Technical education in the Arab States

by Mohammed K.Harby

unesco

Printed i the Workshops of the United Nations n Educational, Scientific and Culrural Organization Place de Fonienoy, P ~ r i s - 7 ~

O Unesco

1965

Printed i France n

ED.64/XI1.53/A

PREFACE

T h e dilemma facing the Arab States is similar to that faced in many other regions: they cannot easily develop their economies without having the skilled manpower required, and such manpower is often difficult to train in the context of an underdeveloped economy. School workshops may, in certain situations, serve as substitutes for industrial plants for the purpose of on-the-job training; but here again, at least in certain branches of training, considerable funds m a y be needed which are not always available. In spite of these basic difficulties some good beginnings have been made. At all events the development of technical education and vocational training is now recognized to be of vital importance in all the Arab countries of the Middle East and of North Africa, and great efforts in this direction have been made, both locally and with outside aid from bilateral or international sources. T h e United Nations Special Fund, with Unesco as its executing agency, has lately been active in this field in many of these countries, including: Iraq, Lebanon, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Republic. Technical Assistance experts have also been helping Arab Governments for some years. O n e prerequisite for the development of technical education is a solid background of general education for the trainees. In some Arab countries the recruitment of trainees for higher technological institutes has not always been easy, and the present study gives an account of technical education in its historical context and within the framework of the educational systems of the Arab States of this region. This study w a s prepared b y Dr. M o h a m m e d K. Harby, Director of the Secondary Planning Department of the Ministry of Education of the United Arab Republic, with the assistance of Drs. M o h a m m e d el-Hadi Afifi and M o h a m m e d A-El-Channam of the Faculty of Education, Ein-Shams University. T h e Secretariat wishes to extend its appreciation to them for their valued collaboration, B y publishing this analysis of comparative practices in technical education in a group of its Member States, Unesco hopes to put a the disposal of all member countries a clear overall picture of developments in t this field in a group of countries with a c o m m o n cultural, historical, linguistic and, to a large extent, religious background, w h o face similar problems in developing the education and techhical competence o f their populations. T h e designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part o f the Unesco Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities, or the delimitations of the frontiers of any of the countries mentioned therein: Opinions expressed b y the authors are their o w n and do not necessarily reflect the views of Unesco or of the Member States concerned.

TABLE OF C O N T E N T S

I.
II.

The Arab world: its potential and its problems Patterns of Arab education The structure of Arab technical education Prospects and conclusions

5
9
21
40

III.
IV.

Appendix

45

CHAPTER I

THE ARAB WORLD: ITS POTENTIAL AND ITS PROBLEMS

The Arab world, geographically speaking, covers an area comprising south western Asia, North Africa, and the whole of the Nile Valley almost to the Equator in the heart of Africa. It is wide but not deep, extending from the Atlantic coast of Morocco to the mouth of the Persian Gulf, and from the interior of northern Africa to the southern Mediterranean littoral as far as the southern border of Turkey. The total land area is 11,188,892 square kilometres (i.e. almost one and a half times as large as the area of the United States or oneeleventh of the total area of the earth). Culturally and nationally speaking, the Arab world consists of approximately 90 million people who, through a long historical process, have shared a c o m m o n language Arabic a c o m m o n religious heritage, and certain beliefs, practices and ideas. This c o m m o n legacy, supported by identical efforts to create a single Arab political community, has given the Arabs a c o m m o n destiny and c o m m o n aspirations. Nevertheless the Arabs are at present, and irrespective of these cultural pressures toward unity, divided into a number of separate States, which vary in size, population, and natural potentialities, as is shown by Tables 1 and 2 (see Appendix). In the Arabian Peninsula itself are Y e m e n , Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the Protectorates of Bahrein, Qatar, the "Trucial Coast" Shaykhdoms, O m a n , and the Federation of Aden. North of the Peninsula lie the States of Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon, and the Kingdom of Jordan. T h e United Arab Republic occupies the north east part of Africa. South of the UAR extends Sudan; and to the west are Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.

THE POTENTIAL OF THE ARAB WORLD

The Arab world is endowed with three major assets: its important strategic position, its significance as a world transport and communications hub, and certain natural resources. Because it lies where Europe, Africa and Asia meet, the Arab lands have throughout history been attractive to outside powers. They have had m a n y conquerors, but in modern times the Ottoman Turks were the first. B y the Sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire controlled the entire region, and the Turks were not c o m pletely replaced until the end of the First World W a r . Advances in Europe in military and scientific techniques, on the one hand, and the rigidity of the

Ottoman system, on the other, laid the area open to penetration by European powers and intense political, military, and even cultural competition. This divisive tendency increased after the removal of Ottoman power and left a group of small independent States, each of them separately subject to external pressures. Nevertheless, the Arabs have c o m e to realize that their unity is not only indispensable to their future strength but useful to them in pursuing effective policies in the present balance of international forces. The importance of the Arab world in international politics and strategy is closely related to its significance in world transportation and c o m munication. Several major axes of communication cross the area by sea, land and air. The shortest shipping route between Europe on the one hand and eastern Africa, the Indian sub-continent, South East Asia, the F a r East and Australasia on the other, cuts through the Arab world via the Suez Canal. Land communication between Europe and Africa proper is either by Gibraltar, commencing at any point on the southern Mediterranean shore, or by Asia Minor. Also, two important axes of air communication cross the Arab worid. T h e major lines from Europe to South Asia, the Far East, and Australasia m a k e use of Arab airport facilities and air space. Air access to Africa from any point in Europe or the U S S R involves crossing the Arab world. Irrespective of the general characteristic of underdevelopment that the Arab peoples have inherited from the past, it should be noted that the Arab region as a whole, is not land starved. There is, for example, a fair amount of cultivable, but, as yet, unused land. In fact m a n y countries of the Arab world have considerable cultivable areas that await reclamation, irrigation and exploitation. The diversity of climate and the wide differences in elevation could enable the Arab region through irrigation and modern methods to produce a large variety of agricultural crops and plantations. This fact can be illustrated by the varied activities in which people engage in the mountains, hills, valleys, deserts and oases in different parts of the Arab countries. Besides its agricultural potentialities, the Arab world exports products that constitute a high percentage of world trade, namely, 16% of the best cotton, 46% of the cotton seeds, 26% of the olive oil, 50% of the phosphorus, 34% of the lead, and 90% of the g u m arabic. T h e area has m a n y mineral resources that are of great significance
5

for its development as well as for world industry. The major resources are oil, phosphate rock, manganese ore, cobalt, and iron ore. Within a relatively short time the Arab world has also become a large-scale oil producer. The average rate of expansion of oil production in the post-war decade was m u c h higher there than elsewhere, justifying the observation that the centre of gravity of world oil was shifting from the Caribbean Gulf area to the Middle East. Since then, the rate of increase has continued and the region's share in world oil output rose even faster. The percentages were: 5.9 (in 1938) 9.5 (in 1946) 16.5 (in 1950) 16.5 (in 1951) 18.6 (in 1953) 20. O (in 1954) 21.1 (in 1955) 20.6 (in 1956) 20.2 (in 1957) 21.8 (in 1961)(l) Also, it is estimated that the region contains 56.45 per cent of the total world reserves.(z) Moreover, oil production in the Arab world is not confined to Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Qatar, Bahrein and Egypt. Libya and Algeria have also been exporting oil in quantity. In addition to recent discoveries of oil, the western part of the Arab world has significant mineral resources. For example, in 1955, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia produced 30.3 per cent of the world's phosphate rock, 6. O per cent of its lead, and 3.5 per cent of its manganese ore. In 1955 also, Morocco ranked among the world suppliers of cobalt after the Congo, Canada and the United States. Water resources also play a prominent rle in the Arab economy. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Syria and Iraq, and the Nile provide valuable routes for navigation and c o m merce. Advances in technical education enable the Arab States to m a k e m o r e scientific and better planned use of irrigation and electric power potentials leading to greater economic capacity in the near future. T h e N e w High D a m above A s w a n in the U A R for example, w l help long-term expanil sion in agriculture and industry as weli. Its object is to m a k e fuller use of the Nile water, m u c h of which is n o w wasted in the flood season.

THE DILEMMA OF THE ARAB WORLD

M a n y factors, such as autocratic governmental systems, inadequate administration, foreign exploitation, reactionary attitudes, and a high rate of illiteracy have impeded Arab progress. The imbalance between the great potential of the region and the unfavourable socio-economic conditions of its people create the dilemma of the Arab world today. In spite of great differences in economic develop6

ment from one Arabic country to another and even from one area to another in the s a m e country, poverty is a fairly general characteristic. The long period of alien control, lack of progress and a certain fatalism weakened the fibre and d i m m e d the desire for improvement among the Arabs. About 75 per cent of the economically active population in the Arab world is still engaged in agriculture, using traditional and archaic methods. A number of factors have contributed to the underdevelopment of the Arab.States. A m o n g these are the rapid rate of population growth, the increasing density of population engaged in agriculture, the degree of foreign participation in the Arab economy, and cultural problems. It is clear that demographic conditions follow a pattern c o m m o n to m a n y of the world's underdeveloped areas. While birth rates remain very high, death rates in s o m e countries have decreased substantially. The result is a quickened growth of population which greatly exceeds current rates in Europe. Given the prospect of mounting efforts to combat the bad health conditions still prevalent in Arab countries, death rates can be expected to fall further, with a cumulative effect on population increase, during the decades ahead. Even provisional figures from four Arab countries tell a significant story (see Table 2, Appendix). While this increase in population and birth rate m a y be considered as a potential for abundant manpower and hence for technical training, it forms a major problem in m a n y Arab countries if matched against the exploitable natural resources and the limitations of educational facilities. Another aspect of the population problem in the Arab world is the very uneven distribution. Densities per square kilometre range from less than one in Libya and Trucial O m a n to 149 in Lebanon. Variations within countries are also extreme. Although the population density per square kilometre in the UAR averages only 25, that for the inhabited and cultivated fraction is 712. Similar variations exist between the desert and cultivated districts of Algeria, Libya, Tunisia and other countries. M u c h of the population increase in the Arab countries is thus concentrated in small pockets of territory. In the U A R numbers grew by an annual average of over 400,000 between 1947 and 1956, so that the area o agricultural land available per f head of population is constantly declining. Emigration in search of employment is characteristic of Northern Algeria, Yemen, Aden Protectorate and Trucial O m a n . O n the other hand, Iraq, Syria and Sudan offer considerable scope for expansion of the cultivated area and intensification of farming methods. (1) Oxford Regional Economic Atlas, The Middle East and North Africa. Oxford University Press, 1960, p. 90. i (2) Journal of Middle East O l NovemberDecember, 1959, pp. 10-11.

THE INCREASING DENSITY OF POPULATION AND AGRICULTURE

Agriculture and animal husbandry provide the greater part of the national income in most Arab f countries. About 65 per cent o the total population in the UAR derive income from agriculture. Between 65 and 75 per cent o the people in Syria gain f their living directly from agriculture and a consif derable portion o the people earn their livelihood by handling or processing agricultural commodities. In Iraq, over 60 per cent of the population is engaged in agriculture. However, there is an imbalance between population and agricultural resources. In the UAR the population density is very high. It is estimated that in the small portion of the country that is actually settled, the ratio is 712 persons per square kilometre. This is different from the Netherlands or the United Kingdom where the ratio is 182 and 85 persons respectively per square kilometre. Consequently, productivity per unit o f land is high but it is low per person. The intensive cultivation of arable land by many farm workers, and the richness of the soil produce a higher yield per unit o land than is achieved through mechanized f farming in the United States, but the yield per unit o land in the UAR would have to be forty times f greater than in the United States in order to produce the same per capita income. In Syria, although land is more plentiful, population pressure on good land tends to grow. In the meantime, the utilization o the land available is f limited by a shortage in water resources; so, in order to raise the standards o living of the increaf sing population, much has to be done concerning f f land reform the making o a careful inventory o remaining land resources, irrigation projects on a greatly increased scale, and the initiation of schemes for State lands. Iraq is sparsely populated in relation to its resources. While the total population is about six and a half million, it covers an area of 444,000 square k m . It is estimated that the amount o culf tivable land is almost three times that under cultis vation. Most of the manpower on the land i underemployed for a large part of the year, and vast tracts of land await reclamation and irrigation before they can be used; much o the available f water is wasted owing to the lack of proper control; most o the agricultural techniques are s i l primif tl tive; the number and quality o draught animals is f inadequate and there is insufficient equipment. The fundamental result of all these conditions is low output and low productivity. Jordan is a predominantly agricultural country, with limited natural resources and a high rate of population growth. Since 1948, its population has increased both by the natural increase o about 3 f per cent a year and as a result of the influx o Arab f refugees from Palestine. Before 1948, the centres of trade and industry for the area lay in what was then Palestine, where power was cheaper, transport

costs lower and skilled labour more readily available than in the interior. Since access to this area was cut off, industrial activity has expanded but is handicapped by the high cost of power, the low purchasing power of the domestic market and the absence of industrial raw materials of any significance other than olives, tobacco and hides. The result was that Jordan remains heavily dependent upon foreign aid. Generally, the expansion of economic activity has been insufficient to absorb both the increase in the working age population and the refugees. Other Arab countries have 3 similar agricultural pattern. L Sudan there are vast areas of both n cultivable and pastoral lands. It is estimated that it has over 78 million hectares with only about 3 million hectares under cultivation. For Libya, there is no reliable survey of land utilization but, of the three provinces, Tripolitania has about 10 million hectares of productive acreage out of 35.3 million, of which some 8 million are used for grazing and 400,000 for settled agriculture. Use of the remainder depends upon rainfall and the movement of nomads. Cyrenaica, with a total area of s o m e 80 million hectares, m a y have about 4 million hectares of productive land, mostly under livestock and cereals. In the 60 million hectares of the Fezzan, there are perhaps 2,700 hectares of gardens in oases and 120,000 hectares of date palms. External interests in the Arab commercial world are found mainly in the field of petroleum production. It is noteworthy that the main trend in the operation o oil concessions in most o the f f Arab countries, is t reduce European interests o in favour o United States oil companies. In 1938 f British and Dutch interests controlled 79.7 per cent o the area's total output, French interests f 6.4 per cent and U.S. interests only 13.9 per cent, In 1955 the balance had so far changed that U.S. interests controlled 46.6 per cent of the total output, British and Dutch 35.5 per cent and French 6.2 per cent. The dilemma of the Arab world has been stated in socio-economic terms, but basically the problem is educational. As of 1950 all Arab countries except Lebanon had an illiteracy rate varying from 60 to 99 per cent. If the productivity of manpower is to be raised, large-scale measures must be taken to make people better educated. The increase in education has had an uneven, and not always favourable, effect on Arab patterns of life. This is well expressed in the different cultural generations and patterns o l f in towns and villf ie ages and even within the same town and village. A s an Arab writer put i : t "One o the main phenomena of our cultural f and social history is its sustained continuity and richness o innovations, though varying f in degrees from one region to another.
(1) Unesco, World Illiteracy at Mid-Century, Monographs on Fundamental Education, No. XI, Paris, Unesco, 1957, pp. 18-34.

Nevertheless, it is characteristic that all that is 'new' in this history has never abrogated the 'old' layers of our heritage. In the c o m m o n life of the people in the Arab Middle East old patterns exist side by side with the 'new'. This coexistence of the 'old' and the 'new' resulted in a complexity in our social institutions despite their apparent simplicity. S o m e communities o the Arab Middle East as f conceived in the urban communities in Egypt are composed of m o r e than one cultural generation. Thus, our society consists of diverse generations in terms of their social institutions, ways of thinking, attitudes and interests. This situation has brought a wide difference in the people's social outlook and their ends and means in life. " (1 ) Educational institutions i the Arab world are not n exceptional in this sense. Though they are or should be ''adaptive'', they reflect the cultural contrasts and complexity of the region. Side by side with the most "modern" educational institutions at various levels, the old patterns stand almost everywhere. Besides these contradictory patterns of life, there exist in the Arab countries different systems of government and administration, which lack a unifying social ideology that can express the growing needs of their peoples, the changing conditions in the region, and the pressure of the new scientific and technological developments that are changing everywhere the relation of m a n to m a n and the relation of m a n to his environment. Thus, m a n y institutions and systems economic, political,

social and educational have been adopted or rather transplanted to serve the vested interests of the few rather than the interests o the majority. f Moreover, most of the Arab countries have been burdened by different forms of government and institutions, s o m e secular, semi-democratic, according to the Western models, others autocratic, conservative or reactionary. In this miscellaneous web of institutions conflicting outlooks, attitudes and policies have emerged to hinder ideals of social progress and material improyement. It is through education that these divergencies can be reconciled, and Arab ambitions realized. Unfortunately education, instead o being a powerf ful instrument for economic reconstruction and cultural change, has been too often a mirror for the past, unable to adapt itself to n e w socio-economic situations. A s w l be shown in the next secil tion, education in almost all parts of the Arab world continued up to the end of the first half of the Twentieth century, even later, to be the privilege of the few rather than the right of all, to be autocratic rather than democratic, academic and theoretical rather than practical and functional. It was too often a means for turning out government clerks rather than effective citizens capable of assuming successfully their economic, social and political responsibilities.
(1) Huzayin, Soliman. "Social Reform Plans and

the Historical and Cultural Background", Egypt, Ministry of Social Affairs, Social Studies Seminar o Arab States (in Arabic), f Cairo, 1950, p. 27.

CHAPTER II
P A T T E R N S OF ARAB EDUCATION

ARAB ACHIEVEMENT AND DECLINE

The present educational systems of the Arab countries are, by and large, the result of a long historical process. T o s o m e extent they can be traced back to the early centuries of Islam and the Arabization of the whole area; but in the main, Arab education, notably technical-vocational education, derives from the Western impact of the past few centuries. Islam, which first developed in the Arabian Peninsula in the Seventh century A.D. and spread rapidly over large parts of Asia and Africa, was not only a religion. It was also a system of society, State, law, art and thought, in short a new way of life which had religion as its unifying factor. T o perpetuate its social and religious beliefs, Islam developed certain educational institutions. The two most important ones were the kuttabs (elementary schools for teaching the Koran and Arabic), and the mosques (postelementary schools and adult education centres). The education offered by them helped to promote and perpetuate Arab culture. The Arab caliphates,the 'Umayyadand especially the Abbasidicaliphate centredin Baghdad, succeeded i preserving and transferring the best of n classical scientific thought. Greek and Oriental treatises were translated into Arabic, a a time when t the West hadlost contact with the past. Also s o m e first class original workin chemistry,physics,m e d icine,astronomy, and mathematics wascarried on by the Arabs. They further developed the experiment al method in science. Scientific works written in Arabic during the Middle Ages remained for centuries "the mainvehicles ofthe living science.('I 1) The rle played by educational institutions in accelerating the Arab scientific movement i the n early Middle Ages was significant. The Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun (813-833 A.D. 1, for example, established a scientific academy (Beit-ul-Hikmah) in Baghdad. One scholar noted that "sciences other than medicine were mostly taught in mosques", and that "every important mosque had ... its library not only of theological but also of philosophical and scientific works." (2) The extraordinary achievements o the Arabs in f science in the Middle Ages did not, however, have a remarkable impact upon life. O n the one hand, a good deal of Arabic science had a Platonic character deriving from the nature of the age. O n the other hand the c o m m o n m a n did not concern himself with scientific achievement. In different walks of life, he mastered his work without any need what-

soever to be introduced to science or go through a previous preparation in a school. Technical "on the job" apprenticeship or practical experience was the sole road to becoming a trader, an artisan, even an artist. The dynamic and forceful Arab culture of "The Great Arab Age" with its "miracle of Arab science", had vanished except in the memories of the Arabs. In other words, it was not the pattern that was transmitted to the Arabs of modern times by their predecessors of the Middle Ages. B y the Eleventh century the Arab world, by then only a part of the larger world of Islam, was in decline. N e w powers from Asia dominated most of the Arab world. Political authority passed to non-Arab Muslims, such as the Selcuk Turks, unity and cohesion among the Arab peoples were replaced by sectarian revolutionary movements which disrupted the unity of Islam. Religion became fossilized in a rigid structure of orthodoxy. The use of intelligence for original interpretation was not tolerated. Reactionary orthodox theologians attempted to suppress scientific thinking. Books of science and philosophy were burnt and scientists were condemned. Finally, the orthodox theologians monopolized the control of education, and consequently the sole type of education available in the Arab and Islamic lands was not only based upon but consisted almost exclusively of religious instruction. The consequent control of the entire Arab region by the Ottoman Turks, which was completed in the Sixteenth century, ended these factional struggles but brought no n e w educational or spiritual progress. The Ottoman genius was military and administrative, but its purpose was to govern rather than improve. The Ottomans did not take advantage of the torrent of new scientific philosophical and educational ideas coming from the Renaissance, nor the technical advances of the Industrial Revolution in Europe. They represented a wall of rigid orthodoxy between the Arabs and the West, and the Arab world was isolated until well into the Twentieth century.
(1) Sarton, George. "Islamic Science" in Near

Eastern Culture and Society, edited by T. Cuyler Young, Princeton University Press, 1951, pp. 83-89. (2) Meyerhof, Max. "Science and Medicine" The Legacy of Islam, edited by Sir T h o m a s Arnold and Alfred Guillaume, Oxford University Press, 1931, p. 336.
9

EDUCATION AND SOCIETY I THE ARAB N WORLD I THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY N

B y the close o the Eighteenth century, the West f had renewed its vigour through the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the early Industrial Revolution. It had largely freed itself from feudal bonds and reshaped its political structure in centralized national States. The voyages o exploration and f the discovery o new trade routes to the East and f new continents across the Atlantic Ocean, strengthened Europe's international position greatly. European scientific and technical advances enabled Europe's armies to dominate other regions, notably the Ottoman Empire. Education moved from religious and sectarian hands to secular and State authorities,from a traditional religious curriculum to scientific, practical and functional studies, and began to prepare students not for the next world but for a useful life. Though the Ottoman Empire had many contacts with Western nations during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth centuries, no attempt had been made on its side to bring about an intellectual movement or development o scientific thought in its terrif f tories. "On the contrary, the critical spirit o modern times, that is of the Renaissance, retreated before the dogmatic spirit which then reigned supreme in the lands of Islam." (1) Under the Ottoman rule, the Arab world (with the exception of the Maghreb and the inner part o the f Arabian Peninsula) was divided during the Eighteenth century first into provinces and then into a number o departments (vilayets), about fourteen f in all. The salient features of Turkish administration over the Arab countries were despotism, conservatism, and anarchy. Throughout the vast f extent o the area under consideration, the Arabs were generally deprived of any active share i the n government o their countries. They were conf sidered as mere "subjects" inferior in class to the Turks and foreign military elements. Their business from the point of view o the sovereign f State, was to till the land and practise a craft, to pay taxes and to meet the needs o the privileged f ie ruling class. Their station in l f and their economic position were regulated largely by the accident of birth. Providing for public education was not considered a part of the duty or function o the State in the f Middle East of the Eighteenth century. Instead, it fell within the realm o the religious institution. f In the Ottoman Empire a sharp line o demarcation f existed between the State and the religious establishment. Each had its own functions and rarely overstepped them. The State was concerned with military, administrative and economic affairs; the religious institutions with doctrine, law, education, intellectual life and social relations.(2) The anarchy o the Turkish administration, c o m f bined with the tax farm, or feudal, system led to poor conditions in agriculture and agricultural communities the most important social units,

next to the family, in almost all Arab countries Methods, agricultural implements, and the organization of agriculture remained primitive; peasant l f was of the simplest kind. There was no ie formal education, except for the religious training of the kuttabs and mosques. Transit trade through the Arab Near East in the Eighteenth century shrank to nothing; the sea routes around the Cape of Good Hope were safer and hence more likely to show a profit. This contributed to the commercial as well as cultural isolation of the Arab world from the more progressive West. The internal commerce of the Arab world was characterized by the most primitive techniques. Arabs in mercantile communities acquired the simple skills o trading entirely f through apprenticeship. Edward W. Lane, who spent seven years in Egypt in the early Nineteenth century reported that children were sent by their parents to the public weigher (Qabbani) in the market place to learn arithmetic. In the process they m a y have acquired some knowledge o weights, f measures, and currency, but nothing o technical f value to their communities. Industry in the Arab world shared in the general decline o the period. The few industrial products f o the Arab countries were strictly for local use. f Although Arab artisans were mostly organized into craft corporations or guilds, these corporations discouraged initiative and creativeness, and tended to produce stereotypes o industrial prof cesses. It was through these craft corporations that the young obtained their technical education. Every boy who wanted to learn a trade joined a workshop as an apprentice, and attached himself to a master who taught him the mystery of the craft and the traditions o the corporation. When f the apprentice reached the age o maturity and had f acquired proficiency in his master 's occupation, the corporation, in a ceremonial festival, inducted him as a member. In some instances the new member was given a diploma (ijazah)by the head of the corporation.(3) Here again, formal education in a school had no direct function in the preparation of youth for f a craft. N o public school o a technical nature in the modern sense was mentioned in the literature on education in the Arab world in the Eighteenth
(1) Adivar, Abulhak Adnan, "Interaction o Islamic f and Western Thought in Turkey", in Young, T.C., cit.,p. 122. op. (2) Gibb, H.A.R. and Bowen, Harold. Islamic Society and the West, Vol. I pt. I, Oxford University Press, 1951, pp. 157-58, 178. 200-09; pt. II, pp. 79-80. (3) Volney, C.F. Travels Through Syria and Egypt; Al-jabarti, (Annals)(in Arabic), Cairo, 1880, Vol. II, pp. 215-16. See also Edward W. Lane, The Manners and Customs o the Modern Egyptians, London, 1894; f pp. 75, 514-15; Gibb & Bowen, op. cit. Vol. I, pp. 258-313.

10

century.(1) In fact, public formal education, represented in the kuttabs scattered in the villages and the Madrasahs or m o s ue schools in the principal towns and cities,?l) consisted of theoretical studies; the acquisition of knowledge was merely a mechanical process of compiling and summarizing data without comment and without any endeavour to reach out beyond it.(3) The kuttabs and mosque-colleges of the Arab world in the Eighteenth century, were no longer effective enough to influence or io direct the development of the Arab society. "Based on inert ideas, rote m e m o r y and reliance upon authority to the exclusion of any w l to create independent il ideas and to plan productive actions".(4) they sank to the level of merely holding society together by the inculcation of tradition. They, further, ceased to set before themselves even the hope of moulding the society in directions consonant with the ideals of early islam. (5)

Republic enacted a law in 1961 reorganizing drastically that time honoured institution. According to that law, Al-Azhar University w l have il four n e w faculties, besides those for Islamic and Arabic studies. These are the faculties of c o m mercial dealings and administration, engineering and industry, agriculture, and medicine. According to this law, education in the preparatory (lower secondary) and upper secondary institutions attached to Al-Azhar will be broadened. Instead of merely providing religious and linguistic il knowledge, these institutions w l prepare their students for the General and Technical Certificates of the public preparatory and secondary schools. The 1961 L a w of Al-Azhar, marks a n e w era in the history of traditional indigenous education in the Arab world. It is expected that Al-Azhar
(1 ) Technical education in the formal sense existed only in the Sultan's household in Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire. In this respect Gibb and Bowen state: "The schools provided for the Acemil Oglans and pages of the Sultan's household.. . were in s o m e respects superior to the medresses (post-elementary schools and equivalents to college-mosques). In them.. . pupils were instructed in the religious sciences.. . It w a s in these schools also that the architects, sculptors, and painters, the annalists and calligraphers, who have left s o m e m a n y fine works for our admiration, s e e m for the most part to have been formed; and it was the 'Acemi Oglan schools and other military and naval institutions such as the Toplane and the Tersane that produced the cannon founders, ship designers and builders, who were required for the Sultan's armed forces." Gibb and Bowen, Islamic Society and the West, Vol. I, pt. II, 1957, p. 152. (2) It is worth mentioning here that Jewish and Christian communities in the Arab world had their own kuttabs that taught psalms in place of the Koran. Apart from the studies of the monks, however, no mention of places for Christian higher education parallel to the Muslim College-Mosque is found. See H a m m a d , Salama I. The Impact of Europe on Islam, unpublished dissertation submitted for the Ph.D. degree in the Institute of Education, London, 1952, pp. 88-90. (3) Gibb, H. A . R. Modern Trends in Islam, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1945, pp. 12-13. (4) Radwan, A b u Al-Futouh. Old and n e w forces in Egyptian education. N e w York, 1951. (5) For details on educational institutions in the Arab world in the Eighteenth century see Gibb and Bowen, op. cit. Vol. I, pt. II, ch. XI; Radwan, Abu al-Futouh, op. cit. ch. IV; Heyworth-Dunne, J. A n Introduction to the History of Education in Modern E m London, 1938, ch. I -passim. 11

THE IMPACT OF THE W E S T

Certain parts of the Near East served as bridgeheads. These were Egypt and the Nile Valley, Syria (which then included Lebanon and Palestine), the Persian Gulf and Iraq, and North Africa. The Western impact on the Arab world during the Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries resulted in two major trends in education. One was the perpetuation of the indigenous educational system of the kuttabs and college-mosques. The other was the introduction of a new, separate educational system patterned after the Western model. The college-mosques began to reform and reorganize themselves on progressive lines. H o w ever, instead of developing into secular institutions with broader functions, without losing their ethical and religious values, as had occurred in the West, the "old" higher institutions in the Arab world remained mainly academic and religious. Al-Azhar, in Cairo, the most distinguished among these institutions, was the first to start reform along the above lines. Between 1866 and 1946 a series of laws were promulgated organizing that institution into three higher faculties (Arabic, theology, and Muslim law), preceded by religious primary and secondary stages. Al-Zeitounah in Tunisia and al-Qurawiyyin i Morocco later followed n similar lines of reform, while other collegemosques in the Arab world lost their traditional educational functions and became m e r e places for prayer. B y taking this traditional, narrow, and independent course, Al-Azhar, and its sister institutions in the Arab world, did not help to bring Arab society to new levels of science and technology. O n the contrary, they were criticized for inducing cultural inertia. Thus, in an attempt to run Al-Azhar on m o r e modern and practical lines, and in harmony with drastic changes that have been taking place after the Revolution of 1952 the United Arab

in its new form w l be capable of assuming the il responsibilities commensurate with the demands of the Arab world in the second half of the Twentieth century, and serve as a model for its sister institutions. The evolution of the "old" indigenous institutions into n e w educational patterns, is but one part of the story of education in the Arab world in modern times. Most of the modern educational institutions, particularly the technological, that now exist in the area are not designed along old patterns. O n the contrary, they at least their conceptual design c a m e from outside the indigenous cultural pattern, ita the wake of Western impact and the process of modernism and acculturation that have been taking place in the Arab world since the Nineteenth century and even earlier.

THE W E S T E R N IMPACT ON EGYPT

The French Expedition (1798-1801)to Egypt marked a new era in the history of the country. It brought with it representatives of a progressive Western culture which differed from that of the Egyptians not only in military but also in the economic, intellectual, and social spheres. A s a result Egyptian leaders concluded that their mediaeval outlook and practices were no longer adequate for life in the new world. This is well expressed in their view that Egypt should "modernize" itself by taking from the West the secrets of its superiority in sciences and arts.(l) A n attempt to set Egypt on the road to becoming a modern State was started shortly after the departure of the French forces at the beginning of the Nineteenth century when the Egyptians nominated M u h a m m a d A i as ruler. However "modernization", l to the n e w ruler, mainly meant the creation of a strong a r m y modelled after the West, using the new science to equip it, and embarking upon extensive military programmes to build up a powerful autonomous State with Egypt as a nucleus, rather than directing the capacity of the country, reinforced by science and technology, to raise the standard of living o the people and regenerate the way of f life of the c o m m o n m a n . This process of "modernization" necessitated a n e w outlook on education, its content, organization and administration. A highly centralized and exclusive State system of education was adopted. Starting at the college level, the government initiated, between 1816 and 1835, various schools with a scientific and practical bent to provide the a r m y administration, and the economy with qualified manpower. Schools of medicine, pharmacy, veterinary science, mineralogy, engineering, applied chemistry and polytechnical education, arts and crafts, agriculture, and the military sciences were established. Besides these higher institutes the government established ''secular" preparatory and primary schools. Finally a Department of Education was 12

established in 1836 to supervise these schools. B y these achievements Egypt took the lead among the Arab countries in building a "modern" State and in establishing a "modern" educational system that stood side by side with the ''old'' which gradually receded to a secondary position. Contacts with the West, even after M u h a m m a d Ali's reign, increased. "Modern" primary and secondary schools that had been closed in the 1840's and 50's when the European powers were occupied with the defeat of M u h a m m a d A i were l reopened (1863) and increased i number. The n education of girls became a subject of investigation, and the first "modern" primary school for girls was established. The indigenous educational system, particularly the kuttab, was brought under critical examination and suggestions for its reform were developed. Further, as early as 1855, educational leaders said that the government should assume its responsibility to provide elementary education for all and urged "the acquisition of m o r e modern branches of knowledge as necessary for national progress. " Summing up the educational situation in Egypt in 1880, the Commission for the Reorganization of Education reported that within Egyptian society (five and a half million people at that time) there existed s o m e 5,370 kuttabs with an enrolment of 137,550. In addition, there were 26 modern prim a r y schools (of which one was for girls) with 4,915 pupils, one general secondary school in Cairo and s o m e sections in the provinces with 532 students, one technical school on the secondary level with 79 students, 8 colleges of higher education (schools of medicine and pharmacology, midwifery, engineering, land surveying; applied arts, languages; and finally Dar el-Ulum, which between them had 411 students. The commission concluded its investigation with a plan for the expansion of primary education all over the country and the gradual liquidation of the kuttab system, together with s o m e recommendations that included the establishment of postprimary practical classes in rural and urban areas, a general secondary school in every town, and schools of agriculture on the secondary and college evels.(z) During the period of the British protectorate over Egypt (1880-1922)there was relatively little progress in the expansion of the educational system. The restoration of self-government after 1922 encouraged contact with Western nations. However, substantial progress was not achieved in education, and the little that was realized did
(1) Radwan, Abu-al-Futouh. op. cit. pp. 14-15. (2) al-TahTawi Rifaah. Manahig al-Albab fi Mabahig fi Mabahig al-Adab al-Asriyah. Cairo, Boulaq, 1869, p. 248. See also "Rapport de la Commission pour les reformes dans 1' organisation et l'instruction publique", Recueil des Documents officiels du Gouvernement Egyptien, Anne 1881, pp. 153-281

not reach the common man. As recently as 1950 the rate o illiteracy was between 80 and 85 per f cent. But some advances were noted. The number of schools and size o enrolments multiplied f greatly.(1) Three State universities were established, elementary education (an outgrowth o the f old kuttabs) was made compulsory (1923)and primary and secondary education became free in 1944 and 1950 respectively. Still, education, particularly a the elementary and primary level, fell t short o meeting the demands o a modern State. f f In 1952 schools at the primary level only enrolled 41.8 per cent of the total number o children o f f primary school age. Vocational education continued to be neglected. The trend in education was to train government employees. As Radwan stated: "The educational system... contains survivals from the former autocratic, governmental, social, moral, and religious system. T w o sets o f schools, one for the lite and the other for the masses, have continued to split the nation into two social classes, The emphasis on texts and a rigid system o examination have perpetuated the divorce f o education from everyday life. The emphasis on f rote learning has continued to work against the development o a programme o vocational educaf f tion suited to present-time conditions. The old authoritarian method o instruction... s i l persists. f tl A highly centralized administration.. . has made the system inflexible. As a result of all these factors, education is lagging far behind the sweeping changes in many phases o the culture."(2) f

EDUCATION I SUDAN N
Until the early Nineteenth century, Sudan was mainly tribal in i s society, culture, and economy, t besides being divided into several competitive political units. Only the khalua (Koranic school) and the masjid (mosque)offered education and this was only in religious and linguistic subjects.(3) After being annexed to Egypt in 1820-1821, modern cultural influences began to affect Sudan. However, the process o "modernization" was f slow. Early attempts to establish "modern" secular schools were made during the Turko-Egyptian period (1821-1885)but these were short lived;and religious education in the Koranic schools and mosques continued to be the predominant feature. 4 () Following the establishment o the Anglo-Egyptian f Condominium in 1899, the Government issued a policy statement outlining immediate objectives. These objectives included the provision o vernacuf lar schools to spread elementary education among the masses, the creation o a technical school for f training competent artisans, and the training o f educated Sudanese for the army and civil service from intermediate schools which would teach English. A this time, there was no organized t educational machinery and only a few hundred pupils were in school. Expansion, however, was very slow. B y 1936 the educational system had one

secondary school, eleven intermediate schools and some 87 elementary schools, with a total attendance o only 9,000 pupils. f The history o the Gordon Memorial College a f t Khartoum (established in 1902) tells a part o the f story o education in Sudan in the first half o the f f t Twentieth century. In i s earliest stage the college supported an industrial school, two higher primary schools, and a small teacher-training centre. In 1905 a secondary division was started. A military school was also opened and affiliated to the college. The object o the college was to f turn out teachers, clerks, cadis, accountants, artisans, etc. In 1924, the college became a fulltime secondary institution, with a curriculum of two years in general subjects, followed by two years devoted largely to vocational training engineering, surveying, accountancy, science, teaching and clerical work in addition to Islamic law. Gordon College dropped its vocational emphasis and became a true secondary school after the D e L a Warr Commission visited Sudan in 1937. The commission envisaged the rapid expansion o secondary and intermediate education f and the establishment o a university college. f After the Second World War, a ten-year educational development programme was drawn up to give further impetus to the expansion o education. f In 1950, the Khartoum Technical Institute was set up; it had three main schools, engineering, commerce, and fine and applied arts. Besides academic and techni-cal secondary schools, a few commercial secondary schools were also established. The Department o Agriculture, also, maintains f the Shambat Agricultural Institute which is postsecondary, offering 3-year courses in agriculture and animal husbandry. The Department of Forests runs similar classes for forest overseers. In 1951 the University College o Khartoum was f established as an autonomous institution supported financially by the Government. It was formed by grouping the existing Kitchener School o Medicine f and the Gordon Memorial College with its separate schools o law, veterinary science, agriculture, f arts, science and engineering. Private initiative and voluntary contributions helped in increasing the number o schools in f Sudan and before the close o the Condominium in f 1956, private enterprise had established 3 secondary schools and about forty intermediate schools. The corresponding figures for government institutions were 9 secondary and about 50 intermediate. Besides the 'Ahlia' (Sudanese national) schools, schools managed by the Egyptian Government and by mission bodies were established in the northern

(1

See Table 3, Appendix. Radwan, op. cit., p. 105. For the history o education in Sudan before f the Nineteenth century see Abd el-Aziz Amin Abd el-Megeed,Education in the Sudan, Vol. I (in Arabic), Cairo, Boulac, 1949. 'bid.,Vol. II, pp. 101-104.
._

13

Sudan. In the southern provinces of Sudan where six main tribal divisions exist, the early education was done by Christian missions. Their schools were later placed under a system o government f inspection and grants. F r o m time to time attempts were m a d e to provide closer similarity in the type and quantity of facilities found in southern and northern provinces. (1) A mid-century, however, t there was in Sudan no compulsory education. Public primary education was Limited by shortage of funds and provision for practical or vocational training was still inadequate.

SYRIA AND LEBANON Save for a decade o precarious annexation to Egypt f in the 1830's, the Province of Syria (which included Lebanon, Palestine and Transjordan) remained an integral part of the Ottoman Empire throughout the Nineteenth and early Twentieth centuries. During that period attempts by several Ottoman Sultans were m a d e to reorganize the Empire on Western lines. Impressed by the military side of Western culture, they thought as M u h a m m a d Ali had in Egypt, that a balance of power could be achieved only through military and administrative organization on the European model. The formation o a f modern a r m y necessitated educational reforms in the Empire, and secular schools on the primary, secondary, higher levels (like those established in Egypt) were opened. According to statistics issued by the Turkish Government in 1915, there existed 446 primary schools in Syria, in the vilayets of Damascus, Aleppo and Beirut. O n the secondary level there were 5 schools. In each Syrian vilayet capital there was a normal school and a trade school. (This was looked upon as inferior due to its relation to manual work. ) Special institutions were the Agricultural School of Salamiyah, the Higher School o Medicine a f t Damascus, and the Higher School of L a w at Beirut. (2) These so-called "modern" schools, inaugurated in Syria by Turkish authorities, adopted the Turkish language as a medium of instruction, and attracted mainly the sons of Turkish officials and Arab notables. Also, the new schools did not have their origin in local initiative. Nor did they arise as a result o a widely felt need for reform. Conf sequently, they were relatively ineffective in causing any appreciable change in Arab life. However, they served as a nucleus o Arab public f school systems in the political units that later developed in that region under the Mandatory system (Lebanon, Syria, Palestine and Transjordan).(3) Foreign schools modelled after the West were also established in Syria. European missionary (primarily French) activities in Syria date back to the Sixteenth and Seventeenth centuries. H o w ever, it was not until the Nineteenth century that missionary educational work of an advanced sort 14

began to be given. The Lazarist School of Anturah (College of Anturah) was perhaps the first to be established along modern lines, in 1934. The Jesuit Mission crowned its work in Syria by founding the Universit Saint-Joseph in 1875. Starting with a Faculty of Theology and a secondary school, the Universit added s o m e schools among which were the faculty o medicine (1883), the school of f pharmacy (1889), the school of dentistry, and the French school o engineering. f Besides the French missionary activities, a lay mission (mission laque) was established, which opened foreign schools for boys and girls in a number of cities. American missionary connexion with Syria began in 1822, but it was not until after 1860 that the firm foundations of American Protestant missionary work began to flourish and expand in m a n y parts of Syria. In the late Nineteenth century the number of Protestant schools in Syria amounted to 123. The highest American institution in the Levant is the American University o Beirut, previously f called the Syrian Protestant College. It was established by the American Presbyterian Mission in 1866. During the following decades studies in that college expanded to include medicine, pharmacology, economics, nursing, etc. Later, in the 1930's and ~ O ' S ,courses in agriculture and engineering were organized. Other foreign institutions in Syria included British Missions Schools, and a few Greek, Swiss and Danish schools. The French Mandatory Government after the First World W a r encouraged French missionary activities, and gave subsidies to a large number o orders. B y the end of the French mandate f (1944/1945), French schools in Syria and Lebanon constituted 74 per cent and 83 per cent o the f foreign total and included 82 per cent and 84 per cent respectively o the total foreign school f enrolment. U p to the end of the Second World W a r , foreign schools had been a prominent feature of education in Lebanon and Syria. In Lebanon they numbered 326, i. e. 20.4 per cent of the total number of schools; and enrolled 43,065 pupils, i e. 29.7 . per cent of the total number of pupils in schools. In Syria they numbered 160, i.e. 13.9 per cent o the total number o schools, and enrolled f f 23,887 pupils i. e. 14.7 per cent of the total number o pupils in schools. f Foreign schools, particularly the French and American, had also influenced the organization and content o local private schools which were f another major characteristic of education in the

(1) Unesco. World Survey of Education. Volume III. Secondary Education, Paris, Unesco, 1961. (2) Arab League. Cultural Administration. Yearbook o Arab Culture, Vol. I. Cairo, f 1949. pp. 8, 9. (3) H a m m a d . S.I. op. cit. p. 326. Arab League. Cultural Administration. op. cit. pp. 9, 10.

two countries. Local schools that developed in Syria and Lebanon followed either French or American types of educational organization. Government public education followed the French pattern of general education with slight adaptation. It was in all cases kept to a m i n i m u m throughout the Mandatory period. In Lebanon, in particular, it was limited largely to the primary level.(l) With the declaration o the independence o Syria f f in 1946 and the establishment o a new Syrian f Government, a national policy in education, free from French influences and calculated primarily to develop a Syrian Arab type o education was f formulated. A n educational act, No. 121, 1944, was passed which reorganized and unified the educational system for the whole country. A l regulal tions and programmes were based on that law. Primary education was to be free and compulsory and no foreign language was to be taught in primary schools. In 1944-1945 French schools in Syria were closed, and in order to reopen they were required to comply with certain conditions (such as registering with the Ministry o Education, f submitting to its supervision, and following its syllabuses in the teaching of the Arabic language, Arab history and geography) all o which conspired f to make resumption very difficult. B y 1946 the reorganization o Syrian education f had begun to affect the university (which had been established in 1923 to include the faculties of medicine and law already existing). N e w faculties of letters, science and engineering and a higher teachers' college, were initiated in 1946 with faculties of agriculture and c o m m e r c e to c o m e later. But little was done in the field o technical-vocaf tional education in Syria. In 1944 only three out o f 160 foreign schools were vocational in nature; there were also six government vocational schools. In Lebanon, the public educational system remained incomplete. T h e first public secondary school was established in 1949. N o public or local private higher institutions existed. The only technical school in 1950 was the School of Arts and Crafts which had been founded in Beirut during the Ottoman rgime. (2)

however, by new regulations. Education Regulations Nos. 1 and 2 for the year 1939 laid down the fundamental lines of education organizations. Schools were classed as rural elementary, elementary, primary, secondary, and specialized. Elementary education was to be free, and was to be compulsory for boys and girls in localities to be determined by the Government. B y the close o the Second World W a r the school f system in Transjordan comprised 73 schools and 9,874 pupils. One of these schools was a technical school for boys; 4 schools were for boys, combining secondary with elementary education; and the rest were elementary town and village schools for both boys and girls.(3)

IRAQ
A s an integral part of the Ottoman Empire up to the First World War, Iraq had its share of educational reforms introduced by the Turkish Government in its attempt to catch up with the West. According to Turkish statistics in 1914, Iraq had 160 primary schools, with an enrolment of 6,656 pupils, 4 secondary schools, with an enrolment of 818, 3 normal schools, a trade school, and a higher school of law. (4) A s a neighbour of Syria, Iraq also had a share of foreign missionary activities. This share, particularly in the field o education, was however, f very small. Even in 1955-1956, there were only 9 foreign schools; five of them were British and American primary schools, and the rest American secondary schools; the enrolment was 1,068. Until the termination of the British mandate over Iraq in 1930, British officials exerted a strong influence over education in Iraq. They were first called Commissioners of Education (1917-1922), and then ''Advisers'' on educational matters (1923-1930). Considering themselves not as outsiders imposing an educational system on a colony but as builders of a n e w system, these British officials wisely abstained from imposing their own language in the schools. Arabic was m a d e the medium of instruction, with English the principal foreign language. A s had been the case in Egypt, British policy in Iraq was to provide two types of primary schools, the first giving a four-year elementary course and offering an education complete in itself for as m a n y pupils as "economic conditions" m a d e Matthews, R.D., and Akrawi, Matta. Education in Arab countries of the Near East. Washington: American Council on Education. 1949. pp. 388-404, 458-502. See also Table 4, Appendix. Matthews and Akrawi, op. cit., pp. 325-26. Ibid., pp. 299-303. Arab League. Cultural Administration. Yearbook o Arab Culture, Vol. I (in Arabic). f Cairo, 1949. 15

JORDAN Transjordan which became the Kingdom o Jordan f in 1948 was (up to the outbreak of the First World W a r ) an outlying part o the vilayet of Damascus, f subject to Turkish rule. A s such it received even less attention in the matter of education than was given to other vilayets o the Ottoman Empire. A f handful of elementary schools for boys of five grades were established in the larger towns. H o w ever, these schools served as a nucleus for the small educational system which gradually developed in the Emirate o Transjordan created in 1921. f Until 1939, education in Transjordan was legally subject to the provisions of the educational laws o f the Ottoman 'rgime. These were superseded,

possible, the second giving a six-year course leading to secondary school, with fewer pupils. Thus o 264 primary schools in 1928, only 55 gave f a full six-year course. This dualism in the primary stage was, however, abolished after 1930. British efforts in the sphere of technical education in Iraq were almost nil. In 1929-1930 the number of enrolments in Iraqi technical schools (one in Baghdad and the other in Mosul) were 148 compared to 80 in 1920-1921. The general response from the Iraqis to technical education was very poor. They continued to conceive of technical education as parallel to the bazaar workshop, fit only for the children of the poor - a concept that had been inherited from Turkish times. In the field of higher education British efforts were concentrated on sending the abler students abroad, particularly to England. British policies were in favour of emphasizing the scientific and technical aspects of higher education. They opened colleges for engineering (1925). agriculture (19261, and medicine (1927). The leading Iraqi intellectuals did not accept the need for practical education and did not give it full recognition. They resented the attention paid to practical subjects which were thought to be beneath them. Consequently, the above three higher institutes of practical education did not attract enough students. Nor did they succeed in achieving their goals. One would have expected that after the termination of the mandate in 1930 Iraq would develop rapidly, especially as the revenues from oil production became available. This did not happen generally (see Table 5, Appendix). Despite the increase in the number of schools and enrolments, they were far short of meeting the increased needs of the Iraqis. In 1954, only 35.7 per cent o the total number o primary f f school age children were in school. The situation was less encouraging at the secondary level. There were almost no technical schools. There was no university; although attempts were m a d e to incorporate the existing colleges (the L a w College, the College o Medicine and its associated f schools, the College of Engineering, the College of Economics, the Higher Teachers' College and the Queen Aliyah Institute.. . etc. )into a university, these did not go beyond producing a draft charter and a draft law for the proposed university. In brief, the major lines of the educational policy designed during the period of British control continued to prevail in the structural pattern of education in Iraq.

for example, a Department of Education was established in 1936 and the first primary school, in the modern sense, opened.(l) In 1937 s o m e secondary classes were initiated. However, secondary education in its organized form did not begin before 1942. (2) In Bahrein, an Education Department was established in 1926. Technical education in Bahrein started in 1936 with carpentry and simple engineering classes, and secondary education began in 1947. The neighbouring Sheikhdoms followed the lead of Kuwait and Bahrein. (3) The graded school system in Y e m e n was limited to San'a, the capital, and available to males only. The one secondary school opened in 1955 was established in San'a, and the only technical education available was a class for radio operators annexed to that school. The educational budget was derived from the Imam's Privy Purse and the Wakfs (official religious endowments I administration) which m a d e annual contributions.

SAUDI ARABIA Alongside the indigenous schools (kuttabs and religious secondary and higher institutes), modern education developed in Saudi Arabia during the first half of the Twentieth century. The Saudi Government assumed responsibility for education in 1926, when a Directorate of Education was established. This was raised in 1953 to the status of a ministry. In 1939 the system of public education was defined by Higher Order No. 14/1/1358. This order m a d e schooling free at all levels of education (then including elementary and secondary education). Until 1954 elementary education in Saudi Arabia was divided into two types, rural and primary. After that date it was unified. A s elsewhere in the Arab world, the progress of education in Saudi Arabia was very slow at all levels until recently. In 1948 there were 182 primary schools with an enrolment of 21,409 pupils. B y 1952 this had risen to 301 with an enrolment of 39,920. B y 1961, however, the total of primary schools was 834 with 126,476 pupils. Also in 1952 there were 10 secondary schools with an enrolment of 1,315 and one vocational school, with 60 pupils. In 1961 there were 18 schools with 2,176 students, and 7 technical schools with 1,646 pupils.
~ ~~~~

THE P E R S I A N GULF AND YEMEN

There is little to be said concerning the progress of education in the British protected Persian Gulf States and in Y e m e n up to the mid-Twentieth century. Tribal life was strong and only the production of oil on a large scale permitted s o m e of them to undertake educational developments. In Kuwait,
16

(1 ) Government of Kuwait, Directorate of Education, Report on the Progress of Education 1958/59 (in Arabic), Kuwait, 1960, p. 17. (2) For details about education in the Arab Emirates on the Arab Gulf see Unesco, World Survey of Education, Volume II, Primary Education, 1958, pp. 1232-42. (3) For further details see Panorama de l'Enseignement en Royaume d'Arabie Soudite, Beirut, Unesco Regional Centre for the Advanced Training of Educational Personnel in the Arab States. 1962.

THE ARAB MAGHREB ( A L G E R I A , TUNISIA AND M O R O C C O )

The three countries of North West Africa (aiMaghrib) developed such educational systems as they had prior to 1950 under French tutelage. France placed Algeria under direct control from 1830 on and encouraged the influx of numbers of French colonists, as a means to settlement and development of the economy. Thus alongside the indigenous Arabs, a sizeable French colony was created (approximately one million along with roughly eight million Arabs). French educational policies in Algeria were designed to m a k e Algerians French in every sense, while limiting local Algerian participation. Primary education, patterned after that developed in France, was first established in 1832, and secondary education in 1835. In 1848 an Acadmie d'Alger was created. The complete organization of education in Algeria was effected by a decree of 15 August 1875, which applied to the colony all the educational laws and regulations which governed education in the "Mother Country". According to this decree, the educational system was to consist of three stages: primary, secondary and higher. The law of 30 December 1909 converted the higher schools into university faculties. In 1950, the University of Algiers comprised the Faculties of Medicine and Pharmacology, and Sciences, the Institute of Colonial Hygiene and Medicine, the Institute of Terrestrial Physics, the Institute of Sahara Research, the town planning institute, besides the Institute of Geography, the Faculty of Arts and the Faculty of Law. French educational policy allowed the indigenous religious educational institutions to continue, but incorporated their revenues in the public treasury. It sought, also to reorganize s o m e of them. Thus in 1850, Muslim schools were reorganized i such n a way as to bring them under direct French control, and to introduce the learning of the French language as a compulsory subject. Enrolment in the Muslim religious schools remained small; i 1946 it was n only 147. A few French primary schools for Algerian Arabs existed as early as 1850. They offered a modest education called "B-type" education. In 1949 a decree amalgamated this so-called "B-type education", heretofore provided for the French Muslims, and the "A-type" of European education. In secondary education, two colleges for the Arabs of Algeria had been founded, one in 1857 in Algiers and the other in Constantine. In 1872 they were incorporated into the Lyce of Algiers and the C o m m u n a l College of Constantine, respectively. Little was done in the field of technical education. According to the 1948 census, the percentage of Muslim adult illiterates in Algeria was 93.8, c o m pared to 8.2 per cent for the non-Muslim population.(1) Official statistics for the school year 1950/1951 state that 188,678 Muslim pupils, out of a total Muslim population of eight millions, were

in public primary schools, compared to 111,403 European pupils out of a total European population of 1,000,000. Similar divergencies of educational opportunity existed on the secondary and university levels. Statistics of the s a m e year show that the share of the French in secondary education was thirty-six times that of Muslims, and in technical schools seventeen times as great. Only 213 Muslims out of a total enrolment of 5,000 were attending the University o Algiers at that time. f The cardinal principles of French education in Algeria were followed in both Tunisia and Morocco after France established two protectorates over them in 1881 and 1911 respectively. Consequently, similar results occurred in the two countries. According to 1951 statistics in Tunisia, the percentage of Arab pupils to the total Arab population was only 4.4 compared to 16.6 in the Jewish c o m munity and 24.4 in the French section of the population. The percentage of Arab pupils attending primary schools to the total number of Arabs of primary school age was 12.3, while for the Jewish and French it was 76.3 and 94.7 respectively. In Morocco, the 1948 census gives the percentage of Muslim pupils to the total Muslim population as 1.08, while for the Jewish and European populations, it was 12.53 and 18.8, respectively. Only 4.8 per cent of the total Muslim children of primary school age were in schools, while 64.3 per cent and 97.6 per cent of the total Jewish and European children, respectively, of primary school age, were in primary schools. The percentage of Muslims of total enrolment in European schools was 3.8 in the primary stage, 5.3 in the secondary, and 2.6 in technical schools .(i)

LIBYA
Prior to the First World W a r , Libya then an Ottoman province had been a target of Italian invasion (1910-1911). After the Italian occupation the Turkish educational system was replaced by an Italian one which remained in force, except for a brief interruption, until the Second World War. The system then in force covered two types of schooling besides the Koranic schools: (a) the elementary Arabic schools, and (b)the Italian schools proper. The elementary Arabic schools offered a five-year course in Arabic, Islam, and other subjects which were taught in Italian. Until 1936 pupils of these schools could not pursue their studies further, but after the establishment of the High Islamic school, pupils who had c o m pleted their elementary studies could join it. The Italian schools were primarily established for foreign pupils, but did admit a limited number of Libyans. They offered both elementary and sec-

( 1 ) Unesco, World Survey of Education II. p. 396. (2) The Arab League, op. cit., pp. 555-559. Ibid., pp. 493-577 81.

17

ondary school courses and the medium of instruction was Italian. In 1943, following the Allied occupation of the country, a system evolved along British lines was introduced in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, while one following French lines was started in the Fezzan. Secondary education in the full sense did not begin in Libya until 1947. In the academic year

1947/1948 there were 4 secondary schools with 234 students. Before achieving independence (1951)Libya had only a few primary schools, secondary education was rarely available, and vocational education was almost completely neglected. Following independence a system based on Egyptian lines with modifications to suit Libyan needs was introduced and a m o r e vigorous educational policy by the Libyan Government was started.

CONCLUSION

The classical educational institutions in the Arab world handed down from the late Middle Ages continued, throughout the Nineteenth century and the first half of the Twentieth, to be mainly religious and linguistic in character. In 1961 major reforms were undertaken in al-Azhar , the most famous o f all institutions of higher education in the Arab world. In addition to the colleges for Islamic and Arabic studies, the 1961 law reorganizing al-Azhar stipulated that faculties of commerce and administration, of engineering and industry, of agriculture, and of medicine must be established. Likewise education in the preparatory and secondary institutions attached to al-Azhar will be broadened. Henceforth. instead of mainly providing religious and linguistic studies, these institutions w l preil pare their students to obtain the General and Technical Certificates of the public preparatory and secondary schools. Western influences have varied in their impact n on Arab society. I m a n y cases they were superimposed for military, economic or political reasons. The Arabs were unable to adopt the positive contributions of Western science and technology, being under Ottoman control. This encouraged the survival of archaic traditions. N e w educational patterns, modelled on European educational systems, were introduced to the Arab world mostly by European agencies or authorities. In most of the Arab countries complete systems of modern education, including primary, secondary, and higher schools were developed at different dates. However, the modern educational systems in Arab countries did not rise above the level of their Arab cultural context and the forces determining Arab life in the period. Throughout the Arab world, vocational, technological and scientific education were neglected m o r e than other sectors. Even after the responsibility for the administration of education was given over to national elements in m a n y Arab countries, there was relatively little progress. After the 1950s the major problem was clearly how to m a k e education capable of achieving the needed social and technological change.

INDU S T R I A L AND T E C H N I C A L DEVELOPMENT

The Pact of the Arab League drawn up in 1945 in Alexandria called for the co-operation of M e m b e r States in economic and financial affairs, communication, cultural and social affairs, and health problems. A n economic council was established in 1950 in order to create security and prosperity in the Arab countries, to raise their standards of living, to co-operate i the development of their n economies and the exploitation of their natural resources, to facilitate the exchange of their respective agricultural and industrial products, and generally to organize and co-ordinate their economic activities. A cultural committee was also formed to secure through conferences, agreements, and other devices understanding and cooperation among Arab countries on educational and cultural problems and to seek to achieve greater unity and m o r e progress in their educational systems, programmes, and policies so as to serve as a sound basis for a unified modern Arab culture.(l) A s the Arab countries advanced in their econom i c and industrial productivity the necessity for extensive programmes in technical education along with vocational training was recognized. The case of Egypt offers a good illustration. During the period 1952-1962 Egypt greatly increased its industrial activity and a number of establishments were set up in various industries which had not formerly existed. Chief amongst them were the iron, rubber, pharmaceutical, bottled gas, radio, refrigeration and nitrogen fertilizer industries. Food processing plants were established to produce and process pasteurized milk, canned fruit and frozen shrimp. Finally the UARIs first petrochemical plant at Suez and the automobile assembly plant at Giza went into operation. Between 1952 and 1962, industrial production in the U A R m o r e than doubled, rising from CE 313 million in 1952 to SE 720 millions.

(1) El-Hadi, A i i M o h a m m e d . T h e Arabs and ff the United Nations, London, Longmans, 1962.

18

Improvement of workers conditions and living standards paralleled industrial development in the UAR during the last decade. In Decembec 1952 a labour law was issued which raised the amount of service leave indemnities and increased annual leave periods. Employers who had over 500 workers were required to provide medical facilities including surgical operations free of charge. Other privileges included the right of a dismissed worker to ask the court for suspension of the discharge decision. Between 1955 and 1958 laws were enacted regulating the employment of the unemployed and creating a savings and insurance fund for workers. Interest in the welfare of the handicapped led to the establishment and reorganization of institutions for vocational rehabilitation. The handicapped were thus enabled to exercise their original or other appropriate duties. Employers were also required to employ rehabilitated handicapped persons to the extent of two per cent of their staff strength. In 1959, the various labour laws were grouped into one unified body of legislation. The laws governing compensation for labour accidents and occupational diseases as well as savings and insurance were also incorporated in a law of social insurances. M o r e benefits to labour were provided for in both laws. A set of laws aiming at the realization and consolidation of Socialism was issued in July 1961. S o m e o these laws governed workers' affairs, and f guaranteed the improvement of their conditions. Joint stock companies and s o m e other firms have been required since then to distribute one quarter of their net profit among employees and labourers. Boards of directors in companies and establishments must include representatives from the employees and labourers; and working hours in industrial establishments have been fixed at 42 hours per week. A comprehensive development plan for the country was approved in 1960. If successful it w l il double the national income (then SE 1,300 million) in 10 years. The plan is divided into two stages, each lasting five years. The First Five-Year Plan, initiated in 1960, is to increase the national income by 40 per cent, decrease economic dependence upon agriculture, and at the s a m e time strengthen the economy through industrialization. Along with economic and industrial development in the UAR education in terms of quantity as well as quality has been stressed. A s summarized in an official report, the educational policy in the U A R is as follows: (1) Free, universal, compulsory primary education. (2) Equal opportunity at all stages of education for all citizens; realistic planning in terms of the country's requirements and potentialities; expansion of secondary education. (3) Extension of girls' education.

(4) Expanded vocational education, distributed along proper geographical lines. (5) Development of higher and university education with particular attention to universities, scientific colleges and higher institutes. (6) Encouragement of scientific research. (7) Co-operation with all friendly States to strengthen the bonds of cultural unity with the Arab world. (I) Iraq has expanded its labour and industrial activities greatly since 1950. The.Iraq Development Board then set up was to devote 70 per cent of all oil revenues to expansion. In 1952 a six-year plan was issued, anticipating an expenditure of I. D. 155.4 million ($435.1 million) from 1951/1952 to 1956/1957. This was followed in 1955 by a m o r e extensive plan which envisaged the spending of I.D. 303.4 million ($849.20 million) from 1955/ 1956 to 1959/1960. O this amount I.D. 153.8 f million ($428 million) were allotted for flood control and irrigation projects. Over 1.5 million hectares of n e w land were estimated to be irrigated as a result. Also I. D. 67.1 million were earmarked for projects related to industry, mining and electricity. Industrialization has underlined the importance of training Iraqi technicians, and equipment for light industries was the major element in the 1959 aid agreement with the USSR under which Iraq was to receive credits of 550 million roubles ($140 million). Parallel to this economic development in Iraq s o m e progress has been achieved in education. During the five years prior to the Iraq Revolution of 1958 the number of school enrolments almost doubled (292,027 in 1952/1953 to 464,106 in 1956/ 1957). The number of secondary schools increased by 19.2 per cent while the number of vocational schools m o r e than doubled (10 in 1952/1953 c o m pared to 23 in 1956/1957).(2)

INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE IN THE ARAB WORLD

Extremely important to the Arab States is the prog r a m m e of technical assistance organized by the United Nations and its family of Specialized Agencies, since this aids not only their industrial progress but provides a "bank" of skilled, trained manpower. Technical assistance in education in the Arab countries covers m a n y fields, each of which is directly related to the economic development of these countries. The technical assistance spon(1) United Arab Republic. Central Ministry of Education. Report on educational progress in 1959/60. Cairo, 1960. p. 4. (2) Qiladah, Shafeek Soleiman and others. ducational Atlas of Arab States (in Arabic), Cairo, 1960, pp. 96, 98, 102.

19

sored by Unesco directly or in co-operation with other agencies, adds h u m a n resources in such fields as fundamental education, teacher training, technical education, and scientific research. In their efforts to speed up economic development, s o m e of the Arab countries have realized the direct correlation between the presence of efficient technical schools and the technical c o m petence of a society. Thus the UAR and Iraq asked Unesco to assist in promoting the quality of education in their technical schools. In 1954, one expert in technical education gave general advice and helped with the revision of the curricula of technical schools in the UAR. H e conducted refresher courses for foremen, instructors, and inspectors in technical industrial schools, and contributed to the planning and establishment of the first teacher-training college for technical school instructors which was opened in Cairo in October 1955. Another expert in agricultural education submitted to the Egyptian Government a general plan for the improvement of agricultural school curricula, and advised on measures to raise the general standard of the in-service training of agricultural school instructors. During 1953, a Unesco adviser in arid zone hydrology m a d e a special study at the Desert Institute of a possible means of developing the resources of the UAR's deserts. Research work and investigation into water resources were undertaken at a demonstration area near Ras e l - H e h a , west of Alexandria. In 1956 two Unesco experts in solar energy and geophysics joined the project. In Iraq, an expert helped with the training of instructors, the improvement of training conditions and the equipping of workshops at the Industrial School of Baghdad. The syllabuses were revised, m o r e stress being laid on practical training, and

instructional materials were prepared for both instructors and students. IGorganizing the College of Arts and Sciences of the university, the Iraqi Government turned to Unesco. Consequently, three experts were assigned as heads of the Departments of Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics. They helped with the preparation of curricula and the establishment of the physics and chemistry laboratories and the mathematics library of the college. They also conducted courses and directed their students in research work related to the economic development of the country and trained counterpart staff. In Syria, experts in zoology, geology and physics were assigned to the Faculty of Science of the university in Damascus, where they conducted teaching courses, undertook research, trained counterparts, and helped to organize and equip laboratories. At the s a m e time experts in mathematics and industrial electricity worked at the Faculty of Engineering at Aleppo. More recently Unesco has been the executing agency for projects carried out with the financial aid of the United Nations Special Fund in eight Arab League States. Under the United Nations Technical Assistance Country P r o g r a m m e for 1963-1964 technical education projects were also undertaken in Algeria, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, and the U A R , as well as an agricultural education project in Iraq and a handicrafts project in Libya. Fellowships amounting to $72,000 were allotted for the training of Arab technicians in plumbing, electricity and welding at the Danish Institute of Technology. Within the framework of its co-operation with U N R W A , Unesco provides the educational programme for the Palestine refugees with the services of a Deputy Director for Technical Education and of specialists in handicraft teaching and girls vocational training.

20

CHAPTER III
THE STRUCTURE OF ARAB TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Three interrelated factors have determined the development of technical education in the Arab countries. These are: (1) the concern of the Arab States with education in general as a means for social change; (2)the increasing efforts of the Arab States to speed up their economic development, which has led them to seek foreign technical assistance and technicians; and (3)the desire of the Arab States to replace these foreign technicians by their own fully trained nationals. Technical education in the Arab States has shared in the general development of education at all levels (see Table 7, Appendix). In general the development o technical education f in the Arab world, is a result of attempts to achieve economic development through the expansion of arable land, the establishment of n e w factories, the exploitation of mineral resources, and the shift from a traditional to a modern economy. Technological and scientific training are indispensable in providing the efficient manpower needed in different areas of economic life. In consequence technical education has been treated by m a n y Arab States as a matter of priority in educational expansion programmes. However, the expansion of technicd education in the region faces certain obstacles. There is a basic preference for the theoretical and academic in education among Arabs. The traditional nature of Arab education encourages this. Another factor is the high cost of technical education. The cost per pupil in technical schools as w l be shown il in the case of the UAR is m o r e than twice as m u c h as the cost per pupil in academic schools. In fact technical education needs m u c h m o r e capital outlay and recurrent expenditure than academic education. Technical education in the Arab countries is offered at the post-primary level where secondary education is usually divided into two cycles. H o w ever, the place of technical education within the school system differs from one Arab country to another. In Kuwait, for example, besides the teacher-training schools there are two types of secondary schools, general (academic) and technical. In Jordan at the junior secondary level, technical training is included in the course of study of the general preparatory schools, while at the senior secondary level, are found separate industrial, commercial, and agricultural schools. In the UAR, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and to a great extent in Sudan, secondary education at both levels includes separate industrial, agricultural and commercial

schools besides the general (ac,ademic)schools. Furthermore, the UAR has practical preparatory schools and multi-purpose or polytechnic secondary schools. Iraq provides separate schools of agriculture, industry, and h o m e economics, yet includes commercial education in the general secondary school curriculum. In Morocco and Tunisia a m o r e complicated organization of technical education at the secondary level exists. Besides the separate technical schools, technical and vocational education is provided for in general secondary schools both collges and lyces. At the post-secondary level technical education is offered in all Arab countries with the exception of Kuwait, Y e m e n , Jordan and Libya. Future plans include the initiation of higher technical education in these countries. Technical higher education in Arab countries is offered in higher institutes and/or in colleges incorporated into universities. Usually the latter type of institute has a m o r e theoretical and scientific bent than the former. The most recent developments in technical education in the Arab countries are the establishment of teacher-training institutes for technical schools and of polytechnic and technological higher institutes, m a n y of them assisted by the United Nations Special Fund with Unesco as its executing agency. Technical education in the Arab countries is almost exclusively a State responsibility. It is usually financed from national budgets (see Table 6, Appendix). Even in Lebanon where the responsibility for the provision of education at all levels is shared between the Lebanese Government and private institutions, both national and foreign, technical and vocational education is mostly provided by the Government. In the Arab countries, the Ministries of Education, through their Departments of Technical Education, supervise and administer technical schools. In the UAR, a Ministry of Higher Education was established in 1961 to administer technical education at the higher level in addition to the universities. In m a n y Arab countries, however, s o m e technical schools are operated by ministries other than that of education. In Morocco, Tunisia, Sudan, Syria, Jordan and Iraq, agricultural schools are usually attached to the Ministries of Agriculture. Other ministries, particularly in Morocco, Tunisia, and Jordan control other types of schools. T h e present pattern of technical education in each of the Arab States is as follows:

21

THE UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC

After the Revolution of 23 July 1952, education in the UAR was reorganized. At first public school education was revised to a 4 + 4 + 3 system. Later, in 1956, it was changed to a 6 + 3 + 3 pattern (6 years of primary, 3 years of preparatory, and 3 years of secondary schooling). Primary education became a unified stage, free and compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 and 12. Between the 1952/1953 and 1961/1962 school years the number of children enrolled in primary schools rose from 1,550,516 (i. e. 44 per cent of the total children in the primary school age) to 2,754,600 (i.e. approximately 65 per cent). A the present rate it is expected that by 1975 t il primary education w l be available to every child. Preparatory education has been diversified. It n o w comprises the following types of school: general (academic) preparatory, industrial preparatory, agricultural preparatory, commercial preparatory, technical preparatory schools (for girls), and vocational preparatory (see Table 8, Appendix). These figures in Table 8, Appendix, show that between 1953/1954 and 1961/1962 the number of technical preparatory schools has m o r e than tripled, while the number of enrolments has increased thirteen times. O n the other hand the number of the general preparatory schools (during the s a m e period) has m o r e than doubled while their enrolments have remained the s a m e and even, in s o m e cases, dropped somewhat. A similar situation has developed in secondary education with schools differentiated into the s a m e categories. In the past, academic secondary education was m o r e popular than other types with the result that the school system was thrown off balance and opportunities for vocations other than clerical and professional white- collar employment were neglected. However, the trend toward economic development, the n e w respect for manual work, the growth of domestic industry, and the need for efficient manpower influenced educational authorities after the Revolution to give increasing consideration to vocational education. The curricula of vocational schools were revised, professional staff training was improved and a higher teacher training institute for m e n at Helwan (now located at Matariyah) opened in 1955. Advisory boards for vocational education which included businessmen and representatives from industry, agriculture, the National Bank and education were established in 1956 to further strengthen technical and vocational education. In 1957, the vocational secondary school was upgraded to permit its graduates to enter the university faculties of agriculture, commerce, engineering or corresponding higher institutes. This not only enables pupils to continue their studies up to the university level in technical (or academic) subjects, with the possibility of changing from one to the other half way through, but at the 22

s a m e time provides training for skilled workers within the s a m e system. In consequence, the number of technical secondary schools and enrolments during the last decade, has increased. A second feature of vocational education has been the attention paid to evening courses for workers in industrial plants and large construction projects, in order to improve their technical skills through training. The Productivity and Vocational Training Department of the Ministry of Industry has established 20 training centres and anticipates the establishment o 20 m o r e in the f next few years. Vocational apprenticeship centres at different levels of training have also been attached to technical schools. Recognizing that vocational training does not always carry with it sufficient dignity to encourage pupils to follow practical careers, respect for manual work is implanted in the minds and attitudes of primary school pupils, while practical studies have been introduced in the academic secondary schools.(1 ) Recently, the Ministry of Education embarked on a project whereby certain vocational educational subjects were introduced in selected general secondary schools, on an experimental basis. The experiment constitutes a n e w attitude, not only toward vocational education but also toward cultural concepts in general. The idea is that an individual cannot be considered educated until he has received training in academic subjects as well as in applied studies. The increase in the number of technical higher institutes since 1952/1953 is m o r e than that of the non-technical. The number of technical higher institutes, between 1952/1953 and 1961/1962, has increased five times, while the number of enrolments has gone up eighteen times. Nontechnical higher institutes increased, during the s a m e period, by almost 50 per cent (see Tables 12 and 13, Appendix). In vocational training centres there is a similar growth pattern (see Table 10 of the Appendix). O n the post-graduate level, advanced studies are offered to those who prove superior in their academic careers as undergraduates. In 1961/ 1962, 3,571 students were working for advanced diplomas, and the number of masters and doctoral degrees granted in practical technological subjects has so far reached 8,410. UAR students are also sent abroad to carry on their higher studies, particularly in engineering, medicine, pharmacology, agriculture, and other related subjects. In 1961/1962. there were 1,666 U A R students abroad studying engineering, 1,437 in medicine and pharmacology, and 359 in agriculture and veterinary sciences. According to the 1960/1961-1965/1966 Five(1) See Nugent, Daniel, and others. DeveloFment of Manpower Resources for Egyptian Industrialization. A report prepared for the U. S. Agency for International Development, Cairo, December 1962.

Year Plan of the Ministry o Education, technical f education as well as academic education w l be il further expanded.(1 ) The expansion of higher education and the growing demand for leaders in industry, commerce, agriculture, etc. led to the establishment of a separate Ministry of Higher Education, in 1961. While relieving the pressure on the Ministry of Education and thus enabling it to expand general education of all types and stages, the newly established ministry devotes its efforts to the task of developing higher education, strengthening its relations with the community, and co-ordinating the activities of the universities with those of the institutes and higher colleges. In 1962, higher education in all different types of colleges and institutes in the U& was m a d e free for all those students capable according to their abilities and aptitudes, of continuing their schooling beyond the secondary level.

11. Analysis of draft ministerial acts related to the distribution of subjects to be taught in each grade in the school.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION: ITS ORGANIZATION,

A I M S , AND C O U R S E S OF S T U D Y There are, in the U m , three stages of technical education: preparatory, secondary, and higher corresponding to the three successive stages of education above primary level. Technical preparatory and secondary education of all types are administered by the Ministry of Education and regulated by L a w s Nos. 22, 261, 262, 1965. Technical higher education is n o w attached to the Ministry of Higher Education and is regulated by Decree No. 75, 1958 and by ministerial orders issued in 1961. The following is a description of each type :

1. Industrial education ( L a w No. 22)

THE A D V I S O R Y BOARDS FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

T o ensure the development of vocational education in order to meet the growing needs of the country and to safeguard this type of education against stagnation or regression, central advisory boards for vocational education were set up in 1956. A t present these comprise the Central Advisory Board for Industrial Education, the Central Advisory Board for Commercial Education, and the Central Advisory Board for Agricultural Education. A s an example of their functions, the Central Advisory Board of Industrial Education has the following responsibilities: 1. Issuance of bye-laws and regulations related to industrial education, to jobs in the field and the necessary requirements for filling these jobs. 2. Preparation of the annual budget for industrial education. 3. Initiation of new industries or suppression of present industries and provision of industrial courses for schools. 4. Establishment of preparatory or secondary industrial schools. 5. Determination of the number of new students to be admitted to different industrial courses i n the light of industrial needs; counselling the schools to accept n e w students within the limits set by the Board. 6. Determination of technical and financial aid to industrial education. 7. Formation of sub-committees of specialists to study school curricula, and clearance of recommendations by these sub-committees. 8. Organization of on-the-job instructor training. 9. Development ofscientific and practical studies in s o m e industries. 10. Analysis of reports presented by the Director of Industrial Education.

Industrial education is divided into two stages: Industrial preparatory schools. Those aim at giving training to prospective industrial labourers. This is done by offering students opportunities for growth and by assessing their talents and special abilities. Students who distinguish themselves at this stage are helped to continue their education through the secondary education stage at which point their technical education w l be reinforced il and furthered by means of higher level studies. The conditions set for admitting students to these schools are the s a m e as those set for admitting students to the general preparatory schools. Students should pass the admission examination for the preparatory stage after completion of the primary stage. S o m e additional vocational tests are given. Priority for admission is based on age, the outcome of the examination and tests. The course of study in these schools takes three years. It includes Arabic, religion, history, geography, one foreign language, civics, natural sciences, mathematics, geometry, technology, workshop practice, and geometrical and technical drawing. Industrial secondary schools. The course of study for these is also three years. It is a final stage for the majority of the students. Outstanding students, however, can be admitted to s o m e colleges of the university. In the industrial secondary schools the students take Arabic, civics, social studies,
(1 ) See Table 13, Appendix, for the Government's estimates of enrolment for the three academic years following adoption of this plan.

physics, mathematics, book-keeping, geometrical drawing, mechanical drawing, mechanics, estimations, technology, drawing. They specialize in s o m e of the following sections: general mechanical work, auto mechanics, electricity, masonry, weaving and spinning. The graduates of these schools m a y work in factorieo as foremen and technicians or enter the Higher Teacher-Training Institute for Technical School Teachers. According to 1961/1962 statistics the number of industriai p r e p r a t m y schools was 79, of the industrial secondary sdiools 26 (in addition to 24 adjoined sections); the enrolments were 24,574 and 22,626 respectively. Besides the technical preparatory and secondary schools, there are technical preparatory schools for girls, domestic secondary schools, and multi-purpose preparatory and secondary schools. There were 27 of these in 1961/1962.
2. Commercial education

In 1961/1962, there were 16 commercial preparatory schools and 48 commercial secondary schools with enrolments of 6,038 and 39,775 respectively. 3. &ricultural education

L a w No. 262, 1956, organized agricultural education and divided it into the following two stages: (a) Preparatory agricultural schools. These aim at preparing skilled agricultural workers to undertake all sorts of technical agricultural work. Students admitted to this stage of education are selected from those who successfully complete their primary education and pass a vocational aptitude test. The courses of study in the three-year agricultural preparatory school are Arabic, religion, agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, agricultural industries, rural sociology, book- keeping and silkworm breeding. Students also receive practical training in dairies and on farms. (b) Agricultural secondary schools. These aim at preparing youth to manage farms, to engage in private agricultural enterprises, to hold jobs related to agriculture in government departments, and to work as agricultural assistants in rural areas. Students are selected for admission to these schools from those who have obtained the Agriculture Preparatory Certificate. Candidates are further required to pass a vocational aptitude test. Priority of admission is given to children of farmers. The course of study for this stage is three years, the successful completion of which leads to the Agricultural Secondary School Certificate. This qualifies the graduates for the jobs mentioned above. It also enables those who distinguish themselves in their study to enter higher institutes and colleges of agriculture if they so desire. In order to ensure that the students o each f agriculture secondary school get sufficient practical experiences, a farm of no less than 75 acres is attached to it. The students take an active part in the farm's production. In 1961/1962 there were 70 agricultural preparatory schools in the UAR and 21 agricultural secondary schools (in addition to 1 adjoined section). Enrolments were 8,937 and 11,049 respectively. 4. Technical higher education

L a w No. 261, 1956, has reorganized commercial education to include the following two stages: Commercial preparatory schools. These are n o w limited to girls. Students are admitted to these schools aiter completing the primary school stage. They are required to sit for a vocational test which aims at disclosing their capacities for commercial studies and their readiness to continue this type of education to its completion. The course of study is three years. It comprises: (a) Arabic, religion, a foreign language, penmanship, geography, history, and physical training; (b)book-keeping, commerciai arithmetic, business training, principles o buying and selling, f typewriting. About 40 per cent of the time is devoted to the second group of subjects. Students who obtain the commercial preparatory certificate at the end of the stage are qualified for junior positions that require clerical and simple technical work in companies, and business stores. Those who distinguish themselves in their studies can be admitted to commercial secondary schools. Commercial secondary schools. These aim at preparing their students to undertake clerical and accounting activities whether in commerce, banks and financial institutions, or in government departments. T o be admitted to these schools the student must obtain the general preparatory education certificate or its equivalent and pass an admission test. The course of study is three years. Subjects taught are Arabic, religion, two foreign languages, economic history, social studies, economic geography, financial and economic mathematics, book-keeping, business training, typewriting, physical education and hygiene. 24

The modern UAR universities are: Cairo University, Alexandria University, Ein Shams University and Assiut University. These include: 4 faculties of engineering, 4 faculties of science, 4 faculties of agriculture, and 3 faculties of commerce.

Enrolments in these faculties in 1961/1962 amounted to 13,140, 5,925, 7,618. and 21,706 respectively making a total of 48,389. Faculty graduates work as qualified engineers and experts in different areas of the economy. The U A R also has a number of higher technical institutes of different types, such as 2 colleges of fine arts, 1 college of applied arts, 6 industrial higher institutes (among which one is a teachertraining institute for technical subjects), 1 polytechnical higher institute, 6 agricultural higher institutes, and 5 commercial higher institutes. These institutes offer a 4 or 5-year course of study at the post-secondary level. They prepare their students also to be qualified technicians and engineers in the different areas. The establishment of a Polytechnical Institute for Higher Education at Mansoura is n o w under way, with the help of a contribution from the United Nations Special Fund amounting to $1,727,050. The yearly enrolment is estimated at 300 students for the industrial section and 180 students for the agricultural section. W h e n in full operation, the institute w l accommodate 1,800 day students, il and a similar number in evening classes. Various fields of specialization w l be offered il in the institute, such as production engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, electronics, textile engineering, civil engineering, agricultural economics, horticultural economics, horticulture, agronomy, agricultural chemistry and soils, plant protection and agricultural entomology, agricultural engineering, and agricultural education. The institute w l be designed to train il engineers, teachers for vocational schools, technicians, and specialists for industry, agriculture and government services.

THE REPUBLIC OF SUDAN

A present the Republic of Sudan operates a t

system of technical education which partially fulfils the demand for trained workers and technical personnel. This system of technical education is an integral part o the public educational system. f

THE PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL LADDER

The public educational ladder existing in Sudan, comprising the three stages o elementary, interf mediate and secondary schooling (4 + 4 + 4) and leading to the university, is a creation of the Condominium period ( 9-19 56). 189 In November 1958, the Minister of Education formed an educational planning committee to examine the organization of the educational system and to explore possibilities of changing it into two stages of six years. A "new plan for the development of education in Sudan" following similar lines was also submitted to the ministry by a c o m mittee in 1960/1961. However, the implementation of the n e w system had to be postponed because of other m o r e urgent problems, such as the expansion of elementary education, the training of teachers, school buildings, the reforms in education for girls, and technical education. Compulsory elementary education does not prevail in Sudan since the demand for schooling surpasses the facilities available. Lack of funds is still the major obstacle. Although it has not been possible to m a k e education free for all except at the primary level, fees in the secondary schools are scaled according to the income of the parents and a ruling was issued in 1956/1957 to the effect that inability to pay fees should not prevent any child from continuing his studies at the postprimary level. Intermediate schools in Sudan are of two types academic and technical and passage from elementary to intermediate schools is by a competitive examination. According to 1959 educational statistics, 22 per cent of the boys and 12 per cent of the girls taking the examination found places in the academic intermediate schools; a smaller proportion obtained admission to the technical intermediate schools. Passage from the intermediate level to the secondary is also by selective examination and 62 per cent of the boys and 54 per cent of the girls who took the examination in 1959 entered government secondary schools. Entry to either the academic or vocational secondary schools is by order of merit in the selective examination held at the end of the intermediate school. Usually, the pupils who go to the commercial and technical secondary schools are those with the lowest marks in the secondary school entrance examination. In addition to secondary schools, post-

Cost per pupil in the technical schools. It might be appropriate to conclude with a statement on the cost per pupil in different types of technical education in the United Arab Republic. It is worth noting that the cost per pupil in technical schools, is m u c h higher than that in the academic. According to 1960 estimates, the cost per pupil per year in terms of current expenditure in the industrial, agricultural and commercial preparatory schools was CE. 51, CE. 41 and CE. 28 respectively compared to CE. 28 in the general preparatory. In the technical secondary schools it was CE. 65, CE.56 and fE.34 in the industrial, agricultural and commercial schools respectively, compared to CE. 41 in the general secondary. Statistics isshed by Cairo University in 1961/1962 show that the cost per student (in terms of current expenditure) in the Faculty of C o m m e r c e is estimated a CE. 37.43, in the Faculty of Engineering t CE.101, and in the Faculty of Agriculture CE.136.6. In the higher institutes independent of the universities the cost appears lower. For example in the College of Applied Arts, which in s o m e respects corresponds to the Faculty of Engineering, the cost per student is estimatedfor the s a m e year at CE41.37. .

25

intermediate trade courses have been started to train boys having passed their intermediate school leaving examination, but who are not suited for further education in secondary schools both academic and technical. In 1959 three schools giving these courses existed and plans had been m a d e to open s o m e more. Engineering trade courses were offered at the Atbara technical intermediate school and building trade courses at O m d u r m a n and ElObeid. The courses take 5 years leading to the final City and Guilds o London Institute Exarninaf f tion. The final two years o the course are usually taken at the Khartoum Technical Institute.(1)

academic secondary, but there are also a few c o m mercial secondary schools. These prepare boys for commercial occupations and for the Sudan School Certificate which enables its holder to enter the university (Faculties of Arts and Economics or the School of C o m m e r c e of the Khartoum Technical Institute). The commercial secondary schools teach Arabic, English, mathematics, history, geography, c o m merce, book-keeping, commercial arithmetic, typing and shorthand. About one-third of the teaching time is given to vocational subjects and practice. The present pattern of technical education in Sudan is schematized in the following chart. (1) See Table 14, Appendix, for statistics, technical school enrolment in Sudan, 19551961.

S E C O N D A R Y EDUCATION (ACADEMIC, COMMERCIAL AND T E C H N I C A L ) The main type of secondary school in Sudan is the

Chart

- Technical Education in Sudan

Level Univ. Engineers, Scientists, Doctors, Agricult .

24 23 22

Univ. of Khartoum (Engineering, Science, M e d . I Agriculture etc. )

Khartoum Technical Institute

Hr. Trade Schools

Executive Engineers

19 18 17 16 15 15 14 13 12 11

Secondary Academic Schools

Secondary T e chnical Schools

Trade Schools

Technicians

Intermediate Academic Schools

Intermediate T e chnical Schools

Foremen, Craftsmen Skilled Operatives

10 9 8
7

Elementary Schools

HIGHER TECHNICAL INSTITUTES AND FACULTIES

Most secondary school leavers in Sudan hope to become students at the University of Khartoum where courses, conducted in a foreign language, are offered in arts, law, economics, science, engineering, architecture, medicine, veterinary science and agriculture. However, only about one 26

fourth of the secondary school pupils actually reach the standard required for university entrance. Those who pass but fail to satisfy the requirements of the university, m a y apply to the Khartoum Technical Institute or the Shambat Institute of Agriculture (attached to the Ministry of Agriculture). The Khartoum Technical Institute, opened in 1950, comprises the three main schools of engineering, commerce, and fine and applied arts. It

also has a girls' secretarial school. Workshops and laboratories are provided in the institute and emphasis is placed on the importance of providing a balance between practical and theoretical training. In the School of Engineering, the institute offers courses leading to ordinary and higher certificates in several specializations within the civil, electrical and mechanical engineering fields. These two levels, higher and ordinary can be considered as those of the "executive" or ''practical'l engineer and of the so-called "middle grade" technician. The total enrolment of engineering students was 577 for the 1960/1961 academic year. The Khartoum Technical Institute also includes a Department of Further Education which is responsible for the organization o all short courses, f evening classes, etc. These include various clerical and secretarial courses, recreational art, engineering, and building trade courses.

THE S U D A N I N S T I T U T E OF LABORATORY T E C H N I C I A N S
The Sudanese Ministry of Education has requested United Nations Special Fund assistance for its higher Institute for Laboratory Technicians. This institute is intended to train personnel to become laboratory technicians, and to prwide post-graduate training for laboratory technicians for industry and government services in the fields of biological, industrial and related fields of scientific research.

JORDAN

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan covers an area o 37,500 square miles and has a population of f approximately 1,658,000. The main feature of its economic life is subsistence agriculture of a m a r ginal kind. Probably not more than about 5 per cent of the country's total area is cultivated and as a result national wealth is small. Tribal ways of life still exist in m a n y areas. Experts agree that no real progress can be made in developing the countryls economy without the realization o f s o m e far-reaching plan for making as m u c h as possible o the desert cultivable by irrigation. f Also, the country's mineral wealth is small. The absence of local fuel, together with the lack o f technical skills and capital have restricted the development of industry. The present labour force in Jordan is estimated at 415,000 workers of w h o m 40,000 are in the industrial sector. Around 26,000 of these work in small firms employing fewer than 5 workers. S o m e 18,000 workers are in the field of building and construction trades, 140,000 in agriculture, 13,000 in government, 30,000 in trade, banking and other services, and 172,000 are unemployed, the majority being refugees.

Jordan's economy is mainly financed by foreign grants. F r o m 1945 to 1961 Jordan received, from the United States and the United Kingdom, aid amounting to m o r e than $150 million. The United Nations Technical Assistance programme in Jordan gave aid valued at m o r e than $1 million between 1958 and 1960. T h e present Jordanian educational system c o m prises 3 stages. These are: primary, ages 7 to 13; intermediate (lower secondary), with 3 grades, ages 14 to 16, and upper secondary, with three classes, ages 17 to 19. Under Article 20 of the Constitution primary education in Jordan is c o m pulsory and free in government schools. Higher education did not eist in Jordan until 1962, when a university was established. It currently includes only a Faculty of Arts. Most Jordanian pupils (67% of the total) study in government schools run by the Ministry o f Education. There are also schools operated by the Ministries of Defence, Social Affairs, and Agriculture, or the Waks Department, and a number of private schools s o m e of which are Jordanian and s o m e foreign. The United Nations Relief and Works Agency ( U N R W A ) operates schools in Jordan. In 1961, 17.3370 of the total number of pupils in the kingd o m were attending these schools. U N R W A has its own administrative system and administrative and technical inspectors, but it works along the s a m e lines as the Ministry of Education and observes all the ministry's regulations regarding curricula, textbooks, etc. The State bears over 90% of the expenditure in the government controlled sector o education. f 1n.additionto the allocation from the State budget to the Ministry of Education, there are certain other sources of educational revenue which do not constitute a part of the ministry's budget. These are the municipal education tax, contributions collected from village inhabitants, token fees collected from pupils as contributions toward the "School Fund", the contribution of U N R W A , assistance provided by bilateral and international sources and money earmarked by the Ministries of Defence and Social Affairs.

THE D E V E L O P M E N T OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Until 1952, secondary education in Jordan was purely academic. The Ministry of Education recognized the necessity of providing diversified secondary schooling but for financial reasons could not do so and had to be content with establishing commercial, agricultural or industrial classes, according to local requirements, in existing schools. A s a step toward the solution of this problem, the Ministry of Education decided to establish in its six-year plan six agricultural schools and six senior secondary level industrial schools, one 27

school of each type for each province. In 1960, a second trade school was established in Irbid and in 1961, a third trade school a the s a m e level t started operation in Nablus. Besides its concern with technical education on the upper secondary level, the ministry gave an agricultural, industrial, or commercial bias to the courses in a fairly large number of intermediate schools so as to m a k e it possible for the abler graduates of these schools to continue their studies at the corresponding type o school a the upper f t secondary level. Further, the ministry introduced agricultural activities in the curriculum of the upper grades of the primary schools for boys and h o m e economics for girls in corresponding grades o the primary schools. f

VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL S C H O O L S I JORDAN N

1. O n the preparatory (intermediate)level. With the exception of s o m e schools operated by ministries other than the Ministry o Education, UNRWA, and f private agencies, there is no exclusively technical preparatory school in Jordan. Technical training on the preparatory level is included in the course o study o the general preparatory school. Qnef f fifth of the weekly programme is allocated to vocational activities. These activities m a y be industrial, agricultural, or commercial in boys' schools or domestic science training in girls' schools. . Industrial training is provided in intermediate schools, most of which are situated in the principal towns. This training covers carpentry, blacksmithing, bookbinding, and straw and bamboo work. Training in weaving is available in one intermediate school only. Students spend 8 periods a week in these vocational activities. Agricultural training is provided in schools situated in villages and small towns (estimated in 1960 a 69 schools). t Commercial training (which takes place, according to 1960 statistics, in 43 schools) comprises bookkeeping, general commercial knowledge and c o m mercial correspondence. Domestic science training in girls' schools comprises homecraft training and drawing and handicrafts.

The Khaduri Agricultural School at Tulkarm (now called Al-Husain Agricultural College). The course lasts three years and is open to pupils who have successfully completed the preparatory stage. The ministry has recently extended the period of study in the school one more year for those who want to be prepared and trained as agricultural school teachers. Formerly operated by the Ministry of Agriculture, the school was transferred to the Ministry o Education and upgraded with the f addition of the higher agricultural institute. At this level a 4-year course is provided and a B.Sc. agriculture degree will be awarded to those who complete it successfully. The al-Rubbuah Agricultural School is an intermediate school controlled by the Ministry o Agriculture. The period of study is three f years followed by an optional fourth year. The al-Jubeihah Agricultural College also is controlled by the Ministry o Agriculture. It f was formerly an intermediate school like the one at al-Rubbuah, but the Ministry of Agriculture has transformed it into a semi-university college with 4 years of study, the first two a upper secondary level and the following t two equivalent to university study. The college is open to pupils who have obtained a very good pass in the third intermediate year with a m a r k o at least 70 per cent in mathef matics and physics. The Ministry o Agrif culture plans to expand this college into a full 4-year university college preparing students for the B. Sc. (agriculture). Industrial schools. The most important o f these schools is the A m m a n Industrial School which belongs to the Ministry of Education. It offers a 3-year course to pupils who have successfully completed the intermediate stage. Training is given in carpentry, automobile mechanics, electricity, soldering or plumbing, according to the pupil's choice. There is also an optional fourth year, qualifying pupils to become technical teachers in primary and intermediate schools. The school,in co-operation with a number o local firms and factories, has provided f special evening courses a its own workshops t for local workers engaged in the crafts mentioned above. (1) In its six-year plan the Ministry o Educaf tion has approved the upgrading o A m m a n f Industrial School into a polytechnical institute which will offer two years of technical training beyond complete secondary education, general or industrial. A third year of teacher training w l be offered to the graduates o the two-year il f (1) See Table 15, Appendix, for the educational ladder in Jordan, and Table 16 for a breakdown o Jordanian schools according to type, f level and supervising authority.

O n the upper secondary level Commercial schools: Six secondary schools (in A m m a n , Irbid, Nablus , Ramallah, al-Karak and Hebron) provide commercial education, and there are seven girls' schools which give training in Arabic and English typing. Since 1961, these six secondary schools have had a 3-year course of general and technical subjects (instead of two) qualifying for university entrance. Agricultural schools. There are three agricultural schools in Jordan (according to 1960/ 1961 statistics). They are:
28

programme to prepare them for teaching vocational subjects. It w l be called the A m m a n Institute of il Technology (AIT). Mention must also be m a d e of the vocational training centres forming part of the U N R W A system. These offer courses in several branches for both boys and girls and admit refugee pupils who have successfully completed the preparatory school level.

LEBANON
Lebanon is a rectangle of 10,400 square kilometres on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, with a population of slightly over one and a half million. Although almost half of the population lives from the land, farming makes up only about one-fifth of the national income; there is a strong emphasis in the economy on commerce, industry and services. Possibilities of extending cultivation are very limited. S o m e 55.4 per cent of the total area of Lebanon is classified as rocky, waste or built-up land, 26.3 per cent as cultivated, 11.1 per cent as cultivable and 7.1 per cent as forest. Utilization of the cultivable area requires a heavy capital outlay, mostly on marginal lands which are yielding declining returns. Though m o r e than half of the surveyed cultivated land is owned by only 200 landlords, Lebanon has a large number of small independent landowners, particularly in the mountains. O n the other hand, Lebanon is among the most highly industrialized countries in the Arab world. Textiles, including the garment trade, and foodstuffs are the largest industries, followed by beverages, wooden articles and furniture, and metal goods. A m o n g the Arab States, Lebanon also ranks highest in literacy. It is estimated that between 45 and 50 per cent of the Lebanese adult population is literate and between 70 and 75 per cent of the children of primary school age are attending schools a considerably higher rate than is found in the neighbouring countries.(l) The second remarkable feature of education in Lebanon is that responsibility for the provision of education at all levels, primary, secondary and higher is shared between the Lebanese Government and private institutions, both national and foreign. However, technical-vocational education is largely a government responsibility. B y an agreement between the Ministry of National Education and the private school authorities, primary education has been m a d e compulsory since 1957/ 1958. Secondary education in State schools is free. Public technical and vocational schools are the responsibility of the Directorate of Vocational Education, a service established in the Ministry of National Education. Article 29 of Legislative Decree No. 29 (1955) stipulates that the Directorate shall "assist private institutions in the formation of vocational schools and seek to co-ordinate the efforts of these institutions.

Besides the technological colleges located within the three universities, the Jesuit Universit de St. Joseph, the American University of Beirut and the Lebanese National University, technical education in Lebanon is offered at two levels, a lower intermediate level which is vocational rather than technical, and an upper secondary level. After completing his primary education and receiving the primary certificate, a pupil m a y choose from several vocational courses. H e m a y enter a vocational intermediate school which can be supplemented by a two-year vocational course at the upper secondary level. O r he m a y enter a complementary school and continue his studies up to the lower secondary certificate, then applying for admission to the National School of Arts and Crafts, to vocational schools of technical or c o m mercial training (upper secondary level), or the Agricultural Secondary School at Beirut. A third alternative is to enter the secondary stream proper and obtain the lower general secondary certificate which qualifies him for admission to technical upper secondary schools. The School of Arts and Crafts in Beirut is a typical Lebanese upper secondary technical school. In 1960/1961 it was enlarged to include a four-year course of study in order to provide for the training of teachers for vocational and technical schools besides the training of technicians for industry and government service. Other technical schools are found in Beirut, Tripoli, Zahleh, Saida, and Der el-Qamar. Lebanon also has a large number of private evening schools open to workers, but their standards are lower than those of the secondary schools.

SYRIA

Following the signing of the Arab Cultural Agreement in 1947, Syria adopted, like Egypt, the 6 + 3 + 3 year educational system of primary, preparatory (lower secondary), and secondary levels. Technical education in Syria is organized under L a w No. 1,010 of 1958. Like its counterpart in the U A R , it is offered at three levels, preparatory,

cl) nesco. World Illiteracy at Mid-Century; Education in the Arab States (1956). p. 28. See also Compulsory Education in the Arab States Unesco. According to the Lebanese Ministry of Education, in its Report on the Educational Movement in Lebanon in 1962/ 1963, submitted to the XXVIth Conference of Public Education, Geneva, July 1963, p. 3., primary enrolments for 1962/1963 were 291,700; secondary enrolments were 53,519, and enrolment in technical-vocational schools was 961.

29

secondary, and higher, corresponding to the three successive stages of general education above t primary level. A each level technical education is usually diversified into several types, namely industrial, agricultural and commercial. The Government has m a d e concerted efforts to increase the number of technical schools at different levels, to improve their standards by providing them with adequate buildings and equipment, and to revise their courses of study. According to 1960/1961 statistics, the number of official preparatory and secondary technical schools (including industrial, commercial and schools for girls) in Syria was 28 with a total enrolment of 6,941. There were 122 official general preparatory and secondary schools with a total enrolment of 39,142.(1) Enrolment in industrial preparatory and secondary schools was distributed among different classes as foiiows:(Z)
1. Preparatory industrial schools Crafts 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

technological and practical bent. A m o n g these are the Industrial Institute and the Higher Agricultural Institute at Kharabo near Damascus. The Ministry of Education in Syria has also requested assistance from the United Nations Special Fund which w l permit the establishment il of a Higher Polytechnical Institute at Damascus. This institute when it comes into existence is to provide technical training above the secondary school level and thus to supply the need for practical engineers, and technicians, and also for technical teachers required for the projected increase in the preparatory and secondary technical and industrial schools.

IRAQ
In the Republic of Iraq education is free at all levels, primary, secondary (intermediate and preparatory) and higher. It is financed from the national budget 60 per cent from the central government budget and 40 per cent from the new Ministry of Planning. Due concern has been given to vocational and technical education along with other areas. T h e Ministry of Education has a separate Directorate of Technical Education, but there are a number of technical and vocational schools also attached to ministries other than the Ministry of Education. In 1962/1963 expenditure for education was I. D. 39 million, representing 20 per cent of the total national budget. Previous educational expenditure was 1958/1959, I. D. 26 million; 1959/1960, I.D. 29 million; 1960/1961, I. D. 31 million; 1961/1962, I. D. 35 million. As of 1961 the following technical (industrial) schools, at the intermediate and secondary levels, were in operation in Iraq: 1. Intermediate technical schools at Ana, S a m a w a and Najaf, accommodating 60 n e w students annually in three-year courses. The prerequisite is completion of primary school. The students are given training in the basic skills of electricity, mechanics, automotive mechanics, and building construction. Completion of the course qualifies the student for entrance to the secondary technical schools or for apprenticeship in a trade. 2. Secondary technical schools which offer six years of training, including three years in the intermediate technical schools with instruction in electricity, mechanics, automotive mechanics, construction, general metal work, machine shops,

19 60/1961 No. of students

3 O2 387 457 595 257 151 124 471 48 22 170 10 25 9

Turning Fitting Motor mechanics Electricity Blacksmithing Casting Pattern making and carving Cabinet making Cotton and silk weaving Tailoring Sanitary and tin smithing Carpets Hosiery Ornamental iron work N u m b e r of schools
11

3,228

2. Secondary industrial schools

1. Turning
2. .3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Fitting Motor mechanics Electricity Wireless Blacksmithing Casting (foundry) Pattern making and carving Cabinet making Cotton and silk weaving Sanitary and tin smithing N u m b e r of schools

197 257 314 288 72 84 95 57 159 51 4 1,578

O n the higher level, there are two Syrian universities, Damascus University and Aleppo University. T h e latter was established in 1960/1961 with a faculty of engineering and another of agriculture. Besides the faculties in universities, there are a number of higher institutes with a 30

(1) United Arab Republic. Documentation Centre for Education, S u m m a r y Report on Develop. of Education in the United Arab Republic during the year 1960-1961, Cairo, 1961. p. 22. (2) United Arab Republic. Ministry of Education (Syrian Region). Request for assistance from the UN Special Fund for the Establishment of a Higher Polytechnic Institute, Annex I.

foundry, and printing. Completion of the course qualifies the student for entrance to the Industrial Engineering Institute in Baghdad or for work in a trade. There were in 1961 five secondary technical schools in Iraq, the Basra Secondary Technical School which can accommodate 70 n e w pupils each year, 30 in day school and 40 in evening school; the Kirkuk Secondary Technical School admitting 60 n e w pupils each year; the Mosul Secondary Technical School, which admits 60 new pupils each year; and two technical schools at Baghdad. One of these offers a comprehensive course (enrolment 60 per year); the other, which admits 30 n e w trainees every year, specializes in general metal working (see Table 17, Appendix). Iraq also has a number of industrial training establishments, such as the Agricultural Machinery Mechanics Training Centre in Baghdad, which can train 150 students in the repair and maintenance of agricultural machinery in two-year cycles, and agricultural machine operators' training centres at Abu Gharib, Kirkuk and Diwaniya, each of which is capable of training 40 students in the use and operation of agricultural machinery, in 4-month courses; building trade institutes in Baghdad and Mosul also offer short courses of up to a year.

but due emphasis is laid on practical skills. After the completion of the four-year course, a sufficient number of graduates w l be selected to form il one class and w l be given a fifth year course on il methods of teaching technical subjects.

KUWAIT
The first steps toward a modern educational syst e m in Kuwait were taken in 1936 when a Board of Education was formed. After mid-century, education expanded rapidly in Kuwait. There were 23 schools, all at the primary level, in 1949/1950, and 137 in 1961/1962 a all levels, primary, intert mediate and secondary. In 1949/1950 the education budget was 357,766 dinars; in 1961/1962 it was 15,372,396 dinars, or approximately 8 per cent of the total national budget. (Expenditures for 1960/1961 on education, health and social services accounted for 28.8 million dinars). Education in Kuwait is largely provided by the Government, and is free at all levels. There are four levels of schooling, pre-primary (two-year course from ages 4 to 6), primary, intermediate and secondary (4 + 4 + 4 . Intermediate education ) consists of a four-year course which attempts to guide children as m u c h as possible toward the type o secondary education for which they are f best fitted. Secondary education in Kuwait offers, besides teacher training for w o m e n , two types of courses general academic and technical. Academic secondary education for boys was started in 1942 when s o m e secondary classes were attached to one of the primary schools. In 1950 the two schools were separated and in 1953 the secondary school moved to n e w well-equipped quarters. A girls' secondary school started also as an addition to a primary school in 1951; it attained independent status i 19 54. n Technical education is given in al-Kulliyyah asSiniyah (Industrial College) opened in 1954. Unqualified preference for academic education, which is partly the result of deep-rooted social traditions, was an obstacle a the beginning for t the development of the school. However, measures have been taken by the Department of Education to popularize vocational education. Special care has been taken to ensure that the buildings and equipment of the Industrial College are not inferior to those of the academic secondary school. All Kuwaiti students are accepted as boarders, and they are all given monthly allowances which are paid on graduation to help them m a k e a start in business. The Industrial College accepts students who have completed the third intermediate year and offers them a four-year course in which they specialize in one of the following trades: fitting, turning, blacksmithing and welding, foundry,

TECHNICAL HIGHER EDUCATION

Higher education in Iraq is provided in the University of Baghdad and s o m e higher institutes. The University of Baghdad, founded in 1957, consists of twelve colleges. A m o n g these are the colleges of agriculture, commerce, h o m e economics, and engineering. Besides the College of Engineering there is the Industrial Engineering Institute in Baghdad. This institute, which is at the post-secondary level, offers three years training in engineering practices required in building construction and industry. Instruction covers electricity, general metal work, machine shop and the building trades. In 1960/1961 a technical training institute was set up in accordance with an agreement between the Republic of Iraq and the United Nations Special Fund to train skilled technicians and practical engineers for industry and government service in mechanical engineering, automotive engineering and building and construction engineering. The institute also offers courses for the training of teachers for vocational and technical schools; in this way it is helping to solve one of the major problems affecting the expansion of technical education. The candidates for admission are graduates from secondary schools (technical and general education) with suitable qualifications in science and mathematics. The institute is planned to accommodate 75 new students each year. The training course covers four years; it includes all necessary theoretical studies such as mathematics, science, engineering, and laboratory instruction,

31

wireless and autmobile mechanics, electricity, plumbing, carpentry, and cabinet making. The syllabuses followed are similar to those of the corresponding technical schools in the UAR. The aim o the school is to create a class o skilled f f technicians, who, if they show ability, m a y continue their higher studies a university level. t Commercial education in Kuwait is provided in the Evening Institute of Commercial Studies. The Government has directed this institute since 1952/ 1953; it offers a two-year course o study that f includes various commercial subjects.

SAUDI ARABIA

The traditional economic structure o Saudi Arabia f is undergoing a process o accelerated change. f Economic development as far as it is related to industries, public services, communications, and to the appearance o modern industrial products in f the country has simultaneously required trained workers and qualified technical personnel. H o w ever, such technical staff was not available in the country and has had to be provided from abroad. In 1960 the number of technical personnel e m p loyed from abroad, ranging from the semi-skilled worker up to the highly qualified expert, was estif f mated at 25,000. The goal o the Government o Saudi Arabia is to replace these foreign technicians gradually by Saudi nationals. T o achieve this goal and meet the requirements o economic developf ment at the s a m e time the most essential step is to expand and improve vocational and technical education in the country. Technical education in Saudi Arabia was introduced in 1952 when the first technical school was established in Jeddah. Only 30 pupils were enrolled. As in other Arab countries technical education did not appeal to the younger generation who first had to overcome the aversion towards manual and technical work. In addition, the rate of illiteracy was very high at that time and few youngsters had even finished primary school. B y 1957 the number of technical schools had risen to 4, with an enrolment o 362, and in 1959/ f 1960 there were seven technical schools with 1,318 pupils. Formerly, the one kind o technical school in f Saudi Arabia, offered a five-year course following on six years of primary education. This system has been revised and the 5-year course has become four years; the school is now called the preparatory or intermediate technical school. Technical secondary schools offer a two-year course for graduates of preparatory technical schools and a three-year course for graduates o the general f preparatory school. In 1958/1959 plans were drawn up for the establishment o intermediate f commercial schools with a study period of four years. In 1959/1960 the Ministry of Education 32

opened four schools of this type and in 1960/1961 three other schools were added. Also, in 1960/1961 the ministry established five intermediate schools of agriculture giving a four-year course. Al-Kharg agricultural school was transferred from the Ministry of Agriculture to that of Education. In consequence, intermediate education since 1960/1961 has been of four kinds: academic, technical, commercial and agricultural. The Government in providing the teaching staff for technical education is almost entirely dependent on teachers from other Arab countries. The Saudi Ministry had already decided in I959/1960 to establish two technical institutes for the training of teachers of academic and technical subjects in intermediate industrial schools, one in Riyadh and the other in Jeddah. The biggest industrial enterprise in Saudi Arabia, the Arabian-American O l Company i ( A R A M C O )has its own facilities for training its technicians, engineers, and workers. The technical staff from ARAMCO has scarcely any influence on other industries or governmental services in Saudi Arabia because no fluctuation of personnel takes place.(l)

TECHNICAL HIGHER EDUCATION

The academic year 1957/1958 marked the inauguration o the first university in Saudi Arabia, in f Riyadh, with a faculty of arts. In 1958/1959 a faculty of science was established and provided with laboratories and equipment. In the next year two m o r e faculties were established, the faculty of c o m m e r c e and the faculty of pharmacology. The Saudi Government decided, in 1960, to establish a Higher Institute of Technology and requested assistance from the United Nations Special Fund. The institute, in operation since 1962, provides post-secondary courses for the training of practical engineers for industry and government service in mechanical engineering, automotive engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering and building construction. A s a step in the solution of Saudi Arabia's training problems, it w l also train teachers for vocationil al and technical institutions, and offer short-term courses for advanced training of skilled workers and assistant technicians, as well as technical advice and assistance to technical schools and training centres. The Special Fund allocation for 1963/1964 was $965,500.

(1 ) However, ARAMCO technical training has had considerable effect on technical education in the Arab States in general. See Lebkicher, Roy and others, The Training o Saudi Arab f Employees, Dhahran, ARAMCO, 1954; also Finnie, David, Desert Enterprise, The Middle East O l Industry in its local i environment. Harvard University Press, 1958.

LIBYA ECONOMIC BACKGROUND

Libya covers an area of s o m e 1,750,000 square kilometres, lying west of Egypt. It comprises a large part of the Sahara Desert in which h u m a n life and cultivation are found only in scattered oases. But in two areas of northern Libya the Tripolitanian coastal plain, the coastal range, and the Cyrenaican plateau the continental extremes of climate are modifed by the conjunction of the desert with the Mediterranean. It is in these areas that 95 per cent about one million of the population lives. Agriculture is the mainstay of the Libyan economy and is likely to remain so for a long time to come. A least 80 per cent of the people are employed in t this branch of economic activity. But even agriculturally Libya is one of the m a r ginal land areas of the world. Local agriculture is primitive and provides only a meagre subsistence for the growing population. Due to the existence of large areas of steppe and semi-desert animal husbandry is the most important single source of income in Libya. Although the grazing area utilized varies from year to year accordint to rainfall, it is roughly estimated at 12 million hectares. Manufacturing is limited in Libya. It consists of a few tunny canning and other food processing plants, breweries, shoe manufacturing and tanning concerns. Handicrafts produced in quantity include cloth, carpets and rugs, metal and leather work, and pottery. A most significant feature of the Libyan economy has been the income generated by the spending of foreigners in Libya. A s was pointed out in a report of the Development Council of Libya (1956/ 1957): "It would be difficult to overstate the importance of income from these expenditures to the Libyan economy. If to these expenditures are added the grants and financial assistance received from abroad, the total influx of foreign income m a y have reached 22 million Libyan pounds in 1956. It seems likely that nowhere else in the world does income from foreign sources reach so high a pr3portion of total national income. T h e implications of any significant drop in this income would be most serious, for it would appear that Libya's national income would undergo an almost immediate corresponding decline. (1) However, due to petroleum discoveries in Libya in the late fifties and the subsequent production of oil on a commercial basis, Libya's economy has il begun to develop substantially. This trend w l be reinforced by m o r e use of science and technology in every field of economic activity. And here technical education can contribute substantially.

TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN LIBYA

The Libyan Constitution (adopted by the National Assembly on 7 October 1951) refers to education in Articles 28, 29 and 30. In these articles it affirms the right of all Libyans to education and states that elementary education shall be compulsory for boys and girls. The Educational Act of 1952 provided that each of the three provinces in the kingdom should within a reasonable period of time establish the primary, secondary and technical schools required to meet the educational needs of the citizens, and that the provinces should maintain these schools out of their own budgets. Allusion was m a d e in the Act (Article 8) to the existing vocational schools (or training centres). These were the technical and clerical training college in Tripoli (maintained with the assistance of Unesco and ILO),the agricultural school in Sidi el-Misri, the agricultural school in El-Uweilah, and the commercial school in Benghazi, with a total enrolment of 414 pupils. Since then vocational education has been treated by the n e w State as a matter of priority. S o m e assistance in the form of material and personnel has been provided by the U. S. Agency for International Development (AID), and by the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies. In consequence, the number of vocational schools gradually increased. In 1957/1958 there were 8 with an enrolment of 722. However, this increase does not compare favourably to that achieved with respect to general secondary education. In 1952/1953 the number of general secondary schools was 5 with an enrolment of l, 028 pupils; in 1957/1958 it rose to 45 (including 8 intermediate schools) with 2,271 pupils. Before 1957, public education in Libya consisted of two levels, primary and secondary. In 1958 secondary education was divided into lower and upper stages known as preparatory and secondary. In consequence, technical education has been divided into two levels, intermediate-training artisans and skilled workers in four-year courses open to holders of the primary school certificate, and advanced-training highly skilled artisans and assistant technicians. These courses last 3 years and are open to holders of the preparatory school certificate.(2)

( ) United Nations. Economic Developments in 1

Africa. 1956/1957, p 17. . (2) In 1961 Libya had 715 primary schools with an enrolment of 151,629 boys and girls, or 54.4% of the total school age group. There were 73 general preparatory and 15 secondary schools, with a total enrolment of 11,167 (9,228 and 1,939 respectively). The enrolment in technical schools at both levels was 493. See Panorame de l'Enseignement en Royaume de Libye, Beirut, Regional Centre for the Advanced Training of Educational Personnel in the Arab States, 1962. 33

Almost all the teachers working in Libyan technical schools have been recruited from abroad. Furthermore, all the public and private development projects so far initiated have been supervised by foreign technicians. This situation led the Government of Libya to consider, as early as 1958, a means for filling the gap caused by the complete lack of highly trained Libyan technicians. A plan for the establishment of a higher institute of technology was prepared to provide advanced instruction in subjects which existing training centres and those to be established later would not include. The Government of Libya then requested the assistance of the United Nations Special Fund to execute the plan. The new institute, which has been operating for the last two years, offers both theoretical and practical studies at the university level. Students w l be required to have their general secondary il certificate (scientific section) before enrolling in the institute. The course is four years with students specializing in one of the four following branches of study offered by the institute - mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering and agricultural industries. The institute thus is intended as a centre for the preparation of Libyans either as techical supervisors in government and private workshops, or as teachers in intermediate technical schools. It is worthy of note that higher education did not exist in Libya until 1955/1956 when a Libyan university with the College of Arts and Education as its nucleus was established. Three other colleges of science, commerce, and law were added later.

TECHNICAL EDLJCATION IN TUNISIA

After achieving its independence in 1956, Tunisia faced the problem of creating a balance between the supply and demand of technical and scientific manpower. This problem has been governed by three requirements: (1 the increase in population, which intensifies the need for economic progress; (2) technical progress, which demands constant adaptation: (3)the need to replace foreign technical and scientific staff. Against this background, public educational authorities saw technical education as the only means of ensuring the development of the Tunisian economy and its increasing industrialization. This problem became particularly evident in the 1956/1957 school year owing to the increased needs of both private industry and public or semipublic bodies with the advent of independence. T o offset these difficulties, parallel development of vocational and technical education was undertaken and these branches were adapted to local requirements. (2) Vocational education, given in vocational training centres and industrial schools catered, in 1957, for 6,666 apprentices. Technical education was given to 4,194 pupils, mostly boys. Its development has been mainly in the fields of engineering and electricity, which form the basis of instruction in all the specialized branches of modern technology. Furthermore, it was considered desirable for s o m e of the vocational training centres to be specialized, consequently a building training centre, a mining school, a school for book production, a technical school for w o m e n and a c o m m e r cial school for w o m e n were set up. Technical and vocational education were given clear direction in November 1958 when a far~

TUNISIA ECONOMIC BACKGROUND

The Republic of Tunisia covers an area of 155,000 square kilometres, with a population of about four million. M o r e than 85 per cent o the population f in Tunisia live in rural areas and engage chiefly in farming. The rle played by industry in the economy of Tunisia has so far been small. According to 1957 statistics less than 1 2 per cent of the gross domestic product originated from industry. Only 5. 6 per cent of the male and 4.4 per cent of the female economically active Tunisian population were engaged in industry (the total number was 851,600 males and 361,100 females). The Government of Tunisia has been making efforts to improve economic conditions in the country. A n ambitious development plan for central and southern Tunisia was formulated in 1956. It covers a period of thirty years and requires an investment of 600 billion old French francs. The prog r a m m e envisages the improvement of agricultural techniques and communications, the creation of basic industries and the extension of utilities. 34

United Nations, Economic Survey of Africa since 1950, N e w York, 1959, pp. 14, 15, 54; Oxford Regional Economic Atlas. The Middle East and North Africa, 1960, pp. 83, 101, 110. Until 1943, technical education in Tunisia was rudimentary. There were only two technical secondary schools, the Collge Emile Loubet for boys, established in 1898, and the Collge Paul C a m b o n for girls established in 1914. Vocational training was given in workshops attached to primary schools, particularly Muslim girls' primary schools, where the traditional crafts were taught (i.e. carpet weaving, embroidery). There were three industrial schools for boys. Between 1943 and 1945, vocational training centres were opened (13 for boys and about 10 for girls). In 1945 an independent Technical Education Department was established, as well as technical colleges at Sfax, Susa and Bizerta. Since the coming of independence, the vocational training centres have been reorganized and m o r e have been opened.

reaching structural reform o education went into f effect under L a w No. 58-118 (4 November 1958). Under this law, both general and technical education were reformed, and a new type of lower secondary school was established. The main reforms are: (1) The years of primary and secondary education have been reduced from seven to six years each. During the first two years of primary school, teaching is given in Arabic. (2) A n innovation has been m a d e with the creation of lower secondary schools (collges moyens) with special curricula. They include three sections, general, commercial and industrial. The goal is to train personnel with basic skills for the development programme. Education at this level had been given in vocational training centres, which were converted into collges moyens. Candidates are admitted to all three sections up to age of 16, under the s a m e entrance examinations as for other secondary schools. Permission to exceed this l m t by a m a x i m u m of one year m a y be given in ii the technical sections. Vocational training centres offer training in the following special subjects: for boys fitting, automobile mechanics, machine tool making, locksmithing, electricity, sheet iron work, plumbing, cabinet making, damascening, leather work, agriculture, rural crafts, masonry, reinforced concrete work, carving, printing, bookbinding; for girls cutting, sewing, embroidery, chebka weaving, carpet weaving, lace making, lingerie making and hairdressing. According to this 1958 law secondary education should aim at : (a)developing young people's intellectual and practical abilities, so as to provide them with a solid cultural background; (b)training the qualified staff needed in the various national activities and (c) assessing and developing pupils' abilities for university education, so as to train the higher professional staff of the country. There is a general entrance examination for all types of secondary education. Subjects taught during the first year are the s a m e for all students regardless o the courses they plan to follow. f This is a direction-finding year, after which students records are carefully examined by the Vocational Guidance Council, and pupils are then directed toward one of the three branches of secondary education general, commercial, or technical. A the beginning of the second cycle of the sect ondary school course (which w l in future begin in il the fourth year), the general secondary course is subdivided into five sections, the commercial secondary course into two sections, and the technical secondary course into two sections, one of which is in turn subdivided into sub-sections for specialized work. Commercial students who specialized in economics take a diploma in c o m mercial studies at the end of the fifth year and the second part at the end of the sixth year. Besides these general secondary schools, there

are technical and vocational schools which train technical staff for ordinary posts and prepare the best students for the higher posts. The length of this course has been reduced from seven to six years. In the first year, which is the s a m e in the general as in the technical course, a good deal of time is devoted to mathematics and sciences based on observation, drawing and handicrafts, so that the pupil's aptitude for technical work m a y be discovered. The lower technical course includes this first year and two other years in which greater provision is m a d e for practical training although the work is not yet specialized. There is an increasing degree of specialization in the second cycle. This new system was reinforced by the law of 27 June 1960, which continued secondary education according to these different types: (a) Lyces which offer three options general, economic, and technical, (b) lyces techniques, leading to the technical baccalaurat, (c)collges moyens, covering three years. In March 1960 the University of Tunis was established, with Faculties of Science and Mathematics, of Arts and Humanities, L a w , Political Science and Economics, Medicine and Pharmacy, and a teachers' training college. Although the State Secretary of National Education controls all matters related to education, the supervision and administration of technical and vocational education is left to other authorities. The directors of technical secondary schools (collges techniques) are directly responsible to the Chief of the Technical Education Department. Vocational training centres are, as a rule, under the jurisdiction of the technical inspectors, but s o m e are under other government secretariats. Agricultural schools, for example, are attached to the State Secretariat for Agriculture, while the Training Centre for Footwear Production comes under the State Secretariat for Social Affairs. Regional governors exercise general supervision over schools in their own region, and through the State Secretariats for the Interior, report to the State Secretariat for National Education on the functioning of the school system as well as on trends of public opinion regarding education.

MOROCCO
E CONOMIC BACKGROUND
The economic structure of Morocco, inherited f r o m the Protectorate period, is a composite of two distinct types, traditional and modern. The latter accounts for m o r e than two-thirds of domestic production, although employing only about 30 per cent of the total active population in Morocco, while the remainder, occupied in the traditional economy, contributes one-third of the domestic production. 35

The mainstay of the traditional economy is agriculture with its primitive techniques and small farms. Moroccan agriculture has been chiefly organized with the resources and for the subsistence o basically self-contained rural communities. f Before the rise of the modern economy, agriculture found its complement in specialized traditional handicrafts. Between 75 and 80 per cent o the Moroccan f population live in rural areas and engage chiefly in farming. They own about 9 0 per cent o the f farmland (more than 7 million hectares), and m o r e than 95 per cent of the livestock. According to 1952 statistics, the economically active Moroccan population in agriculture was estimated to be more than two million. B y contrast, the large European farms symbolize the modern economic structure, The total land area occupied by the European farms in 1956 was about one million hectares most o which are locf ated in the relatively well watered and populous regions of Rabat, the Gharb and Casablanca. Since it achieved independence, Morocco has developed educationally as well as economically. The Government is quite aware that this economic development requires in the long run a change from traditional to modern methods, the provision o the required number of technical and scientific f workers, and the replacement o foreign technical f and scientific staff by Moroccans. Technical education is vital if these goals are to be achieved.

higher education and youth and sport activities. Complementary schools (primary continuation schools) became collges offering the first cycle (first four years) .of the secondary course. Secondary education was made six years instead o seven, comprising two cycles of 3 years each. f The first cycle, which was the s a m e for all pupils, was devoted to general education with the possibility of branching off into technical subjects in the first year; the second cycle was specialized and comprised five sections with a literary and scientific emphasis.

TEC-HNICALEDUCATION I MOROCCO N
Technical education in Morocco begins at the post-primary level. On completing their primary education pupils m a y enter apprenticeship centres (centres d'apprentissage), technical secondary schools (collges techniques), or the national vocational school (cole nationale professionnelle), as long as they comply with the age qualification. Pupils who have completed their technical secondary education find m a n y opportunities. They m a y continue their studies at the higher level, either in the school o engineering or a the f t higher training school for technical teachers at the Cap Metifon vocational teacher training school. They m a y also attend the Air Force and Navy School a Rochefort, France, the Institute of t C o m m e r c e at the University o Grenoble, at the f high schools o c o m m e r c e or at the higher trainf ing institute for technical teachers in Paris. Students m a y enrol at the latter institutes if they hold the higher teaching certificate in commerce. If they hold the teaching certificate in agriculture, they m a y enter the Meknes School of Practical Agriculture. Pupils with a general secondary school bacca- ,, laurat (Moroccan or French) are also eligible for admission to certain French technical institutions for the training o engineers, agronomists, or f veterinary surgeons. They m a y sit, also, for the competitive entrance examinations to the grandes coles in France.

EDUCATIONAL POLICY AFTER INDEPENDENCE

The Moroccan Government inherited a complex educational system which had been moulded under the Protectorate by a number o diverse ethnic, f linguistic, social, cultural, religious and economic factors. European schools stood side by side with Muslim schools; Franco-Muslim and Franco-Jewish!, and also schools under the Alliance Isralite Universelle coexisted; and private education both foreign and local took a significant place beside public education. The advent of independence, with its subsequent changed circumstances, led to important policy changes in education. S o m e European schools were taken over by the French "Mission Universitaire et Culturelle" in Morocco, while others remained under the authority of the Moroccan Ministry o Education. Gradual Moroccanization f and unification of curricula in all sectors o eduf cation were initiated. Reforms were introduced into the structure and internal organization of education services with a view to bringing the administration into line with the country's needs and resources. A Secondary Education Division was formed, combining the Muslim Secondary Education Service with the European Education Service. Besides this division, the Ministry of Education c a m e to comprise four other divisions, namely primary education, technical education,

A D M I N I S T R A T I O N OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION Technical schools in Morocco c o m e under several ministries. The Division o Technical Education, f which is under the control of the Ministry of Education, is responsible for most o the technical f education activities in the country. The Head o f the Division is assisted by a head of service and various specialized inspectors (for industrial education, commercial education, agricultural
(1) United Nations, Structure and Growth of Selected African Economies, N e w York 1958, pp. 81 & cff; Economic Survey o Africa f since 1950, N e w York 1959.

36

education, domestic science, fine arts). H e has at his disposal an administrative service with several departments dealing respectively with teaching staff, finance, building plants, school equipment. These services are in direct contact with schools which c o m e under the Technical Education Division, but liaison with multi-purpose schools is maintained through the Division of Secondary Education. Agricultural secondary education comes under the Ministry o Agriculture. Other ministries f engaged in technical education are the Ministry of Public Works (special schools for training public works staff) and the Ministry o Labour and Social f Welfare (vocational training schools). These ministries co-operate with the Ministry o f Education in operating their programme.

THE D E V E L O P M E N T OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Great attention was given after independence to technical education. Technical education had been started in Morocco in 1917 when the Casablanca Industrial and Commercial School was founded. Another development had been the opening of technical sections annexed to s o m e o the general f secondary schools, such as the Collge des Orangers, Rabat, the Collge de M e r s Sultan, Casablanca and the Collge de Kenitra. However it was not until 1945 that technical education in Morocco was formally organized. Educational facilities began to expand almost immediately following the grant o independence f by France. S o m e of the achievements of the Government in 1956/1957 were: 1. Inauguration of the Fouazat School of Agriculture and Agricultural Machinery. 2. Doubling o the number o workshops at the f f Casablanca school. 3. Setting up of a technical division a the t Collge des Orangers in Rabat to train technical staff for the various ministries. 4. Adding a n e w special public works training division a the Casablanca industrial and c o m m e r t cial school. 5. Organization of courses in education for young teachers of commercial subjects and industrial design. 6. Introduction into the technical school curriculum o education courses for teachers of handif crafts, both m e n and women. A the s a m e time the Technical Education Dept artment completed various schemes for the improvement o technical facilities. For example, f the department opened a technical division a t Moulay-Abdallah school in Casablanca, added boarding facilities to the Marrakesh technical school and organized a vocational school for the building trades a Mekns. A one-year training t course for teachers in primary vocational schools in preparation for entry to the teacher-training

division was added to the curriculum of the Casablanca Industrial and Commercial School. Considerable attention was given to women's technical education. Thus women's apprenticeship centres were set up in Rabat and Casablanca. The Mers-Sultan school at Casablanca began offering courses in domestic science, needlework and tailoring, c o m m e r c e and accountancy,to w o m e n handicraft teachers. The Palmier women's apprenticeship centre at Casablanca undertook training in social work, c o m m e r c e and accountancy, dressmaking, tailoring and needlework, and hairdressing. In addition a social work division was attached to the Lalla Nousha Girls' Secondary School a Rabat. t Besides these steps, attention has been paid to the necessity o constantly adapting technical and f vocational education to the country's n e w needs. With this in view the number of commercial sections was being steadily increased, so as to provide skilled staff for the public and private sectors of the economy. Two-year practical courses were started for Moroccan girls, including those in rural districts, who would complete their primary education. The courses provide further general education while at the s a m e time prepare the girls directly for family and social life. Similarly, practical courses in agriculture and rural crafts give boys in the rural areas an opportunity to pursue their trade without being uprooted from their environment. Moreover, an increasing number o vocational f courses in industry and commerce was provided. These courses, which prepared pupils for the technical baccalaurat, the industrial certificate and the Moroccan commercial certificate followed time-tables and curricula of their own, so that the necessary technical standards could be maintained and a type of general education provided to accord with the spirit of Moroccan education. A m o n g the most important developments in technical education in 1960/1961 were: 1 . The Ecole M o h a m m e d i a d'Ingnieurs opened its doors. This higher technical institute was m a d e possible by a contribution from the United Nations Special Fund. The institute provides three-year programmes in four areas: mechanics, mining, electricity and public works. The first graduating class, educated entirely in Morocco, completed its studies in 1963. 2. A normal school for the training of specialized teachers with a two-years' course was also inaugurated to train young Moroccans as teachers in such skilled trades as machine installation, tool making, auto mechanics and electricity. 3. A school for the training of rural primary school teachers and agricultural instructors opened at Mechra Bel Ksiri. The Educational Reform o 1960 (Five-Year Plan) f Beginning in 1960, education in Morocco was
37

subjected to a total revision which aimed at eliminating ill-adapted or outmoded curricula, at developing to the full the facilities that already existed, and at establishing n e w schools and new branches of study designed to meet the growing needs of the country. The 1960-1964 Five-Year Plan of Education is intended to achieve: Unification and Arabization of instruction without loss of quality.(1) T o do this the system is to be reorganized in two cycles. The first cycle includes five years of schooling, leading either to the second cycle or to a supplementary two years of postprimary schooling. (Eighty per cent of the pupils under sixteen are expected to enrol in the second cycle after successfully completing the first cycle). The remaining twenty per cent, who do not go to the second cycle, due either to age or lack of ability, are expected to enrol in the supplementary two years of primary schooling. This supplementary schooling includes general, practical elementary training (agriculture, crafts, h o m e economics) adapted to each region. After these two years, pupils can return to their families or enrol in private or public vocational training schools, armed with a Certificat de fin d'Etudes Primaires if they pass the examination. In this way, each child is assured of having at least seven years of schooling. The second cycle covers secondary education subjects. Traditionally the secondary school took pupils who had finished their primary education and prepared them for the university. The n e w organization in the secondary schools, however, is aimed at training the young both for semi-professional work which does not require a university level competence and for entrance to the universities. In addition it provides for a wider choice of courses thereby permitting pupils coming from primary schools to develop greater specialization. Thus two distinct types of secondary education have been brought about by the changes put into effect in October 1960. These are full secondary education (enseignement long) and short secondary education (enseignement moyen). Full secondary education is designed for those pupils who are willing and able to pursue a long course of study. It is composed of two cycles each necessitating three years of study. The first three-year cycle is the s a m e for all students planning to continue their schooling, whether it is general or technical. After completing the first cycle students m a y choose either the general or the technical second cycle. Within these two larger possibilities there exist several options the general (classical and modern humanistic studies), the experimental sciences (chemistry, physics), the mathematical sciences, technical education and industrial arts, and commerce and social work. The curriculum in the sciences stream gives training especially in physics, chemistry, and biology. It leads to university work in the sciences, in engineering, medicine, or pharmacy.

The scientific curriculum with emphasis on mathematics prepares students to enter the faculty of science or engineering. The technical baccalaurat provides general scientific training similar to that given in the science-mathematics section, but with rigorous training in applied science added. It leads to the faculty of science or to engineering school. The economics baccalaurat is oriented toward the economic problems of the modern world law, economics, history, geography and the sciences as they relate to economic problems. It leads to higher education in commercial law, economics, and administration and to eventual work in these fields. The technical curricula provide vocational training and prepare students to do skilled and semiskilled work in communications, transport, industry and commerce. The social curriculum gives girls training in most of the occupations traditionally associated with w o m e n but which require none the less considerable skill and knowledge. Short secondary education, which entails three years, is oriented toward the training of efficient semi-skilled employees, both technical and administrative, who are badly needed in Morocco at present. This programme offers five options: general, industrial, agricultural, commercial and social.

ALGERIA
After eight years of struggle, Algeria became independent in August 1962. A n Algerian National Government was established on 30 September 1962 and a n e w era in the history of Algeria began. Problems in all sectors of the national life were vast, and education was no exception. The basic weaknesses in the educational system were aggravated by the withdrawal of thousands of French teachers from Algeria, the devastation of m a n y school buildings, and the lack of funds. The n e w National Government set out boldly to accomplish two major educational purposes, the expansion of education and reduction of illiteracy among Algerians, and the Arabization of education. The educational system that exists today in Algeria is composed of the following stages: a six-year elementary stage, a four-year junior high school (collge), and a seven-year high school leading to higher or university education. Technical education in Algeria begins at the post-primary level. There are three levels: 1. The complementary classes attached to s o m e elementary schools that offer a two-year course of practical studies.
(1) Education in Morocco (1960-1961). Report submitted to the 24th International Conference of Public Instruction, 3-14 July 1961 Geneva.

38

2. The technical junior high school (collge) which offers the brevet after a four-year course of study. 3. The technical secondary school (lyce)that offers a seven-year course of study equivalent to the academic secondary schools. Graduates of the technical secondary school are eligible for admission to s o m e faculties of the university and to teacher-training institutes.

YEMEN

A short review of the structure of the Yemeni economy w l help to assess the magnitude of the il effort needed to modernize and develop the country. The Y e m e n extends over s o m e 75,000 square miles comprising two defined areas, the highlands and the coastal strip. Only 2 per cent of the total area is cultivated. The highlands are the most fertile region, where a system o intensive dry farming f is practised. S o m e cultivation is also undertaken on the mountain slopes. Thus, cold temperate and hot region crops are grown a different altitudes. t The major crops are millet and coffee. Livestock breeding is an important activity for a large section of the population. The supply of livestock includes sheep, goats, cattle, horses and mules. Hides and skins are exported to the United Kingdom and the United States. Industry has so far played a minor rle in the Yemeni economy. Soap, cotton textiles, shoes and leather goods are produced on a small scale. A spinning and weaving factory has been established at Bajil, and another factory is under construction at Sana'a. Weaving and dyeing, rope making and boat building are also carried out in Hodeida, while a firm for grinding mineral salt and its preparation for export has been set up at Sana'a. Y e m e n has a lack of modern industries. Plans are however being undertaken to convert s o m e handicraft workshops into modern factories with the help of experts from foreign countries. Geological explorations indicate a potential mineral wealth of coal, copper and aluminium. It is believed that gold, uranium and lead exist. Salt is also found in great quantities on the shores of the R e d Sea. In 1953, agreements were reached with G e r m a n and Italian firms for the development of mineral resources. In 1960, an agreement was m a d e with an American firm for oil exploration. The proposed national development plan gives m u c h attention to the industrial sector. Major projects such as oil and mineral prospecting, and

the construction of n e w industries are to be undertaken by the private sector. In order to encourage the private sector to take part in the execution of development projects, certain institutional and fiscal reforms have been introduced. N e w laws for Customs tariffs, chambers o commerce, commercial registry f and industrial property were promulgated. For the first time private foreign capital has been encouraged to participate in the industrial development of the country under a n e w law concerning the investment of foreign capital.(1) The acceleration of the process of economic development in Y e m e n depends on two major factors: (1) continuous co-operation with m o r e advanced countries, to secure the participation of foreign capital and technical assistance on mutually advantageous terms; and (2) an increasing concern with education, particularly technical education. As to the first the present government concluded agreements with the USSR, the United States, and Yugoslavia. Thus far there has been no industrial or c o m mercial education in Y e m e n and the only courses available in agricultural education are in an agricultural school (for 2 years following 6 years of primary schooling) which has 35 pupils. The main feature of Yemeni education so far has been the sending of promising students abroad for technical training, to enable them to return and lay the bases of an educational system (see also Table 18, Appendix.) The Federal Republic of Germany allocated DM 10 million in its 1963 budget to finance devef lopment projects in Y e m e n . O these, 7 million w l go to agricultural development i Tihama and il n 3 million w l be spent on the installation of a il telephone network for San'a, Hudaida, and Taiz. This Government is also considering the establishment of a vocational training centre in San'a to be run by three G e r m a n workshop instructors and to train Yemeni youth in auto repairs and the repair of agricultural machines and water pumps. Finally, a one-year agreement for technical, vocational, and educational Co- operation was concluded in June 1963 between Y e m e n and the United Arab Republic stipulating that the United Arab Republic should aid Y e m e n by providing experts, technicians and teachers, granting scholarships for vocational and other training, and by assisting in exchanges of educational and economic materials.
( 1 ) National Bank of Egypt. Economic Bulletin, Vol. XV, no. 4, 1962, pp. 224-26.

39

CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECTS

THE ARAB WORLD AND THE ECONOMIC REVOLUTION

The Arab world of today is on the threshold o an f economic revolution which is vital to its social and political progress. This economic revolution is taking place, first, in the horizontal extension of agriculture through the reclamation o deserts f and waste lands, s i l the largest part o the Arab tl f world; second, in the expansion o agricultural f productivity and more efficient use of manpower, with the replacement of traditional methods by modern techniques, knowledge and equipment; third, through intensified industrialization. Industry alone can enlarge the production base in a revolutionary and decisive manner in the Arab countries. The Arab world actually possesses most o the elements necessary for industrial work f and increased production. These elements need, however, to be supported by highly qualified engineers, technicians, and skilled labour. Modern equipment is also badly needed. Among other measures which should be taken to ensure that the economic revolution is a success are the activation o Arab trade through expanding f the volume o imports and exports among Arab f countries, the adoption of modern business theories and practices, and the Arabization of business enterprises and firms. Efficient networks of railways, roads, airports and seaports, to link together the Arab countries, w l not only lead to the economic prosperity of il these countries but w l also lead to substantial il cultural and social progress. The real economic revolution in the above four areas cannot be achieved except through science, technology and education. These three interrelated elements are absolutely indispensable for economic and social progress in the Arab world. Theoretical science, technology, or education alone cannot realize this economic and social progress. The science which the Arab world needs for its progress is advanced science with its upto-date methods and achievements, applied science that is closely related to practice, and science for society. The technology that the Arab world should seek is the technology o the atomic age and the use o f f modern equipment for the welfare o the c o m m o n f man. The Arab world lagged behind in the age o f steam and electricity. It cannot, therefore, waste a moment before entering the atomic age and joining those who have already embarked on i . Atomic t

energy directed toward peaceful ends w l help il the Arab countries increase their production rate considerably. Along the same lines the education which the Arab countries need is functional education, closely related to Arab life, and emboyding advanced science and modern technology so as to make directly and indirectly a positive contribution to the solution of their economic problems. A s described earlier, the Arab countries have developed educational systems and policies that have been strongly influenced by historical traditions and cultural factors. Some of them are outworn and unfavourable. However, the existing educational situation is based on a wealth of experience which can be beneficial to emerging programmes.

THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Technical education is a crucial factor in the process o social regeneration and economic f development but it would be absurd to view its prospects apart from the overall system, or systems, o education in the Arab world. f The power of technical education stems, by and large, from the power o the educational system f o which it is an integral part. In consequence, f provisions for the improvement o the whole setf up o education in the Arab world need to be made f as prerequisites for the development o technical f educstion. First: education in the Arab world should be de facto free and compulsory at the elementary level as a minimum requirement. Educational opportunities above the elementary level should be expanded to include an increasing percentage of the nation's youth. The goal o the near future f in the educational policies of Arab countries should be the extension of the compulsory school age to cover secondary education, both general and technical, or part o it at least. In all cases, f educational systems in Arab countries should be planned on a long-term basis in the light o f defined economic needs, with specialization deferred until a broad foundation in general education has been established. Secondly: general education should not be limited to providing knowledge, but should also prepare Arab students for active participation in life, by providing them with an understanding o f

the production and utilization of goods acquired with the help of modern technology, and with a better comprehension of the technical world in which they live. Systems of elementary education which are mainly general and non-vocational in the Arab world should include s o m e means of giving children a liking and respect for manual work, accustoming them to observation and creative effort, encouraging in them an intelligent approach to the practical problems arising at h o m e and in the community, and guiding them to the most suitable type of post-elementary education. In general, secondary education curricula should include practical training with general and scientific subjects, not only because this m a y have s o m e possible occupational usefulness but still m o r e because it contributes to the all-round development of the growing citizen. Thirdly, technical education should not start before the end of the preparatory or lower secondary school. Premature specialization should be avoided. In all cases, it should not be considered only as training for specific occupations by providing the persons concerned with the necessary skills and fragments of theoretical knowledge, but in conjunction with general education it should also provide for the development of personality and character and foster the capacity for social understanding, moral judgement, self-expression and adaptation to varying environments. Also, technical education in the Arab countries should be so reorganized that every student can continue his education until his potentialities have been fully developed. Access to higher levels of education should be m a d e possible for any capable graduate of a technical school. It is worthy of note that education in the Arab world is considered important for social promotion but as long as technical education, at the secondary level, is m a d e a terminal stage it w l il not attract the best students. In order to be a vital factor in the process o f economic development and social regeneration, technical education in the Arab countries, still needs, besides the above-mentioned general recommendations, to develop according to a plan. Planning for technical education in the Arab world should meet the following requirements: (a) It should be based on sound calculation of the future demands for trained personnel besides the requirements of the current social and economic conditions of the Arab countries. Accurate statistics which indicate general trends in the economy and changes likely to take place in the demand for different classes of goods and services of different types of skill and knowledge are needed. (b) It should be based on a thorough study and appraisal of the existing systems of technical education in the Arab countries in order to maintain and develop the best of them. (c) It should be based on the principles of equality of opportunity and the wise distribution of technical

schools according to the different needs of local communities. (d) It should be based on a well-defined chart of economic institutions and centres of production in the Arab countries so that technical schools should be as close as possible to these institutions and centres. (e) It should be m a d e at all levels local, provincial, and national with due consideration to co-ordination among these levels in order to achieve integration. A council ,or other consultative body concerned with planning at the national level should be provided for. (f) It should be carried out by the Ministries of Education in close liaison with interested parties in industry, agriculture, and c o m m e r c e taking into account the economic situation and prospects. The responsibilities of different authorities and organizations concerned with technical education should be clearly defined and the pattern should be sufficiently stable to ensure continuity of action. Furthermore, concerted efforts by public authorities should be directed to the improvement of the standard and quality of technical education. This provision implies better school buildings, modern equipment, efficient staffs, up-to-date programmes, progressive administration and supervision, adequate guidance, and improved school-community relationships. If increasing numbers of young people are to be encouraged to seek technical education and vocational training everything should be done by the responsible authorities to m a k e these fields attractive, efficient, and truly educational in the broadest sense. Moreover, with the development of technology the need for better technical education at all levels is far greater than is usually recognized. Furthermore, better technical education and equal educational opportunities would be meaningless without adequate educational and vocational guidance. Here lies one of the major weaknesses of education in m a n y Arab countries. The recommendations concerning technical and vocational education adopted by the Unesco General Conference at its twelfth session (Paris, 1962) in this respect are relevant here: Every student proceeding from general education to s o m e form of technical and vocational education should feel free to m a k e his own choice in the light of his aspirations and with an understanding of his abilities and interests, bearing in mind the future demands for qualified staff and knowing that arrangements m a d e by the responsible authorities w l enable him later to change il his field of training if he so wishes and to continue his studies to the l m t of his capacities, without ii encountering obstacles other than a longer period of training.. . Guidance should enable students, through a m o r e accurate knowledge of their individual potentialities on the one hand and of the requirements of the various groups of professions and the future

41

needs of the economy on the other, to set themselves m o r e precisely determined objectives, and to attain them m o r e certainly by taking advantage of the most appropriate means of training. Guidance services should be available to all students whether provided by the school system or by other authorities. Whenever possible, arrangements should be m a d e for organizing an adequate diagnostic or exploratory period in each establishment before a particular field of training is selected by the student. A guidance and placement service should be established by the competent governmental or other authorities for the purpose of: (a) Maintaining full and systematic accumulative records of the students; (b) Providing students and parents with details of vocational opportunities, types of available courses and other relevant matters; (c) Helping students in interpreting the results of evaluations and in making decisions affecting them; (d) Assisting young persons in finding employment in accordance with the type and the level of education and training they have received or are receiving; (e) Maintaining contact with former students, whether graduates or not, and ensuring the efficiency of the guidance system employed." (1) Technical schools at all levels in m a n y Arab countries suffer from lack of well-qualified and adequate teaching staffs, particularly in the field of practical subjects. Institutes for the training of teachers and instructors for technical schools are a very n e w development in the Arab world. Graduates of these institutes are still too few to meet the demands. Moreover, developmental projects in the Arab world usually influence teacher recruitment by attracting specialists and technicians who are badly needed as m e m b e r s of the teaching staff in technical schools. In consequence, particular attention should be given by responsible authorities in Arab countries to teacher preparation for technical schools. Teacher-training institutes at the post-secondary level should be established in sufficient numbers and highly qualified staffs should be secured for them. In order to attract and retain highly qualified personnel, the emoluments and conditions of service which are offered should compare favourably with those enjoyed by persons with similar qualifications in industry, agriculture and commerce. Engineers, technologists, and technicians working in the fields of industry, agriculture, and c o m merce in the Arab countries should be invited to undertake part-time teaching at technical institutions so that they can combine with their principal work the teaching of specialized subjects. Efforts should be m a d e to upgrade the existing teaching staffs in technical schools through welldefined and executed in-service programmes. The
42

training of teachers in technical education should be considered as a process continuing throughout their teaching career. Arrangements should be m a d e for the periodic release of teachers in order that they m a y keep abreast of modern processes and methods of production and management through periods o work in their speciality. f Finally the first step on the road towards improving the relationship between the technical school and the community is to change the attitude of both adults and youth toward this kind of training. People in most parts of the Arab world have inherited a tendency to look down on manual work and technical education. Nothing can change such an attitude except an effort on the part o the resf ponsible authorities to improve the quality of technical schools and to raise their standards to the level of other types of education. Authorities should also be concerned to see that the graduates of these schools obtain employment with satisfactory salaries in the occupations for which they have received their training. Establishments for technical education should be set up only where there is a steady and foreseeable demand for their graduates. This develops symbiotic relationships between these establishments and other agencies in the community. Since the cost o construction, equipment, and f operation of technical schools is high, it would be of great importance to locate these schools as close as possible to centres of production and economic establishments suited to them. This w l compensate for any deficiency in technical il school buildings or equipment and guarantee the conditions necessary for training the students and operating the technical schools irrespective of their financial or material difficulties. Advisory committees representing various branches of economic activities at the local level should be set up to assist technical schools. These committees should keep in direct contact with these schools and take part in their organization. They should help in planning studies on local manpower requirements, advise on how the schools m a y be reorganized so as better to meet the actual and foreseeable needs of users, and help to obtain employment for the graduates.

THE ROLE OF THE ARAB LEAGUE AND U N E S C O IN THE D E V E L O P M E N T OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION I THE ARAB WORLD N
The transformation of technical education, both quantitatively and qualitatively into a powerful instrument for economic development and social regeneration needs the multilateral co-operation of the Arab States. This co-operation should extend to such activities as the exchange o ideas f

(I ) Unesco. Recommendation concerning technical and vocational education. Paris, 1962. p. 20.

and information on technical education in the Arab countries; a thorough study and appraisal of the existing practices and systems o technical educaf tion in the Arab countries; plans for the development of technical education in these countries within the framework of their educational plans; the co-ordination of efforts made by Arab countries in the field of education in general, and technical education in particular. The help of international organizations, particularly Unesco, is badly needed in the Arab world. Reference was m a d e earlier to the assistance offered by Unesco in the field of education and

technical education in the Arab countries. However, m o r e help is still needed. The Arab world is e m barking on a vital experiment to show how education, and particularly technical education, can be a force in economic development and social regeneration. The Arab world has inherited from the past major economic and social problems. It has a strong faith in education as an important means in the solution of these problems. It is here that Unesco and other international organizations can actively participate by turning this faith into a successful venture.

43

APPENDIX

CHARTS,TABLES

Table 1. Size of population and area o/ Arab countries

Population

Area

Aden (Colony and protectorates) Algeria Bahrain Iraq Jordan Kuwait Leban on Libya Morocco Qatar Saudi Arabia Sudan Syria Tunisia United Arab Republic Yemen

(1958 estimate)

(sq, kilometres)

800 O00 1 2 5 O00 0 6 139 O00 6 700 O00 1 580 O00 210 O00 1 525 O00 1 153 O00 1 330 O00 0 40 O00 6 036 O00 11 037 O00 4 O00 O00 3 852 O00 24 7 1 O00 8 4 500 O00

290 287 23171 8 4 598 444 442 96 610

15 540 1 400 0

1 759 540

443 680 22 014 1 600 O00

2 505 823

187 479 125 180

1 O00 O00

1 5 O00 9

Source: Unesco World Survey o/ Education, 1958

Table 2

Population
Density of population per sq. km. Annual rate of increase ( ) %

Birthrate
Birthrate (per thousand)

Country

Country

Year

1953-1958

UAR
Iraq Lebanon Jordan Tunisia

712 15 149 1 6 31

26 . 26 .
2.8 3.0

UAR
Syria

1953 1956 1953 1958 1954 1757 1753 1958

9

42.5 47.6
25.2 26.6

1.2

Lebanon

28.6 35.4(Prov.) 3. 62 44.0

Jordan

Source: United Nations Demographic Yearbook 1959, tables 1 and

46

Table

3. Summary

of school statistics in Egypt,1922/23 and 1951/32

19 221 23
Level of education and type of institution

1951/52
Students enroll ed

No. of
schools

No. of
schools

Students edrolled

Pre-school

Infant schools and annexes, public Infant schools, private

Primar y

113 112

307

111

11 6

66 082 43 O 0 9

Primary schools, public Primary schools, private Elementary schools, public Elementary schools, private
Secondary

22 247 1 254 7

75 6 2 870

80 038 2 6 287 1

46 2 56 4 4 665 1 076

170 1 5 8 1350 7 2 856 5 9 7 1 1 981 8

General secondary schools and annexes, public General secondary schools, private Vocational schools, public : Primary industrial schools Primary agricu1 tura1 schools Horticultural schools Primary commercial schools Middle industrial schools Middle agricultural schools Intermediate schools of commerce Schools for domestic arts and crafts Higher supplementary agricultural studies Higher supplementary commercial studies Vocational independent schools
Higher education

11

35

4 406 5 026

10 4 112

162 6 2 1 2 720 9

17 2

2 974

16 7 1 17 9

2 9 3 3 6 24 11 1 9 1 4 7 7 2 0

1 902 184

430 223 8 915 42 1 0 7 685 3 077 675 1 442

470

3 067

Universities and/ or higher education institutes

4 240

3 10 9 0

Sources: Ministry of Education, Egypt, Report on the development o/ education (in Arabic) 1951/ 52, ln/ormation on Education in Egypt (in Arabic), D e c e m b e r 1950.

47

Table 4. Growth o/ education in Syria,l924/45

Public schools Privare schools Foreign schools Total Enrolment

Y ear
No,
Enrolment

___- ~No.

__

No.

Enrol ment

No.

Enrolment

1923 1944/4 5
1. 2.

343 694

2 045 5 93 717

26 0'
311

2 45 6 5l 4 212 5

22

1' 0 ' ?3
23 887

562 1165

53 403
1 2 818 6

160

Including French schools. Not including French schools.

Growth o/ education in Lebanon 1?21/45

Public schools Private schools Foreign schools Total

Year

NO.

Enrolment

No.

Enrolment

No.

Enrolment

No.

Enrolment

1924 1944/4 5

117
308

8 064

762 963

25 7 5 0l

98

6 6142 4 065 3

977 1596

67 383 144702

30 113

7 524 1

32 6

1. Including French schools. 2 Not including French schools. .

Source: Matthews,
Council on Education,

R.D.,and Akrawi, Matta. Education in Arab Countries 1949 pp. 391, 422.

o/ the Near Easf. Washington, American

Table 5. Number o/ schools and enrolments in Iraq 1930/31

~~ ~ ~

1950/51
No. of enrolments

NO. of schools
Type of school 1930/31 1950/51

1930/ 3 1

1950/51

Public primary schools Public secondary schools (intermediate and preparatory) Private and foreign schools Vocational and special schools Normal schools Higher institutes

36 1 1 9
..

1 101

34 513
2 032
..

180 779

95
128

22 706

22 327
898

7 ..
11

10 4

3
4

386

1 489

99
1955/56
(in Arabic),

4 951

Iraq, Ministry of Education, Annual Repori on the Progress of Educaiion Baghdad 1957.

48

Table 6. Percentages of budget allocations for primary, secondary, and technical education in the Arab countries

Country

Y ear

Primary education

Secondary education

Vocational education

Total educational budget

United Arab Republic Iraq Lebanon

Moroc CO

Sudan Syria Tunisia

1954/55 1 5 /55 94 1959/60 1956/5 7 1953/5 4 1956/5 7 1954/55

42.7 . . / 60 ./. 64 .. / 67 . . / 8 .. / 51 . . / 44 . . /

29.2 . . / 2 .. 7 / 6.7 . . / 21 . . / 9 .. / 1 .. 6 / 23 . . /

5.2 . . /
1.2 . . /

5.1 . . / 8.. /

4.. / 3.5 . . / 12 . . /

2 . million Egyptian pounds 87 6.8 million Iraqi dinars 30.99million Lebanese pounds 18.4 thousand million francs 3.1 million Sudanese pounds 5 . million Syrian pounds 27 9 6 thousand million francs .

Official exchange rates

1 1

Egyptian pound Iraqi dinar

= $ 2.87

1 1 1

=$ 2.80 Lebanese pounds = $ 0 4 .5

1 0 French francs 0
Sudanese pound Syrian pound

= $ 0.29

= $ 2.87
= $ 0.46

'

Source: U n e s c o , World Suruey of Education, 1958; Egypt, Ministry of Finance and E c o n o m y , Siate Budget for the Year 1956 (in Arabic) Cairo, 1956, p. 233; M. Karam, Libans Profil 1961

Table 7. Technical education i the Arab states, 1950-1961 n

~ ~ ~ ~~~~

Country

Year

No. of pupils

Country

Y ear

No. of pupils

United Arab Republic

1951/52 1960/61 1951/52 1960/61 1953/5 4 1960/61 1952/53 1961/62 1952/53 1957/58

31 799 115 586

Morocco

1954/55 1959/60 1949/50 1958/5 9 1951/52 1960/61 1951/52 1906 !6/1 1954/55 1957/5 8

616 4 2 623 0
21

Iraq

1294 9 550 11 4 59 5 592

1 009

Saudi Arabia

641 424 2 405

1 799 7 321
15 027 12 618

Jordan

Sudan

Kuwait

Syria

Libya

41 1 722

Tunisia

Figures compiled from reports of Ministries of Education

49

Table 8. Statistics o/ technical and general preparatory education in the United Arab Republic, 1953/53 to 1961/621
Per cent of tech. preparatory enrolments to total

Technical preparatory School year

General preparatory

No. of schools ad. sect.

No. of enrolments

No. of schools

No. of
adj. sect.

No. of
enrolments

Total number o f

of the stage

1953/ 54 1954/ 55 1?55/ 56 1956/ 57 1957/ 58 1958/59 1959/60 1960/61 1961/62

41 45 52 61 93 125 124 136 137

3 260
4 304
8 218

379
643 758 743 748 771
807

916 608 357 170

348 574 346 376 328 470 318 243 278 224 247 792 249 129

351 834 350 680

336 688

09 . 1.2 24 . 41 . 8.2 10.7 13.6

12 925 22 818

131
105 106 117 139

29 753 34 O00 39 333 42 O68

876 918

253 737
300 853

331 168 301 042 277 545 283 129 293 070

15.5

1. U.A.R. Ministry of Education. Comparative Statistics of Education 1953/54 to 1961/62. 2. Practical preparatory schools and enrolments are not included.

Table 9. School enrolments in s o m e Arab countries

Total
Country
~~

Percentage Percentage in primary schools Percentage i secondary n

Year

number of school en ro h e n ts

in
vocational schools

schools

Percentage in teacher training

schools

in higher education

U.A.R.
Iraq Jordan Kuwait Libya Saudi Arabia Sudan Syria T u n isi a

1958/ 59 1956/ 57 1957/ 58 1958/ 59 1957/ 58 1958/ 5 9 1958/59 1958/59 1956/57

2 909 665

80.4 83.6 80.83 73.4 92.1 92 87.7 83.6 86.5

13.2

27 .
O. 7

0.6
1

3.1
1.2

464 106 265 468

35 175
98 519 101 873 305 254 467 104 264 644

13.5 19.16 22.3

..
39 . 07 .
06 .

..
0.2

..

..
02 . 02 .
1.2

5.5
5.6 11.3 13.3 85 .
1960.

05 . 1 41 .

1.5 1.6 1
0.3

18 .
09 .

..

Source: Educational Atlas o/ Arab Couniries

(in Arabic), Cairo,

50

Table 10. Number o/ students in vocational training centres 1956/57 and 1961/62 (United Arab Republic)

Types of centre

19%/57

1957/58

1958/59

1959/60

1960/61

1363/62

Industrial Commercial Agricultural

162 140

981 1160 2 3 8

1155
1543 88
2 786

1664 1711

3 838
1 494

3 513
1 594
90

302

3 397

5 342

T o tal

2 424

5 197

Figures based o n Ministry of Education reports.

Table 11. Recurring expenditure by level and type o/ education in Sudan, 1957/58

Level and type o education f

Sudanese Amount

Percentage of total

Central adrninistration Primary education General secondary Vocation secondary Teacher training Other expenditure not specified Total

212 294
1865 257

4.8 42.4 27.4

1 205 695
240 644 308 2 5 1 503 330

5.5
7.0

11.4

4 335 471

Source : Sudan. Ministry of Education. Educaiional Staiisiics. 1960.

51

Table 12. Statistics on technical and non-technical higher institutes. 1951/52 1961/62 (United Arab Republic)

School year

Technical higher institutes

Non-cechnical

No. institutes No. of enrolments

Total enrolments

No. of institutes

No. of enrolments

No. of institues

Per cent of enrolment of technical institutes

CO

coral

1951/52 1952/53 1953/5 4 1954/55 1755/5 6 1956/57 1957/5 8 1958/5 9 1959/60 1960/61 1961/62

5
5

830
1255
2 666

7 9

950 1931
2 619

1 780

46.6 39.4 50.4

52.8

316 8
5 285

5
5
8
8

9
1 0

3 441
2 487 2 720

301 8
4 572 4 651 4 727

6 522 7O9 5 7 371 9 699

11 2 9 6 13 555

12 12

35.2

36.9 51.3 53.9 60.8 68.4 69.4

17
22

4 972 6 072
826 4

1 4
13

5 17 9 5 309
6 277 6 830

22

13 13
13

2 4
28

13 5 3 7

1 850 9
22 3 3 0

15 473

1. (Non-technical institutes comprise teachers colleges and institutes for teacher training, in arts,
music, social services, culture, languages, and physical education.) Figures based o n Ministry of Education reports, (United Arab Republic)

52

Table

13. Projected enrolments i technical schools in the n

UnitedArab Republic in the five year plan 1960/61

- 1964/65
1964/65

Type of school

1962/63

1963/64

Technical preparatory

Industrial Agricultural Commercial Mu1 ti-technical Feminine technical

30 401 11 587 88 5 6 900 3 249

33 807 13 432 11 809 1 070 3 858

3 664 7 15 921 14 660 1071 376 3

Technical s econdary

Industrial Agricultural Commercial Domes tic Multi-technical Secondary technical for girls

24 957
11 698 35 710 8 860 288 45 1

2 982 6

2 782 8
15 4 1 6 3 O00 6 93 8 1 28 8 930

13 594 3 10 6 9 8 729
288

682

Technical higher institutes

Industrial Agricultura1 Commercial College of applied arts College of fine arts H o m e economics and embroidery arts

2 523

2 904

256 9 1 984 1168 482

2 856 2 215 1 090 426

510

3 240 3 15 7 246 1 107 9 46 2 45 8

555

Source : U.A.R. Ministry of Education. Educntion in T e n Years. (in Arabic)

53

Table

14. Number

of technical schools and enrolments in the Sudan,

19jj/j6

- 1960/61
1960/61 No.
of schools

1955/56
Level of technical schools
No. of

1956/57
No.

1957/58
No. of

1958/59
No.
of

1959/60
No.

NO. o f

No. of

No. of
enrolments

No. of

No. of
enrolments

NO.of
enrolments

of enrolschools ments schools

enrolments schools

schools

of enrolments schools

Intermediate Post-interinediate Secondary (multitechnical) Higher technical Total

680 69 I61
010

5
4
1 1

680 75 132 129 1027

11 4
1

1 O39
150 225 24; 1657

1 1

12 4
1 1 18

13QO 225
322

12

1413 277

15

1694

4
1 1

4
1 2 21

331
380 717

1
17

325
2 262

351 445
2 46

11

18

3 122

Source: Sudan. Ministry of Education. Education Stafisfics /or the Year 1960/61 (in Arabic), Khartoum, Bureau of Publications, 1961, p. 35.
Table

15. Educalional ladder in lordan, 1960/61

I

17 16

15

14
13
12

11
10

54

Table

16. Number
Kindergarten

of schools in ]ordan, 1960/61

Supervising authority

Primary school

Preparatory school

Gen. sec.
school

Normal school

Agricultural school

Industrial school

Ministry of Education Ministry of Defense Ministry of Social Affairs Wakfs Department Ministry of Agriculture

91 1
8

16 7
2

5 4

76

67 2 7

UNRWA
National Private Foreign

15 4
23

2 4 2 4
115

3
250

3
11

Total

1 7

188

Source: Jordan. Ministry of Education. T h e Annual Report, year 1960/61 (in Arabic), p. 266.

Table 17. Vocational technical schools and enrohenis in Iraq (1957/58 191;0/61)

1957/58
Type of school

19%/ 59

1959 /GO
No. of schools

19GO/G1

No. of
schools

No. of
pupils

No. of
schools

No. of
pupils

No. of pupils

No. of schools

No. of
pupils

Schools attached to the Minisuy of Education Schools not attached to the Ministry of Education

2 9

3 888

3 8

6657

3 8

73 2 8

3 7

7 274

1 9

1 33 7

1 9

1786

22

226 7

22

226 7

Total

48

5 22 6

5 7

8 843

60

9 658

59

9 550

Source: Iraq. Ministry o Education, Report on Education Developmenfs in 1960/ 61, T w e n t y fourth International f Conference of Public Education, G e n e v a , 1961, p. 8.

55

Table 19. Y e m e n i students receiving technical education outside Y e m e n

Country

Field

U.A.R

IRAQ

LEBANON

ITALY

Engineering Commerce Agriculcure H o m e economics Telephone Cotton Postal services Higher technical Secretarial training Broadcasting T elecommunications Road and bridges Technical secondary school teaching

17

56

5
1

3
1 1

3
2

3
4
6
2

Source : Ministry of Education

56

3 3 m
N N
4

w
N w

m T

: :

ZwN N O
N

n
' C I

' n

I
@
rY O 0
3

o * o m c w
v1 A U

2
C

VI

e
O rri

57

W e should like to draw the attention of our readers to the Unesco Coupon Scheme, which may enable them to purchase materials listed in this periodical. Because it is often difficult to send money from country to country for the purchase of books, films, laboratory equipment, etc., Unesco has created a sort of international currency, the UNESCO COUPON. These coupons enable schools, universities, teachers and studeni s in many parts of the world to buy freely the materials which they need for study and research.

Unesco coupons
UNESCO COUPONS
can be used to buy:

UNESCO COUPONS are on sale

in most Member States which have currency restrictions. If you do not know where to obtain coupons, please consult your National Commission for Unesco or write to Unesco, Paris, for the information. The T R A V E L COUPON SCHEME, which is designed t overcome the currency barriers o to educational and cultural travel, is an extension of the Unesco Coupon Scheme described above. Travel Coupons are a form l of in ternati on a t ravel1ers ' cheque. They provide the foreign exchange needed to enable travellers such as students, teachers and research workers to spend time abroad for study or research.

books, periodicals, photocopies, microfilm copies, art reproductions, charts, globes, m a p s , sheet music, gramophone records, the following categories of educational films : (a) screening prints and duplicate prints, (b) original negatives and duplicate negatives ; as well as (c) Ibmm. r a w f l for printing im the above categories of films; various categories of scientific material for education and research, such as : optical instruments, balances and weights, laboratory glass-ware, electrical measuring instruments, analytical and clinical testing apparatus, etc.

Fos /u11 details, please reler to the /allowing explanatory lealets:

which may be obtained upon request / m m the :

UNESCO COUPONS
with separate addenda on

BOOK COUPONS, FILM COUPONS COUPONS FOR SCIENTIFIC MATERIAL

INTRODUCING THE UNESCO TRAVEL COUPON

(containing the addresses o/ the national agencies responsible /or the allocation and issue o/ coupons, a d the banks where they may be cashed) 1

Unesco Coupon Office Place de Fontenoy Paris 7= France

UNESCO PUBLICATIONS: NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORS

AFGHANISTAN: Panuzai, Press Department. Royal Afghan M n s r of Education. KABUL. iity ALBANIA: N. Sh. Botimeve Naim Frasheri. TIRANA. ALGERIA : I s i u pdagogique national,. 11, rue nttt Zatc Zatcha, ALoen. ARGE1 ARGENTINA: Editorial Sudamericana S.A.. Alsina 500. BUENOS ~ E s . A AUSTRALIA: Tradco Agencies, 109 Swanston S . t. G.P.O. Box 2124 V. MELBOURNT C 1 (Victoria); . United Nations Associalioa of Australia. Victorian Division. 8 h Roor. McEwan Hense. 343 L t l t ite co~insSi., M E L B O W ~ W C.I(Victoria).. AUSTRIA: Verlag Georg Fromme & Co.. Spengergasse 39,WIEN 5. BELGIUM: Editions Labor, 142 rue Royale, BRUXELLES 1; N.V. Standaard Boakhandel. B l i l i ege 151. AmERPEN. For The Courier and slides: Louis de Lannoy, a Le Courrier de lUnescon, 112,rue du Trne, RuxELLES. BOLIVIA: Librerla Universitaria, Universidad San Francisco Xavier. apartado 212. SUCRE; Libreria Banet. Loayza 118. casilla 1057. L A PAZ. BRAZIL: Fundacao G l i i Vargas. 186 praia de eilo Botaogo. Ri0 D E JANEtRO, O B ZC-02. LiULGARIA: Raznolznos. I Tzar Assen, SOFIA. B U R M A : Burma Translation Society. 161 Proms Road, RANGWN. C A M B O D I A : Librairie Albert Portail. 14. avenue Boulloche. PHNOM-PEW. C A N A D A : T h e Queens Printer. OITAWA (Ont.). CEYLON: Lake House Bookshop, P.O. Box 244. Lady Lochore Building.100 Parsons Road,COLOMBO 2. CHILE: Editorial Universitaria S.A.. avenida B. OHiggim 1058. casilla 10220, SANTIAGO. For The Courier: Comisin Nacional de la U n ~ o en Chile, alameda B. OHiggins 1611.:3 ps. io SANTIAGO. CHINA: T h e World Book Co. Ltd.. 99 Chungking South Road, Section 1. TAIPEH (Taiwan/Formosa). COLOMBIA: Librerla Buchholz Galeria, avenida Jimnez de Quesada 8-40, BOGOTA; Ediciones Tercer Mundo, apartado areo 4817. BOGOTA; Comit Regional de la Unesco, Universidad Industrial de Santander. BUCARAMANGA; Distrilibros Lid., Pio Alfonso Garcla,calleDonSancho0.00 16-119y 16-125. CARTAGENA; J. Germn Rodriguez N.,o i i a 201, fcn Edificio Banco de Bogot. apartado nacional 83. GIRAnDor; Escuela Interamericana de Bibliolecologia, Universidad de Antioquia, MEDELLIN; Libreria Universitaria,Universidad Pedaggica de Colombia, TUNIA. C O N G O : La Librairie. I s i u politique congolais, nttt B.P. 2107, LBOPOLDVILLE. COSTA RICA: Trejos Hermanos, S.A.,apartado 1313, SAN Josh. o r The Courier: Carlos Valerin Senz & Co. Ltda.. E Palacio de las Revistas. apariado 1294. SAN J a k . I C U B A :Cubartimpex.apanado postal6540.LA HABANA. CYPRUS: Cyprus National Youth Council. P.O. Box 539. NICOS~A. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: SNTL. Spalena 51. PRAHA 1 (Permanent display) Zahranicni literatura. Bilkova 4 . PRAHA 1. D E N M A R K : Ejnar Munksgaard Lid.. Prags Boulb vard 47,KOBENHAVN S. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: Libreria Dominicana,Mercedes 49, apartado de correos 656,SAW DOMINGO. E C U A D O R : Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana, Niicleo del Guayas. Pedro Moncayo y 9 de Octubre. casilla de correo 3542. GUAYAQUIL. EL SALVADOR: Libreria Cultural Salvadorea. SAN SALVADOR ETHIOPIA: International Press Agency. P.O. Box 120. ADDIS ABA0A. FINLAND: Akateeminen Kirjakauppa. 2 Keskuskatu HELSINKI. FRANCE: Librairie de lUnesco,place de Fontenoy. PARlS-7e. CCP 12598-48. F R E N C H W E S T INDIES: Librairie J. Bocage. rue Lavoir. B.P. 208, FORT-DE-FRANCE(Martinique). G E R M A N Y (FED. REP.): R. Oldenbourg Veyias. Unesco-Vertrieb fr Deutschland. Rosenheimei Strasse 145, MOUCHEN 8 . G H A N A : Methodist Book Depot Ltd..Atlantis House, Commercial Street. P.O.BOK 100,CAPECOAST. GREECE: Librairie H. KauKmann. 28, rue du Stade. A~HENEs.

G U A T E M A L A : Comisin Nacional de la Unesco, 6. Calle 9.27. zona I, GUAITMALA. . HAITI: Librairie Al Caravelle, 36,ru Roux, B.P.I I I, a PORT-AU-PRINCE. H O N D U R A S : Librerla Cultura. apartado posial 568. TEGUCIGALPA D.C. HONG KONG: Swindon Book Co., 64 Nathan Road,

NEW

Z E A L A N D : Government Printing Ofice. 20 Molesworth S r c (Private Bag), WELLINGTON; tei Government Bookshops: AUCKLAND (P.O. 5144); Box

CHRISTCHURCH (P.O. Box 1721); DUMDIN (P.O. Box 1104). N I C A R A G U A : Libreria Cultural Nicaragense. calle I5 de Septiembre y avenida Bolivar, apartado Kowi OnN. n. 807. MANAGUA. ._ .. . NIGERIA: C M S (Nigeria) Bookshops. P.O. Box 174. H U N G A R Y : Kultura. P.O.Box 149. BUDAPEST 62. LAGOS. ICELAND: Snaebjrn Jonsson & Co., H.F.. HafnarN O R W A Y : AS. Bokhjornet. L l e Grensen 7 OsLa il . straeti 9. REYKJAVIK. For The Courirr: A.S. Narvesens Litleraturjeneste, INDIA: Orient Longmans Lld.: 1 Chiltaranjan Ave. 7 Storlingsgl. 2. Postboks 115. OSLO., CALCUTTA Nicol Road,Ballard Estate, BOMBAYI: 11; PAKISTAN: The West-Pak Publishing Co. Ltd., Gunfoundry Road, H Y D E R A B A D 1; 36A Mount Road, Unesco Publications House, P.O. Box 374, 56-N M A D R A S 2; Kanson House, 1/24 Asaf A i Road, l Gulberg Industrial Colony, LAHORE. NEW DELHI I. Sub-epnfs: Indian National Commission lor CoP A R A G U A Y : Agencia de Librerias de Salvador operation with Unesco, Ministry ol Education. NEW Nizzn. Yegros.enire 25 de Mayo y Mcal. Estigarribia. 7 DELHI Oxford Book and Stationery Co., 1 Park 3; ASUNCION; Albo Industrial Comercial S.A..Seccin Street. CALCUTTA. and Scindia House. NEW 1 6 Libreria. Gral.Diaz 327, ASUNCION. DELiii. PER U: Distribuidora INCA S.A.. Emilio Altahus N D O N E S I A : P. N. Fadjar Bbakti, Djalan Nusanrara 460 Lince. LIMA 22, DJAKARTA. PHILIPPINES: The Modem Book Co., 508 Riza IRAN: Commission nationale iranienne pour lUnesco. Avenue. M A N I L A avenue du Muse. TEHERAN. POLAND: Orodek. Rorpowszcchniania Wydawnictw IRAQ: McKenzies Bookshop, Ai-Rashid Street, Naukowych PAN. Palac Kuliury i Nauki,WARSZAWA. BAGHDAD. PORTUGAL: Dias Rr Andra de Lda.,Livrnria Portugal. IRELAND: T h e National Press. 2 Wellington Road, riid do Carnio 70,LISDOA. Ballsbridge. DUBLIN. P U E R T O RICO. Spanish English Publicdtions. EleaISRAEL: Blumsteins Bookstores, 35 Allenby Road nor Roosebelt 115. apartado 1912. HATO REY. and 48 Nahlat Benjamin Street,Tu. AWv. R U M A N I A : Caritrnex, Sir. Arkride h a n d 14-IR. ITALY: Libreria Commissionaria Sansoni S.p.A. P.O.Box 134-135.BucunEsn. via Lamarmora 45, casella postale 552. FIRENZE; SENEGAL: La Maison du livre, 13. avenue nounie, Libreria Internazionale RPzoli, Largo Chighi. DAKAR. ROMA; Libreria Zanichelli, Portici del PavaSINGAPORE: See Malaysia. glione.BOLOGNA; Hoepli,via UlricoHoepli i,MILANO; S O U T H AFRICA: Van Schaiks Bookstore (Pty) L d . i. Librairie rancaise,piazza Castello 9,TORINO. L b i Buildmg. Church Street. P.O. BOX 724. ir JAMAICA: SangstersBook Room. 91 Harbour Street. PRETORIA. KINGSTON. S O U I H E R N RHODESIA: The Book Centre. Gordon JAPAN: Maruzen Co. Ltd.. 6 Ton-Nichome,NihonAvenue. SaLlsBunY bashi. P.O.Box 605, Tokyo Central. TOKYO. SPAIN: Libreria Cientifica Medinaceli, D u q u e de J O R D A N : Joseph I. Bahous & Co., Dar-ul-Kutub. Medinaceli 4 M A D R I D1 . . 4 S l Road,P.O.Box 66,AMMAN. at For The Courirr: Ediciones Iberoamericanas S.A. K E N Y A : ESA Bookshop, P.O. Box 30167, NAIROBI. calle de Oaie IT. MADRID. K O R E A : Korean National Commission or Uncsco, S U D A N : Ai ashir Booksliop. P.O. Box 1118. P.O.Box Cenrral 64,SEOUL. KHARTOUM. LEBANON: Librairie Dar Al-Maref Liban, S.A.r.L.. S W E D E N : A/B C.E. F i z u Kungl. Hovbokhandel, rte immeuble Esseily. 10 tage. place Riad El-Solh. Fredsgatan 2. STOCKHOLM 16. B.P.2320, BEYROUIH. For The Criurwr: Svenska Unescordet, Vasagatan LIBERIA: Cole &Yancv Bookshops Lld..P.O. Box 286 15-17.STOCKHOI C. 61 MONROVIA. SWITZERLAND: Europa Verlag. Rmisirasse 5, LIBYA: Orient Bookshop, P.O. Box 255. TRIPOLI. ZtlRICH; Riyol, 40. rue d u March. GENkVe. LIECHTENSTEIN: Eurocan T u t Reg.. P.O.B. 124. rs SYRIA: Librairie internationale Avicenne, boite posSCHAAN. tale 2456, DAMAS. L U X E M B O U R G : Librairie Pau IBruck 22 Grand-Rue. T A N G A N Y I K A : Dar es Salaam Bookshop, P.O. LUXEMBOURG. Box 9030, D m ES SALAAM. M A D A G A S C A R : Commission nationaie de la R6puTHAILAND: Suksapan Panit, Mansion 9, Rajdamnern blic malgache, Ministbre de I6ducation nationale. Avenue, BANGKOK. TANANARIVE.The Courier : Service des uvres For a T U R K E Y : Librairie Hachette, 469 Istiklal Caddesi. post el pri-scolaires.Ministre de lducation natio. Beyoglii. ISTANBUL. naie. TANANARIVE. U G A N D A : Uganda Bookshop,P.O.Box 145,KAMPALA, M A L A Y S I A Federal Publications Lid., Times U.S.S.R.: Metbdunarodnaja Kniga. MOSKVA G-200. House, River Valley Road, SINGAPORE. UNITED A R A D REPUBLIC: Librairie Kasr E N l I i. 18 rue Kasr E Nil,CAIRO. I M A L T A : Sapienzay Library. 26 Kingsway. VALLETTA. Sui-drpur: La Renaissance dEgypte. Sh.Adly Pasha. 9 MAURITIUS: Nalanda Co, Lld.. 10 Bourbon Street, CAIRO (Egypt). PORT-Louis. UNITED K I N G D O M : H.M. Stationery Office,P.O. Box 569, London, S.E.I. Government bookshops: MEXICO: Editorial Hermea. Ignacio Marisca 41. Manchester. London, Belfast. Birmingham. Cardiff. Edinburgh, Mxico D.F. M O N A C O : B i i h Library, 10. boulevard des Moulins. ris UNITED STATES O F AMERICA: Unesco PubliMONTE-CARLO. cations Center (NAIP). 317 East 341h S . NEW t, M O R O C C O : Libririe . Aux brllesimnges . ZYI. a v b YORK, I0016 andexcepi Jorperiodicals:Columbia N.Y. nue hlohmmed V. RABAT (CCP 47.69.) University Press,2960 Broadway.N E W YORK 27. N.Y. For ?he Courier (for le<rrhers): Commission natioU R U G U A Y : Representacin de Editoriales, plaza nale marocaine pour lUnesco, Zenkat Mourabitine. 20. Cagancba 1342. l.er piso. MONTEV~DEO. RABAT (CCP 107.63). VENEZUELA: Libreria Polifcnica.calle V l a l r l c l ilfo, oa A, al lado General Electric. Saband Grande,CARACAS; MOZAMBIQUE: Salema and Carvalho Ltda.. caixa Libreria Cruz del Sur, Centro Comercial del E t . se p s a 192. BEIRA. oti l c l I l apartado 10223, Sabana Grande, CARACAS; oa NETHERLANDS: N.V. Martinus Nijhoff, Lange OficinaPublicaciones de la Unesco, Gobernador a Voorhoui 9, s-GRAVENHAGE. Caniliio n.o 3 . apartado p s a n.o 8092. CARACAS; 7 otl N E T H E R L A N D S ANTILLES: ti. C. T. Van Dorp Libreria Selecta. avenida 3, n.O 23-21. M ~ D A . snd Co. (Ned. Ant.) N.V.. WILLEMSTAD (Curacao. VIET-NAM : Librairie-papeterie XuBn-Thu, 185-193 N.A.). rue Tu-Do,B.P.283, SAIGON. N E W CALEDONIA: Reprex, avenue de la Victoire, YUGOSLAVIA: Jugoslovenska Kniiga, Teraziie 2 7 Immeuble Painbouc, NOUMIA. BEOCRAD.

__

E- $0.75 ; 4/-(stg.); 2021

3F