons

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Recombination occurs when a conducti on-band electron l oses energy and falls back i nto a
hole i n the valence band. There wi ll be an equal number of holes i n the valence band created
when these el ectrons j ump i nto the conducti on band.



Figur e 1-10: Electr on-hol e pai r s. Fr ee el ectr ons ar e gener ated conti nuousl y whi le some
r ecombi ne wi th holes

1-4-2 Electr on and Hole Curr ent


Figur e 1-11: When voltage i s appli ed, electr on cur r ent i n i ntr i nsi c si li con i s pr oduced by the
movement of ther mal ly gener ated fr ee elect r ons

When a voltage i s appli ed across the i ntri nsic si li con, there wi ll be a movement of free
electrons, whi ch are easi ly attracted toward the posi ti ve end. And thi s movement of free
electron i s call ed electr on cur rent.

Whereas electrons that remai n i n the valence band are sti l l attached to the atom and are not
free to move randomly as free elect ron. However, i t can move i nt o nearby hole thus leavi ng
another hol e where i t comes from. I t i s seems l ike the hole has moved from one pl ace to
another i n the crystal structure and i s call ed as hole curr ent.


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Figur e 1-12: Electr on cur r ent move fr om negati ve to posi ti ve end wher eas hole cur r ent
move fr om posi ti ve to negati ve end

1-5 N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMI CONDUCTORS

As the i ntri nsi c state of semi conductor must be modi fi ed to i ncrease i ts conducti vi ty and
make i t useful i n electroni c devi ces, by addi ng i mpuri ti es. Thi s gi ves two types of extr insi c
(i mpure) semi conducti ve materi als, n-type and p-type.

1-5-1 Doping
The conducti vi ty of si li con and germani um can be i ncreased by the controll ed addi ti on of
i mpuri ti es to the i ntri nsi c (pure) materi al. The process of addi ng the i mpuri ti es to the
i ntri nsi c (pure) i s cal led doping.

1-5-2 N-Type Semiconductor For mation
To i ncrease the number of conducti on band electrons i n i ntri nsic si li con, pentavalent
impurity atom i s added. When a pentaval ent atom (five valence electr on) i mpuri ty
such as ar senic ( As) , phosphorus ( P) , bismuth ( Bi ) and antimony ( Sb) are added,
each pentavalent atom for ms covalent bonds wi th four adj acent si li con atoms. And this wi l l
leave one extra electron wi thout bonds and wi ll become a conducti on electron because i t is
not attached to any atom. Because the pentavalent atom gi ves up an el ectron, i t i s called a
donor atom.

Thi s dopi ng process, si licon or germani um doped wi th pentavalent atom wi ll gi ve n-type
semi conductor because most of current carri ers are electrons whi ch are called the major ity
car r ier s and a few holes that are created i n n-type materi als are call ed minority carr ier s.

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Figur e 1-13: Pentavalent i mpur i ty atom i n a si l icon cr ystal str uctur e. The extr a electr on
fr om the Sb atom becomes a fr ee el ectr on

1-5-3 P-Type Semiconductor Formation
To i ncrease the number of holes i n i ntri nsi c si li con, tr ival ent atoms are added. When
tri val ent (thr ee valence electr ons) i mpuri ty atoms are added such as bor on ( B) ,
indium (I n) , and gallium ( Ga) , each tri valent electron forms covalent bonds wi th four
adj acent si licon atoms. And thi s wi l l resul t one hole si nce four electrons requi red and all
three of electron i n boron atom are used i n covalent bonds. Because the tri valent atom can
take an electron, i t i s cal led as acceptor atom.

Thi s dopi ng process, si li con or germani um doped wi th tri valent atom wi l l gi ve p-type
semi conductor because most of current carri ers are hol es whi ch are called the major ity
car r ier s and a few electrons that are created i n n-t ype materi al s are cal led minor ity
car r ier s.


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Fi gur e 1-14: Tr i avalent i mpur i ty atom i n a si li con cr ystal str uctur e. The extr a hole i s fr om
the B atom

1.1 Diode (The PN junction)

LEARNING OUTCOME :


1. Describe a pn junction and how it is formed.

2. Discuss the bias of a pn junction

3. Analyze the current-voltage (I-V) characteristic of a PN junction.

4. Discuss the operation of diodes and explain the diode models.



1-6 THE DI ODE

Diode i s created when we combi ne together a pi ece of N-type and P-type. For both types,
si nce, the number of prot ons and the number of el ectrons are equal throughout the
materi als, there i s no net charge i n the materi als, and so they are neutral.

1-6-1 Formation of Depletion Region
A boundary called pn junction i s formed at the moment they are j oi ned t ogether. Recall
that p regi on has many holes and onl y a few thermally generated free electrons and for n
regi on has many free el ectrons and only a few thermally generated holes. At the i nstant of
the pn juncti on formati on, free electrons near the j uncti on i n the n-regi on begi n to di ffuse
across the j uncti on i nto p-regi on where they combi ne wi th hol es near the j uncti on. This wi ll

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creates a layer of posi ti ve charges (pentaval ent i ons) near the j uncti on si nce the
pent aval ent atoms i n the n regi on have l ost an electron.

Whereas i n the p regi on, as the electrons from n regi on move across the j uncti on, the p
regi on loses holes as the electron and holes i n p regi on combi ne. Thi s creates a layer of
negative char ges (tri val ent i ons) near the j uncti on si nce the tri valent atoms i n p regi on
have gai ned an electron.

These two layers of posi ti ve and negati ve charges form the depletion r egi on that is formed
very qui ckly and i s very thi n compared t o the n regi on and p regi on.
As electrons conti nue t o di ffuse to holes across t he j uncti on, thi s wi ll creates more posi ti ve
and negati ve charges near the depleti on regi on i s formed. A poi nt is reached where the total
negati ve charge i n the depleti on regi on repels any further di ffusi on of electrons i nto p-regi on
and the di ffusi on st ops, where equi l ibri um is establi shed.

As many posi ti ve and negati ve charges on opposi te si des of the pn juncti on, thi s wi ll form a
fi eld of forces cal led an electric field. Thi s el ectri c fi eld i s a barri er to the free electrons i n
the
n-regi on and external energy must be appli ed to get the electrons to move acr oss the barri er
of the el ectri c fi eld i n the depleti on regi on. The potenti al di fference of the el ectri c fi eld across
the depl eti on regi on i s the amount of voltage requi red to move the electrons through the
electri c fi eld. Thi s potenti al di fference is called bar r ier potential and i s expressed i n volts.
The typical barri er potenti al i s approxi mately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for
germanium at 25
o
C.


Process 1:


Figur e 1-15: The for mati on of di ode

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Process 2:


Fi gur e 1-16: At t he i nstant of the pn j uncti on for mati on, fr ee el ectr ons near the j uncti on i n
the n-r egi on begi n to di ffuse acr oss the j uncti on into p-r egi on wher e they combi ne wi t h
holes near the j uncti on.

Process 3:


Figur e 1-17: The cr eati on of l ayer of posi ti ve char ges (pentavalent i ons) near the
j uncti on si nce the pentavalent atoms i n t he n r egi on have l ost an electr on and a layer of
negati ve char ges (tr i valent i ons) near the j uncti on si nce the tr i val ent atoms i n p r egi on
have gai ned an el ectr on. These two layer s of posi ti ve and negati ve char ges for m the
depleti on r egi on that is for med ver y qui ckly and i s ver y thi n compar ed to the n r egi on
and p r egi on. This pr ocess wi l l lead to the cr eati on of el ectr i c fi eld that i s the bar r i er for the
fr ee el ectr ons t o di ffuse mor e.

Barri er potenti al for Si ,
V V
BP
7 . 0 =



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Barri er potenti al for Ge,
V V
BP
3 . 0 =
1-6-2 Energy Band for PN Junction and Depletion Region

Figur e 1-18: Ener gy band i l lustr ati ng the for mat i on of pn j uncti on and depleti on r egi on
At i nstant of di ode formati on, the val ence and conducti on bands i n the n regi on are at lower
level than those i n the p-regi on due to the di fferences i n the atomi c characteri sti cs of the
pent aval ent and the tri valent i mpuri ty atoms. And at the i nstant of formati on, there i s a
si gni fi cant amount of overlappi ng.

The free electrons i n the n-regi on at the conduction bands easi l y di ffuse across the juncti on
and temporari ly become free elect rons i n the p-regi on conducti on band. After crossi ng the
j uncti on, the electrons quickly l ose energy and fall i nto holes i n the p-regi on.

As the di ffusi on conti nues, the depl eti on regi on begi ns to form and the energy level of the n-
regi on conducti on band decreases due to the loss of the hi gher energy el ectrons that have
di ffused i nto the p-regi on.

At t he poi nt of there are no elect rons l eft i n n-region conducti on band wi th enough energy t o
across the j uncti on, t he juncti on i s at equi libri um, where the depleti on regi on i s compl ete
because di ffusi on has ceased and the di ode i s said to be at i ts equi l ibri um state.

1-7 BI ASI NG THE DI ODE

As no el ectrons move through the pn j uncti on at equi li bri um, we need to bi as the di ode.
Bias refers to the use of dc vol tage to establi sh certai n operati ng condi ti ons for an electroni c
devi ce. There are two bi as condi ti ons:
(a) Forward bi as
(b) Reverse bi as



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1-7-1 Forwar d Bias

Figur e 1-19: Di ode connecti on for for war d bi as

For war d bias i s the condi ti on that all ows current through the pn j uncti on. Figur e 1-19
shows a dc voltage source connected across a di ode i n the di recti on to produce forward bi as.
The external bi as voltage i s desi gnated as
BIAS
V . The negati ve si de of
BIAS
V i s connected to the
n regi on of the di ode and posi ti ve si de is connected to the p regi on. The bi as voltage,
BIAS
V
must be greater than the barri er potenti al. The resi stor, R li mi ts the current to a val ue that
wi ll not damage the pn structure.

As the same charges repel the negati ve si de of the bi as-vol tage source pushes the free
electrons i n n regi on t oward the j uncti on. Thi s flow of free el ectrons i s called electr on
cur r ent. The negati ve si de of the source also provi des a conti nuous flow of electrons
through the external connecti on (conduct or) i nto the n regi on.

The bi as-voltage gi ves suffi ci ent energy to the free electrons t o overcome the barri er
potenti al of the depleti on regi on and move on i nt o the p regi on. Once i n the p regi on, these
conducti on el ectrons have l ost energy and combi ne wi th holes i n the valence band.

And as unli ke charges attract, the posi ti ve si de of the bi as voltage source attracts the val ence
electrons toward the left end of the p regi on. The electrons move from one hol e t o the next
toward the left. The hol es i n the p regi on move (not actual ly) to the ri ght toward the j uncti on.
Thi s effecti ve fl ow of hol es i s called the hole cur r ent.


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Fi gur e 1-20: A for war d-bi ased di ode showi ng the fl ow of maj or i ty car r i er and the vol tage
due to the bar r i er potenti al acr oss t he deplet i on r egi on

As more electrons fl ow i nto depleti on regi on, the number of posi ti ve i ons i s reduced. And
as more hol es effecti vely fl ow i nto the depleti on regi on (other si de), the number of
negati ve i ons i s reduced. Thi s reducti on i n posi ti ve and negati ve i ons duri ng forward bi as
causes the depleti on regi on to narrow.

The energy that the el ectrons requi re i n order to pass through the depl eti on regi on i s equal to
the barri er potenti al.




Figur e 1-21: When di ode i s for war d-biased, the deplet i on r egi on nar r ows






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1-7-2 Rever se Bias


Fi gur e 1-22: Di ode connecti on for r ever se bi as

Rever se bias i s the condi ti on that essenti ally pr events cur r ent thr ough the diode. The
external bi as voltage
BIAS
V , i s connected that the posi ti ve si de of
BIAS
V i s connect ed to t he n
regi on of t he di ode and the negati ve si de i s connected to the p regi on. The depleti on regi on i s
much wi der than i n forward bi as.

As unli ke charges attract, the positi ve side of the bi as-voltage source pulls the free electrons
i n the n regi on, away from t he pn j unct i on. As the electrons flow toward the posi ti ve side of
the voltage source, addi ti onal posi ti ve i ons are created. I t also happen i n the p regi on,
electrons from the negati ve si de of the voltage source enter as valence electrons and move
from hole t o hole t oward the depleti on regi on where they create additi onal negati ve i ons.
These wi l l result i n a wideni ng of the depl eti on regi on and depl eti on of maj ori ty carri ers.

The i ni ti al flow of charge carri er lasts for onl y a very short ti me after the reverse bi as voltage
i s appli ed. As the depl eti on regi on wi dens, the avai labi li ty of maj ori ty carri ers decreases for
both regi ons. Thi s wi l l make the potenti al across the depl eti on regi on equal s the bi as voltage,
BIAS
V . At this poi nt, the transiti on current essenti al ly ceases except for a very smal l reverse
current that can be usually neglected.


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Figur e 1-23: A r ever se-bi ased di ode showi ng the flow of maj or i ty car r i er away fr om the
depleti on r egi on

The ext remel y smal l current exi sts i n reverse bias after the transi ti on current di es out i s
caused by the mi nori ty carri ers i n the n and p regi ons when a small number of free mi nori ty
electrons i n the p regi on that i s pushed toward the pn juncti on by the negati ve bi as voltage.
These electrons reach the wide depl eti on area, combi ne wi th the mi nori ty holes i n n regi on
and some flow toward the posi ti ve bi as vol tage, creati ng a small hole current called the
small r ever se cur rent,
SR
I .

Thi s reverse current i s so small, and can be negl ected. But i f the external reverse bi as voltage
i s i ncreased to a val ue called breakdown voltage,
BR
V the reverse current wi ll drasti cally
i ncrease. The hi gh reverse voltage wi ll gi ve enough energy to the free mi nori ty electrons t o
speed through the p regi on and these free electrons col li de wi t h atoms wi th enough energy t o
knock val ence el ectrons out of the orbi t and into conducti on band. The newl y created
electrons are also i n hi gh energy and repeat the same process and the numbers of electrons
qui ckl y mul tiply. As t hese hi gh-energy el ectrons go through the depleti on regi on, they have
enough energy t o go through the n regi on as conducti on electrons rather than combi ni ng
wi th the holes. And thi s wi ll result i n a hi gh reverse current that can damage the di ode
because excessi ve heat di ssipati on.



Figur e 1-24: The fl ow of small r ever se cur r ent. When the di ode i s r ever se-bi ased, the
depl eti on r egi on wi den

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1-8 VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERI STI C OF A DI ODE

1-8-1 I V Char acter istic for For war d Bias
As forward bi as produces current through a di ode, the current i s cal led for ward cur r ent,
F
I and bel ow i s the I V characteri sti cs curve for a forward-bi ased di ode.

From the graph, wi th V 0 across the di ode, there i s no forward current. The forward current
i ncreases gradually as you i ncrease the forward-bias vol tage shown i n a) from poi nt A to B.



Fi gur e 1-25: I V char acter i sti cs cur ve for a for war d-biased di ode.

when the forward bi as voltage i s i ncreased to a value where the voltage across the di ode
reaches approxi mately V 7 . 0 , the forward current begi ns to i ncrease rapi dly, as shown at the
knee of t he curve i n a). At thi s poi nt, forward voltage remai ns at approxi mately V 7 . 0 but
F
I
i ncreases rapidly. Thi s i s due to the voltage drop across the i nt ernal dynami c resi stance.

From Fi gur e 1-25:
Point A - corresponds to a zero-bi as condi ti on
Point B - the
F
V i s less than the barri er potenti al of V 7 . 0
Point C - the
F
V approxi mately equals the barri er potenti al and
F
I i ncrease rapidly.


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1-8-2 I V Char acter istic for Rever se Bias
For the reverse bi ased, when a reverse voltage i s appli ed across the di ode, there is only an
extremely small r everse curr ent,
R
I through pn j uncti on. Wi th V 0 across the di ode,
there i s no reverse current. As the reverse voltage i ncreases gradually, there i s a very small
reverse current and the voltage across the di ode increases. When the appli ed bi as voltage i s
i ncreased to a value where the reverse voltage across the di ode,
R
V reaches the br eak-
down value,
BR
V the reverse current begi ns to i ncrease rapi dly. As you conti nue to i ncrease
the bi as voltage, the current conti nues to i ncrease ver y rapi dly but the voltage across the
di ode i ncreases very li ttle above
BR
V . Remember that reverse bi as prevents current as long as
the reverse bi as voltage does not equal or exceed t he breakdown voltage of the j uncti on.


Fi gur e 1-26: I V characteristics curve for a reverse-bi ased di ode.
From Fi gur e 1-26:
Point A - corresponds to a zero-bi as condi ti on.
Point B - there is a very small
R
I as the reverse volt age,
R
V i ncreases.
Point C - the
R
V reaches the
BR
V and
R
I begi ns to i ncrease rapi dly unti l the di ode damage.

1-8-3 The Complete I V Character isti cs Cur ve for Di ode
Fi gur e 1-27 i s the compl ete I V characteri sti c curve for a di ode by combi ni ng the curves
for both forward bi as and reverse bi as. Noti ce that the
F
I scale i s i n mA compared to the
R
I
scale i s A . For bot h forward and reverse currents, as the temperature i s i ncreased, both
currents wi ll also i ncrease.


22 | P a g e




Figur e 1-27: Complete I V Characteri sti cs Curve

1-9 DI ODE MODELS

1-9-1 Diode Str uctur e and Symbol
A diode i s a si ngle pn junct i on devi ce wi th conducti ve contacts and wi re leads connected to
each regi on. The n regi on i s cal led the cathode, p regi on i s cal led the anode. The arrow i n
the symbol poi nts i n the di recti on of conventi onal current (opposi te to electron flow).



Figur e 1-28: Di ode str uctur e and schemati c symbol



23 | P a g e


Fi gur e 1-29: For war d bias and r ever se bi as connecti ons

Fi gure 1-29 shows how the forward-bi ased and reverse-bi ased are connected. Noti ce about
the posi ti ve termi nal and negati ve termi nal connected to the anode and cathode. When the
di ode i s forward bi ased, it acts li ke a closed (on) swi tch and for reverse bi ased i t acts li ke an
open (off) swi tch as fi gures a) and b) below. Fi gure 1-30 shows the i deal I V charact eristic
curve graphi call y depi cts the ideal operati on.



Fi gur e 1-30: The ideal model of a di ode wher e 0 =
BP
V



But for practi cal di ode model, we add the barri er potenti al to the i deal swi tch model.
When the di ode i s forward-bi ased, i t is equi valent to a closed swi tch i n a seri es wi th a

24 | P a g e
small equi valent voltage source equal to t he barri er potenti al ( ) V 7 . 0 wi th the posi ti ve si de
toward the anode. When the di ode i s reverse-bi ased, i t i s equi valent to an open swi tch just
i n the ideal model .






Figur e 1-31: The pr acti cal model of a di ode for si li con and ger mani um

LEARNING OUTCOME :


1. Describe the characteristics of a zener diode and analyze its operation.

2. Analyze the zener diode circuit used in voltage regulation and limiting.

3. Describe the characteristic of varactor diode and its basic operation.

4. Discuss the operation of LEDs and photodiode.








25 | P a g e
3-1 ZENER DI ODE

A zener diode i s a si licon pn j uncti on devi ce that di ffers from recti fi er di odes because i t i s
desi gned for operati on i n the reverse-breakdown regi on.


Fi gur e 3-1: Symbol for zener di ode

Recall from Chapter 1, when a di ode reaches reverse breakdown, i ts voltage remai ns almost
constant even though the current changes drasti cally. The charact eri sti c curve for di ode (or
recti fi er di ode) i s shown agai n i n Figur e 3-2 t o be compared wi th the characteristic curve for
zener di ode.

3-1-1 Zener Breakdown
Zener breakdown occurs i n a zener di ode at low reverse vol tages:
(a) There wi ll be a very thi n depl eti on regi on and thi s wi ll create an i nt ense electri c fi eld exi st
i n depleti on regi on.
(b) Near t he zener breakdown voltage,
( ) z BR
V the fi eld i s i ntense enough to pull electrons
from thei r valence bands and create current.








26 | P a g e

Fi gur e 3-2: Gener al char acter i sti c cur ve for r ecti fi er and zener di ode

3-1-2 Br eakdown Char acter isti cs


Figur e 3-3: Rever se char acter i sti c of zener di ode

As the zener reverse voltage,
Z
V i ncreased, the zener reverse current,
Z
I remai ns extremel y
small up to the knee of the curve. At thi s poi nt, the breakdown effect begi ns. The zener

27 | P a g e
breakdown vol tage,
Z
V remai ns essenti al ly constant although i t i ncreases sli ghtly as the
zener current
Z
I i ncreases.

The abi l i ty to keep the reverse voltage across i ts termi nal essenti all y constant i s the key
feature of the zener di ode. A zener di ode operati ng i n breakdown acts as a voltage regulator
because i t mai ntai ns a nearly const ant voltage across i ts termi nals over a speci fi ed range of
reverse-current values.

A mi ni mum value of reverse current,
ZK
I must be mai ntai ned i n order to keep the di ode i n
breakdown for vol tage regulati on. A maxi mum current,
ZM
I above whi ch the di ode may be
damaged due to excessi ve power di ssipati on. So, the zener di ode mai ntai ns a nearl y constant
voltage acr oss i ts termi nal for values of reverse current rangi ng from
ZK
I to
ZM
I .
ZT
I i s a
zener test current.

Fi gur e 3-4(a) and 3-4(b) shows the ideal and practi cal model of zener di ode i n reverse
breakdown respecti vely.


Figur e 3-4(a): I deal zener di ode and i ts char acter i sti c cur ve

28 | P a g e


Figur e 3-4(b): Pr acti cal zener di ode and i ts char acter i sti c cur ve

I n Figur e 3-4(b) represents the practi cal model of zener di ode, where zener i mpedance,
Z
Z
i s i ncluded. Si nce the actual vol tage curve i s not i deally verti cal, a change i n zener current,
Z
I A produces a small change i n zener voltage,
Z
V A . By Ohms law, the rati o of
Z
V A to
Z
I A
i s the i mpedance,

Z
Z
Z
I
V
Z
A
A
=


3.2 ZENER DI ODE I N VOLTAGE REGULATI ON AND LI MI TI NG.

A vol tage regulator ci rcuit automati cally mai ntai ns the output vol tage of a power supply
constant, regardless of
- a change i n the load
- a change i n the source vol tage

The zener di ode i s typi cally connected reverse bi ased, i n parallel wi th the load. Resi stor Rs
li mi ts current to zener.

Zener di ode rati ng
20V
82O
9V
100O
9V
200O
20
9V
80O
20V
9V
20V
9V
100O
18V
82O
9V
100O
30V
82O

32 | P a g e
Zener Li mi ti ng
Zener di ode can be used i n ac appli cati ons to li mi t voltage swi ngs to desi red levels.
Three basi c ways the li mi ti ng acti on of a zener di ode:
1. Li mi t the posi ti ve peak of a si gnal voltage t o the zener voltage. Negati ve cycle; li mi t
the voltage to -0.7V.
2. Posi ti ve cycle: li mi t the voltage to 0.7V. Negati ve cycle; the negati ve peak l i mi ted by
zener voltage.
3. Duri ng posi ti ve alternati on, D2 i s functi oni ng as the zener li mi ter and D1 i s
functi oni ng as a forward bi ased di ode. Duri ng negati ve al ternati on, the roles are
reversed.



Determi ne the output voltage for each zener li mi ti ng ci rcui t.

Soluti on: Hi nt! Forward bi as :0.7V, Reverse bi as: VZ

1. Duri ng posi ti ve cycle,


33 | P a g e
1. Duri ng posi ti ve cycle,
V V V V
out
8 . 5 1 . 5 7 . 0 = + =
Duri ng negati ve cycle,
V V V V
out
0 . 4 ) 3 . 3 7 . 0 ( = + =

3.3 VARACTOR DI ODE

Varactor di odes are also known as vari able-capaci tance di odes because the j uncti on
capaci tance vari es wi th the amount of reverse-bi as vol tage. A varact or i s a di ode that always
operates i n reverse-bi as and i s doped to maxi mi ze the i nherent capaci tance of the depleti on
regi on.

3-3-1 Basic Oper ation

Figur e 3-5: Var actor di ode and i ts symbol

The depleti on regi on wi dened when the reverse voltage bi as i ncrease. I t acts as a capaci tor
di electri c because of i ts nonconducti ve characteri sti cs. The p and n regi on are conducti ve
and acts as capaci tor plates. As the reverse bi as vol tage i ncreases, the depleti on regi on
wi dens, effecti vely i ncreasi ng the plate separation and the di el ectri c thi ckness and thus
decreasi ng the capaci tance. When the reverse-bias voltage decreases, the depleti on regi on
narrows, thus i ncreasi ng the capaci tance.

3.4 OPTI CAL DI ODE

There are two types of optoelectroni c devi ces:
(a) li ght-emi tti ng di ode (LED)
(b) photodi ode (li ght detector)

3-4-1 Light Emitting Di ode (LED)
Basi c oper ati on


34 | P a g e


Fi gur e 3-6: LED and i ts symbol

When the devi ce i s forward bi ased, electron cross the p-n juncti on from n-type materi al and
recombi ne wi th holes i n p-type materi al . A large exposed surface area on one l ayer of the
semi conducti ve materi als permi ts the photons to be emi tted as vi sibl e l i ght. Thi s process i s
cal led electrolumi nescence.

LEDs are made of galli um arsenide (GaAs), galli um arseni de phosphi de (AsP) or gal li um
phosphide (GaP). Si li con and germanium are not used because they essenti ally heat-
produci ng materi al s and very poor at produci ng l ight.

3-4-2 Photodiode
Basi c oper ati on



35 | P a g e
Figur e 3-7: Phot odi ode and i ts symbol s

The photodi ode i s a devi ce that operates i n reverse bi as, where

I i s the reverse current. The

photodi ode has a small t ransparent wi ndow that al lows l i ght to stri ke the p-n juncti on.

1.5 Diode Application (DC Power Supply)

LEARNING OUTCOME :


1. Explain the Basic DC Supply.

2. Explain and analyze the operation of half-wave rectifiers.

3. Explain and analyze the operation of full-wave rectifiers.

4. Explain and analyze the operation of diode limiting circuits.

5. Explain and analyze the operation of diode clamping circuits.

6. Explain and analyze the operation and characteristic of power supply filters.



2-1 I NTRODUCTI ON

2-1-1 The Basic DC Power Supply
The DC power supply converts the st andard Hz V 60 , 110 ac avai lable at wall outlets i nto a
constant DC voltage.



Figur e 2-1: Complete power supply

(a) Recti fi ers convert the ac i nput vol tage to a pulsati ng DC vol tage. There are two types of
recti fi ers:

36 | P a g e
(i ) half-wave recti fi er
(i i ) full-wave recti fi er
(b) Fi lters remove or eli mi nate the fluctuati ons i n the recti fi ed voltage and produces a
relati vel y smooth DC vol tage.
(c) Regulators mai nt ai n a constant DC voltage.

2-2 HALF-WAVE RECTI FI ER



Fi gur e 2-2: Bl ock diagr am for half-wave r ecti fi er


Figur e 2-3: Ci r cui t di agr am for half-wave r ecti fi er

Si nce the ac voltage has two cycl e; posi ti ve and negati ve cycle, therefore we can di vi de the
half-wave recti fi er basi c operati on i nto two cycl es.

Basi c operati on for hal f-wave recti fi er:
(a) Duri ng the fi rst-half cycl e (posi ti ve cycle):



37 | P a g e

Fi gur e 2-4: Hal f-wave r ecti fi er i n the fi r st-half cycle (posi ti ve cycle)
- When the si nusoi dal i nput voltage,
in
V goes posi ti ve, the di ode i s forward-bi ased and
conducts current through the load resi stor,
L
R .
- The current produces an output voltage acr oss the
L
R , produci ng the same shape as
the posi ti ve hal f-cycle of the
in
V .
- But when we use the practi cal di ode model, we have to consi der the barr ier
potential of V 7 . 0 .
- Duri ng the posi ti ve hal f-cycle, the i nput vol tage must overcome the barri er potenti al
before the di ode becomes forward bi ased.
- Thi s resulti ng the hal f-wave output,
( ) OUT P
V wi th a peak value that i s V 7 . 0 less than
the peak val ue of the i nput,
( ) in p
V .
- Thus, the output for the fi rst-hal f cycle i s

( ) ( )
7 . 0 =
in p OUT P
V V

(b) Duri ng the second-half cycle (negati ve cycle):


Figur e 2-5: Half-wave r ecti fi er i n the second-half cycle (negati ve cycl e)

- When the i nput voltage goes negati ve duri ng second hal f-cycle, the di ode i s reverse-
bi ased, so there i s no current.
- The net result i s that only the posi ti ve half-cycl es of the ac i nput voltage appear
across the
L
R .
- Thus, the output for the second-half cycle i s
( )
0 =
OUT P
V




38 | P a g e
The resultant wave form by the hal f-wave recti fi er i s called half-wave pulsati ng di r ect
voltage. Peak inverse voltage, PIV equals the peak value of the i nput vol tage whi ch
occurs at the peak of each negati ve alternati on of t he i nput vol tage when the di ode i s reverse-
bi ased.

( ) in p
V PIV =

2-3 FULL-WAVE RECTI FI ER

A transformer i s often used to couple the ac i nput voltage from source to the full-wave
recti fi er. Transformer coupli ng provi des two advantages:
(a) Allows the source voltage to be stepped up or stepped down.
(b) The ac source i s i sol ated from the recti fi er, thus prevent i ng a shock hazard i n secondary
ci rcui t.

Full wave recti fi er allows unidi recti onal (one-way) current t hrough the l oad duri ng the enti re
O
360 of the i nput cycl e as i n the Fi gur e 2-6. The number of posi ti ve al ternati ons that make
up the full -wave recti fi ed voltage i s twi ce that of the half-wave vol tage for the same i nterval.



Figur e 2-6: Block di agr am for full -wave r ecti fi er





39 | P a g e


Figur e 2-7: Ci r cui t diagr am for cent er -tapped full-wave r ecti fi er

Si mi l ar to the half-wave recti fi er, si nce the ac voltage has two cycl e; posi ti ve and negati ve
cycle, therefore we can al so di vi de the full -wave recti fi er basi c operati on i nto two cycles.

Basi c operati on for full-wave recti fi er:
(a) Duri ng the fi rst-half cycl e (posi ti ve cycle):



Figur e 2-8: Full-wave r ecti fi er i n the fi r st-hal f cycle (posi ti ve cycle)
- For a posi ti ve half-cycle of the i nput voltage, the di ode
1
D i s i n forward-bi as
condi ti on and
2
D i s i n reverse-bi as, so the current path i s through
1
D and the load
resi stor,
L
R .
- Thus, the output for the fi rst-hal f cycle i s



40 | P a g e
( )
( )
7 . 0
2
sec
=
p
OUT P
V
V

(b) Duri ng the second-half cycle (negati ve cycle):



Figur e 2-9: Full-wave r ecti fi er i n the second-hal f cycle (negati ve cycle)

- For the negati ve half-cycle of the i nput volt age, the
1
D i s reverse bi as and
2
D i s
forward bi as, so the current path i s through
2
D and
L
R .
- And as the output current duri ng both positi ve and negati ve porti ons of the i nput
cycle i s i n the same di recti on through the load, the output voltage acr oss the load
resi stor i s a full-wave recti fi ed DC voltage.
- Thus, the output for the second-half cycle i s

( )
( )
7 . 0
2
sec
=
p
OUT P
V
V

Peak inver se voltage, PIV for full-wave recti fi er,
( )
7 . 0 2 + =
out p
V PIV

Related formulae for full-wave recti fi er:
(a) Peak secondary output vol tage,

( ) ( ) pri p p
nV V =
sec






41 | P a g e
(b) Transformer turn rati o,
1
2
n
n
n =

2-4 DI ODE LI MI TER

Di ode li mi ters or cli ppers are used to clip off porti ons of si gnal voltage from exceedi ng some
parti cul ar l i mi t, either negati ve or posi ti ve. Li mi ter can be di vi ded i nto two types of li mi ti ng:
(a) Li mi t the negati ve al ternati on
(b) Li mi t the posi ti ve alternati on
(c) Li mi ter wi th voltage bi asi ng


Figur e 2-10: Block di agr am for li mi ter

Fi gur e 2-11: Ci r cui t diagr am for li mi ter

2-4-1 Limit the Negative Alternati on
We di vi de the di ode li mi ter for negati ve alternati on li mi ti ng basi c operati on i nto two cycles;
fi rst-half cycle and second-half cycle.
Basi c operati on for negati ve alternati on l i mi t i ng:
(a) Duri ng the fi rst-half cycl e (posi ti ve cycle):



42 | P a g e

Figur e 2-12: Li mi ter for negati ve li mi ti ng i n the fir st-half cycl e (posi ti ve cycle)

- When the i nput voltage goes posi ti ve, the di ode reverse-bi ases and acts as an open
ci rcui t. Al l currents fl ow through the load resistor,
L
R .
- The output voltage determi ned by the vol tage di vi der formed by
1
R and
L
R ,

( ) ( ) in p
L
L
out p
V
R R
R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
1


(b) Duri ng the second-half cycle (negati ve cycle):


Fi gur e 2-13: Li mi t er for negati ve li mi ti ng i n the second-half cycle (posi ti ve cycle)

- When the i nput vol tage goes below V 7 . 0 , the di ode i s sti l l i n reverse-bi as condi ti on
and acts as an open ci rcui t. Therefore, V 7 . 0 flow through load resi stor,
L
R .
- However, when the i nput goes above V 7 . 0 , the di ode forward-bi ases and acts as a
closed ci rcuit. Therefore, currents fl ow through the di ode.
- The output voltage at
L
R ,

( )
V V
out p
7 . 0 =



43 | P a g e

2-4-2 Limit the Positive Alternation
We also di vi de the di ode l i mi ter for posi ti ve alternati on l i mi ti ng basi c operati on i nto two
cycles; fi rst-hal f cycle and second-half cycl e.

Basi c operati on for posi ti ve alternati on li mi ti ng:
(a) Duri ng the fi rst-half cycl e (posi ti ve cycle):



Fi gur e 2-14: Li mi ter for posi ti ve li mi ti ng i n the fi r st-half cycle (posi ti ve cycle)

- When the i nput voltage goes below V 7 . 0 , the di ode i s i n reverse-bi as condi ti on and
acts as an open ci rcuit. Therefore, V 7 . 0 flow through load resistor,
L
R .
- However, when the i nput goes above V 7 . 0 , the di ode forward-bi ases and acts as a
closed ci rcuit. Therefore, currents fl ow t hrough the di ode.
- The output voltage at
L
R ,

( )
V V
out p
7 . 0 =


(b) Duri ng the second-half cycle (negati ve cycle):



44 | P a g e


Figur e 2-15: Li mi ter for posi ti ve li mi ti ng i n the second-half cycle (posi ti ve cycl e)

- When the i nput voltage goes negati ve, the di ode reverse-bi ases and acts as an open
ci rcuit. All currents flow through the load resi stor,
L
R .
- The output voltage determi ned by the voltage di vi der formed by
1
R and
L
R ,

( ) ( ) in p
L
L
out p
V
R R
R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
1


2-4-3 Limiter with Voltage Biasing
The level to whi ch an ac voltage i s l i mi ted can be adj usted by addi ng a bi as voltage,
BIAS
V , i n
seri es wi th the di ode. Li mi ter wi th voltage bi asi ng can also be di vi ded i nto two types of
li mi ti ng:
(a) Li mi ter wi th voltage bi asi ng whi ch li mi ts the negati ve alternati on
(b) Li mi ter wi th voltage bi asi ng whi ch li mi ts the posi ti ve alternati on

Li mi ter wi th voltage bi asi ng whi ch li mi ts the negati ve alter nati on
We di vide the di ode li mi ter wi th voltage bi asi ng for negati ve alternati on li mi ti ng basic
operati on i nto two cycles; fi rst-half cycle and second-hal f cycle.

Basi c operati on for negati ve alternati on l i mi t i ng:
(a) Duri ng the fi rst-half cycl e (posi ti ve cycle):


45 | P a g e

Figur e 2-16: Li mi ter wi th vol tage biasi ng whi ch limi ts the negati ve alter nati on i n the fi r st-
half cycle

- When the i nput voltage goes posi ti ve, the di ode reverse-bi ases and acts as an open
ci rcuit. All currents flow through the load resi stor,
L
R .
- The output voltage determi ned by the voltage di vi der formed by
1
R and
L
R ,

( ) ( ) in p
L
L
out p
V
R R
R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
1


(b) Duri ng the second-half cycle (negati ve cycle):


Figur e 2-17: Li mi ter wi th voltage bi asi ng whi ch limi ts the negati ve alter nat i on i n the
second-half cycle

- When the i nput vol tage goes below V 7 . 0 , the di ode i s sti l l i n reverse-bi as condi ti on
and acts as an open ci rcui t. Therefore, V 7 . 0 flow through load resi stor,
L
R .
- However, when the i nput goes above V 7 . 0 , the di ode forward-bi ases and acts as a
closed ci rcuit. Therefore,
BIAS
V can flow through the
L
R .
- The output voltage at
L
R ,


46 | P a g e

( )
V V V
BIAS out p
7 . 0 =

Li mi ter wi th voltage bi asi ng whi ch li mi ts the posi ti ve alter nati on
We also di vi de the di ode l i mi ter wi th voltage bi asi ng for negati ve alternati on li mi ti ng basi c
operati on i nto two cycles; fi rst-half cycle and second-hal f cycle.
Basi c operati on for posi ti ve alternati on li mi ti ng:
(a) Duri ng the fi rst-half cycl e (posi ti ve cycle):



Fi gur e 2.18: Li mi ter wi th vol tage bi asi ng whi ch l imi ts the posi ti ve al ter nati on i n the
fi r st-half cycl e

- When the i nput voltage goes below V 7 . 0 , the di ode i s sti ll i n reverse-bi as condi ti on
and acts as an open ci rcui t. Therefore, V 7 . 0 flow through load resi stor,
L
R .
- However, when the i nput goes above V 7 . 0 , the di ode forward-bi ases and acts as a
closed ci rcuit. Therefore,
BIAS
V can flow through the
L
R .
- The output voltage at
L
R ,

( )
V V V
BIAS out p
7 . 0 + =

Basi c operati on for posi ti ve alternati on li mi ti ng:
(b) Duri ng the second-half cycle (negati ve cycle):




47 | P a g e


Figur e 2-19: Li mi t er wi th voltage biasi ng whi ch limi ts the posi ti ve al ter nati on i n the
second-half cycle

- When the i nput voltage goes posi ti ve, the di ode reverse-bi ases and acts as an open
ci rcuit. All currents flow through the load resi st or,
L
R .
- The output voltage determi ned by the voltage di vi der formed by
1
R and
L
R ,

( ) ( ) in p
L
L
out p
V
R R
R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
1


2-5 DI ODE CLAMPER

A clamper adds a DC voltage t o an ac voltage. Clamper i s also known as DC restorer. I t can
be di vided i nto two types:
(a) Posi ti ve clamper
(b) Negati ve clamper

The di ode causes the seri es capaci tor to have a low-resi stance chargi ng path and a hi gh
resi stance di scharge path through the load resi stor,
L
R . The capaci tor wi ll be charged to the
peak value of the i nput waveform whi ch requires several cycles of the i nput si gnal to charge
the capaci tor. The output load resi stor sees the sum of the DC level on the capaci tor and
i nput voltage.

A clampi ng ci rcui t i s often used i n televi si on receivers as a DC restorer.


48 | P a g e


Figur e 2-20: Block di agr am for clamper



Fi gur e 2-21: Ci r cui t di agr am for clamper

Basi c operati on for clamper:









Figur e 2-22: Output for a posi ti ve clamper

49 | P a g e
- Consi der the first negati ve half-cycl e, when the i nput voltage i ni ti ally goes negati ve, the
di ode i s forward-bi ased, allowi ng the capaci tor to charge the peak of the i nput
( )
( )V V
in p
7 . 0 .
- Just after the negati ve peak, the di ode reverse-biased because the cathode is held near
( )
( )V V
in p
7 . 0 by the charge of the capaci tor.
- The net effect of the clampi ng acti on i s that the capacitor retai ns a charge approxi mately
equal to the peak val ue of the i nput less the di ode drop.
- The capaci tor acts as a battery i n seri es wi th the i nput voltage.
- The DC voltage of the capaci tor adds to the i nput voltage by superposi ti on.
- I f the di ode is turned around, a negat i ve dc vol tage i s added to the i nput voltage t o
produce the output voltage as foll ows:


Figur e 2-23: Output for a negati ve clamper














(q) pentavalent atom
(r ) tr i valent atom
(s) di ode
(t) pn juncti on
(u) for war d bi as
(v) r ever se bi as
(w) electr on cur r ent
(x) hole cur r ent


(h) semi conductor
(i ) i nsulator
(j ) ener gy band
(k) conducti on band
(l ) si li con cr ystal
(m) valence band
(y) ener gy gap
(z) i ntr i nsi c
(aa) extr i nsi c
(bb) dopi ng
A tri valent atom wi th atomi c number, of i s to be added i nto an i ntri nsi c
si li con, whi ch has atomi c number of to i ncrease a certai n conducti vi ty
carri er and make i t useful i n electroni c devi ces.

52 | P a g e
CONDUCTOR, SEMI CONDUCTOR AND I NSULATOR
10.


Figur e 1-1

For each of the energy di agram i n Fi gur e 1-1-1 above, determi ne the cl ass of mat eri al
based on relati ve compari sons. Also, for the gi ven energy val ues, deduce an explanati on
related to the energy gap for each materi al cl ass.
(Note that thi s questi on i s mer el y to ease student to under stand the concept of both ener gy band.
The actual val ue of ener gy of each cl asses of mater i al may var y)

11. Why the semi conductor (ex: Si li con) has lower abi l i ty to conduct current than i t i s i n
conductor (ex: Copper)?

12. Why the Germani um cannot conduct current even i t has 4 shells as i t i s i n Copper?
(Recall: Ge:32 4 . 18 . 8 . 2 and Cu:29 1 . 18 . 8 . 2 )

13. Why i s that Si li con i s wi dely used i n semiconducti ve fi eld than Germani um? I n fact, both
are semi conductors.
14. Sketch the energy band for
(i ) conductor
(i i ) i nsulator
(i ii ) semi conductor




53 | P a g e

15. Defi ne:
(i ) conductor
(i i ) i nsulator
(i ii ) semi conductor

16. Compare the classes of materi al (i nsulator, semi conductor and conductor). Also, gi ve one
exampl e for each of them.


COVALENT BONDS
17. How the si li con atoms form themselves i n the si li con crystal?

CONDUCTI ON I N SEMI CONDUCTORS
18. How the el ectron-hole pai r i s formed?

19. How the recombi nati on process occurs?

N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMI CONDUCTORS
20. Why do we need the process of dopi ng?

21. Bri efly descri be how the foll owi ng terms are formed:
(i ) N-type semi conductors
(i i ) P-type semi conductors

22. Explai n bri efly the formati on of n-t ype and p-type semi conductor.

THE DI ODE
23. Bri efly descri be how the foll owi ng terms are formed:
(i ) Di ode
(i i ) Depleti on regi on

BI ASI NG THE DI ODE
24. Bri efly descri be the followi ng bi as condi ti on:
(i ) Forward bi as
(i i ) Reverse bi as (i ncl udi ng the smal l reverse current,
SR
I and breakdown voltage,
BR
V )

25. Bri efly expl ai n about the forward bi as condi ti on.

54 | P a g e

VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERI STI C OF A DI ODE
26. Bri efly descri be the I V characteri sti c curve for a di ode.

DI ODE MODELS
27. Sketch the di ode st ructure and i ts symbol.

28. Sketch the forward and reverse bi as connecti on. Bri efly discuss about the ideal and
practi cal di ode model.

1. Draw the complete bl ock di agram of DC power supply.

2. Defi ne:
(a) r ecti fi er
(b) fi l ter
(c) r egulator

3. State four types of di ode applicati ons.

HALF WAVE RECTI FI ER
4. Explai n in details the basic operati on of Half Wave Recti fi er with the ai ds of ci rcuit
di agram. Sketch the output.

5.

Figur e 2-1(a)


55 | P a g e

Figur e 2-1(b)
Cal culate and draw the output volt age waveform for each ci rcui t i n Fi gur e 2-1(a) and
Figur e 2-1(b). I nclude the voltage val ues. Also, fi nd thei r PI V respecti vely.

FULL WAVE RECTI FI ER
6. Explai n in details the basi c operati on of Full Wave Recti fi er wi th the aids of ci rcui t
di agram. Sketch the output.

7.

Figur e 2-2
For a full wave recti fi er ci rcui t above, draw the voltage waveform across the
L
R . What is
the mi ni mum PI V rati ng must the di odes have?

8. Show the vol tage waveform across the
L
R for a ful l wave recti fi er i f the i nput peak si ne
wave V 100 i s appli ed to the pri mary wi ndi ng. The wi ndi ngs for thi s ci rcui t i s 1 : 2 .
Cal culate also the PI V.

DI ODE LI MI TER
9. Explai n in details the basi c operati on of Di ode Li mi ti ng for both posi ti ve and negati ve
li mi ti ng wi th the aids of ci rcui t di agram. Sketch the output.

56 | P a g e

9. What would you expect to see di splayed osci lloscope connected across
L
R i n the li mi ter
shown i n Figur e 2-3.


Fi gur e 2-3
10.

Fi gur e 2-4
What would you expect t o see di splayed osci lloscope connected across
L
R i n the li mi ter
shown i n Figur e 2.4.
11.

Fi gur e 2-5
Figur e 2-5 shows a li mi ter wi th voltage bi asi ng.
(a) Determi ne and draw the output. Draw the result.

57 | P a g e
(b) I f the polari ti es of the di ode and bi as voltage source are to be i nvert ed, what i s the
output? Draw the result.
12.

Figur e 1
Desi gn a di ode appli cati on ci rcui t usi ng the fol l owi ng component speci fi cati ons that
woul d produce the above waveform i n Figur e 1. Label the components notati on. Also,
descri be i n detai ls i ts operati on. (Assume that the i nput voltage i s started wi th posit i ve
cycle)
External ac voltage,
( )
V V
in
10 =
External DC voltage 1, V V
BIAS
6
1
=
External DC voltage 2, V V
BIAS
8
2
=
Si li con di ode 1,
1
D
Si licon di ode 2,
2
D
Resi stor 1, O = k R 1
1

Load resi stor, O = k R
L
10

13.

Figur e 1
Figur e 1 shows a negati ve li mi ter. Determi ne the foll owi ng:

58 | P a g e
(i ) Output voltage for the fi rst-half cycle

(i i ) Output voltage for the second half cycle

(i ii ) Output resultant waveform.


14.

Figur e 1
What i s the output vol tage across
L
R i n the li mi ter shown i n Fi gur e 1? I f the pol ari ty of
the di ode i s reversed, what i s the output voltage? Assume that the peak-to-peak voltage
of the si ne wave i nput i s V 50 .


15. What would you expect t o see di splayed on an osci l loscope connected across
L
R i n the
li mi ter shown below:







59 | P a g e
DI ODE CLAMPER
16.


Fi gur e 2-6
What i s the output for the clamper i n the Figur e 2-6? Draw the output.

1. Defi ne:
voltage r egulator

2. State four types of SPECI AL PURPOSE DI ODE. For each of them, sketch the symbol and
state i ts appli cati on.

ZENER DI ODE
3. Bri efly expl ai n about zener di ode.

4. Compare the operati ng regi on for a zener di ode and a normal di ode.

5. For a certai n zener di ode, V V
ZT
10 = at mA I
ZT
30 = . I f O = 8
Z
Z , what i s the termi nal
voltage at mA I
Z
50 = .

6. A zener di ode has a O = 5 . 4
Z
Z . Gi ven that V V
ZT
9 . 8 = at mA I
ZT
39 = and mA I
ZK
2 . 1 = .
What i s the termi nal voltage across the zener termi nals when the current i s mA 55 and
when the current is mA 20 ?

7. A zener di ode exhi bi ts a certai n change i n
Z
V for a certai n change i n
Z
I on a porti on of
the li near characteristics curve between
ZK
I and
ZM
I . what i s the zener i mpedance when
the change i n voltage between
ZK
I and
ZM
I i s mV 39 and the change i n current i s mA 9 ?

60 | P a g e


8. Compute the TERMI NAL VOLTAGE,
Z
V , for the fol lowi ng zener di ode speci ficati ons:
(i ) Zener test vol tage, V V
ZT
10 =
Zener test current, mA I
ZT
25 =
Zener i mpedance of O = 8
Z
Z
Zener termi nal current, mA I
Z
50 =
Zener knee current, mA I
ZK
9 =

(i i ) Zener test vol tage, V V
ZT
15 =
Zener test current, mA I
ZT
5 =
Zener i mpedance of O = 8
Z
Z
Zener termi nal current, mA I
Z
60 =
Zener knee current, mA I
ZK
8 =

9. A certai n zener di ode has the fol lowi ng parameters:
Test voltage, V V
ZT
5 . 6 =
Test current, mA I
ZT
45 =
I nternal i mpedance, O = 5 . 7
Z
Z
Knee current, mA I
ZK
5 . 2 =
Determi ne the termi nal vol tage,
Z
V across the zener t ermi nals when the termi nal current
i s
(i ) mA 50
(i i ) mA 55

10. A zener di ode has V V
ZT
10 = when mA I
ZT
5 . 25 = . I f the zener di ode has an i nternal
i mpedance of O 8 , what is the termi nal voltage at mA I
Z
50 = . Assume that mA I
ZK
9 = .

11. Explai n bri efly the basi c operati on for
(a) zener di ode

12. Compare and explai n the V-I characteri sti cs curve between an i deal and practi cal zener
di ode.


61 | P a g e


VARACTOR DI ODE
13. Bri efly expl ai n about varactor di ode.

PHOTODI ODE
14. Bri efly expl ai n about LED.

15. Why the si li con and germani um are not commonl y used i n produci ng LED?

16. Bri efly expl ai n about photodi ode.

17. Bri efly descri be the basi c operati on for LED.