T h e In st r um en t at io n

Am p lifier H an d b o o k
Including Applications
Neil P. Albaugh
Burr- Brown Corporation
Tucson, Arizona
DRAFT COPY
Contents:
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIERS 2-1
Over view 2-1
THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE SENSOR 2-2
Error Sources 2-5
AMPLIFIER TOPOLOGIES 3-1
The D i fference Amp lifier 3-1
The Classical Three Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier 3-3
Internal vs. External Gain Setting Resistors 3-7
The Two Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier 3-8
AVOIDING INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER PITFALLS 4-1
Input Bias Current Effects 4-1
Avoiding the Reference Pin Trap 4-5
A Common Mistake: Floating Inputs 4-8
Common- Mode Voltage Limitations 4-11
Calculating Common Mode Voltage Range Painlessly 4-12
Maintaining Truth In Output 4-18
Noise Filtering The IA Input The Wrong WayMaking A Bad Situation Worse 4-20
SOLVING THE GROUND LOOP PROBLEM 5-1
What Are Ground Loops? 5-1
Op Amps and Ground Loops 5-1
Instrumentation Amplifiers and Ground Loops 5-2
OFFSET VOLTAGE TRIM 5-3
Trimming Offset Voltage At The Input 5-3
Trimming Offset Voltage Using REF Pin 5-4
BOOSTING THE OUTPUT 5-4
Driving Heavy Loads : The Wrong Way 5-4
Driving Heavy Loads : The Right Way 5-5
APPLICATION CIRCUITS: GENERAL 6-1
A +/ -20V Input Diff Amp With +/ -200V CMV Applications Circuit 6-1
Two and Three Op Amp IA Applications 6-3
Difference Amplifier Applications In Single- Ended Circuits 6-3
APPLICATIONS CIRCUITS: AUDIO 6-10
Low Noise Applications 6-10
Low Distortion Applications 6-11
DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER INPUT RESISTANCE 6-12
APPLICATIONS CIRCUITS: CURRENT MEASUREMENT 7-1
Current Shunts 7-1
Low-Side Current Sensing 7-2
High- Side Current Sensing 7-5
MICROPOWER & BATTERY - POWERED APPLICATIONS 8-1
Single Supply Considerations 8-1
Minimizing Supply Current 8-4
APPLICATIONS CIRCUITS: UNUSUAL 8-7
Extending Common Mode Range To 1kV 8-7
An Adjustable Gain Difference Amplifier 8-8
Advantages Of Assymmetrical Power Supplies 8-10
VLF & LF Loop Antenna Amplifiers 8-10
APPLICATIONS CIRCUITS: OPTOELECTRONICS 8-10
Differential Photodetectors (Edge Detectors) 8-10
X-Y Position (Quadrant) Detectors 8-10
CW Diode Laser Current Driver 8-10
SELECTING YOUR INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER 9-1
Sensor Source Impedance Considerations 9-1
Very High Impedance Sensor 9-1
Very Low Impedance Sensor 9-3
Power Supply Constraints 9-3
Common Mode Voltage Range Requirements 9-4
Improving Common Mode Rejection 9-4
Bandwidth And Settling Time 9-9
Noise And Distortion 9-10
Rail- To- Rail Input & Output Swing 9-12
RFI PROBLEMS 10-1
Input Rectification- the Most Common Problem 10-1
Typical Instrumentation Amplifier Swept- Power RFI Tests 10-2
Input RFI Filtering 10-4
Other RFI Considerations 10-9
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS CIRCUITS 11-1
Absolute- Value Amplifier 11-1
AVOIDING DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER PITFALLS 12-1
Adding External ResistorsDont!! 12-1
Adding External ResistorsSometimes? 12-4
TABLE OF FI GURES
F I G U R E 2 - 1 . A B L A C K B O X R E P R E S E N T A T I O N O F A N I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R 2 - 1
F I G U R E 2 - 2 . (A . ) C O N V E N T I O N A L B R I D G E C I R C U I T
( B . ) R E D R A W N B R I D G E C I R C U I T 2 - 2
F I G U R E 2 - 3 . B A L A N C E D B R I D G E G E N E R A T E S C M V B U T N O D I F F E R E N T I AL O U T P U T V O L T A G E 2 - 2
F I G U R E 2 - 4 . U N B A L A N C E D B R I D G E G E N E R A T E S A D I F F E RE N T I A L O U T P U T VO L T A G E 2 - 4
F I G U R E 2 - 5 . A M O D E L O F I N P U T - R E F E R R E D A M P L I F I E R E R R O R S 2 - 7
F I G U R E 3 - 1 . T H E U N I T Y- G A I N D I F F E R E N C E A M P L I F I E R 3 - 1
F I G U R E 3 - 2 . T H E C L A S S I C A L T H R E E O P A M P I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R 3 - 3
F I G U R E 3 - 3 . T H R E E O P A M P I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R G A I N A N A L Y SI S 3 - 5
F I G U R E 3 - 4 . T H R E E O P A M P I A C O M M O N M O D E V O L T A G E A N A LYSI S 3 - 6
F I G U R E 3 - 5 . T H E T W O O P A M P I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R 3 - 8
F I G U R E 3 - 6 . T W O O P A M P I A G A I N A N A LYSI S 3 - 9
F I G U R E 3 -7 . T W O O P A M P I A C O M M O N M O D E R E JE C T I O N A N A L YS I S 3 -1 1
F I G U R E 4 - 1 . A N U N S U I T A B L E I A C H O I C E F O R A H I G H I M P E D A N C E T R A N S D U C E R 4 - 1
F I G U R E 4 - 2 . H O W T O R U I N Y O U R C M R B Y D R I V I N G T H E I A R E F E R E N C E P I N I N C O R R E C T L Y 4 - 6
F I G U R E 4 - 3 . O F F SE T T I N G A N I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R BY D R I V I N G I T S R E F E R E N C E
P I N C O R R E C T L Y 4 - 7
F I G U R E 4 -4 . W H A T ' S W R O N G W I T H T H I S C I R C U I T ? H I N T : W H E R E D O E S T H E B I A S C U R R E N T
C O M E F R O M ? 4 - 8
F I G U R E 4 - 5 . A D D I N G B I A S C U R R E N T R E T U R N R E S I ST O R S S O L VE T H E P R O B L E M 4 - 9
F I G U R E 4 - 6 . I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R I N P U T B I A S C U R R E N T C A N A L S O B E R E T U R N E D
T O G R O U N D T H R O U G H A N I N D U C T I V E S O U R C E 4 -1 0
F I G U R E 4 - 1 1 . C M V P L O T R E VE A L S T H E E F F E C T S O F G A I N (A . ) 1 0 0 V / V (B . ) 1V/ V 4 -1 4
F I G U R E 4 - 1 2 . D I ST I N C T I V E C M V R A N G E S H A P E S (A . ) T H R E E O P A M P I A, ( B. ) T W O O P A M P I A 4 -1 5
F I G U R E 4 - 1 3 . T E N VO L T S A P P L I E D T O T H E R E F E R E N C E P I N M O D I F I E S C M V R A N G E
( A . ) T H R E E O P A M P I A
( B . ) T W O O P A M P I A 4 -1 6
F I G U R E 4 - 1 4 . L O W S U P P L Y VO L T A G E S M U S T B E U SE D W I T H C A U T I O N !
( A . ) U N U S E B L E T H R E E O P A M P C M V R A N G E
( B . ) A L A R G E R T W O O P A M P C M V R A N G E 4 -1 8
F I G U R E 4 - 1 5 . N O I SE A N D R F I F I LT E R I N G - - T H E W R O N G W A Y 4 -2 1
F I G U R E 4 - 1 6 . W O R S T - C A S E M I S M A T C H E D - P O L E R F I F I LT E R S W I T H 1 % R E S I S T O R S A N D 5 %
C A P A C I T O R S 4 -2 2
F I G U R E 4 - 1 7 . M I S M A T C H E D N O I S E F I L T E R C O M P O N E N T S C R E A T E M I S M A T C H E D C M V L O W
P A S S F I LT E R P O L E S 4 -2 2
F I G U R E 4 - 1 8 . D I F F E R E N T I AL V O L T A G E C R E A T E D BY M I S M A T C H E D C O M M O N M O D E L O W
P A S S F I LT E R P O L E S 4 -2 3
F I G U R E 4 - 1 9 . C M V F R E Q U E N C Y R E S P O N S E O F A N I N A 1 1 8 I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R
W I T H M I S M A T C H E D C O M M O N M O D E L O W P A S S F I L T E R P O L E S 4 -2 3
F I G U R E 4 - 2 0 . A N I M P R O V E D M E T H O D O F I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R I N P U T N O I SE
F I LT E R I N G 4 -2 4
F I G U R E 4 - 2 1 . F R E Q U E N C Y R E S P O N S E O F A N I N A 1 1 8 I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R W I T H
M I S M A T C H E D " I M P R O V E D " N O I SE R E JE C T I O N F I L T E R 4 -2 5
F I G U R E 5 - 1 . D R I V I N G A H E A VY L O A D T H E R I G H T W AY 5 - 6
F I G U R E 6 - 1 . A N E X T E R N A L O P A M P B O O S T S T H E I N A 1 1 7 D I F F E RE N C E I N P U T R A N G E T O + / -2 0 V
B U T S T I L L H A N D L E S + / - 2 0 0 V C O M M O N M O D E V O L T A G E S 6 - 1
F I G U R E 6 - 2 . E V E N W I T H T H E 0 P A 2 7 O P A M P F E E D B A C K C I R C U I T G A I N O F 0 . 5V/ V A N D 1 0 0 0 P F
L O A D , T H E S T A B I LI T Y O F T H E I N A 1 1 7 C I R C U I T I S E X C E L L E N T . 6 - 2
F I G U R E 6 - 3 . (A . ) A P R E C I SI O N G A I N O F -1 .0 0 0 V/ V
( B . ) P R E C I SI O N G A I N O F + 2 .0 0 0 V/ V 6 - 4
F I G U R E 6 -4 . A D I F F E R E N C E A M P L I F I E R C O N N E C T E D A S
( A . ) A N A V E R A G E V A L U E A M P L I F I E R
( B . ) A 2 -I N P U T S U M M I N G A M P L I F I E R 6 - 5
F I G U R E 6 - 5 . A P R E C I SI O N G A I N O F + 0 .5 0 0 V / V. 6 - 6
F I G U R E 6 - 6 . A D I F F E R E N T I A L I N P U T / D I F F E R E N T I A L O U T P U T A M P L I F IE R . 6 - 7
F I G U R E 6 - 7 . A N A M P L I F I E R W I T H A C O N T I N U O U S L Y A D J U S T A B L E G A I N R A N G E O F - 1 .0 0 0 V/ V
T O + 1 .0 0 0 V/ V 6 - 8
F I G U R E 6 - 8 . A D D I N G A S W I T C H T O A D I F F E R E N C E A M P L I F I E R C R E A T E S T U R N S I T I N T O A
SY N C H R O N O U S D E T E C T O R , A .K .A . P H A S E SE N SI T I VE D E T E C T O R . 6 - 9
F I G U R E 6 - 9 . S C H E M A T I C C A P T U R E D R A W I N G : SI M U L A T E D U N I T Y-G A I N D I F F E R E N C E
A M P L I F I E R W I T H T W O I N D E P E N D E N T S I G N A L S O U R C E S 6 -1 2
F I G U R E 6 - 1 0 . U N E X P E C T E D B E H A VI O R ? D I F F E R E N C E A M P L I F I E R I N P U T S E X H I BI T " D I F F E R E N T "
L O A D I N G O F T H E I R R E SP E C T I V E S I G N A L S O U R C E S 6 -1 3
F I G U R E 6 - 1 1 . I S T H E I N P U T L O A D I N G O F T H I S C I R C U I T B E T T E R T H A N F I G U R E 6 - 1 0 ? 6 -1 4
F I G U R E 7 - 1 . (A . ) H I G H SI D E C U R R E N T S H U N T
( B . )L O W SI D E C U R R E N T S H U N T 7 - 1
F I G U R E 7 - 2 . S H U N T R E S I S T O R K E L VI N C O N N E C T I O N 7 - 2
F I G U R E 7 - 3 . D I F F E R E N T I A L SE N SI N G O F T H E V O L T A G E D R O P A C R O S S A L O W - S I D E S H U N T
R E S I ST O R M I N I M I Z E S G R O U N D L O O P E R R O R S 7 - 3
F I G U R E 7 - 4 . A L T E R N A T I V E C O N N E C T I O N O F S H U N T R E S I S T O R . R E : F I G U R E 7 - 3 . 7 - 4
F I G U R E 7 - 5 . L O W - S I D E S H U N T A M P L I F I E R W I T H SI N G L E S U P P L Y 7 - 5
F I G U R E 7 -6 . H I G H A C C U R A C Y C U R R E N T M E A S U R E M E N T W I T H U P T O 2 0 0 V C O M M O N M O D E
V O L T A G E 7 - 6
F I G U R E 7 - 7 . A C C U R A T E L O W C U R R E N T M E A S U R E M E N T S W I T H U P T O + / -2 00V C O M M O N
M O D E V O L T A G E 7 - 8
F I G U R E 8 - 1 . A F A S T R - R S I N G L E S U P P L Y I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R W I T H A G A I N O F
1 0 0 V/ V 8 - 2
F I G U R E 8 - 2 . C M O S I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R S W I N G S T O W I T H I N 1 0 M V O F T H E S U P P L Y
R A I L S 8 - 3
F I G U R E 8 - 3 . A 1 K V C M V D I F F E R E N T I A L A M P L I F I E R M A D E W I T H A P R E C I SI O N 1 0 0 :1 VO L T A G E
D I V I D E R A D D E D T O A N I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R . 8 - 8
F I G U R E 8 - 4 . A D I F F E R E N T R E S I S T O R N E T W O R K P L U S A N O P A M P YI E L D S A N A D J U S T A B L E -
G A I N D I F F E R E N C E A M P L I F I E R 8 - 8
F I G U R E 8 - 5 . A D D I N G G A I N T O C O M P E N S A T E F O R A N I N P U T V O L T A G E D IV I D E R YIE L D S A
U N I T Y G A I N D I F F E R E N C E A M P L I F I E R W I T H A 5 0 V C O M M O N M O D E V O L T A G E
R A N G E . 8 -1 0
F I G U R E 9 - 1 . A M P L I F I E R F O R P H M E A S U R E M E N T 9 - 2
F I G U R E 9 - 2 . (A . ) D I F F E R E N C E A M P L I F I E R C M R T R I M
( B . ) A L T E R N A T E C M R T R I M 9 - 5
F I G U R E 9 - 3 . C M R T R I M M I N G A C L A S S I C A L I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R W I T H A N E G A T I V E
I M P E D A N C E C O N V E R T E R 9 - 6
F I G U R E 9 --4 . M I R R O R I M A G E A M P L I F I E R E X T E N D S H I G H F R E Q U E N C Y C M R O F T W O O P A M P
I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R S . 9 - 7
F I G U R E 9 - 5 . M E A S U R E D C M R O F A M I R R O R - I M A G E I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R V S
. SI N G L E I N A 1 2 6 . 9 - 8
F I G U R E 9 - 6 . U N I T Y G A I N D I F F E R E N C E A M P L I F I E R C O M M O N M O D E R A N G E A U T O M A T I C A L L Y
F O L L O W S H I G H - S I D E S H U N T VO L T A G E 9 -1 3
F I G U R E 9 - 7 . (A . ) I N A 1 3 2 C O M M O N M O D E R A N G E W I T H + 1 2 / -5 V D C S U P P L I E S
( B . ) I N A 1 3 2 C O M M O N M O D E R A N G E W I T H + 2 8 / -5 V D C S U P P L I E S 9 -1 3
F I G U R E 9 - 8 . A R A I L-T O - R A I L I N P U T A N D R A I L-T O - R A I L O U T P U T I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N
A M P L I F I E R W I T H A G A I N O F 1 0 V/ V 9 -1 4
F I G U R E 9 - 9 . O P A 3 4 0 I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R R A I L-T O - R A I L O U T P U T S W I N G I N T O A
1 0 K L O A D W I T H V
S
= t2 . 5V D C A N D V
I N
= 2 5 0 M V P - P . 9 -1 5
F I G U R E 1 0 - 1 . I -V C U R V E S F O R G E R M A N I U M A N D S I L I C O N D I O D E S . 1 0 - 2
F I G U R E 1 0 - 2 . UNFILTERED I N A 1 2 9 I N P U T O F F SE T S H I F T : N O T E + 2 0 0 , - 7 0 0 M V V E R T I C A L S C A L E . 1 0 -3
F I G U R E 1 0 - 3 . UNFILTERED I N P U T I N A 1 2 9 R F I T E S T C I R C U I T . 1 0 -4
F I G U R E 1 0 - 4 . O N E A P P R O A C H T O I N P U T R F I F I LT E R I N G T H E A D F I L T E R . 1 0 -5
F I G U R E 1 0 - 5 . I N P U T O F F SE T S H I F T W I T H A N A L O G D E V I C E S F I LT E R : N O T E t 5 M V V E R T I C A L
S C A L E . 1 0 -5
F I G U R E 1 0 - 6 . A N I M P R O VE D A L L P A S S I V E I N P U T F I L T E R - - D U B B E D T H E B B F I L T E R . . 1 0 -6
F I G U R E 1 0 - 7 . I N P U T O F F SE T S H I F T W I T H I M P R O VE D B B F I L T E R : N O T E t 2 M V V E R T I C A L
S C A L E . 1 0 -7
F I G U R E 1 0 - 8 . R F I T E S T C I R C U I T S F O R M E A S U R I N G O F F SE T S H I F T O F I N A 1 2 9 W I T H A D L PF. 1 0 -8
F I G U R E 1 0 - 9 . R F I T E S T C I R C U I T S F O R M E A S U R I N G O F F S E T S H I F T O F I N A 1 2 9 W I T H B B L P F . 1 0 -8
F I G U R E 1 1 - 1 . U N I T Y G A I N A B S O L U T E V A L U E C I R C U I T P OSIT IV E O U T P U T 1 1 -1
F I G U R E 1 1 - 2 . A B S O L U T E -VA L U E C I R C U I T I N P U T (B O T T O M C U R VE ) V S. O U T P U T ( T O P C U R V E )
T R A N SF E R F U N C T I O N . T H E A M P L I F I E R S O U T P U T I S A L W A YS P O S I T I V E . 1 1 -2
F I G U R E 1 2 - 1 . H O W T O R U I N Y O U R D I F F E R E N C E A M P L I F I E R S C O M M O N M O D E R E JE C T I O N
A D D E X T E R N A L R E S I ST O R S 1 2 -1
F I G U R E 1 2 - 2 . C I R C U I T D I A G R A M T O I N VE ST I G A T E E F F E C T S O F A D D I N G E X T E R N A L R E S I ST O R S
T O A R A T I O - T R I M M E D D I F F E R E N C E A M P L I F I E R 1 2 -2
F I G U R E 1 2 - 3 . T H E O R E T I C A L C M R W I T H A N D W I T H O U T E X T E R N A L 4 0 K R E S I ST O R S A B I G
D I F F E R E N C E 1 2 -3
TABLES
T A B L E 4 - 1 . R E SI ST O R % M A T C H R E Q U I R E D T O A C H I E VE C M R . 4 - 6
T A B L E 8 - 1 C E L L D A T A F O R B A T T E R I E S C O M M O N L Y U SE D I N P O R T A B L E E L E C T R O N I C
I N S T R U M E N T S 8 - 5
T A B L E 8 - 2 . A F E W D E V I C E S T H A T A R E R E C O M M E N D E D F O R S I N G L E S U P P L Y O R B A T T E R Y
O P E R A T E D I N S T R U M E N T A P P L I C A T I O N S 8 - 6
T A B L E 9 - 1 . A S E L E C T I O N O F I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R S A N D D I F F E R E N C E A M P L I F I E R S 9 - 4
T A B L E 9 - 2 . I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N A M P L I F I E R S A N D D I F F E R E N C E A M P L I F I E R S R E C O M M E N D E D
F O R A U D I O A P P L I C A T I O N S 9 -1 1
T A B L E 1 0 - 1 R F I N P U T P O W E R T O R F I N P U T VO L T A G E C O N VE R S I O N T A B L E 1 0 -7
Inst rument at ion Amplifiers
Overview
The term instrumentation amplifier is properly used to describe a category of true differential-
input amplifiers that emphasize high common mode rejection (CMR) and accuracy. Although
both instrumentation amplifiers and difference amplifiers use op amps as basic architectural
building blocks, they are distinctly different from their op amp cousins.
Op amps are single-ended and they are usually intended to operate in a variety of
applications-- with their feedback determining their functions. Instrumentation amplifiers and
difference amplifiers are used primarily to provide differential gain and common mode
rejection. Employing feedback from output to input is not intended.
In some instances this term has been widely misused and this has created confusion as to the
correct definition of an instrumentation amplifier (IA). In the early days of monolithic
operational amplifiers, one well-known vendor referred to their new precision op amp as an
instrumentation amplifier. What they meant to say was that it was an instrumentation-grade
op amp.
In addition, large laboratory bench-top amplifiers and even traveling- wave tube (microwave)
amplifiers have been called instrumentation amplifiers. It is not surprising, then, that so much
confusion exists about what an IA really is and what it does.
Most common IAs are one of three types: the simple Difference Amplifier, the Two Op
Amp Instrumentation Amplifier, and the Classical Three Op Amp Instrumentation
Amplifier architecture. As we shall see, these three architectures are interrelated but their
performance differs in certain important aspects. For now, lets just think of the IA as a black
box differential amplifier.
-
+
Inverting
Input
Non- inverting
Input
Output
+Vs
-Vs
Figure 2- 1. A "Black Box" Representation of an Instrumentation Amplifier.
The Wheat st one Bridge Sensor
To better understand the instrumentation amplifier and why its high common- mode rejection
is so important, lets take a look at one of the most common transducers in use todaythe
Wheatstone Bridge. While the usual way of depicting the bridge circuit is shown the diagram of
Figure 2a, it can be redrawn (Figure 2b) to show that the bridge is nothing more than two
voltage dividers driven by a single voltage (Vex) or current ( Iex) excitation source.

R1
R2
R3
R4
R1 R3
R2 R4
Vex Vex
Figure 2- 2. (a.) Conventional Bridge Circuit. (b.) Redrawn Bridge Circuit.
Lets look at an example of a Wheatstone Bridge sensor with zero input stimulus (pressure,
temperature, force, etc.):
R1 R3
R2 R4
5k
5k
5k
5k
I1 I2
V1 V2
10 V
V
ex
At zero applied force the sensor
bridge is balanced and
I
V
R R
ex
1
1 2

+
I
V
R R
ex
2
3 4

+
V I R 1 1 2
V I R 2 2 4 V2 5 + V
V1 5 + V
I1 1 mA
I 2 1 mA
R R R R 1 2 3 4
Vex +10V
so:
Figure 2- 3. Balanced Bridge Generates CMV But No Differential Output Voltage.
With no stimulus applied to the sensor, all arms of the bridge are equal and R1= R2= R3= R4.
The current in one side of the bridge is :
I
V
R R
ex
1
1 2

+
, I1
10
5 5

+
V
k k
, I1 1 mA, (1)
On the other side of the bridge:
I
V
R R
ex
2
3 4

+
, I 2
10
5 5

+
V
k k
, I 2 1 mA (2)
The output voltage (V1) on one side of the bridge is:
V I R 1 1 2 , V1 5 1mA k , V1 5 V with respect to ground. (3)
Similarly, the output voltage (V2) on the other side of the bridge is:
V I R 2 2 4 , V2 5 1mA k , V2 5 V with respect to ground. (4)
The sensor output is the voltage difference (V) between the two sides of the bridge. At zero
applied stimulus, the bridge differential output voltage is zero:
V V V 1 2 , V 5 5 V V, V 0V (5)
The problem for our amplifier is that V is measured by subtracting (taking the difference of)
one large voltage V2 from another large voltage V1. Since these large voltages (V1 and V2)
appear on both sides of the bridge, they are in common, while the desired bridge output
voltage ( V ) perhaps only a few microvoltsappears as a differential output measured
between the sides (legs) of the bridge.
The Wheatstone Bridge was an early example of a ratiometric measurement. Ironically,
pioneer physicists were not inconvenienced by the presence of common mode voltage on the
bridge. The only sensitive measuring instrument available to them was the galvanometer, which
was simply connected to each side of the Wheatstone Bridge. Fortunately, this also provided a
floating measurement of the bridge differential output voltage. The entire galvanometer was at
the voltage divider potential.
Modern ground-referenced amplifiers have greatly increased the sensitivity of bridge
measurements over those made by the old galvanometer method but, since they are not
floating like the old galvanometers, they have also introduced a common mode voltage
(CMV) limitation to the measurement. Ground-referenced IAs and difference amplifiers have
specified operating limits on CMVlinear operation is possible only within these limits and
permanent damage can occur if operated beyond the Absolute Maximum device ratings.
A stimulus applied to the sensor will change the resistance of one or more resistors (arms) of the
bridge. Most sensor designs now employ a four active arm design as it maximizes the
sensitivity and linearity of the bridge sensor. Early sensor designs employed only one or two
active arms but they are not frequently encountered in modern systems.
In the four active arm type of bridge, force is applied so that when R1 increases, R4 also
increases and R2 and R3 both decrease. In this way, the voltage on one side of the bridge
increases while the voltage on the other side decreases a corresponding amount.
Lets consider an example where a small stimulus is applied to the sensor, causing the bridge to
be unbalanced, so that R1= R4= 4.999K and R2= R3= 5.001K.
Since the total resistance on each side of the bridge (R1+R2 on one side and R3+R4 on the
other) remains constant at 10K, the current in each side will still be 1mA. From Equations (3)
and (4) above:
V1= 5.001V , and V2= 4.999V.
Using Equation (5), the bridge differential output voltage is : V = 2mV.
R1 R3
R2 R4
4.999k
5.001k
5.001k
4.999k
I1 I2
V1 V2
10 V
V
ex
With applied force the sensor
bridge is unbalanced and
I
V
R R
ex
1
1 2

+
I
V
R R
ex
2
3 4

+
V I R 1 1 2
V I R 2 2 4
I1 1 mA
I 2 1 mA
Vex +10V
so: R R 1 4 and R R 2 3
V2 5001 + . V
V1 4 999 + . V
Figure 2- 4. Unbalanced Bridge Generates A Differential Output Voltage.
Calculating the CMV reveals that although the bridge is unbalanced its CMV has not changed:
CMV
V V

+ 1 2
2
, CMV
+ 5001 4 999
2
. . V V
, CMV 5V (6)
The task of our differential amplifier is to provide adequate gain (G) to amplify the bridge
sensors 2mV output (Vin) to whatever level is required by the following stage ( Vout).
In this example, let us choose a level of 1V full-scale:
G
V
V
out
in
, G
1
2
V
mV
, so the required amplifier gain G 500V V (7)
E rror Sources
Real- world instrumentation amplifiers are not ideal devices and the error contributions of their
non- ideal parameters must be considered.
Serious measurement errors can occur if an amplifier exhibits poor common mode rejection.
These CMR errors are caused by a shift in the amplifiers input offset voltage ( Vos) due to the
applied CMV. Common mode rejection is defined by:
CMR
CMV
Vos
20 log

(8)
To illustrate the importance of amplifier common- mode rejection and its contribution to
measurement error, lets assume an amplifier Common Mode Rejection specification of 80 dB.
By rearranging Equation (8), the CMR error can be calculated:
V CMV os
CMR

_
,

10
20
, Vos

_
,

5 10
80
20
V
dB
, Vos

5 10
4
V ,
Vos 500V
Clearly, a 500uV error on a 2mV signal is not acceptable; our amplifier needs far higher CMR.
An amplifier with a 100 dB CMR specification will reduce the input offset shift due to CMV to
50uV, which may be a more acceptable error of 2.5%. Reducing this error by another decade
will require another 20 dB of CMR from the amplifier.
Instrumentation amplifiers are optimized for the high precision requirements of this type of
application. Not every instrumentation amplifier can achieve this high level of performance,
however. Only the best devices can achieve CMR specifications of 120 dBa high figure indeed.
A premium performance device like the Burr- Brown INA128 is specified to have 120 dB
minimum and 130 dB typical Common Mode Rejection at the high gain required by our
sensors small output signal.
Other error terms such as input offset voltage and drift, power supply rejection (PSR), and
input bias current will also contribute to the amplifiers total measurement error. Needless to
say, we wish to minimize these measurement errors so we must select an amplifier with adequate
performance specs in all areas.
Power supply rejection errors are caused by a shift in the amplifiers input offset voltage ( Vos)
due a ch a n g e in supply voltage. Power supply rejection is defined by:
PSR
V
V
s
os
20 log

(9)
Power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) is also frequently specified in a data sheet (instead of PSR)
as a direct change in Vos per volt of supply voltage change:
t V V os s , usually as V V . (10)
To illustrate amplifier power supply rejection and its contribution to measurement error, lets
assume that we have a +/ -15V amplifier thats being operated on +/ -12V supplies and has a
power supply rejection specification is 80 dB. By rearranging Equation (9), the PSR error can be
calculated:
V V os s
PSR

_
,

10
20
, ( ) Vos

_
,

15 10
80
20
V- 12V
dB
, Vos

3 10
4
V , Vos 300V
Once again we find that a 300uV error on a 2mV signal is not acceptable; our amplifier needs
far higher PSR. An amplifier with a 100 dB CMR specification will reduce the input offset shift
due to CMV to 30uV.
Input offset voltage is an error source that can be easily calculated: Vos is an input- referred
specification (like CMR and PSR) so the IA offset voltage can simply be added to the
differential signal voltage at the instrumentation amplifiers input. Input offset voltage drift is
the change in Vos per degree Celsius change in ambient temperature. Drift error is treated in
the same manner as input offset voltage error. Both signal and all input- referred errors (such as
Vos, drift, CMR, and PSR) are multiplied by the gain of the amplifier but at the amplifiers
output, the ratio of the signal to errors remains constant, however.
Instrumentation amplifiers may have input- referred specifications that contain gain dependent
equations rather than the simpler and more familiar single value specs found in op amp and
diff amp data sheets. There is a good reason for this as we will see later.
Input bias current (Ib) flowing through the amplifiers source resistance generates an additional
offset voltage that must be added to the input errors. High impedance signal sources can cause
serious offset problems with bipolar transistor input IAs. In these applications low bias current
FET- input amplifiers are recommended to minimize Ib errors with very high source resistances.
The circuit shown in Figure 5 can model input errors. Total IA error is the sum of all
individual errors.
-
+
Output
+Vs
-Vs
Vos Vos CMR PSR
Ib +
Ib
Vsig
2
Vsig
2
GAIN
Rs
Rs
Figure 2- 5. A Model Of Input- Referred Errors.
An error analysis is performed by considering the amplifiers operating temperature range,
power supply regulation, common- mode voltage, source resistance, and gain. For a worst- case
(albeit pessimistic) analysis, use the min/ max specs in the amplifiers data sheet. An analysis of
more likely real world errorssince all parameters are unlikely to be at their spec limit at the
same timeis performed with the data sheet typical specs.
How reliable the typical specs are depends, to some degree, on the vendors integrity but as
most characterization measurements are made when the product is first put into production,
any process changes incorporated in the course of normal manufacturing may have skewed the
statistical distribution from the original tests . Bear in mind that using typical specifications
entails some risk; typicals are not guaranteed because no semiconductor manufacturer can
guarantee the statistical distribution of his yields will remain invariant for all time. Only the
data sheet min/ max specs are guaranteed.
Amplifier Topologies
The Difference A mplifier
Le t s t a k e a lo o k i n t o o u r B lac k Bo x . T h e s im p lest f o r m o f i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r is t h e
D if f e r e n c e A m p lif ier
1
, a n o p a m p w it h f o u r p r e c is io n r esist o r s a s sh o w n i n F ig u r e 6 .
+
+Vs
-Vs
R1
R2
R3
R4
Inverting
Input
Non-Inverting
Input
Reference
Output
For Unity Gain: R1= R2= R3= R4
Vninv V2
V1 Vinv
Vo
Figure 3- 1. The Unity- Gain Difference Amplifier.
T h e i n p u t ( R 1 ) a n d f eed b a c k ( R 2 ) r es ist o r s o f t h e d i f f am p i n F ig u r e 6 . f o r m t h e f a m i li a r o p
a m p u n i t y- g a i n i n ver t er (si n ce R1= R 2 ) c o n f ig u r a t io n . T h e r ef o r e , if we g r o u n d t h e o t h e r (n o n -
i n v e r t i n g) i n p u t , t h e ga i n a t t h is i n p u t is:
V V
R
R
o inv
2
1
a n d s i n c e R 1= R 2 : ( ) V V o inv 1 o r : V V o inv ( 1 2 )
T h e n o n - i n ver t i n g o p a m p i n p u t is c o n n e c t e d t o a v o l t a ge d iv i d er f o r m e d b y R 3 a n d R 4 . T h e
v o l t age a t t h is p o i n t (V 2) is :
V V
R
R R
ninv 2
4
3 4

+
a n d s i n c e R 3= R 4 : V Vninv 2
1
2
o r : V
Vninv
2
2
( 1 3 )

1
O p e r a t i o n a l A m p l i f ie r s- D e s ig n a n d A p p l i c a t i o n s : T o b e y , G r a e m e , H u e ls m a n . M c G r a w- H i l l 1 9 7 1 . p p . 2 0 2
I f we a n a l yz e t h e i n p u t s sep a r a t el y, t h e a m p lif ie r a n a l ysis is a l i t t le e a s ier t o u n d e r st a n d . So , le t s
gr o u n d t h e i n ver t i n g i n p u t . N o w w e c a n r ec o gn iz e t h e r e s u lt i n g c i r c u it a s a n o n - in v e r t i n g
a m p li f ie r :
V V
R
R
o +

_
,

2 1
2
1
a n d s i n c e R 1= R 2 : V V o 2 2 ( 1 4 )
b u t a s s h o w n i n eq u a t io n (13):
V
Vninv
2
2
s o : V
V
o
ninv
2
2
o r V V o ninv ( 1 5 )
N o w w e h a ve f o u n d t h a t t h e a m p lif ie r ga i n a t t h e n o n - i n ver t i n g i n p u t is u n i t y (+ 1V/ V ) a n d we
h a ve a lr e a d y f o u n d t h a t t h e a m p lif ie r ga i n a t t h e i n ver t i n g i n p u t is u n i t y- g a i n i n ver t i n g ( -1V / V).
C o m b i n i n g E q u a t io n s ( 1 2 ) a n d ( 1 5 ) yie l d s t h e r esu l t :
V V V o ninv inv ( 1 6 )
B y d ef in it io n , c o m m o n m o d e v o l t a ge is e q u a l at e a c h i n p u t , V V ninv inv , wh ic h m a k es Vo 0 .
T h e a m p lif ie r h a s c o m p le t e l y r ej ect ed ( a n o t h er w a y o f s t at i n g t h a t t h e c o m m o n m o d e g a i n i s
z e r o ) t h e C M V a p p ea r i n g a t i t s i n p u t s! T h e i d eal I A , t h e r ef o r e , a m p lif ie s o n l y t h e sm a l l
d i ffe r en t ia l s ig n a l at i t s i n p u t s wh ile c o m p le t e l y r e jec t i n g a m u c h l a r ger co m m o n m o d e v o l t age
a ls o a p p e a r i n g o n t h o s e s a m e i n p u t s.
R e s is t o r s c a n n o t b e p er f ec t ly m a t c h e d s o :
R
R
R
R
1
2
3
4
wh ic h p l aces a l i m i t a t io n o n
a c h ie v a b le C M R . An a n a l ysis wi ll s h o w t h a t t h e r esist o r m at c h i n g r e q u i r e d t o a c h ie ve a c c e p t ab le
C M R i n a d i ff i s s u r p r is i n g l y d i f f i c u l t ! U si n g t h e eq u a t i o n s a b o ve, a ssu m e a r esist o r m a t c h i n g
o f 0 . 01% . H o w m u c h C M R c a n b e a c h ie ve d ? W e ve a c h ie ve d 8 0 d B C M R b u t t h er e a r e t wo
i m p o r t a n t co n d it io n s t h a t m u s t b e m e t . I f t h e s o u r ce im p e d a n c e is n o t p e r f ect ly e q u a l at e a c h
i n p u t a n d t h e r e s ist a n c e f r o m t h e R e f er en ce P i n t o g r o u n d is n o t z e r o , t h e C M R w i ll b e
ser io u s ly d e gr a d ed .
W h y is t h is ? Sim p le re m e m b e r t h a t t h e s o u r ce r e s ist a n ce a p p e a r s i n ser ies w it h R 1 a n d R 3 a n d
t h e R e fe r e n c e P i n gr o u n d r et u r n r es is t a n c e a p p ea r s i n ser ies w i t h R 4 . T h e s e a d d it io n a l
r e s is t a n c es c a n d egr a d e t h e r es ist o r r a t io m a t c h i n g. D o n t f o r get t h e r es ist o r t e m p e r a t u r e
co ef f ic ie n t s (T C )-- t h e r esist o r r a t io s m u s t b e m a i n t a i n ed o ver t h e a m p lif ie r s o p e r at i n g
t e m p e r at u r e r a n ge, t o o .
W h a t s eem s s o s im p le t o b u i ld w it h a h a n d f u l o f d is c r e t e p a r t s t u r n s o u t t o b e f a r m o r e d i ffi c u l t
a n d e x p e n s iv e t h a n it is a t f i r st g la n c e . Mo n o l i t h i c d i f f a m p s u s e o n - c h i p l a s er- t r im m e d t h i n -
f ilm n ic h r o m e r e s ist o r n et wo r k s t h a t exh ib i t f a r b et t er m at c h i n g a n d T C t r a ck i n g t h a t a d is c r e t e
P C b o ar d d e s ign . F o r e q u iv a len t C M R p e r f o r m a n c e , t h e m o n o lit h ic d if f a m p o f f e r s l o we r co st
a n d s m a lle r s iz e t h a n a d is c r e t e a p p r o a ch .
R e a l wo r l d d i f f am p s h a v e o n e o u t st a n d i n g d is a d va n t a ge o ver t h e t wo a n d t h r e e o p a m p
c o n f ig u r a t io n I As : lo w i n p u t i m p e d a n c e . A n o n -z e r o -in p u t r esis t a n c e w i ll d r a w cu r r en t f r o m
t h e s ig n a l s o u r ce, d egr a d i n g i t s a c c u r a c y a n d l i n e a r i t y. T h is l o w i n p u t r esist a n ce, c o u p le d w it h
t h e s e ve r e li m i t a t io n o f r e q u ir i n g e q u a l s o u r ce r e s ist a n ces t o p r even t C M R d e gr a d a t io n , m a k e s
t h e t wo a n d t h r e e o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r m o r e a t t r a ct ive t h a n t h e d i ff a m p i n m a n y
a p p lic a t io n s .
M a k e n o m ist a k e, t h o u g h ; d if f a m p s h a ve t h e i r p l ace. W h e r ever yo u h a v e l o w im p e d a n c e
so u r ces, h i g h c o m m o n m o d e v o l t ages, o r s ever e c o s t r e s t r a i n t s, t h e s i m p le l o w co st d if f a m p c a n
b e yo u r b e s t c h o ic e .
The Classical Three Op A mp Instrumentation A mplifier
Yo u m a y we ll a s k Si n ce t h e l i m i t a t io n s o f t h e d i f f am p a r e i n p u t r esis t a n c e r e l at e d , ca n t we p u t
a b u f f er a m p lif ie r o n t h e in p u t s t o s o lve t h es e p r o b le m s? T h e a n swe r is Y es! I n f a c t , t h a t s t h e
w h o le i d ea b eh i n d t h e t h r ee o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r . N o t o n l y w i ll w e r e s o lv e t h e
d i f f am p li m i t a t io n s a n d a c h ie v e v e r y h ig h i n p u t i m p e d a n c e , t h ese i n p u t b u f f er a m p li f ie r s c a n
a ls o p r o v i d e v o l t age g a i n .
H e r e s h o w i t s d o n e :

+
+Vs
-Vs
R1
R2
R3
R4
Inverting
Input
Non-Inverting
Input
Reference
Output
+Vs
-Vs
+
+Vs
-Vs
A1
A2
A3 Rg
Rf1
Rf2
VA2
VA2 +
VoA2
VoA1
V1
V2
Vo
Vinv
Vninv
Figure 3- 2. The "Classical" Three Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier.
O p e r at io n a l am p lif ie r s A 1 , A2 , a n d t h e f eed b a c k n et wo r k R g , R f , a n d R f f o r m a d i f f e r en t ia l-
i n p u t d i ffe r en t ia l- o u t p u t a m p li f ier t h a t d r iv e s a n o u t p u t s t age d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ier (A3 p l u s R 1 ,
R 2 , R 3 , a n d R 4 ) .
T h e o u t p u t d if f a m p s f u n c t io n i n t h e t h r ee o p a m p I A is t o p r o vi d e c o m m o n m o d e r e jec t io n .
T h e i n p u t a m p lif ie r s m a y p r o v i d e ga i n
2
b u t n o C M R ; A1 a n d A 2 a r e b o t h n o n - i n ver t i n g
o p e r at io n a l a m p lif ie r s s o a n y C M V a t t h e i r i n p u t s is a m p lif ie d b y + 1 a n d a p p e a r s a t t h e i r
r es p ec t iv e o u t p u t s. C M R is p r o v i d e d s o le ly b y t h e o u t p u t d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ie r we ll lo o k a t t h is
l at e r .
A s A1 a n d A 2 a r e n o n - i n v e r t i n g o p a m p s , t h e i r i n p u t i m p e d a n c e is v e r y h ig h
3
, t h u s e lim i n a t i n g
a n y u n d e s i r ab le s o u r ce lo a d i n g a n d r e m o v i n g t h e s t r ic t r eq u i r e m e n t o f h a v i n g e q u a l so u r ce
i m p e d a n c e s a t ea c h i n p u t . I n f a ct , excep t f o r h a v i n g t o c o n s i d er i n p u t b i a s cu r r en t ef f ect s, t h e
I A s i n p u t s d o n o t a f f ec t t h e s ig n a l s o u r ce a t a l l .
T o u n d e r st a n d h o w t h is I A w o r k s, le t s o n c e a ga i n a n a l yz e ea c h i n p u t a n d a s s u m e t h a t t h e n o n -
i n v e r t i n g i n p u t is g r o u n d e d wh ile a s ig n a l o f 1V is p l a c ed o n t h e i n ver t i n g i n p u t . Fo r si m p lic i t y
we w i ll a s s u m e t h a t a l l r esist o r s i n t h e I A ar e 1 k o h m a n d t h a t we h a v e i d ea l o p a m p s . T h is
r e s u lt s i n t h e c i r c u i t o f F igu r e 8 . I f t h e n o n - i n ver t i n g i n p u t o f A 1 is 1 V , t h e o p e n - lo o p g a i n o f
t h e a m p lif ier f o r c es i t s d i ffe r en t ia l v o l t age t o z e r o , so it s i n v e r t i n g i n p u t m u s t a ls o m u s t b e 1 V .
I n a s im ila r m a n n e r , s i n c e t h e n o n - i n ver t i n g i n p u t o f A2 is g r o u n d ed ( 0 V ), t h e n it s i n v e r t i n g
i n p u t m u s t a ls o b e 0V . T h is p l a ces a 1V p o t en t ia l ac r o s s R g , wh ic h is 1 k o h m , s o t h e c u r r en t
t h r o u g h R g h a s t o b e 1 m A . I n a n i d ea l o p a m p , n o c u r r en t f l o w s i n t h e a m p lif ie r s i n p u t s, so
t h e 1 m A c u r r en t i n R g m u s t a ls o b e f l o w i n g t h r o u gh R f 1 , c a u s i n g a 1V d r o p a c r o s s Rf 1 . A s we
h a ve s een , t h e b o t t o m e n d o f R g is g r o u n d e d , so t h e v o l t age o n t h e r ig h t s i d e ( i n o u r d r a w i n g)
o f R f is: 1V+ 1V . T h u s t h e o u t p u t o f A 1 is 2 V . T h is is c o n s is t en t w it h t h e f a m i li a r n o n - in v e r t i n g
o p a m p g a i n eq u a t io n :
A
R
R
V
f
g
+ 1
1
o r AV + 1
1
1
k
k
s o AV 2V V / (17)
A m p lif ie r A 1 s o u t p u t w i ll b e : V V
R
R
oA inv
f
g
1
1
1 +

_
,

or VoA1 1 1
1
1
+

_
,

V
k
k
and VoA1 2 V
T h e 1 m A f l o w i n g t h r o u gh R g d o e s n o t f l o w i n t o t h e i n ver t i n g i n p u t o f A2 ; i t t h e r ef o r e f l o w s
t h r o u g h R f 2 a n d d e ve lo p s a 1 V d r o p a c r o s s i t . T h e le f t e n d o f R f 2 is a t gr o u n d p o t e n t ia l , s o i t s
r igh t e n d , wh ic h is t h e o u t p u t o f A2 , is a t -1V .

2
D e p e n d i n g o n t h e v a l u e o f R g .
3
E x a m p le : O P A 1 2 8 t y p i c a l i n p u t i m p e d a n c e : 10
10
& 2 p F d i f f e r e n t i a l , 10
11
& 9 p F c o m m o n - m o d e
Ag a i n , t h is is c o n s is t en t w it h t h e i n v e r t i n g o p a m p g ai n e q u a t io n :
A
R
R
V
f
g

_
,

2
o r AV

_
,

1
1
k
k
s o AV 1V/ V (18)
A m p lif ie r A 2 s o u t p u t w i ll b e : ( ) V
R
R
oA
f
g
2
2
1

_
,

1
]
1
V o r ( ) VoA2 1
1
1

_
,

1
]
1
V
k
k
s o VoA2 1 V
+
+Vs
-Vs
R1
R2
R3
R4
Inverting
Input
Non-Inverting
Input
Reference
Output
+Vs
-Vs
+
+Vs
-Vs
A1
A2
A3 Rg
Rf1
Rf2
VA
2

VA
1

VoA
2
VoA
1
V
1
V
2
Vo
Vinv
Vninv
1V
1V
1V
0V
0V
-1V
2V
IRf 1
IRf 2
IRg
-3V
Figure 3- 3. Three Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier Gain Analysis
T h e d i ffe r en t ia l o u t p u t o f A1 a n d A 2 is:
2 1 oA oA o V V V o r ( ) Vo 2 1 V V o r Vo 3V ( 1 9 )
I f we le t R1 / R 2= R 3 / R 4 , u s i n g E q u a t io n ( 1 6 ) , t h e d i ff a m p s t a ge ga i n i s -1 V/ V, so t h e I A
o u t p u t is -3V .
T h u s t h e o ve r al l g a i n eq u a t i o n f o r a t h r ee o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r w it h a u n i t y g a i n
d i ffe r e n c e o u t p u t st a ge is : A
R
R
V
f
g
+ 1
2
. ( 2 0 )
T h e b u f f er a m p lif ie r st a ge is p e r fe c t ly s ym m e t r ic a l so t h is a n a l ys is c a n b e a p p l ie d t o t h e o t h er
( i n ver t i n g) i n p u t w it h i d en t ic a l r e s u lt s .
I f R g is o p e n , b o t h A1 a n d A2 a r e r e d u c e d t o f u n c t io n i n g o n l y a s u n i t y ga i n b u f f er s a n d t h e
o ve r al l I A v o l t age g a i n i s si m p l y t h a t o f i t s d if f e r e n c e a m p lif ie r s t a ge: ( u su a l l y) u n i t y g a i n ( 1
V/ V).
4
So f a r we ve s h o w n t h a t t h is I A c o n f ig u r a t io n h a s ga i n , b u t d o e s i t a ls o h a v e C M R ? Le t s t a k e a
lo o k .
K eep i n g t h i n gs si m p le a ga i n , l e t s p u t 1 V o n e a c h i n p u t o f t h e I A . T h e c i r c u i t i s s h o w n i n
F igu r e 9 .

+
+Vs
-Vs
R1
R2
R3
R4
Inverting
Input
Non-Inverting
Input
Reference
Output
+Vs
-Vs
+
+Vs
-Vs
A1
A2
A3 Rg
Rf1
Rf2
VA2
VA1
VoA2
VoA1
V1
V2
Vo
Vinv
Vninv
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
1V
IRf 1
IRf 2
IRg
0V
1V
Figure 3- 4. Three Op Amp IA Common Mode Voltage Analysis
O p e n lo o p g a i n o f A1 a n d A 2 w i ll r ed u c e t h e i r r es p ec t iv e d i ffe r en t ia l i n p u t v o lt a ges t o z er o , s o
V V A inv 1 a n d V V A ninv 2 . I n sp ect io n o f t h e c i r c u i t s h o w s t h a t t h er e is 1 V o n e a c h e n d o f R g .
Si n c e t h e n et vo l t age a c r o ss R g is z e r o , t h e c u r r en t f lo wi n g t h r o u g h it ( IRg ) m u s t a ls o b e z e r o .
R e m i n d i n g o u r s elves t h a t n o c u r r e n t c a n f l o w i n t o t h e i n p u t s o f a n i d ea l o p a m p , we see t h a t if
IRg 0 , t h e n t h e c u r r e n t s IRf 2 a n d IRf 1 m u s t b e a ls o z e r o b ec a u s e t h e s a m e c u r r en t f l o w s
t h r o u g h a l l t h r ee r esist o r s.

4
T h is is u s u a l l y t r u e b u t t h e r e a r e a f e w e x c e p t i o n s w h e r e t h e d i f f a m p h a s g a i n . A n I N A 1 0 6 h a s a g a i n o f 1 0 V/ V .
Ap p ly i n g o u r ga i n eq u a t io n s : a m p lif ie r A 1 s o u t p u t vo l t age is :
V V
R
R
V oA inv
f
g
A 1
1
2 1 +

_
,

s o VoA1 1 1
1
1
1 +

_
,

V
k
k
V t h er ef o r e : VoA1 1 V ( 2 1 )
a n d a m p lif ie r A2 s o u t p u t vo l t age is :
V V
R
R
V
R
R
oA A
f
g
ninv
f
g
2 1
2
2
1

_
,

1
]
1
+ +

_
,

so VoA2 1
1
1
1 1
1
1

_
,

1
]
1
+ +

_
,

V
k
k
V
k
k
( 22)
t h e r ef o r e : VoA2 1 2 + V V=1V.
Bu t b o t h A1 a n d A2 h a v e o u t p u t v o l t a ges eq u a l t o t h e i n p u t C M V . We h a ve n t a c c o m p l is h e d
a n y C M R a t a ll i n t h e i n p u t b u f f er a m p lif ier s t age ! A ll is n o t lo s t b o t h o u t p u t vo l t a ges a r e
e q u a l , s o t h e f o llo w i n g s t a ge t h e d i f f am p will g ive u s t h e n e e d e d c o m m o n m o d e r e je c t i o n i n
t h is t yp e o f i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r .
C o m m o n m o d e r e je c t i o n is p r o v i d ed s o le ly b y t h e d i ff a m p , so i n ver y l o w i m p e d a n c e s e n s o r
u n i t y g a i n a p p l ic a t io n s , a t h r ee o p a m p I A d o es n t n ecessa r i l y h a ve b et t er C M R t h a n a s im p le
d i f f am p . I n a p p lic a t io n s w h e r e h ig h g a i n i s r eq u i r ed , t h e C l a ssic a l I A c o n f ig u r a t io n w i n s
h a n d s d o w n . I t s n o c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t t h is I A t o p o lo g y h a s b e c o m e s o p o p u l ar .
I f yo u h a ve n o t b e e n d e t er r ed f r o m b u ild i n g yo u r o w n d i f f am p w it h d is c r e t e c o m p o n e n t s, yo u
m a y e v e n b e t e m p t e d t o t r y t h e s a m e t h i n g w it h a t h r e e o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r . A
b it o f a d v ic e : d o n t . I t is m o r e d i ff ic u l t t h a n it m a y s e e m a t f i r st .
Internal vs. External Gain Setting Resistors
I n a d d it io n t o a l l o f t h e st r ic t r eq u i r e m e n t s o f r e s ist o r m a t c h i n g a n d T C t r a ck i n g, t h i s I A d es ig n
a d d s a f ew m o r e : u n les s t h e f eed b a c k r es ist o r s o f A 1 a n d A2 a r e e x a c t ly e q u a l ( R R f f 1 2 ), t h e i r
u n e q u a l ga i n s w i ll d e gr a d e C M R ( V V oA oA 1 2 ). I n a d d it io n , t h e f eed b a c k r e s ist o r t o g a i n set
r e s ist o r r a t io (
R
R
f
g
1
a n d
R
R
f
g
2
) m u s t b e ver y a c c u r a t e a n d t h is r a t io m u s t n o t c h a n ge o ver
t e m p e r at u r e . O t h er w is e, t h e o v e r al l g a i n a c c u r a c y o f t h e I A w i ll b e c o m p r o m is e d . St i l l t h i n k
yo u w a n t t o b u i ld yo u r o wn I A?
I n f a c t , t h is g a i n set r esist o r r a t io is a li m i t a t io n o n t h e a c c u r a c y t h a t c a n b e a c h ie ve d b y a
m o n o lit h ic I A w h ic h u s e s a n e x t er n a l r e s ist o r t o set i t s v o l t age g a i n . A n e x t er n a l r e s ist o r w i ll n o t
m a t c h t h e t e m p e r at u r e c o ef f ic ien t o f t h e i n t er n a l o n - ch i p t h i n f i l m r esist o r s (i n t h e a m p lif ie r s
f eed b a c k ) b ec a u s e o f i t s p h ys ic a l se p a r a t io n a n d a ls o p o s s ib ly d u e t o t h e i r d if f e r en t r es ist iv e
m a t er ia ls . F o r a p p lic a t io n s t h a t r eq u i r e t h e h igh es t ga in a c c u r a c y a n d ga i n st a b i l i t y, ch o o se a n
a m p li f ier h a v i n g i n t er n a l o n - ch i p t h i n f i l m r es ist o r ga i n - s et t i n g n e t wo r k s.
T h e i n t er n a l ga i n - set i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r s I N A 1 3 1 a n d I N A 1 4 1 o f fe r ga i n T C s a s l o w a s
t10p p m / C m a x im u m
5
an o r d er o f m a gn it u d e b e t t er t h a n t h e b es t ext er n a l r e s ist o r
a m p li f ie r s c a n a c h ie ve .
I n t e r n a l r e s ist o r a m p lif ie r s l a c k o n l y t h e f le x ib i l i t y o f c h o o s i n g a n a r b i t r ar y v o l t a ge ga i n
6
. O f
c o u r se , a n ext er n a l r e s ist o r c a n b e a d d e d i n ser ies w i t h t h e i n t er n a l ga i n r esist o r t o r e d u c e ga i n
b u t i t s T C R m is m at c h w ill d e g r a d e t h e a m p lif ier s ga in s t ab i l i t y. I f t h e e x t er n a l r es is t o r is m u c h
s m a ller t h a n t h e i n t er n a l ga i n r esist o r ( les s t h a n a b o u t 1 0 % ), t h is m a y b e a c c e p t ab le .
TheT wo Op A mp Instrumentation A mplifier
T h e l ast i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ier t h a t we wi ll lo o k a t i s t h e t wo o p a m p t yp e s h o w n i n F ig u r e
1 0 .
R1
R2
Inverting
Input
Non-Inverting
Input
Reference
Output
+Vs
+
+Vs
-Vs
+
-Vs
A1
A2
Rg
Rf1
Rf2
VA2
VA1
VoA2
VoA1
Vo
Vinv
Vninv
Figure 3- 5. The Two Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier
I n t h is s im p ler I A , we h a ve f ewe r o p a m p s a n d p r ec is io n r esist o r s, b o t h o f wh ic h r ed u c e t h e I C
d ie s iz e a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g co st . T h e i n p u t i m p e d a n c e is s t i l l as h igh a s i n t h e t h r ee o p a m p
c o n f ig u r a t io n , h o w ever , as we ar e s t i l l u s i n g n o n - i n ver t i n g o p a m p s a s t h e I A i n p u t s. T h e r e is
o n e f ea t u r e t h a t h a s b een s a c r if ic e d f o r c i r c u it s im p lic i t y: u n i t y g a i n (+ 1 V/ V ) is n o t p o s s ib le
w it h t h e t wo o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ier
7
.

5
I N A 1 3 1 a n d I N A 1 4 1 h a v e t y p i c a l g a i n T C s p e c s o f o n l y + / - 5 p p m / C a n d + / - 2 p p m / C r e s p e c t iv e l y.
6
I N A 1 3 1 h a s a g a i n o f 1 0 0 V/ V w h i l e t h e I N A 1 4 1 h a s g a i n s o f 1 0 a n d 1 0 0 V/ V .
7
T h e t w o o p a m p i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a m p l i f ie r is l i m i t e d t o a m i n i m u m g a i n o f 2 V/ V o r m o r e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e r a t i o s o f
t h e i n t e r n a l r e s is t o r s R f 1 / R 1 a n d R f 2 / R 2 .
I f we a n a l yz e t h is I A s d i ffe r en t ia l g a i n i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r a s we h a ve b ef o r e , we ll s t ar t b y
gr o u n d i n g t h e I A n o n - i n v e r t i n g i n p u t a n d a p p ly i n g a 1 V s ign a l t o t h e I A i n ver t i n g i n p u t . F o r
t h e p u r p o s es o f s im p lif yi n g t h is a n a l ys is, we w i ll a ssu m e a l l r e s ist o r s t o b e 1 k o h m . T h is wi ll
r e s u l t i n t h e c o n d it io n s s h o w n i n F ig u r e 1 1 :
R1
R2
Inverting
Input
Non-Inverting
Input
Reference
Output
+Vs
+
+Vs
-Vs
+
-Vs
A1
A2
Rg
Rf1
Rf2
VA2 VA1
VoA2
VoA1 Vo
Vinv
Vninv
1V
1V
IRf 1
IRf 2
IRg
0V
IR2
2V
0V
0V
3V
3V
IR1
Figure 3- 6. Two Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier Gain Analysis.
D u e t o t h e lo o p g a i n o f A1 , b o t h i n p u t vo l t a ges o f A 1 m u s t b e e q u a l : V V inv A 1 1 1 V V.
O n e e n d o f r esist o r R 1 is c o n n e c t e d t o t h e R e fe r e n c e p i n w h ic h i s g r o u n d e d . I t t h en h a s a
p o t en t ia l d i f f er en ce o f 1V s o b y O h m s Law :
I
V
R
R
A
1
1
1
o r IR1
1
1

V
k
s o IR1 1 mA ( 2 3 )
D u e t o t h e lo o p g a i n o f A2 , b o t h i n p u t vo l t a ges o f A 2 m u s t a ls o b e e q u a l :
V V ninv A 0 0 2 V V. N o w we s e e t h a t o n e e n d o f R g is a t 1 V a n d t h e o t h e r is a t 0 V .
T h er ef o r e : I
V V
R
r
A A
g
g
1 2
o r Irg
1 0
1
V V
k
s o : Irg 1mA ( 2 4 )
Si n c e n o c u r r en t c a n f l o w in t o ( o r o u t o f ) t h e i n p u t s o f a n i d e a l o p a m p , t h e s u m o f t h e
cu r r e n t s f l o w i n g t h r o u g h R 1 a n d R g 1 m u st b e s u p p lie d b y a c u r r en t t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h R f 1 . I n
o t h er wo r d s:
I I I R R R f g 1 1 + a n d IRf 1 1 1 + mA mA o r IRf 1 2 mA ( 2 5 )
N o w w e c a n c a lc u l at e t h e v o l t age a c r o ss R f 1:
V I R R R f f f 1 1 1 , VRf 1 2 1 mA k o r VRf 1 2 V ( 2 6 )
W e h a ve a lr ea d y f o u n d t h a t t h er e is 1 V o n t h e lef t e n d o f R 1 ( VA1 1 V) so t h e 1 v d r o p a c r o ss
R f 1 is a d d e d t o a r r ive a t t h e vo l t a ge o n t h e r igh t e n d o f R f 1 . T h is v o l t age is s u p p lie d b y
a m p li f ier A 1 s o u t p u t .
So : V V V oA A Rf 1 1 1 + a n d VoA1 1 2 + V V s o VoA1 3 V ( 2 7 )
W e a lr e a d y k n o w t h a t VA2 0 V s o t h e c u r r en t i n R 2 c a n b e e a s ily c a lc u l at e d :
I
V V
R
R
oA A
2
1 2
2

a n d we k n o w t h a t IR2
3
1

V-0V
k
s o IR2 3 mA ( 2 8 )
O n c e a ga i n , t h e s u m o f t h e c u r r en t s f l o w i n g i n R 2 a n d R g f l o w t h r o u g h R f 2. C a lc u l at i n g IRf 2 ,
we s ee
I I I Rf R Rg 2 2 + a n d IRf 2 3 1 + mA mA s o IRf 2 4 mA ( 2 9 )
T h e s u m m i n g j u n c t io n o f A2 is a t gr o u n d p o t e n t ia l , s o b y c a lc u l at i n g t h e vo l t age a c r o ss R f 2
( VRf 2 ) we c a n f i n d t h e o u t p u t vo l t a ge o f A 2 ( VoA2 ):
V I R Rf Rf f 2 2 2 a n d VRf 2 4 mA 1k o r VRf 2 4 V ( 30)
Bu t V V V oA A Rf 2 2 2 s o VoA2 0 4 V V t h e r ef o r e VoA2 4 V ( 31)
W e n o w k n o w t h e o u t p u t o f t h e I A is -4V f o r a n i n v e r t i n g i n p u t o f 1 V ; o u r i n st r u m e n t a t io n
a m p li f ier i n t h is e x a m p le h a s a v o l t a ge ga i n o f -4 V/ V .
I n t h e t wo o p a m p I A t o p o lo gy, i n t er n a l r esist o r s m u s t b e s u c h t h a t : R Rf 1 2 a n d R Rf 2 1
(we ll s ee w h y la t e r ). A ge n e r al iz e d ga i n eq u a t io n
8
f o r t h e t wo o p a m p i n st r u m e n t at i o n a m p lif ie r
c a n b e e x p r essed a s : A
R
R
R
R
V
f
f
g
+ +

_
,

1 2
1
1
2
( 3 2 )
W e ve n o w f o u n d t h a t t h is t yp e o f I A d o e s h a ve vo l t age ga i n ; b u t d o e s i t a ls o e x h ib i t c o m m o n
m o d e r e jec t io n ? O u r c i r c u it a n a l ys is c o u l d b e d o n e a s f o l l o w s: we w i ll a ssu m e t h a t a l l o f t h e
r e s is t o r s a r e 1 k o h m a n d t h a t we h a ve 1V o n t h e I A i n ver t i n g i n p u t . T h e s e c o n d it io n s a r e t h e
sa m e a s o u r p r evio u s ga i n a n a l ys is e x a m p le .
N o w le t s a p p ly 1V t o t h e I A n o n - i n v e r t i n g i n p u t a s w e l l , t h u s ge n e r at i n g a 1V c o m m o n m o d e
v o l t age.

8
J .G . G r a e m e , A p p l i c a t i o n s O f O p e r a t i o n a l A m p l i f i e r s ; T h i r d - G e n e r a t i o n T e c h n i q u e s , M c G r a w - H i l l , 1 9 7 3 , p p . 5 6 .
T h e c ir c u i t d i agr a m o f t h e C M R a n a l ys is is s h o w n i n F igu r e 1 2 .
R1
R2
Inverting
Input
Non-Inverting
Input
Reference
Output
+Vs
+
+Vs
-Vs
+
-Vs
A1
A2
Rg
Rf1
Rf2
VA2
VA1
VoA2
VoA1
Vo
Vinv
Vninv
1V
1V
IRf 1
IRf 2
IRg
1V
IR2
2V
1V
1V
0V
0V
IR1
Figure 3- 7. Two Op Amp IA Common Mode Rejection Analysis.
I n t h e ga i n a n a l ys is, we d e t er m i n e d t h a t VA1 is 1 V a n d t h a t IR1 is 1 m A . A s we n o w h a ve 1V o n
t h e n o n - i n ver t i n g I A i n p u t , t h e lo o p g a i n o f A 2 a n d i t s a s s o c ia t e d f eed b a c k w i l l fo r ce i t s
s u m m i n g j u n c t io n t o b e 1 V a s we ll. By E q u a t io n ( 2 4 ) we f i n d t h a t t h e c u r r en t t h r o u gh R g is
z e r o si n ce t h er e is 1 V o n e a c h e n d o f R g . By E q n . (2 5 ) , it is f o u n d t h a t IRf 1 is 1 m A a n d
t h e r ef o r e t h e v o l t age a c r o ss A 1 s f eed b a c k r e s ist o r ( VRf 1 ) is 1 V . We h a ve a l r ea d y f o u n d t h a t t h er e
is 1 V o n t h e le f t e n d o f R f 1 ( VA1 1 V) so t h e 1 V d r o p a c r o s s R f 1 is a d d e d t o a r r ive a t t h e
v o l t age o n t h e r igh t e n d o f R f 1 . T h is v o l t age is s u p p lie d b y a m p lif ie r A1 s o u t p u t .
So : V V V oA A Rf 1 1 1 + a n d VoA1 1 1 + V V s o VoA1 2 V.
Si n c e n o c u r r en t f l o w s i n R g , i t m a y b e c o m p le t e ly ig n o r e d . T h is a llo ws u s t o gr ea t l y s i m p lif y
t h e a n a l ys is o f A2 . N o t ic e t h a t R 2 a n d R f 2 a llo w A 2 t o b e a n i n ve r t i n g o p a m p w it h a ga i n o f :
A
R
R
v
f
i
2
2
. (33)
Su b s t it u t i n g k n o wn v a l u es : Avi
1
1
k
k

r e s u l t i n g i n Avi 1V/ V.
T h e o u t p u t o f A 2 d u e o n l y t o t h is i n v e r t i n g g a i n p a t h is :
A V oA oA 2 1 1 V/ V o r AoA2 2 1 V V/ V, AoA2 2V. (34)
T h is is o n l y a p a r t ia l r es u l t , as we h a ve h a ven t ye t c o n s i d er ed t h e 1 V o n t h e I As n o n - in v e r t i n g
i n p u t . A t t h is i n p u t we c a n s e e t h a t t h e s a m e c o m p o n e n t s ( R 2 , Rf 2 , a n d A2 ) f o r m a n o n -
i n v e r t i n g o p a m p w it h a v o l t a ge ga i n o f : A
R
R
vn
f
i + 1
2
2
.
Su b s t it u t i n g, we h a v e : Avni + 1
1
1
k
k

s o Avni 2V/ V. ( 35)

T h e o u t p u t o f A 2 d u e o n l y t o t h e n o n - i n v e r t i n g g a i n p a t h is:
A A oA vni 2 1 V o r A A oA vni 2 1 V , AoA2 2V. ( 3 6 )
W e c a n f i n d t h e r es u lt a n t o u t p u t d u e t o b o t h ga i n p a t h s b y c o m b i n i n g E q u a t io n s ( 3 4 ) a n d ( 3 6 ) :
( ) ( ) AoA2 2 2 + V V s o AoA2 0 V.
W e v e j u s t p r o ven t h a t t h e t wo o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r h a s t h e a b i l i t y t o r e je c t
c o m m o n m o d e v o l t ages. A t l ast !
T h is t yp e o f I A is n o e x c e p t io n t o t h e r u le t h a t i t s r esist o r s m u s t b e ve r y we ll m a t c h e d a n d t h e i r
T C s m u s t t r a c k c l o sel y t o a ch ie v e h ig h a m p lif ie r ga i n a c c u r a c y a n d C M R p e r f o r m a n c e . T h is I A
t o p o lo gy d o e s h a ve t h e a d va n t a ge o f h a vi n g f ewe r h ig h p r ec is io n r esist o r s t o c o n t en d w it h a n d
f ewe r o p a m p s . F o r t h e u s er , t h is m e a n s t h a t a t wo o p a m p I A is u s u a lly b u t n o t a lw ays-- lowe r
c o s t a n d h a s l o w er q u ies c en t c u r r e n t t h a n a c l assic a l t h r e e o p a m p d e s ign .
T h a t b e i n g t h e c a s e, w h y n o t j u s t a d o p t t h e c h e a p e r t wo o p a m p I A f o r a l l a p p l i c a t i o n s ?
F o r o n e t h i n g, r e m e m b e r t h a t t h i s I A t o p o l o g y h a s a m i n i m u m g a i n l i m i t a t i o n ( i n o u r
e x a m p le , i f R g is le f t u n c o n n e c t e d t h e m i n i m u m v o l t a ge g a i n
9
i s 2 V / V) a n d i t s C M V
o p e r a t i n g r a n g e is d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e c l a s s ic a l t o p o l o g y .
Be c a u s e o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e n o is e g a i n o f t h e t wo o p a m p s , t h e t wo o p a m p I A d o e s n o t
p r e s e r v e s y m m e t r y o f i t s c o m m o n m o d e e r r o r we l l a t h i g h e r f r e q u e n c ie s a n d , a s a r e s u l t , i t s
C M R f a l l s o f f f a s t e r w i t h f r e q u e n c y t h a n a c l a s s ic a l t h r e e o p a m p a m p l i f ie r . D u e t o t h e
e q u a l n o is e g a i n s o f t h e t w o i n p u t o p a m p s i n a t h r e e o p a m p I A, t h e i r b a n d w i d t h s a r e
we l l m a t c h e d a n d t h e r e is l i t t le u n m a t c h e d r e s i d u a l e r r o r t o d e g r a d e C M R a t h i g h
f r e q u e n c y.

9
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a m p l i f ie r s s u c h a s t h e I N A 1 2 2 a n d I N A 1 2 6 h a v e a m i n i m u m g a i n o f 5 V/ V .
Avoiding Inst rument at ion
Amplifier Pit falls
Input Bias Current E ffects
T h e ef f ect o f a m p lif ie r i n p u t b i a s cu r r en t o n i t s i n p u t sig n a l so u r ce i m p e d a n c e s h o u l d n o t b e
o ver lo o k e d . T h is is o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h i n gs t o c h ec k w h e n s e lec t i n g a n a m p lif ier a n d
if a s er io u s b l u n d er is m a d e , t h e r e s u l t i n g m is m a t c h b e t w een t h e I A a n d i t s s o u r ce w i ll c r e a t e
large errors in the circuit.
Lets investigate a horrible example of a bad source -to-IA mismatch:
Attempting to design a low noise accelerometer preamplifier, our neophyte designer thumbs
through a catalog and finds the INA103 Low Noise, Low Distortion Instrumentation
Amplifier. Great, he thinks to himself, it has less than 1nV per Hz noise, its super low
distortion means it also has excellent linearity, and it has great CMR. I couldnt ask for a better
amplifier! He has just fallen into a very common traphis accelerometer is a self- generating
p i ez o e l e ct r i c type and it (the INA103) is a completely unsuitable choice. A very high load
impedance is required at the accelerometer output to preserve its low- end frequency response
and this impedance is the cause of serious problems.
Herein Figure 13-- is his preamp circuit; lets see how much trouble he is in.
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA103
1M
10
7
8
9
16
1
2
15
10nF
+15VDC
Output
10nF
50
1.2uH
-15VDC
Piezo
Sensor
Sense
11
13
6
14
Gain= 100V/V
As Shown
50
1.2uH
Figure 4- 1. An Unsuitable IA Choice For A High Impedance Transducer.
As already pointed out, very high load impedance is required at the accelerometer output to
preserve its low- end frequency response. This is because of the capacitive nature of a
piezoelectric transducer-- it can be modeled as an AC current source in series with a capacitor.
Extending the transducer & amplifier low frequency response means that the transducer
capacitance and its load resistor RC time constant must be as large as possible.
The accelerometer used in this example required a 1 megohm load resistor to meet his low
frequency response requirement. The 1 megohm load resistor is where the problem is, An
INA103 is specified to have an input bias current of 2.5A typical and 8A maximum. The
inverting input (-) bias current (V
O S-
) must be drawn through the negligible resistance (perhaps
10 ohms) of an RL network
1
in series with the 1 megohm load resistor.
The resulting voltage drop creates an offset at the amplifiers (-) input:
V I R
OS b L
, with I A
B
2 5 . and R
L
+ 10 10
6
or R ohms
L
10
6
(xx)
And we get an inverting input offset of: V A ohms
OS

( . ) ( ) 2 5 10 10
6 6
or V V
OS
2 5 .
Thats an input offset of 2 . 5 v o l t s ! (Offset generated by the 10 ohm resistance in the other input
is small enough to be ignored.) This huge offset is amplified by the INA103s gain of 100,
resulting in the amplifiers being driven into the rail. Clearly, t h i s circuit wont work at all.
Our neophyte designer then may attempt to balance the impedances seen by each IA input in
order to cancel the bias current offsets. To which we reply Nice try, but no cigar! Looking at
the offset created by adding a 1 megohm resistor from the non-inverting (+) input to ground,
we first see that the input bias current of the (+) input is not equal to the input bias current of
the (-) input.
This bias current differenceoffset current (I
o s
)-- is specified as 30nA typical and 500nA
maximum. The (+) input bias current is t herefore:
I I I
B B OS +
+ so: I A A
B+

+ 2 5 10 30 10
6 9
. and: I A
B+

2 53 10
6
.
Which gives an offset at the (+) input of: V A ohms
OS+

( . ) ( ) 2 53 10 10
6 6
or
V V
OS+
2 53 .
Now we have an offset of 2.5V on one input and 2.53V on the other. The instrumentation
amplifiers common mode rejection will allow only the voltage difference (V) to be amplified.
Thus he is amplifying a much smaller input signal than in his first try:
V V V
OS OS

+
or V V V 2 53 25 . . so V V 0 03 . or 30mV.
1
T h e R L n e t wo r k i m p r o v e s t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e I N A 1 0 3 .
Now, when multiplied by a gain of 100, we see an output voltage of o n l y 3Vstill
unacceptable but at least it is better than last time. Before we proceed to show why even heroic
measures such as applying 3VDC to the IA reference pin in an attempt to zero this 3V output
offset wont make this amplifier/ transducer work, we can point out a math shortcut.
Although the analysis of the effect of balancing input impedances to reduce offset voltage was
calculated for each input independently, we can, instead, simply consult the data sheet and use
Input Offset Current rather than each individual inputs Bias Current. This shortcut works,
provided of course, that the offset voltage at each input is not so high that it exceeds the
amplifiers common mode voltage range.
We could have calculated V this simpler way:
V I R
OS L
or V A ohms

30 10 10
9 6
(xx)
and we obtain the same answer: 30mV at the INA103 input.
Although we have shown that this circuit has a large DC offset, it may be tempting to argue
that since a piezoelectric transducer output rolls off at low frequency (it has no DC response),
this circuit will st ill be acceptable if the amplifiers output is simply AC coupled through a
capacitor to its following stage. N o t s o !
A calculation of the input noise voltage resulting from the amplifiers high input bias current
will reveal why this low noise amplifier is not suited to high source impedances. With very
low impedance sources, the INA103s input voltage noise density (e
n
) of 1nV/ Hz will
predominate but as the source impedance becomes higher, the amplifiers current noise density
(i
n
) of 2pA/ Hz will generate significant noise voltage (e
in
) across its source resistance:
e i R
in n L
and since i pA Hz
n
2 / and R megohm
L
1
e A Hz ohms
in

( ) 2 10 10
12 6
or e V Hz
in


2 10
6
/ (xx)
This is 2V/ Hz ; it is f a r larger than the 1nV/ Hz that our clueless designer had expected. In
fact, the total amplifier noise will be slightly higher than 2V/ Hz since we must add the
amplifiers input voltage noise spectral density to it. In this case, adding the voltage noise
contribution to the current noise contribution will result in only a small increase in noise.
Noise voltages add vectorially due to their being uncorrellated. Our total noise will thus be:
( ) ( )
[ ]
e e e
T n in
+
2 2
so
( ) ( )
e V Hz V Hz
T
+

1
]
1

10 2 10
9
2
6
2
/ / and
e V Hz
T
2 / (xx)
Since the voltage noise density due to the amplifiers current noise density (in this example) is
so much larger than the amplifiers input voltage noise density, the resultant noise is still only
slightly more than 2V/ Hz .
If the balanced input resistance scheme is attempted, the amplifiers total noise will be even
higher! In this case, there is 2V/ Hz of uncorrellated noise at each input. Common mode
rejection cannot reject completely uncorrellated input noise. The two input noise voltages will
add arithmetically rather than vectorially (being multiplied by 2). Similarly, differential
amplifier inputs cannot subtract uncorrellated input noise; rather is the same as simply adding
two equal noise voltages. Here, the amplifiers CMR is also adding these same uncorrellated
input noise voltages. The total equivalent input noise ( e
EQ
) due to the noise at the inverting
input (e
T -
) and at the non-inverting input (e
T+
) is:
( ) ( ) e e e
EQ T T
+
+
2 2
(xx)
thus we have
( ) ( )
e V Hz V Hz
EQ
+

2 10 2 10
6
2
6
/ /
and so the total input noise of the balanced impedance amplifier is 4VHz. But we are not
finished-- this must be multiplied by the amplifiers gain of 100V/ V, so the output voltage noise
density will be 400VHz.
Finally, we must multiply the IA output noise voltage density by the square root of the
amplifiers bandwidth to obtain the RMS noise (E
n
) seen at the output. The INA103 is a
wideband amplifier-- it has a -3dB bandwidth of 800kHz in a gain of 100V/ V.
E V Hz Hz
n

( / ) 400 10 800 10
6 3
(xx)
so E V
n
0 35777 . or 358mV rms at the output.
And, since the amplifiers equivalent noise bandwidth is a factor of 1.57 times its -3dB
bandwidth (assuming a single- pole response), we must again multiply to find our final value:
E E
rms n
157 . (xx)
so the noise seen at the INA103 output is 562mV rms. Even worse, the peak-to-peak noise will
be about six times higher!
It now seems obvious that the INA103while it is an excellent choice for low source
impedancesperforms poorly when it is misapplied to a very high impedance transducer.
A FET input instrumentation amplifier would be a far better choice for this application.
Repeating these calculations with an INA111 or INA121 should be convincing.
A simple rule of thumb:
1. Consider your source impedance when selecting an amplifier.
2. High source impedances require JFET or CMOS amplifiers.
3. Very low input noise (E
n
) amplifiers require low source impedances.
A voiding the Reference Pin Trap
The reference pin of a difference amplifierwhether it is a stand-alone device or whether it is the
third op amp in a three op amp IAand the reference pin of a two op amp IA allow a designer
great flexibility. The most common use for this pin is for generating output voltage offsets.
Unlike trim pins, the reference pin allows very large offsets (up to several volts) to be
generated without degrading the amplifiers input voltage drift.
It is necessary to drive this pin with a zero ohm source resistance so that the amplifiers CMR
is not compromised. In the analysis, common mode rejection was shown to depend on a very
close resistor matching in their internal network. Additional resistance between the reference
pin and ground will generate a resistance mismatch and CMR will suffer. After all, R R R
S
+
only if R
S
0.
The source resistance of whatever is connected to the reference pin must be as close to zero as
possible. In an attempt to generate an offset voltage, this rule is sometimes overlooked as in the
abortive attempt shown in Figure 14. Here is a graphic example of How N o t To Do It. In this
circuit, a 1k pot is used to generate an offset voltage at the INA122 reference pin.
The high resistance to ground seen at the reference pin ruins the CMR performance of the IA.
Even when the offset adjust pot wiper arm is turned toward the end connected to ground, CMR
is degraded. Remember, though, that the potentiometer end resistance is not zeroit can be
surprisingly high. A typical potentiometer end resistance specification is 1 ohm or 2%,
whichever is higher. So the end resistance of the 1k pot could be as high as 20 ohmshigh
enough to cause a measurable reduction of amplifier CMR.
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA122
511
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
10nF
+15VDC
Output
10nF
1k
4.02k
-15VDC
Input
Input
Gain= 100V/V
As Shown
Offset
Adjust
+ 15V or
-15V
Figure 4- 2. How To Ruin Your CMR By Driving The IA Reference Pin Incorrectly.
To determine how much CMR is lost by the addition of resistance between the reference pin
and ground requires knowledge of the amplifiers internal resistor network values. Then an
analysis can be performed and a precise answer can be formulated. This is hardly ever worth the
effort involved; it is more important to just keep in mind that resistor match is crit ical to
amplifier CMR and any extra resistance at the reference pin will create resistor mismatch.
To appreciate how critical the resistor matching is, refer to Table 1. This illustrates just how
close the required IA resistor match must be to achieve different levels of CMR.
20dB 40dB 60dB 80dB 100dB 120dB
1% 0.1% 0.01% 0.001% 0.001% 0.0001%
Table 1. Resistor % Match Required To Achieve CMR.
A far better approach to creating an offset is to insert an op amp buffer between the pot and the
reference pin. Negative feedback brings the op amp output impedance down to w el l under one
ohm. This small amount of resistance in series with the IAs internal resistor network will not
cause the amplifier CMR to be adversely effected.
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA122
511
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
10nF
+15VDC
Output
10nF
10nF
OPA134
10nF
+15V
-15V
6
2
3 4
7
10k
40.2k
-15VDC
Input
Input
Gain= 100V/V
As Shown
Offset
Adjust
+ 15V or -15V
10nF
Figure 4- 3. Offsetting An Instrumentation Amplifier By Driving Its Reference Pin Correctly.
Since the op amp non- inverting input has an extremely high input resistance ( 10
1 3
ohms), the
resistors can (optionally) be increased in value to minimize supply current. As a further benefit,
an RC low- pass filter can be formed by adding a capacitor to the pot wiper output. This will
improve power supply noise rejection and assure a low noise reference voltage.
Large offsets can be generated by the circuit shown in Figure 15. If only a few millivolts of offset
is required (such as might be required to trim the effect of IA input offset voltage to zero), the
Offset Adjust pot can be reduced to 100.
If a large offset voltage with very high stability is required, the 40.2K resistor in Figure 15. can
be tied to the output of a +10V voltage reference (such as a REF102) instead of being connected
to either supply. To create a negative voltage reference, a +10V reference can be inverted by the
op amp. A current source (REF200) could also be substituted for the 40.2k resistor. The REF200
current sources versatility allows it to be t ied to either supply and thereby generate either a
positive or negative voltage on the pot wiper arm.
A Common Mistak e: Floating Inputs
Another common mistake made by many first- t ime IA users is shown in Figure 16. This circuit
uses two silicon PIN photodiodes to detect a modulated LED light beam. For best speed of
response and linearity, the detectors are reverse biased. An instrumentation amplifier is used to
amplify the difference between the two detectors outputs. Capacitors AC couple the signals to
the IA inputs while blocking the detectors DC bias voltage.
The circuit is missing one thing-- without a bias current return path, the IA bias current creates
a huge offset and its output is driven to the rail.
Consider Ohms Law: The input offset V
os
= I
b
x R
i n
where I
b
is the IA input bias current (1nA)
and R
in
is t he IA input resistance (10
1 0
ohms) in parallel with the 0.47F capacitors insulation
resistance ( about 30,000 megohm microfarads for a metallized polypropylene film capacitor).
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA118 511
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
10nF
+15VDC
Output
10nF
10M
-15VDC
Photodiode
-5V Bias
0.47uF
Gain= 100V/V
As Shown
10M
0.47uF
Figure 4- 4. What's Wrong With This Circuit? Hint: Where Does The INA118 Input Bias Current Come From?
Fortunately, this circuit can easily be salvaged. If the two AC coupling capacitors were simply
removed and replaced with a jumper, this circuit will be OK. Now the photodiode DC bias
voltage will appear on each input, but this is no cause for alarmthe slightly less than -5V bias
at each input is well within the INA118s acceptable common mode voltage (CMV) range when
it is operating on 15V supplies. See the section on calculating CMV for further details.
The high CMR of the IA will reject the diode DC bias voltage as well as any ambient light
common to both detectors.
A second approach (Figure 17.) would be to add a 10 megohm (or higher) resistor from each IA
input to ground. This preserves the coupling capacitors DC blocking function and so the
circuit will completely reject detector bias voltage and steady- state ambient light. Rejection of
noise from amplitude modulated ambient light--such as the output of fluorescent lamps-- will
still depend on the instrumentation amplifiers CMR.
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA121 511
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
10nF
+15VDC
Output
10nF
10M
-15VDC
Photodiode
-5V Bias
0.47uF
Gain= 100V/V
As Shown
10M
0.47uF
100M
100M
Figure 4- 5. Adding Bias Current Return Resistors Solve The Problem.
Strong power line harmonic output is typical of fluorescent lamps. Modulation at 120Hz and
180Hz is apparent from lamps operated on 60Hz lines. Unexpected optical noise may also be
encountered. Solid- state fluorescent lamp ballasts or even Barkhausen oscillat ion in the t ubes
plasma discharge sometimes cause high frequency ( 50kHz) light output modulation.
To minimize detector loading effects caused by the bias current return resistors, their resistance
should be high relative to the detector load resistance (10 megohms in this example) but too-
high a value can cause unacceptable input offset voltages due to input bias current. A good
solution to this tradeoff is to use a FET- input instrumentation amplifier in place of the bipolar
IA used in the original circuit.
An INA121 FET IA will drop into the same socket as the original INA118 bipolar IA, and its
input bias current is so low-- 4pA-- that the bias current return resistors may be increased in
value to 100 megohms or more, if desired.
Other methods of providing for bias current return are shown in Figure 18. This circuit uses
the center tap of the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) to provide a bias current
return path for the IA inputs. Most inductive sources will have a resistance of only a few
hundred ohms at most, so this method is effective with virtually any type of IA.
Some sensors may require a specified load resistance (and sometimes a specified capacitance, as
well) so its data sheet should be consulted. Any necessary load can be added in parallel with the
IAs inputs. Typical input impedance for an instrumentation amplifier is a gigohm or more, so
IA source loading will not be a problem!
In some instances, a simple difference amplifier may suffice in a similar circuit. A few hundred
ohms pose no problems for a difference amplifier as the center tap will provide an equal source
resistance (within a few ohms) to each input. No imbalance occurs, thus t he diff amps CMR is
unaffected.
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA118 5.62k
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
10nF
+15VDC
Output
10nF
-15VDC
400Hz
Excitation
Gain= 10V/V
As Shown
LVDT
Position Transducer
Figure 4- 6. Instrumentation Amplifier Input Bias Current Can Also Be Returned To Ground Through An Inductive Source.
Worries about possible detrimental effects of bias current on the sensor magnetic core
characteristics can be dismissed. First, the bias currents are low and second, the center-tapped
secondary generates an opposing magnetic fluxany net magnetic flux is well below a level that
could cause problems in the inductor core.
Those of us who are old enough to remember having to carefully adjust a bias potentiometer to
balance a pair of 6L6s or KT-88s in a push- pull audio power amplifier can appreciate the fact
that opposing currents cancel transformer core magnetic fluxone of the inherent problems
with single- ended Class A power amplifiers.
Since Class A amplifiers ran their full plate current through only one winding (the primary) of
their output transformer, they required an enormous amount of iron to minimize distortion
caused by driving the output transformer core into a nonlinear region of its B-H curve on
current peaks. Ah, yesthese old amplifiers are now high- end audio designs!
Common- Mode V oltage L imitations
If a designer does not pay careful attention to his choice of instrumentation amplifiers, there
may be an unpleasant surprise in store. There are profound external influences on an
instrumentation amplifiers operation when a common mode voltage is applied to its inputs.
The IAs common mode voltage operating range is influenced by its supply voltage(s), voltage
gain, and reference pin voltage.
Operating an IA or diff amp outside of its envelope may render it completely uselessthe
amplifier may have not been damaged, but one or more internal nodes have been driven into a
nonlinear region or even into saturation. Amplifier topologies determine their linear envelope
and, depending on your particular application, either a 2 or 3 op amp IA may be your best
choice.
Common mode input voltage range is the most important consideration in choosing an
instrumentation amplifier; other IA specs are secondary. If an amplifier will not function in a
particular application, all other considerations are moot.
Determining an instrumentation amplifiers common mode input voltage operating range (its
envelope) is not an easy exercise. A complete circuit analysis must be performed (this can be
performed as shown in an earlier chapter) but all of the IAs internal op amps input and
output ranges must be known in order to compute an envelope. While this may be possible
for do-it-yourself circuits, most IA vendors do not furnish enough information for an
accurate calculation.
Most manufacturers do provide one or two graphs in their data sheets that illustrate the
amplifiers CMV operating envelope under certain specified operating conditions. This is fine
if those conditions represent your particular application but most often they do not. Somehow,
we must determine if the amplifiers under consideration will operate properly in our particular
application.
Generating a graph of amplifier input CMV range vs. output voltage swing would give us
enough information to evaluate the amplifiers operation under the actual operating conditions
of our application. This type of graphical representation of CMV range is known as a Trump
Plot
1
.
If all internal op amp node voltage swing limits are known, it is possible (using blood, sweat
and tears) to calculate the CMV by hand. But fear not--there are two alternatives to performing
this odious task.
A test circuit can be built that allows the amplifiers CMV range to be measured directly.
Applying a triangular wave to the IAs differential input while applying a second unrelated
triangular wave to the two IA inputs as a common mode signal will allow t he amplifiers CMV
range to be traced on an oscilloscope. This requires the scope to be driven in an X-Y mode with
its X input connected to the amplifier output and its Y input connected to the common mode
triangular wave input.
The unsynchronized input signals will generate a family of curves that describe the amplifiers
CMV range u n d e r t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s t h a t w e r e i m p o s e d o n i t . Various supply voltage
combinations, amplifier gains, and reference pin voltages can be tried and their effects on CMV
range can be quickly visualized and measured.
One cautionary note is in order: even the most advanced digital oscilloscopes seem incapable of
properly displaying the family of curves that this method requires. Of all those that were tried,
an older Tektronix 7000 series (7834) analog storage scope was found to have the best X-Y
display! This is one more reason to keep that old analog scope in the corner of your lab.
Aliasing is not a problem with analog scopes.
Calculating Common Mode V oltage Range Painlessly
There is an even more painless way of determining an instrumentation amplifiers CMV range
let your computer perform the drudge work of calculating the IAs operating envelope.
A freeware computer program for calculating IA and difference amplifier CMV range can be
downloaded from the Burr-Brown Corp Internet website. To use this software, simply download
the files and create a new directory (name it something like CMV_Range) on your hard disk.
Place the three files into your newly- created directory and thats all there is to it. Here is what
your directory should contain:
The executable program, cm_range.exe, runs under Microsoft Windows and graphically
represents the IAs CMV operating envelop by overlaying plots of each of the IAs internal op
amp input and output nodes. Thus both the instrumentation amplifiers overall CMV range is
displayed as well as showing where the CMV limitation originates inside the IA. A pull-down
menu is provided to select a difference or instrumentation amplifier part number, its supply
voltages, voltage gain, and reference voltage.
Positive and negative power supply voltages are entered separately in order to display the effects
of asymmetrical supply voltages on the amplifiers CMV range. If the voltage on the amplifiers
V- pin is negative, enter that voltage with a negative sign, e.g., -15. Similarly, enter the voltage on
the amplifiers reference pin. Lastly, enter the amplifiers voltage gain. If the voltage gain you
have entered is lower than its minimum specified gain, the gain is automatically defaulted to
that value.
A graph (Trump plot) of the amplifiers common mode voltage range is calculated and
displayed on screen. An example of a Trump plot of an INA118 instrumentation amplifier is
shown in Figure 19. The selected operating conditions are indicated at the top of the graph:
+Vs= 15.00, -Vs= -15.00, Vref= 0.00, and G= 100.00.
Node limits for these operating conditions are calculated and plotted for each of the INA118s
three internal op amps. Designations: A1 & A2 are the input op amps and A3 is the output
difference amplifier. Overlaying the input and output limits of all three internal op amps allow
the overall INA118 common mode voltage range to be clearly seen.
Proper operation is assured if the amplifier is operated anywhere within the large open white
area of the plot. Due to internal node limitations, an amplifier cannot be operated outside of its
proper operating envelope; that is, within a hatched- area of the plot. Under certain conditions,
operating an instrumentation amplifier outside of its proper operating envelope can have
undesirable consequences-- the IA output can not only be inaccurate, it can also have an
inverted polarity! See page 40 for a discussion of this behavior.
To illustrate the effect of IA gain on its CMV range, compare Figure 19 (a.) with Figure 19 (b.)
where an INA118 is operated under identical conditions except for gain. Reducing the IA gain
from 100V/ V (a.) to 1V/ V (b.) noticeably shrinks its positive CMV range. Careful inspection of
the hatching in this region reveals this CMV limitation to be the result of one particular node:
the input of A2.
This plot is only applicable to an INA118 operating under the conditions that have been
specified. Each different IA or difference amplifier will exhibit its own unique Trump plot.
Figure 4- 11. CMV Range Plot Reveals the Effects of IA Gain. (a.) 100V/ V, (b.) 1V/ V. (INA118 with t15VDC Supplies)
Three op amp IAs have distinctive CMV plot shapes that are clearly dist inguished from those of
two op amp IAs. Notice the very different Trump plot envelopes of a three op amp INA118
(Figure 20 (a.)) and a two op amp INA122 (Figure 20 (b.)) when both are operated under the
same conditions that were shown in Figure 19 (a.).
Three op amp instrumentation amplifiers generate a rhombic envelope (a.) while two op amp
IAs generate a very different- looking trapezoidal envelope (b.). This difference in CMV range
shape can be used to great advantage for tailoring a CMV range to fit single supply (set V-= 0)
and low voltage bipolar supply applications.
Note the Change
in CMV Ran ge
Figure 4- 12. Distinctive CMV Range Shapes. (a.) Three Op Amp IA, (b.) Two Op Amp IA.
Shifting an amplifiers CMV range to suit a particular application can also be accomplished by
driving the amplifiers reference pin with a low impedance (!) voltage source. Two and three op
amp IAs respond differently to reference pin offsetting and this can be quickly visualized by the
computer program. Note the envelope shifts of Figure 21 (a. & b.) with 10VDC applied to both
an INA118 and an INA122 compared with the grounded reference pins of Figure 20 (a. & b.).
Although the distinctive envelope shapes remain, they are shifted to the right in both plots.
This greatly improves the three op amp IA input CMV range for positive output swings.
Conversely, the two op amp IA CMV is little affected.
Figure 4-- 13. Ten Volts Applied To the Reference Pin Modifies CMV Range. (a.) Three Op Amp IA, (b.) Two Op Amp IA.
Instrumentation and difference amplifier supply voltages will also alter their CMV operating
envelopes. Shifting the envelope by employing asymmetrical power supplies can be a useful
technique to match an amplifiers CMV range to an application. Asymmetrical power
supplies refers to using unequal voltages on the amplifiers V+ and V- pins, such as V+= 20V and
V-= 10V.
Single supply operation is also an example of using asymmetrical power supplies. Plotting CMV
envelopes for two and three op amp IAs operating on a single +5VDC supply will reveal the
inherent superiority of the two op amp topology in single supply applications.
Low voltage bipolar supply applications should likewise be approached with caution. Choose
the wring IA topology and things can get ugly (Figure 22.) Operating on t1.35 volt supplies
illustrates this dramatically. A three op amp INA118 would be a poor choice for this
application due to its small odd- shaped CMV range while t he two op amp INA122 still offers a
useable envelope. Choose carefully!
Figure 4- 14. Low Supply Voltages Must Be Used With Caution! (a.) Unusable Three Op Amp CMV Range, (b.) A Larger Two Op Amp CMV
Range.
Maintaining Truth in Output
There is a very tricky characteristic of three op amp instrumentation amplifiers that users
should be aware of. The reason for this characteristic is its topology, so it affects every three op
amp IA on the market... if you exceedthe output swing range of either of the two input amps,
you lose all sense of "which way the signal should go" at the output of the third amplifier (the
IA output). This phase- ambiguous behavior can be predicted by inspection of IA CMV plots
as described in the section Common- Mode Voltage Limitations above and in many 3 op
amp IA data sheets.
The solution, of course, is to limit the amplifiers input, gain, and CMV to keep its internal
nodes from reaching their voltage swing limit. In some systems, it may be possible to monitor
the two input op amp outputs
1
with a window comparator made up of two op amps & a
handful of resistors. By sensing the two input op amp outputs, the user has at least an
indication of whether the instrumentation amplifier output can be trusted.
1 . T h e s e i n t e r n a l n o d e s a r e a c c e s s ib le o n t h r e e o p a m p I As s u c h a s t h e B u r r - B r o w n I N A 1 0 1 , I N A 1 0 3 , a n d I N A 1 1 5 , a s
w e l l a s o n p r o g r a m m a b le g a i n a m p l i f ie r s P G A 2 0 5 & 2 0 5 a n d P G A 2 0 6 & 2 0 7 .
Phase reversal in applications such as a servo amplifier can have serious consequences.
Oscillation caused by inadvertent positive feedback in a servo system driving a many- ton
structure can be dangerous and destructive. Be safe-- carefully check each active component in a
closed-loop control system for the possibility of phase inversion under overdriven conditions.
N oise Filtering the IA Input the W rong W ayMak ing A Bad Situation W orse
If a signal input line to an instrumentation amplifier is exposed to high levels of radio-
frequency interference (RFI), the resulting conducted RFI can cause unexpected problems: DC
offset voltage, offset voltage drift or inexplicable jumps in its DC output.
In many cases, blame for an unstable circuit is placed on its input amplifier when, in fact, that
amplifier is not really the cause of the problem. If high amplitude high frequency interference is
induced into the cabling between a sensor and a low level amplifier inputthe external wiring
acting like an antennathe IA inputs can rectify and generate small DC shifts in the amplifiers
operating point. Thus even low bandwidth devices can be adversely affected by signals well into
hundreds of megahertz. Once the RF is rectified, it appears as DC. If the offending RF signal is
amplitude modulated, its modulation envelope also appears on the amplifiers output.
If RF rectification is suspected, connecting an audio amplifier to the IA output can sometimes
identify the interfering RF source. Dont be surprised if you hear a local AM radio station
coming through loud and clear! This trick also works well for identifying RFI from TV stations
but not for FM broadcast stations. Radar interference can be identified by its buzz.
Some types of IA topologies are less sensitive to RFI rectification than others. The forward-
biased emitter- base junction of a bipolar transistor is an efficient RF detector while a reverse
biased gate- source junction of a JFET is a relatively poor detector. This is because the JFET gate-
source diode must be driven by a large amplitude signal before it can conduct in the forward
direction (rectify).
A simple rule of thumb:
1. JFET- input amplifiers are best in severe RFI applications.
2. Filter all input, output, and power leads.
3. Shield everything.
The most effective single thing that can be done to eliminate RFI is to employ a low pass filter
at the instrumentation amplifier inputs. Keeping RF out of the instrumentation amplifier
inputs is half the battle toward solving conducted RFI problems but it must be done correctly.
Simply adding an RC low pass filter (LPF) on each IA input (Figure 21.) seems at first to be the
correct approach. If the RC LPF pole frequencies are low enough, the amplitude of an
interfering RF signal will be greatly reduced at the IA inputs and the problem is solvedright?
Unfortunately, this is wrong. There is a limit to how low a pole frequency an input LPF can
employ without affecting the IA differential signal bandwidth. If the offending RFI is much
higher in frequency than the required signal bandwidth, this approach can work but in order
for this approach to succeed the time constant (LPF pole frequency) of R1 &C1 must p er f e ct l y
match that of R2 & C2.
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA118 1.02k
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
10nF
+15VDC
Output
10nF
-15VDC
Gain= 50V/V
As Shown
1k
150pF
1k
150pF
Vdiff
Vcm
C1
C2
R1
R2
Figure 4- 15. Noise and RFI Filtering-- The Wrong Way.
Consider what happens when real- world component tolerances are used in an RFI filter. With
1% resistors and 5% capacitors, there can be worst- case RFI filter component mismatches as
shown in Figure 24. Here R1 and C1 are at their upper tolerance limit while R2 and C2 are at
their lower tolerance limit. This results in a lower LPF pole frequency in the inverting input
than in the non-inverting input. It is this mismatch that causes serious problems.
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA118 1.02k
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
10nF
+15VDC
Output
10nF
-15VDC
Gain= 50V/V
As Shown
1.01k
157.5pF
0.99k
142.5pF
Vdiff
Vcm
C1
C2
R1
R2
Figure 4- 16. Worst- Case Mismatched- Pole RFI Filters With 1% Resistors and 5% Capacitors.
Figure 25 illustrates how the filter mismatch problem occurs. In this graph, a 1V
R M S
common
mode signal (V
c m
) is swept from 100kHz to 1GHz and the amplitude of the signals at the
inverting and non-inverting inputs are is shown. Because the two filter pole frequencies (time
constants) are not matched, the input RFI filters then create a differential signal (Figure 26.)
from the common mode signal. Thus we have made the RFI problem worseeven an IA with
infinite CMR cannot reject the interfering common signal because now a portion of it has been
converted to a differential signal. Thus it is now amplified along with the desired input signal.
Figure 4- 17. Mismatched Noise Filter Components Create Mismatched CMV Low Pass Filter Poles.
Figure 4- 18. Differential Voltage Created By Mismatched Common Mode Low Pass Filter Poles.
The frequency response of the circuit in Figure 24. is shown in Figure 27. The INA118 response
(upper curve) quickly rolls off above about 1MHz because of two factors: the amplifiers gain-
bandwidth limitation (about 150kHz BW in a gain of 50V/ V) and the RFI filters pole
locations. The lower curve shows the differential input signal that has been created by RFI input
filter pole mismatch.
Figure 4-19. CMV Frequency Response of INA118 Instrumentation Amplifier with Mismatched Common Mode Low Pass Filter Poles.
If a passive RC filter is used, the effect of bias current in the resistors must be considered. To
minimize input offset voltage, high resistance RC filters will require a very low input bias
current instrumentation amplifier such as a FET- input INA121.
If C1 is a trimmer capacitor and C2 is a fixed capacitor (or vice- versa), the two pole frequencies
can be tuned to match. For easier tuning, try a fixed capacitor in parallel with a smaller trimmer
capacitor. Whichever approach is used, all of the RFI input filter capacitors should have a low
temperature coefficient. Polystyrene film, polypropylene film, or COG (NPO) ceramic dielectric
types are recommended.
To RFI filter IAs with higher bias current, substitute inductors for the resistors. An RC filter
will have low resistance at DC, but its RF impedance will be high if a suitable choice of
inductance is made. Be aware that 1% tolerance fixed inductors are not inexpensive. Of course,
a variable inductor LC filter can be used in one input which allows it to tune its pole
frequency to that of a fixed inductor LC filter in the other input. Low TC filter components are
needed to maintain the pole matching over temperature.
There is a better way of passive filtering that is not as critical to filter component matching. In
addition, it offers better differential- mode filtering than the simple filter of Figure 23. This
input RFI filter is shown in Figure 28.
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA118 1.02k
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
10nF
+15VDC
Output
10nF
-15VDC
Gain= 50V/V
As Shown
1.01k
157.5pF
0.99k
142.5pF
Vdiff
Vcm
C1
C2
R1
R2
10nF
C3
Figure 4- 20. An Improved Method of Instrumentation Amplifier Input Noise and RFI Filtering.
Compare the frequency response of this input filter and instrumentation amplifier (Figure 29.)
to the other shown in Figure 27. Even though the R1C1 and R2C2 mismatch remain the same,
there is less common mode voltage to differential voltage conversion with this filter.
Figure 4- 21. Frequency Response of INA118 Instrumentation Amplifier with Mismatched Improved Noise Rejection Filter.
Now that you have been warned not to do it, Ill confess that input filtering can be done
successfully if the required signal bandwidth is low. If the input filter RC pole is very low, the
differential error signal caused by input filter RC pole mismatch and the higher frequency
common mode signal will be so far down the attenuation rolloff curve that it will contribute
little to the CMR error.
Applicat ion Circuit s: General
A +/ -20V Input Diff A mp With +/ - 200V CMV A pplications Circuit
+
+Vs
-Vs
INA117
-
+
OPA27
1k
Full- Scale
Output= +/-10V
+15VDC
-15VDC
2
3
5
7
6
4
2
3
4
7
6
1 8
Comp
19k
R7
R6
R1
380k
R3
380k
R2
380k
R4
20k
R5
21.111k
E2
E3
Common
+/-20V Differential
Input
10nF
10nF
Figure 6- 1. An External Op Amp Boosts The INA117 Difference Input Range To +/ -20V But Still Handles +/ -200 V Common Mode Voltages.
The INA117 monolithic difference amplifier, can accept +/ -10V differential input signals with
up to +/ -200V common-mode, though it oper ates from standard +/ -15V power supplies. Many
applications require an amplifier with both the +/ -200V common-mode capability and a larger
differential input range. An applications circuit showing how to extend the differential input
range to +/ -20V is shown in Figure 13 above.
The high common mode rejection capability of the INA117 results from the roughly 20-to-1
resistor dividers internally supplied on the inputs of the op amp (see Figure. 13) . With that
attenuation, a +/ -200-V common mode signal is reduced to +/ -10 V at the op amp's two inputs.
This arrangement rejects the common-mode signal, but passes differential signals at unity gain.
Appropriate resistors in the INA117s internal op amp circuit set the diff amps gain
independently of its common mode rejection ability. But for the gain to remain stable with
temperature changes, the ratios of R
1
/ R
2
and R
3
/ R
4
must track with ratio R
1
/ (R
2
in parallel with
R
5
). A precision laser- trimmed metal film resistor network on- chip achieves excellent matching
and TC tracking.
Building a similar circuit from a handful of discrete resistors and an op amp is possible but
achieving the necessary accuracy from non- matching resistors is difficult at best. The original
INA117 circuit, however, limits its differential input range to + 10V only because it has unity
gain. Its +/ -15V power supplies limit the output swing.
Reducing the INA117s gain would increase its differential input range-- for example, reducing
the gain to 0.5V/ V would increase the circuit's differential input range to +/ -20V. Reducing the
gain just with external resistors may seem like a simple approach, but anexternal op amp
(0PA27) circuit for reducing the gain is a superior method. This pre serves the INA117's
extremely precise internal-resistor matching, so the circuit's common mode rejection and its
drift with temperature remain unchanged. Furthermore, the gain reduction produced by the
external op amp circuit actually improves output noise. It would remain unchanged with the
simpler resistor- only approach.
Inverting the diff amp output with the 0PA27 and feeding a small amount of its output signa l
back to its reference pin (pin 5) reduces the diff amps voltage gain. Even with the added
OPA27 op amp in the feedback path, the stability of the resulting circuit is excellent (Figure 14).
Figure 6- 2. Even With The 0PA27 Op Amp feedback circuit gain of 0.5V/ V and l000pF load, the stability of the INA117 circuit is excellent ..
To better understand the circuit's operation, consider the INA117 to be a four-input device
where E
2
is the signal at pin 2; E
3
at pin 3; E
5
at pin 5; and so forth. The output voltage is: E
0
=E
3
-
E
2
+19E
5
-18E
1
. With E
1
grounded (equal to 0 V) the reduced differential gain is: A =
1/ [1+19/ (R
6
/ R
7
)] and for A = 0.5, R
6
/ R
7
= 19.
Because of the low output impedance of the 0PA27 circuit, the impedance at pin 5 of the
INA117 is low and consequently, the INA117's critical resistor matching, gain, and common-
mode rejection are preserved.
To adjust the common-mode rejection for critical applications, add a 10 ohm fixed resistor in
series with pin 5 and a 20 ohm variable resistor in series with pin 1. Short pins 2 and 3 togeth er
and drive them with a 500Hz square wave. Using a square wave instead of a sine wave test signal
allows the AC signal to settle out and makes the DC CMR eas ier to observe on an oscilloscope
and adjust. At high scope gain, trim the circuit to minimum output with the 20 ohm variable
resistor. This trimming of the CMR may change the gain slight ly. If it does, then adjust the
R
6
/ R
7
ratio to adjust gain. This adjustment will not affect the CMR
1
.
Two and Three Op A mp IA A pplications
Show where a two op a mp I A would b e most suit able for wide r CMV range or s ing le
supply and another application where a three op amp IA would give better CMR.
Difference A mplifiers In Single- E nded A pplications
Although originally intended for differential amplification, commercially available monolithic
diff amps can be used for interesting and useful single ended gain applications. Most of these
applications take advantage of their on- chip precision resistor network to give precise and
stable gains.
Connecting a difference amplifier as shown in Figure 15 (a.) forms a precision inverter (a gain
of -1.000V/ V). The input and feedback resistors are carefully laser trimmed to obtain a high
CMR in the original design but here we are using this precise ratio to generate a very precise
and stable gain.
A simple wiring change shown in Figure 15 (b.) and the circuits voltage gain becomes
+2.000V/ V. The same ratio resistors which set the inverting gain are now used to set the non-
inverting gain. The parallel resistors in series with the input and the op amp non- inverting gain
are of no consequence as far as the signal is concernedthey are in series with an input
impedance that is on the order of 10
9
ohms, so no error is generated by their presence. These
resistors do generate a small offset voltage due to that inputs bias current flowing through
them but it is beneficial as it compensates the offset generated at the other op amp input by its
bias current.
1 . O r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n E l e c t r o n i c D esi g n , N o v 2 3 , 1 9 8 8 b y R . M a r k St i t t
+15VDC
Output
-15VDC
+Vs
-Vs Ref
Output
INA134
2 --
3 +
6
5
Sense
10nF
10nF
1 4
7
Input
Gain= -1.000V/V
+15VDC
Output
-15VDC
+Vs
-Vs Ref
Output
INA132
2 --
3 +
6
5
Sense
10nF
10nF
1 4
7
Input
Gain= +2.000V/V
Figure 6- 3. (a.) Precision Gain Of -1.000V/ V Amplifier. (b.) Precision Gain Of +2.000V/ V Amplifier.
Rearranging the difference amplifier connections once again (the circuit of Figure 16. (a. ) )
yields an average value amplifier. Precise resistor ratios now form a voltage divider between two
inputs. The op amp serves as a high- impedance unity- gain buffer for this divider.
Connecting the feedback resistor for an op amp gain of 2V/ V in Figure 16. (b.) compensates for
the voltage divider ratio of an d converts the difference amplifier into a 2- input summing
amplifier.
+15VDC
Output
-15VDC
+Vs
-Vs Ref
Output
INA132
2 --
3 +
6
5
Sense
10nF
10nF
1 4
7
Input 1
V
out
= (V
1
+ V
2
)/2
Input 2
+15VDC
Output
-15VDC
+Vs
-Vs Ref
Output
INA132
2 --
3 +
6
5
Sense
10nF
10nF
1 4
7
Input 1
Input 2 V
out
= (V
1
+ V
2
)
Figure 6- 4. A Difference Amplifier Connected As (a.) An Average Value Amplifier. (b.) A 2- Input Summing Amplifier.
Using the average value circuit of Figure 16 (a.) with one input grounded gives us an amplifier
with a precision gain of +0.500V/ V. This variant is shown in Figure 17.
+15VDC
Output
-15VDC
+Vs
-Vs Ref
Output
INA132
2 --
3 +
6
5
Sense
10nF
10nF
1 4
7
Input
Gain= +0.500V/V
Figure 6- 5. A Precision Gain Of +0.500V/ V.
By connecting the inputs of two INA134 unity gain difference amplifiers together in an anti-
parallel connection, their output signals then appear 180 degrees out of phase. In other words,
this is a differential- input to differential- output amplifier (Figure 18.). It can also be used as a
single-ended- input to differential- output amplifier if one input is grounded.
In this amplifier, because one output swings positive while the other swings negative, two
benefits accrue: we have doubled the output voltage swing to +/ -20V and also doubled the
amplifiers slew rate from 14V/ us to 28V/ us.
+15VDC
Output
-15VDC
+Vs
-Vs Ref
Output
INA134
2 --
3 +
6
5
Sense
10nF
10nF
1 4
7
-Input
+15VDC
Output
-15VDC
+Vs
-Vs Ref
Output
INA134
2 --
3 +
6
5
Sense
10nF
10nF
1 4
7
+Input
Differential Gain=
2.000V/V
Figure 6- 6. A Differential- Input/ Differential- Output Amplifier.
With the addition of a potentiometer, a difference amplifier can be transformed into an
amplifier with continuously variable gain (i.e., no switching steps) from -1.000V/ V to
+1.000V/ V.
Referring to Figure 19, consider the amplifiers gain path with the potentiometer in the fully
counter-clockwise (ccw) position. The inverting input is tied to ground and there are equal value
resistors in the op amps negative feedback and input path. This can be recognized as an
ordinary inverting amplifier with a gain of -1V/ V.
When the potentiometer is rotated to its fully clockwise position ( cw), the circuits operation is
not so intuitively obvious. Now the op amps non- inverting input is connected to the signal
instead of ground as in the previous condition. The negative feedback path through the resistors
is still in place, but-- in this casethere is no current flow through those resistors.
Op amp theory dictates that the op amps inverting input is driven by feedback to be equal to
its non- inverting input. Since there is no voltage drop in the two parallel resistors in the diff
amps + input, the input signal voltage appears on the non- inverting input. Feedback forces the
inverting input to also be equal to the input signal voltage. As there is an equal voltage (signal)
across the - input resistor, the current flow through it is zero. An ideal op amp has no current
flow into its inputs, so the current flow through the negative feedback resistor is also zero.
Without any current flowing in this negative feedback circuit, it is just going along for the
ride and contributing no gain whatsoever. Therefore, this connection becomes a simple voltage
follower with a gain of +1V/ V.
As we have seen, there is a -1V/ V gain connection and a +1V/ V gain connection that can be
selected by the wiper position of the pot. In fact, if we center the wiper position on the
potentiometer, the amplifiers -1V/ V gain will exactly cancel its +1V/ V gain and the resulting
amplifier will have a gain of zerono output.
Rotating the potentiometer will change the ratio of inverting and non- inverting gain and thus
give us a continuously adjustable gain. This circuit can be combined with a precision +10VDC
reference such as a REF101 to make a useful general purpose reference circuit that can be
adjusted to any output voltage between -10V to +10V; a truly universal voltage reference!
+15VDC
Output
-15VDC
+Vs
-Vs Ref
Output
INA132
2 --
3 +
6
5
Sense
10nF
10nF
1 4
7
Gain
Adjust
Gain= -1.000 to +1.000V/V
Input
cw
ccw
Figure 6- 7. An Amplifier With A Continuously Adjustable Gain Range Of -1.000V/ VTo +1.000V/ V
If the potentiometer in Figure 19. is replaced by a switch, we can perform the electronic
equivalent of driving the pot from one end to the other. This yields a gain of +/ -1V/Vamplifier
circuit of Figure 20. This amplifier circuit forms a synchronous detector ( also known as a phase
sensitive detector), which is a powerful tool for signal detection. Extracting weak signals from
noise is its forte.
+15VDC
Output
-15VDC
+Vs
-Vs Ref
Output
INA134
2 --
3 +
6
5
Sense
10nF
10nF
1 4
7
Gain= -1.000 or +1.000V/V
Input
0.1uF
TTL
In
+5VDC
5 7 3
6
8
2
1
4
DG419
Figure 6- 8. Adding A Switch To A Difference Amplifier Creates Turns It Into A Synchronous Detector, a.k.a. Phase Sensitive Detector.
Accurate carrier suppression requires the diff amp input offset voltage to be low, that there be a
very good gain match between the positive and negative gains, and that the positive and
negative slew rates of the difference amplifier be closely matched. These requirements are met by
an INA134.
To preserve good carrier suppression one should also match the duty cycle of the TTL switch
drive (usually called the reference signal) to that of the input signal which we are attempting
to recover. Most input signals will use a 50% duty cycle (square wave modulation), so deriving
the sync by dividing a free- running oscillator with a D-Q flip- flop will guarantee that both the
signal and detector receive an accurate 50% duty cycle reference signal.
Synchronous detector operation can be understood by thinking of it as an RF mixer. The RF
input is the input and the local oscillator (LO) input is the reference. At the mixer
intermediate frequency (IF) output we find a low pass filter (LPF) rather than the usual band
pass filter (BPF) that one normally encounters in a radio receiver.
In its operation, the synchronous detector operates exactly like the RF mixer. While the mixer
generates sum and difference image frequencies (sidebands) that are centered around its carrier
(the LO frequency), these are spaced at some spectral distancewhich is determined by the IF
center frequency-- from the LO.
Due to the use of a LPF for the IF stage following a synchronous detector, its sidebands extend
symmetrically from the carrier to a frequency that is determined by the LPF corner frequency.
The receiver thus formed by a synchronous detector, its reference, and LPF can have an
incredibly narrow bandwidth.
Fortunately, the input signal frequency is determined by the same reference signal that drives
the detector. This keeps the input signal centered in the narrow passband of the synchronous
detector. Hence the name synchronous detector.
By making the LPF filter corner frequency lower and lower, less and less noise power is passed
through the detector system and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is thereby improved.
Bandwidths as narrow as 0.01Hz are practical and allow a synchronous detector to easily recover
a signal that, on an oscilloscope, appears to be totally buried in white noise. It is remarkable to
be able to detect a signal with a SNR of only -30 to -40dB!
Applicat ions Circuit s: Audio
Low N oise A pplications
INA103 microphone amplifier circuit here.
Low Distortion A pplications
INA103, INA134, & INA137 line amplifier circuits here. Include DRV134 in this section.
Difference A mplifier Input Resistance
A thoughtful inspection of a difference amplifier circuit reveals one peculiarity of its inputsthe
resistances to ground are different! For signal sources with very low output impedances this is
not a problem, but in some instances this imbalance is a source of concern.
We can easily analyze a difference amplifier with an analog circuit simulation computer
program such as P- Spice. The result clearly reveals the interdependence of the two inputs.
Normally, one defines i n p u t r es i s t a n ce (Rin) as a change of input voltage divided by the
corresponding change in input current. In this case, however, we are referring to an input
voltage divided by the corresponding change in input current caused by a voltage applied to the
o t h e r input. There apparently is no industry- recognized word or descriptive phrase that
describes this, therefore the author has somewhat arbitrarily adopted the term source load
resistance (SLR) for this discussion. Apologies may be due to those readers who are
photographers and will think of this as referring to a single lens reflex camera.
Consider a unity- gain difference amplifier created in P- Spice with 1VDC on the inverting
input (INV) and an AC sine wave (4kHz, 1V peak) on the non-inverting input (NI). This circuit
is shown in Figure. xx below.
Figure. 6- 9 Schematic Capture Drawing: Simulated Unity- Gain Difference Amplifier With Two Independent Signal Sources.
As expected, due to the op amps negative feedback or servo action, the AC voltage appearing
on the op amp NI (+) input causes the INV (-) input to be equal to it. Since one end of the
input resistor RIN is tied to a fixed 1VDC signal source, this AC voltage on the INV input
creates a varying voltage drop across that resistor. As the voltage across RIN varies, the current
flowing through the input resistor RIN also varies. This input exhibits a varying load on its
signal source. Surprise!
Remembering that the current that must be supplied by the signal source is : I
V
R
in
in

and that ( ) V V
V
in
in

_
,

+
2
, we can see that since one voltage is fixed at 1VDC and the
other is varying (AC), our input current will not be constant.
When this load resistance seen by the source connected to the diff amps inverting input is
calculated using Ohms Law, the INV input "resistance" shows a large variation due to the
voltage applied to the other input. With the values used in this example, the inverting input of
the diff amp presents a load that varies between 20k and about 6k ohms to its source. Input
SLR is plotted for both inputs in Figure xx.
In fact, if the voltage on the NI input is twice the voltage on the INV input (assuming equal
value resistors R1 and R2 used in this example), there will be no voltage drop across the input
resistor. With no current flowing through this resistor, the INV input SLR becomes infinite. An
even larger voltage on the NI input will cause current to flow backwards and the calculated SLR
becomes negative!
Figure 6- 10. Unexpected Behavior? Difference Amplifier Inputs Exhibit Different Loading Of Their Respective Signal Sources.
These considerations are only valid for two independent single- ended signal sources driving the
inputs of a difference amplifier. The differential input resistance is another story.
Conclusion: unless the INV signal source has a very low output impedance, its output will be
modulated by the NI signal source. The NI input, by comparison, is well- behaved and stays
constant-- at 20k ohms in this example.
+Vs
-Vs
R1
R2
R3
R4
Output
Output
INA134
Balanced
Differential
Input
Reference
+Vs
-Vs
R5
OPA132
R6
Reference
Figure 6- 11. Is The Input Loading of This Circuit Better Than Figure 6- 10.?
Applicat ions Circuit s: Current
Measurement
C u rren t S h u n ts
H igh c u r r en t m e a su r e m e n t s a r e m a d e b y m e a su r i n g t h e vo l t a ge d r o p a c r o s s a s h u n t r es ist o r . I n
o r d er t o k eep t h e m e a su r e m e n t v o l t age d r o p ( b u r d en ) l o w , t h e s h u n t r esis t a n c e is k ep t a s l o w a s
p o s s ib le . T yp ic a l v a l u e s lie b e t w een a f ew m i lli o h m s a n d a b o u t 1 0 o h m s .
T wo c o n v e n t io n s a r e u s e d in c u r r en t m e a su r e m e n t h ig h s i d e a n d l o w s i d e s h u n t s. T h is r e fe r s t o
w h et h er t h e s h u n t is p l a ced i n ser ie s w i t h t h e s u p p l y o u t p u t a n d t h e lo a d o r p l a ced i n t h e
s u p p l y o r l o a d gr o u n d r et u r n . T h e c u r r en t is t h e s a m e e it h er w a y, o f co u r se , b u t t h e r e is o n e
i m p o r t a n t co n s i d er a t i o n i n ch o o si n g wh ic h c o n ve n t io n t o u se. Lo w s i d e s h u n t s a r e gr o u n d -
r e fe r e n c e d wh ile h ig h s i d e s h u n t s o p e r at e wit h t h e f u l l p o we r s u p p l y vo l t a ge a s a c o m m o n
m o d e v o l t a ge o n t h e I A o r d i f f am p .
Rshunt
Rload Power
Supply
Rshunt
Rload
Power
Supply
F igu r e 7- 1 ( a . ) H ig h Sid e C u r r en t Sh u n t (b . ) Lo w S id e C u r r en t Sh u n t
O ft e n , t h e r e m a y b e s h u n t s o n m u l t i p le s u p p l y o u t p u t s so t h a t cu r r e n t c a n b e m o n i t o r e d i n t o
e a c h c i r c u i t b r a n c h . T h is n ec es s it a t e s a h ig h s i d e s h u n t c o n ven t io n . A l o w s i d e s h u n t p l a ced i n
t h e p o we r s u p p l y gr o u n d r et u r n i n t h is e x a m p le wo u ld m e a su r e t h e t o t a l su p p l y o u t p u t cu r r en t .
I n t h e d a ys o f t h e D A r so n v a l ( a n a lo g p a n e l) m e t e r , a n i n d u s t r y s t a n d a r d w a s d evelo p e d f o r
s h u n t r esist o r s wh ic h d e f i n ed t h e i r f u l l- s c a le r a n ge t o b e 5 0 m V . T h e a m m e t e r wa s a ct u a l l y a
s en s it iv e v o l t m e t e r ; t h e i r m o v e m e n t s we r e a ll 5 0 m V f u l l- s c a le a n d f u l l- s c a le r a n ge w a s
d e t er m i n e d a n a p p r o p r i at e s h u n t r esist o r . M e t er s c a les w e r e l a b ele d t o c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e s h u n t .
A s we s h a l l see, exist i n g 5 0 m V s h u n t s c a n e a sily b e i n t er f a ced t o i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r s a n d
d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ie r s t o u p g r a d e o l d er s ys t e m s. Lo w a ccu r a cy syst e m s c a n e m p lo y a n o p a m p if
t h e s h u n t is i n t h e l o w s i d e. W h ile t h e g r o u n d r ef er en c ed s h u n t a l l o w s t h is s i n g le e n d e d o p a m p
c o n n ec t io n , i t a ls o c r e a t es a s er io u s li m i t a t io n t o i t s m e a su r e m e n t a c c u r a c y d u e t o gr o u n d l o o p
er r o r s. Sm a l l er r o r vo l t a ges a r e cr ea t ed b y t h e P C b o a r d t r a ces o r w ir i n g i n t h e s h u n t gr o u n d
c o n n ec t io n t h a t a p p ea r i n ser ies w it h t h e o p a m p n o n -in v e r t i n g i n p u t . T h is e r r o r b e c o m e s
es p ec ia lly s er io u s i n h i gh c u r r en t m ea s u r em en t s h ere , t h e s h u n t r esis t a n c e m a y b e m i l l i o h m s
a n d k e e p i n g t h e g r o u n d r et u r n r es is t a n c e n eglig ib le w it h r es p ec t t o s u c h a l o w r esist a n ce
b e c o m e s im p o s s ib le .
I n a d d it io n t o w ir i n g a n d P C b o a r d t r a ce r esist a n ce er r o r s, t h er e is o n e m o r e f a ct o r t o c o n s i d e r .
H ig h q u a l i t y s h u n t r esist o r s e m p lo y K e lv i n sen si n g ( a 4 - t er m i n a l c o n n ec t io n ) f o r h ig h c u r r en t
m e a su r e m e n t s i n o r d er t o el i m i n a t e le a d r e s ist a n ce er r o r s w i t h i n t h e b o d y o f t h e s h u n t r es ist o r
a lo n e . T h es e t yp es o f s h u n t s w i ll r e q u i r e a d if f a m p o r I A , as t h e K e lv i n sen si n g t er m i n a ls wi ll
p r o b a b l y b e a t lea st a f ew m V a b o ve gr o u n d even i n a l o w- s i d e s e n s i n g a p p lic a t io n .
L ow- S ide C u rren t S en si n g
A t yp ic a l 5 0 m V l o w-s i d e s h u n t c o n n e c t io n is i llu st r a t e d i n F ig . 22. F o r h igh a c c u r a cy t h is
c o m m o n m o d e v o l t age alt h o u g h o n l y a f ew m V m u st b e r ej ec t ed b y t h e a m p lif ie r . A c o m m o n
m o d e e r r o r o f o n l y 1 m V in a 5 0 m V s h u n t w i ll ge n e r at e a f u l l- s c a le e r r o r o f 2 % if a s i n g le-
e n d e d ( o p a m p ) c o n n ec t io n is a t t em p t e d .

150V
Load= 3 Ohms 50A
50mV shunt
1 mOhm
20 uOhm
20 uOhm
50 mV
1 mV
1 mV
F igu r e 7 - 2 . Sh u n t R es ist o r K e lv i n C o n n ec t io n
T h e s o l u t i o n t o gr o u n d lo o p (gr o u n d r et u r n ) er r o r s is t o s en s e t h e vo l t age a c r o ss t h e s h u n t w it h
a d if f e r en t ia l am p lif ie r so t h a t t h e g r o u n d l o o p e r r o r vo l t age c a n b e r e je c t e d . By u s i n g a
d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ier ( s u c h a s a n I N A 1 3 2 ) a s s h o w n i n F igu r e 2 3 . , t h e le a d c o n n e c t io n C M V
er r o r is r e jec t e d b y t h e C M R o f t h e a m p lif ie r .
T h e m ea s u r em en t er r o r d u e t o t h e f i n i t e i n p u t i m p e d a n c e o f a d if f e r e n c e a m p lif ier w i ll, i n m o s t
ca ses, b e n e glig ib le a s t h e s h u n t r esist o r w i ll b e f a r l o w er t h a n t h e d i f f am p i n p u t r es ist a n ce.
Rshunt
Rload
Power
Supply
+Vs
-Vs
R1
R2
R3
R4
Output
F igu r e 7 - 3 . D if f er en t ia l Sen si n g O f T h e V o lt a ge D r o p Ac r o ss A L o w- Sid e Sh u n t R e s ist o r M in im iz es G r o u n d Lo o p E r r o r s
I n o t h e r a p p lic a t io n s it m a y b e m o r e c o n ve n ien t t o h a ve t h e lo a d t ie d d i r e c t ly t o g r o u n d . I n
t h is c a s e, t h e s h u n t r esist o r m a y b e i n s er t ed i n t o t h e p o w e r s u p p l y gr o u n d r et u r n c o n n ec t io n a s
sh o w n i n F ig u r e 2 4 .
Rshunt
Rload Power
Supply
+Vs
-Vs
R1
R2
R3
R4
Output
F igu r e 7 - 4 . A lt er n a t ive C o n n e c t io n O f Sh u n t R e s ist o r . Re: F igu r e 2 4 .
A s we h a ve s e e n , a 5 0 m V s h u n t p r o d u c e s a ve r y sm a l l d i ffe r en t ia l s ig n a l t h a t m u s t b e a m p l i f ie d
t o b e u s e f u l . Sm a l l er r o r s s u c h a s f i n i t e C M R a n d P SR , i n p u t o f f set vo l t a ge, a n d i n p u t o f f set
v o l t age d r if t c a n c o n t r ib u t e s er io u s e r r o r s. T h e d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ie r o r i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r
m u s t b e c a r ef u lly c h o s e n s o t h a t a n o ver a l l syst em e r r o r b u d g e t c a n b e m e t .
D es ig n i n g a l o w- s i d e cu r r en t sen si n g c ir c u it t h a t o p er a t es o n a s i n g le s u p p ly i m p o s es a
r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e a m p lif ie r b e a b le t o h a n d le c o m m o n m o d e v o l t a ges t h a t go a l l t h e wa y t o
i t s n ega t iv e s u p p ly gr o u n d . A r ai l-t o -r a i l i n p u t a n d o u t p u t t wo o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n
a m p li f ier s er ves t h is f u n c t io n in a ga i n o f 1 0 V/ V-- i n t h e a p p l i ca t i o n ci r cu i t o f F ig u r e 2 6 . A
m a x i m u m o f f s e t v o l t a ge sp ec o f + / -2 5 0 u V k eep s t h e a m p lif ier er r o r s s m a l l i n c o m p a r is o n t o t h e
5 0 0 m V s h u n t vo l t age.
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA122
Load=
100 ohms
50V
40.2k
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
1 ohm
shunt
10nF
500mA
+5VDC
Full- Scale
Output= 5V
F igu r e 7. 5. Lo w- Sid e Sh u n t A m p lif ier W i t h S i n g le Su p p l y.
H i gh- S ide C u rren t S en si n g
H igh -s i d e sen si n g is s o m e t im es n ec es s a r y d u e t o s yst em c o n s t r a i n t s b u t it i m p o s e s m o r e s e ve r e
r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e d i ffe r en t ia l a m p lif ie r s c o m m o n m o d e r e je c t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e. I n s t e a d o f a
f ew m i lli v o lt s i n t h e c a s e o f l o w-s i d e cu r r en t sh u n t , t h e a m p lif ie r is n o w s u b je c t e d t o t h e f u l l
o u t p u t vo l t a ge o f t h e p o we r s u p p l y. C o m m o n m o d e v o l t age m a y b e a s m u c h a s f o u r o r f iv e
o r d er s o f m a g n it u d e h igh e r f o r a h igh - s i d e c u r r en t s h u n t a m p lif ie r .
O n e o f t h e f i r s t s t e p s i n s elect i n g a d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ier o r i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r f o r h igh -
s i d e c u r r e n t s e n s i n g a p p lic a t io n s is t o s ee t h a t t h e a m p li f ie r s c o m m o n m o d e v o lt a ge r a n ge w i ll
i n c l u d e t h e h igh -s i d e vo l t a ge ( p l u s a m a r g i n f o r sa f et y) u n d er a l l c o n d it io n s o f t h a t a m p lif ie r s
o u t p u t sw i n g.
I n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r s o f f er h ig h e r a c c u r a c y t h a n s im p le d i f f am p s a n d i n l o w cu r r en t
m e a su r e m e n t s, t h e i r e x t r e m e ly h ig h i n p u t i m p e d a n c e d o e s n o t c r e a t e a p p r e c i ab le e r r o r
( s h u n t i n g t h e s h u n t a s i t we r e) even w it h s h u n t r esist o r s a s h ig h a s 1 m e g o h m .
I n c o s t- d r ive n s ys t e m s , a s im p le d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ier m a y b e a g o o d l o w c o s t a p p r o a c h t o h igh -
s i d e c u r r en t m e a su r em e n t . D i f f am p s a ls o o f fe r h ig h e r C M V s p e c if ic a t io n s ( u p t o 2 0 0 V ) t h a n
I As c a n a c h ie ve .
K ilo v o lt - r a n ge c o m m o n m o d e v o l t a ges a r e t h e p r o v i n c e o f s p ec ia liz e d a m p lif ie r s wit h n o
ga lv a n ic c o n n e c t io n b e t w een t h ei r i n p u t s a n d t h e i r o u t p u t . T h es e a r e t e r m e d I s o l at i o n
A m p lif ie r s.
T o m e a su r e c u r r e n t o n u p t o a 2 0 0 V c o m m o n m o d e v o lt a ge r e q u i r e s a s p e c ia l t yp e o f d i ffe r e n c e
a m p li f ier t h a t c a n w it h st a n d u n u s u a lly h ig h C M V w i t h o u t d a m a ge t h e I N A 1 1 7 . A p r ecis io n
t h i n f i l m r esist o r n et wo r k o n -c h ip d iv i d es d o w n t h e i n p u t wh ile s im u l t a n e o u s ly p r o v id i n g g a i n
i n t h e o p a m p t o b r i n g t h e s ig n a l b a c k u p t o i t s o r ig i n a l l evel . I n gen er a l p u r p o se a p p l ic a t io n s
t h is u n i t y- g a i n a m p lif ier o f f er s a s im p le l o w c o s t a lt e r n a t iv e t o u s i n g a n is o l at i o n a m p lif ie r .
A ccu r a cy su f f er s i n ver y l o w le ve l a p p l i ca t i o n s, h o w ever , a n d m e a su r i n g c u r r e n t w it h a n
i n d u st r y- s t a n d a r d 5 0 m V s h u n t r es ist o r b ec o m e s i m p r a ct ic a l d u e t o t h e a m p lif ie r s i n p u t er r o r s.
A p l ast ic- p a c k a ge s u r f a c e m o u n t I N A 1 1 7 h a s a n i n p u t o f f set sp ec if ie d a s 2 m V m a x im u m . T h is
is a n i n i t i al f u l l- sc a le e r r o r o f 4 % d u e t o o f f se t al o n e . A lt h o u gh t h is o f f set c a n b e t r i m m e d t o
z e r o , t h e o f f se t d r if t ( 40u V m a x) is a li m i t a t io n o n a c c u r a cy. D C c o m m o n m o d e r e ject io n is
8 0 d B t yp b u t a q u ic k c a lc u l a t io n r evea ls t h a t a 1 5 0 V C M V w i ll p r o d u c e a 3 0 % e r r o r ( 1 5 m V ) o n
a 5 0 m V i n p u t s ig n a l . A d d i n g b o t h er r o r t er m s , we s ee t h a t t h e wo r s t c a s e er r o r c o u l d b e a s
m u c h a s 3 4 % . N e e d les s t o sa y, t h is is n o t a c c ep t ab le .
A ll is n o t lo s t , h o w ever . I f t h e 5 0 m V s ign a l c a n b e ga i n e d u p b y a p r e a m p lif ie r , t h e I N A 1 1 7 s
er r o r s w i ll b e r e d u c e d b y t h e ga i n o f t h e p r ea m p . A h igh a c c u r a c y p r e a m p is n ecessa r y, o f
c o u r se , so a s n o t t o i n t r o d u c e i t s o w n er r o r s. T h e r e a r e e x c e lle n t o p a m p s a v a ila b le o n t h e
m a r k e t t h a t w i ll m e e t t h e a c c u r a c y c r i t er ia b u t t h ey a r e s i n g le- e n d e d ( gr o u n d r ef er en c ed ) a n d
t h is a p p l ic a t io n r e q u i r e s a d i ffe r en t ia l a m p lif ie r .
B y e m p lo y i n g a n is o l at e d (1k V r m s ) 1 w at t D C -D C c o n v e r t er t o p o we r t h e p r e a m p lif ie r , t h e o p
a m p is t r ic k e d i n t o a c t i n g a s a d if f e r en t ia l a m p lif ie r b y f lo a t i n g i t s o u t p u t a n d c o m m o n .
T h ese a r e t h e n f ed t o t h e in p u t s o f t h e I N A 1 1 7 , w h er e t h e c o m m o n m o d e v o l t age is r e jec t e d .
An a p p lic a t io n s c i r c u i t u s i n g t h i s a p p r o a c h is s h o w n in F ig u r e 2 7 . T h e O P A 2 7 7 o p a m p
p r e a m p lif ie r p r o v i d es a ga in o f 2 0 0 V/ V . T h u s , t h e d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ier s ees a 1 0 V i n p u t r a t h er
t h a n o n l y t h e 5 0 m V i n p u t t h a t i t wo u l d see w i t h o u t t h e p r ea m p . I t is i m p o r t a n t t o s ele c t a
p r e c is io n o p a m p a s i t s i n p u t er r o r s c a n b e a l i m i t a t io n o n t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e m e a su r e m e n t . I n
t h e c ase o f t h e O P A 2 7 7 , i t s i n p u t o f f set v o l t age a n d d r i f t a r e v e r y l o w-- + / - 20u V a n d + / - 0 . 15u V
m a x i m u m .
I n it ia l er r o r d u e t o t h e p r ea m p i n p u t b e c o m e s 2 0 u V/ 5 0 m V o r o n l y 0 . 0 4 % . St r ic t ly s p e a k i n g, t h e
p r e a m p o f f se t v o l t age wi ll b e m u l t i p l ie d b y t h e n o is e ga i n o f t h e p r ea m p o p a m p , n o t b y t h e
c ir c u i t g a i n . S i n c e t h e d i ffe r e n c e b e t w een a n o is e ga i n o f 2 0 0+ 1 V / V a n d 2 0 0 V/ V is v e r y sm a l l ,
we c a n s im p l y u s e t h e c i r c u i t g a i n w h e n t h is g a i n i s h i gh . T h e d i f f am p i n p u t o f f s et vo l t age
er r o r t h e n is r e d u c e d t o 2 m V/ 10V o r 0 . 02% .
E r r o r s d u e t o t h e d i f f am p s f i n i t e c o m m o n m o d e r e je c t i o n m u s t a ls o b e c o n s i d er ed . I n o u r
exa m p le , t h e I N A 1 1 7 i n p u t s see a 1 5 0 V c o m m o n m o d e v o l t age. T yp ic a l I N A1 1 7 C M R is 8 0 d B
o r 1 0
-4
. Mu l t i p l yi n g 1 5 0 V x 1 0
-4
g ive s a C M R e r r o r o f 1 5 m V a n d c a lc u l at i n g t h e p e r ce n t age o f
er r o r o n a 1 0V i n p u t : 1 5 m V/ 10V= 0 . 15% . W o r st ca se er r o r o f t h e t wo a m p lif ie r s is a l o w 0 . 21%
b u t r e a lis t ic a lly a c i r c u i t s e r r o r s w i ll n o t b e a l l wo r st ca se a t t h e sa m e t i m e. St a t i st i ca l l y, o n e m a y
exp ec t t o a c h ie ve b e t t er t h a n 0 . 21% er r o r .
Ad d i n g a p r e a m p t o a n I N A 1 1 7 h a s m a d e q u i t e a n i m p r o ve m e n t i n a ccu r a cy!
+
+Vs
-Vs
150V
Load
3 ohms
50A 50mV shunt
INA117
-
+
OPA277
1k
200k
+15V
COM
-15V
+15V IN
COM IN
DCP011515DP
DC/DC Converter
470nF
470nF
470nF
+15VDC
COM
Full- Scale
Output= 10V
+15VDC
-15VDC
1
2
5
6
7
2
3
5
7
6
4
2
3
4
7
6
1 8
Comp
F igu r e 7 - 6 . H igh Ac c u r a c y C u r r en t M ea s u r em en t W i t h U p T o 2 0 0 V C o m m o n M o d e V o l t age.
I n s im ila r ex a m p le , d esign e r s c a n u s e a d if f e r en t ia l a m p lif ier i n a ci r cu i t f o r ver y sm a ll le a k a ge
cu r r en t m e a su r e m e n t s u n d e r h ig h c o m m o n m o d e v o l t age c o n d it i o n s (F ig u r e . 28). W h e n t h e
D U T (d ev ic e u n d e r t e s t ) gr o u n d r et u r n p a t h is n o t a va ila b le f o r l o w- s i d e sen si n g, t h e ci r c u i t
m u s t s en s e le a k a ge c u r r en t w i t h a h igh - s i d e c u r r en t s h u n t r es ist o r i n s e r ie s w i t h t h e D U T s i n -
p u t u n d er t e s t . A lt h o u g h s im i la r i n m a n y w a ys t o o u r p r evio u s e x a m p le , t h is a p p lic a t io n
r e q u i r e s a v e r y l o w b i a s c u r r en t o p a m p t o m i n i m iz e e r r o r w it h i t s 1 0 0 m e g o h m s o u r ce
r e s ist a n ce.
+
+Vs
-Vs
200V
Device
Under
Test
10nA 100megohm shunt
INA117
-
+
OPA128
1k
9k
+15V
COM
-15V
AC IN
AC IN
DC Power
Supply
470nF
470nF
470nF
115VAC
115VAC
Full- Scale
Output= 10V
+15VDC
-15VDC
2
3
5
7
6
4
2
3
4
7
6
1 8
Comp
100k 1N4154
Guard OPA128 Input PCB Traces To
Prevent Unwanted Leakage Currents
F igu r e 7 - 7 . A ccu r a t e Lo w C u r r e n t M e a s u r e m e n t s W i t h U p T o + / -200V C o m m o n M o d e Vo l t age.
Bec a u s e t h e lea k a ge c u r r en t s t h a t we a r e m ea s u r i n g a r e s m a l l , a n 0 P A 1 2 8 e le c t r o m e t er-g r ad e o p
a m p is c h o s e n t o s en s e a 1 V d r o p c a u s e d b y a 1 0 n A lea k a ge c u r r en t f l o w i n g t h r o u gh a h ig h
( 1 0 0 m e g o h m ) s h u n t r esist o r . T h e e le c t r o m e t e r o p a m p ' s b i as cu r r en t is l o w-- les s t h a n 7 5 fA
c o m p a r e d t o t h e 1 0 n A f u l l- s c a le m e a su r em e n t i n o r d er t o p r es er ve a c c u r a c y.
I t s 1 k i n p u t a n d 9 k f eed b a c k r esist o r s se t t h e p r e a m p lif ie r s n o n -in v e r t i n g v o l t a ge ga i n t o 1 0 V/ V.
T wo 1 N 4 1 5 4 c la m p d io d e s a n d l0 0 k r esist o r s p r o t ec t t h e o p a m p f r o m D U T s h o r t -c ir c u i t f a u l t
c o n d it io n s o f t h e + / -2 0 0V p o we r so u r ce. S i n c e a n o p a m p c a n n o t w it h s t a n d a 2 0 0 - V d iffe r en t ia l
i n p u t w it h o u t d a m a ge t h e r esu l t o f a D U T sh o r t t o g r o u n d t h e i n p u t c la m p s a r e a d d e d f o r
p r o t ect io n .
T h e p r e a m p lif ie r is p o we r e d b y a n is o l at e d + / -1 5VD C p o we r s u p p l y a n d t h u s it f lo a t s a t t h e
+ / -200V c o m m o n m o d e v o l t age. T h is C M V is t h e n r e j ec t ed b y t h e d i f f am p a n d , a s a r es u l t , i t
d e liv e r s a + / -1 0V o u t p u t vo l t age r e fe r e n c e d t o t h e gr o u n d t h a t is p r o p o r t io n a l t o t h e + / -1 0 nA
lea k a ge c u r r en t i n t h e D U T .
A lt h o u g h a s m a l l D C / D C c o n ve r t e r c a n b e u s e d t o p o we r t h is c i r c u i t (as s h o w n p r ev io u s l y), t h e
1 0 0 m e g o h m s o u r ce r esis t a n c e o f t h e s h u n t m a k es t h is c i r c u i t m u c h m o r e s e n s it iv e t o n o is e
p ic k u p . L i n e a r s u p p l ie s a r e m u c h c le a n e r a n d a s m a ll m o d u l ar + / -1 5VD C p o w e r s u p p l y w it h
a t lea s t a 5 0 0 V is o l at i o n v o l t age r at i n g ( 2 0 0 V C M V p l u s a sa f et y m a r g i n ) b et w een t h e o u t p u t
a n d c o m m o n a n d b e t w e e n t h e o u t p u t a n d i n p u t is r ec o m m e n d ed f o r t h is p r e a m p lif ie r .
Common-mode rejection ratio (CMR) is the measure of the IA's ability to reject common-mode signals.
CMR (expressed in dB) is mathematically equal to Gain (dB) + 20*LOG (dV
d
/dV
cm
). In addition, since
CMR is the sum of common-mode gain to differential gain (in dB), this circuit boosts the overall CMR due
to the OPA128 preamplifiers gain. The 20-dB gain of the 0PA128 op amp combined with the 86-dB CMR
of the INA 117 difference amplifier results in a total minimum CMR of 106dB.
Micropower & Battery -
Powered Applicat ions
Single Supply Considerations
Si n g le s u p p l y o p er a t io n i m p o s e s im p o r t a n t c i r c u i t d es ig n c o n s t r a i n t s wh ic h m a y f o r ce a
d es ign e r t o t a k e a q u i t e d i ffe r e n t a p p r o a c h t h a n h e wo u l d f o r a c o n ven t io n a l sp l i t p o we r s u p p l y
circuit.
Some of these may seem obviousdont try to swing an output negative, for example. In our
previous designs-- which always used split power suppliesmost of us have become so
accustomed to not worrying about negative- going output swings that this error is frequently
overlooked in the circuit design stage. This fundamental error will be eventually found when
the breadboarded circuit is bench tested-- the red- faced engineer then realizes that he has
expected an amplifier output to swing below ground! Hopefully, no one else has noticed his
error and he can quietly correct it without further embarrassment.
Remember Albaughs Law two inverting amplifiers in cascade wont work. No matter what
polarity of signal is applied to the input, one of the two inverting amplifiers will try to swing
negativei.e., below ground. In single supply circuit designs, approach inverting amplifiers with
caution.
Biasing the inputs and outputs above ground is t he only solution to this negative- going output
swing dilemma. Frequently, a reference level of one- half of the positive supply (V+) is chosen
for the bias level. An advantage of this approach is that it offers the maximum possible output
voltage swing and the input is also relatively well centered in an amplifiers common mode
input voltage range. A +2.5V precision voltage reference such as a REF1004-2.5 is recommended
for single +5V supply circuits.
If a ratiometric approach can be tolerated, a simple resistive voltage divider can be substituted
for a fixed reference voltage. Two equal- value resistors will provide an offset voltage of V+
into a high impedance. This is certainly an economical method of generating an offset voltage
for referencing a single supply amplifier, but it lacks the absolute accuracy of the fixed voltage
reference.
In cases where the circuit supply voltage can vary over a wide rangesuch as in battery- operated
instruments-- the fixed reference voltage can become a liability, however. Consider what happens
to a single +5VDC amplifier circuit with a fixed +2.5VDC reference when the battery voltage
drops to an end- life voltage of +2.7V: with a +5V supply, everything works quite well as the
+2.5V offset voltage is centered within the amplifiers common mode voltage range.
Under the battery end-life operating conditions, the amplifiers supply voltage drops to +2.7V
but its offset remains fixed at +2.5V and, unless the amplifier has an adequate input CMV
range, the circuit stops working. Even if the amplifiers CMV range is wide enough to
accommodate the reference voltage, its output swing will be severely restrictedit is only 200mV
from the positive rail.
Fortunately, the resistive divider will always give us a reference voltage that tracks V+, so
under the same conditions as before, the amplifier will see a reference of +1.35V. This is
perfectly centered within the amplifiers common mode voltage range and its output is also
centered between the +2.7V supply and ground. This allows the maximum possible output
swing.
The instrumentation amplifier shown in Figure xx. illustrates the offset method used to allow a
single supply circuit to swing its output both negative as well as positive. In fact, this amplifier
exhibits outstanding R-R output swingit can swing to within 10mV (Figure xx.) of either
supply rail with a 20k ohm load. This remarkable performance is due to the excellent R-R
CMOS op amps used in this IA design. Their 35MHz GBW also contributes to this
instrumentation amplifiers good bandwidth and high frequency CMR performance.
40.2k
10k
Inverting
Input
Non-Inverting
Input
2.5VDC
Reference
Output
+5V
+
4
1/2 OPA2350
+
1/2 OPA2350
Rg
845
10k
40.2k
+5V
8
4
2
3
8
1
5
6
7
REF1004-2.5
2k
G= 100V/V
Figure 8- 1. A Fast R-R Single +5V Supply Instrumentation Amplifier With A Gain Of 100V/ V.
Figure 8- 2. CMOS Instrumentation Amplifier Swings To Within 10mV Of The Supply Rails.
A reference voltage source impedance must be as low as possible to maintain an IAs high
CMR. In the circuit shown in Figure xx., the REF1004-2.5 reference has a DC output
impedance of only about 0.2 ohms. For higher source impedancesparticularly when
employing a resistive voltage divider referencean op amp buffer will be necessary to prevent
CMR degradation.
It is particularly important to verify that any amplifier under consideration for a single supply
application have an adequate common mode input voltage range as well as an adequate output
voltage swing. Even if the amplifiers output voltage swing is within the manufacturers
specification, it is important to recognize that swinging close to the rail does not come without
a penalty.
As an op amp output voltage approaches the supply rail, its open- loop gain is seriously
reduced. This can compromise accuracy and, in some cases, result in a low- level oscillation that
is caused by reduced phase margin. What can be done about this? Actually, the end user has
little recourse other than to minimize t he load resistance and to select an amplifier with an
output stage topology that is less susceptible to this effect. The best approach, of course, is to
not push the output close to the rail. This advice may sound similar to the old vaudeville
routine (Patient: Doctor, it hurts when I do this. , Doctor: Dont do that!), but it is t he
best advice you will get.
The trend in industry is to power both analog and digital circuits from a single unipolar supply.
Due to most digital logic family requirements of a +5VDC supply, this is also what the analog
circuit designer is forced to use as well. As TTL logic families have improved their speed- power
product and as battery operated electronics have become more widely used, supply voltages of
+3.3VDC are now frequently encountered. Some circuits are even powered by 2.7VDC supplies
or lower.
Linear IC manufacturers have followed suit with op amps and IAs that can operate on these
very low supply voltages but there is one compromise that simply cannot be overcomereduced
dynamic range. Signal amplitude (voltage swing) within a circuit is limited by its supply voltage
but the amplifiers input noise can only be pushed to an irreducible minimum limited by the
Laws of Physics. As the amplifiers supply voltage is reduced, the ratio of their output signal
swing to their input noise is also reduced. Thus SNR is lost and cannot be recovered.
Audio engineers recognized this long ago; some audio op amps were designed to operate on +/ -
24V to increase their output voltage capability and thereby improve the systems dynamic range.
For the linear designer, the supply voltage trend is in exactly the w r o n g direction. A strong case
can be made for employing small charge pumps or dc/ dc converters (such as the 1 watt DCP01
family) to boost the linear circuits supply voltage back up to a more reasonable level or to
generate a bipolar (split) supply.
Minimizing Supply Current
Portable battery- operated instruments place severe restrictions on a circuit designers choice of
devices and circuit topologies. His primary concern is that his circuit must work over a wide
range of supply voltage while drawing as little current as possible in order to maximize battery
life. This battery is usually only a single unipolar supply. The battery voltage that a designer
must cope with may vary from a highexperienced while the battery is being chargedto a low
that is experienced at the end of the batterys useful life (end- life voltage).
Battery voltage depends on the type of battery (actually on its internal chemistry) that has been
chosen to power the instrument and the number of cells that are connected in series within the
battery. Common cell types in primary batteries (non-rechargeable) and secondary batteries
(rechargeable) that are used in portable instruments are listed in Table xx.
This table lists the nominal operating voltage for cells of various types. In operation, the open-
circuit or very light load cell voltage will be higher than its nominal voltage and, as the battery
is discharged, its terminal voltage will decline to a much lower voltage. The batterys cut- off
voltage (also known as its end- life voltage) may be determined by a monitor circuit that drops
the load when the battery is partially discharged in order to prevent reverse current from
flowing in the weakest (a completely discharged) cell.
Secondary batteries are charged at a much higher voltage than their open- circuit voltage. The
charging voltage is determined by the charging method used. Some 1.2V nominal operating
voltage cells are charged to as high as 1.8V to 1.9V at the end of their charge cycle by smart
battery chargers. Sophisticated monitoring of battery parameters such as current, voltage,
temperature, and time is employed to allow the battery to be charged quickly and safely.
Choosing an instrumentation amplifier for a battery- operated instrument application is
straightforward. It will require the features already mentioned in the Single Supply
Considerations as well as requiring low quiescent current (Iq) and a capability of operating on
low supply voltages.
All things being equal, a two op amp IA is preferred over a three op amp IA for two reasons:
1. One less op amp in its topology gives it the edge in Iq.
2. The CMV range is superior- especially in low supply voltage applications.
Dont overlook the fact that load currents must be supplied by each amplifier in the circuit.
Selecting a very low Iq amplifier and then putting a 1k ohm load resistor on its output will
negate all of your efforts. After all, with a 1k ohm load, a 2V output will require a 2mA output
current from the amplifier. This may be decades larger than the amplifiers quiescent current!
Remember, too, that current flows in op amp feedback resistors as well.
A s imple rule of t humb:
1. Keep resistor values as high as possible when operating current is at a premium.
Type Of Cell Nominal Voltage Per Cell (VDC) Rechargeable?
Laclanche (ordinary dry cell) 1.5 No
Alkaline 1.50 No
Lithium (Li/ SOCl
2
) 3.5 No
Lithium (Li/ MnO
2
) 3.0 No
Mercury (Hg) 1.35 No
Silver Oxide (Ag
2
O) 1.50 No
Zinc- Air 1.35 No
Nickel- Cadmium (Ni-Cd) 1.20 Yes
Lead- Acid 2.0 Yes
Nickel Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) 1.2 Yes
Table xx. Cell Data For Batteries Commonly Used In Portable Electronic Instruments
One final reminderdo not overlook the necessity of bypassing the supply voltage! This is
critically important in battery- operated circuits because of the batterys internal impedance.
Power supply impedance in battery- operated instruments is higher than one normally
encounters in voltage- regulated line- operated circuits. As a battery is discharged, its internal
impedance increases significantly and amplifier stage-to-stage coupling through their common
supply impedance can cause instability or oscillation.
The high internal resistance of partially- discharged batteries is also a source of noise. Adding a
large electrolytic or tantalum capacitor across the battery will restore its low source impedance
above a few Hz and cure the batterys internal impedance problems.
A few devices recommended for low power single supply applications or for battery operated
portable equipment are listed in Table xx. These are by no means the only devices that are
suitable for these applicationsconsult the latest Burr- Brown catalog, individual data sheet, CD-
ROM, or website (http:/ / www.burr-brown.com) for the latest information on these and other
new products.
Device Family
Part Number
Device Function Single Supply Operating
Range
(VDC)
Quiescent Current Per
Device
( A)
INA122 2 Op Amp Inst. Amp 2.2 to 36 60
INA126 2 Op Amp Inst. Amp 2.7 to 36 175
INA132 Difference Amplifier 2.7 to 36 160
OPA234 Op Amp- Bipolar 2.7 to 36 250
OPA237 Op Amp- Bipolar 2.7 to 36 350
OPA241 Op Amp- Bipolar 2.7 to 36 24
OPA277 Op Amp- Bipolar 4 to 36 800
OPA336 Op Amp- CMOS 2.3 to 5.5 20
OPA340 Op Amp- CMOS 2.5 to 5.5 750
OPA2244 Op Amp- Bipolar 2.2 to 36 40
OPA2337 Op Amp- CMOS 2.5 to 5.5 525
OPT101 Photodiode +
Transimpedance Amp
2.7 to 36 120
Table xx. A Few Devices That Are Recommended For Single Supply Or Battery Operated Instrument Applications.
Applicat ions Circuit s: Unusual
Extending Common Mode Range To 1kV
For some applications the common mode voltage requirements may exceed anything that is
currently available from IC vendors. If the circuit can tolerate an input impedance of 10M, we
can add a pair of 100:1 voltage dividers to the inputs of an instrumentation amplifier and
extend its common mode voltage range to 1,000V. The key to success with this approach is the
use of very well matched dividers.
Any error in the divider ratio matching will degrade the CMR of the amplifier, so well-
matched components must be employed. The matching must be extremely accurate and they
must have a low (and matching) temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR). In addition, since
we are dealing with a fairly high voltage across the input resistors, they must not only be able to
safely withstand this voltage but they must also exhibit a low voltage coefficient of resistance
(VCR).
Constructing this amplifier with garden- variety 1% metal film resistors is not advisableunless
many RN55 resistors are series- connected, they cannot withstand the required voltage (their
continuous rating is only 250V) and their temperature matching will probably not be very good
in most PCB layouts. With care, it could be made to work but there is a better solution.
By using two commercially available precision high voltage dividers, we can establish a definite
error budget from their specifications. One vendor for the two 10Megohm 100:1 dividers is
Ohmcraft. Their Type HVD t hick film dividers are made with voltage ratings of 4kV to 40kV
and feature TCRs of +/ -25 to 200ppm/ C and ratio tolerances of +/ -0.1 to 5%. These networks
also exhibit a lower VCR than one usually finds in high value thick film resistors.
A 1kV CMV differential amplifier is shown in Figure 29. An INA118 instrumentation amplifier
in a gain of 100V/ V makes up for the 100:1 input voltage divider and the resulting differential
gain is unity (1V/ V).
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA118
Load=
100k
1kV
511
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
100k
10nF
10mA
+15VDC
Full- Scale
Output= +/-10V
10nF
-15VDC
9.990M
100k
9.990M
1k
1k
CMR
trim
100:1
Input Divider Network:
Ohmcraft
HVD-W-04-B-H-1005-F
Figure 8- 3. A 1kV CMV Differential Amplifier Made With A Precision 100:1 Voltage Divider Added To An IA.
A n A djustable Gain Difference A mplifier
+
+Vs
-Vs
OPA132
Output
+15VDC
2
3
7
6
4
+Input
-Input
R1 100k
R2 100k
R4 50k R6 50k
Rg
50k
R3 50k R5 50k
-15VDC
10nF
10nF
+/-5V CMV
Range
Differential
Gain: 2V/V
Figure 8- 4. A Different Resistor Network Plus An Op Amp Yields An Adjustable- Gain Difference Amplifier
Difference amplifiers are commonly encountered in test and measurement circuits and the
majority of them are unity gain amplifiers. Most commercially available diff amps are also
unity gain amplifiers but some offer different gains
1
. One thing these difference amplifiers have
in common is that they all have fixed gain. In many applications it would be useful to tweak
the amplifiers gain. But how can this be accomplished without juggling two resistors at once?
A recently rediscovered
1
circuit technique for adjusting the gain of a difference amplifier is
shown in Figure 30. By adding a couple of extra resistors and a pot (or another fixed resistor),
the amplifiers differential gain can be adjusted without compromising its CMR. Its gain
equation is:
e
K
R
R
e e o + 2 1
1 2
1
2 1 ( ) (xx)
By inspection, it is found that there are two feedback paths in this circuit a negative feedback
path through R3 and R5, and a positive feedback path through Rg and R4. The two paths are
interconnected by Rg which allows a gain adjustment to be made by varying the ratio of
negative and positive feedback.
Note that the gain that is achieved by this technique comes at the expense of reduced input
CMV range. A gain of 2V/ V amplifier is limited to a +/ -5V CMV range.
Although not addressed in the original reference, this circuit is not limited to equal value
resistors. By using larger resistors in the difference amplifiers input, a high common mode
voltage range can be obtained and the overall circuits gain can be set to unity by employing the
differential technique. Nothing is free, however. The drawback is that the op amps offset
voltage, drift, and noise are all multiplied by the gain used to overcome the input resistors
division ratio.
By using an excellent FET op amp such as the OPA132, both its multiplied input offset errors
and bias current errors are kept low enough to be practical for most applications. The unity
gain difference amplifier shown in Figure 31 achieves a CMV range of +/ -50V on +/ -15VDC
supplies.
1 . F o r e x a m p le , t h e I N A 1 0 6 h a s a d i f f e r e n t i a l g a i n o f 1 0 V/ V a n d t h e I N A 1 3 7 is c a p a b le o f e i t h e r a g a i n o f 2 V/ V o r
0 . 5V/ V.
2. This circuit is found in Operational Amplifiers- Design And Applications, by Graeme, Tobey, &
Huelsman, McGraw- Hill Book Company 1971, ISBN 07-064917-0, pp. 203-204.
+
+Vs
-Vs
OPA132
Output
+15VDC
2
3
7
6
4
+Input
-Input
R1 100k
R2 100k
R4 5k R6 5k
Rg
555
R3 5k R5 5k
-15VDC
10nF
10nF
+/-50V CMV
Range
Differential
Gain: 1V/V
Figure 8- 5. Adding Gain To Compensate For An Input Voltage Divider Yields A Unity Gain Difference Amplifier With A 50V Common Mode
Voltage Range.
A dvantages of A symmetrical Power Supplies
Discussions of CMV range skew by non-standard PS voltages here.
VLF & L F L oop A ntenna A mplifiers
Discussion of the advantages of a low noise INA103 loop antenna preamp here.
Applicat ions Circuit s:
Opt oelect ronics
Differential Photodetectors (Edge Detectors)
Discussion of using a diff amp to generate an edge detector output here.
X/ Y Position (Quadrant) Detectors
Discussion of using six diff amps to generate a quadrant detector output here.
CW L aser Current Driver
Discussion of how to generate a low noise, stable & accurate constant current output here.
Select ing Your Inst rument at ion
Amplifier
Sensor Source Impedance Considerations
T h e o u t p u t i m p e d a n c e o f a s ig n a l so u r ce wi ll d e t er m i n e wh ic h t yp e o f i n st r u m e n t a t io n
a m p li f ier w i ll b e b e s t su i t e d t o t h a t p a r t ic u la r a p p lic a t io n . B i a s cu r r en t ef f ect s w i ll b e t h e
p r i m a r y c o n c er n , b u t t h er e a r e a ls o c o n s i d er a t i o n s s u c h a s n o is e ( vo l t age n o is e, c u r r en t n o ise, o r
b o t h ) a s we ll in p u t i m p e d a n c e . D e s ign e r s h a ve a w i d e c h o ic e o f I A s t o c h o o s e f r o m -- b ip o l ar ,
F E T , C M O S, a n d c h o p p e r t yp e s a l l h a ve t h e i r p l a c e i n a p p r o p r ia t e c i r c u i t s .
H ig h s o u r ce i m p e d a n c e s p r ec l u d e t h e u s e o f a d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ie r d u e t o i t s l o w in p u t
i m p e d a n c e . Lo a d i n g o f t h e s ign a l so u r ce b y t h e l o w im p e d a n c e d i f f am p i n p u t gen er a t es ser io u s
ga i n er r o r s, so t h ey m u s t b e d r o p p e d f r o m c o n s i d er a t i o n w h en we a r e f a c i n g a h ig h i m p e d a n c e
sen so r .
T wo a n d t h r e e o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r s h a ve i n p u t i m p e d a n c e s o n t h e o r d e r o f
1 0 0 0 m e g o h m s o r m o r e , so t h ese t yp es a r e we ll s u i t e d t o v i r t u a lly a n y s o u r c e im p e d a n c e . I n
a d d it io n , t h e I A o ffe r s h igh e r a c c u r a c y a n d ga i n t h a n a d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ie r .
Se lec t io n o f a n I A is t h e n m a d e o n t h e b a s is o f b i a s c u r r en t a n d n o is e a s we ll a s t h e u s u a l
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f i n p u t o f f set , d r if t , ga i n a c c u r a c y, b a n d w id t h , C M V r a n ge, et c.
Add Ta b le of recomme nded I As for low, medium, and hig h impedance sources he re.
V ery H igh Impedance Sensor
An e x a m p le o f a v e r y h ig h i m p e d a n c e s e n s o r is a p H m e a s u r e m e n t e le c t r o d e . D e p e n d i n g o f t h e
t yp e o f p r o b e, a s o u r ce i m p e d a n c e m a y b e a s h igh a s a f ew g ig o h m s . C l ea r l y, t h is a p p l ic a t io n
r e q u i r e s a v e r y s p ec ia l t yp e o f a m p lif ie r-- o n e w it h ve r y l o w b i a s c u r r en t a n d h ig h i n p u t
i m p e d a n c e .
An e x c e lle n t a m p lif ier f o r t h is a p p lic a t io n wo u l d b e t h e I N A 1 1 6 d ie le c t r ic a lly is o l at e d F E T -
i n p u t i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r . F e a t u r i n g a t yp ic a l b i a s c u r r en t o f o n ly 3 f A ( 3 x1 0
-1 5
A t yp ic a l ,
2 . 5 x1 0
-1 4
A m a x ) a n d a 1 0
1 5
o h m i n p u t i m p e d a n c e , t h is t h r e e o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r
c o u l d a ct u a l l y b e ca l le d a " D i ffe r en t ia l E le c t r o m e t e r ."
T h e p H p r o b e a m p lif ie r c ir c u i t d i agr a m is s h o w n i n F ig u r e 9 - 1 b e l o w .
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out
INA116
guard
guard
Reference
Electrode
Sample
Electrode
Solution Ground
Figure 9- 1. Amplifier For pH Measurement
U s i n g t h e g u a r d d r iv e r o u t p u t s o f t h e I N A 1 1 6 a llo ws b o t h e le c t r o d e c o n n e c t io n s le a d s t o b e
s h ie l d e d f r o m e x t er n a l n o is e p ic k u p w it h o u t i n c u r r i n g a lea k a ge c u r r e n t o r i n p u t c a p a c i t a n c e
p e n a l t y. I n ext r e m e ly h ig h i m p e d a n c e c i r c u i t s s u c h a s t h is, F a r a d a y s h ie ld i n g is a b s o l u t e ly
essen t ia l .
W it h o u t s h ie ld i n g o n t h e e le c t r o m e t er i n p u t s, ele c t r o s t at ic f ie l d s s u c h a s 6 0 H z p o we r l i n e n o is e
w i ll r e n d e r t h e c ir c u i t u se le s s a n d e ve n t h e m o t io n o f t h e h u m a n b o d y n e a r b y w ill d is p l a ce
e n o u gh c h a r ge i n t o t h e i n p u t s t o i n t er f er e w i t h a c c u r a t e m e a su r e m e n t s.
Sh a r p - e yed r ea d er s w i ll n o t ic e t h e a b s en c e o f b i a s cu r r en t r et u r n r esist o r s i n t h is c i r c u i t . T h ey
a r e a ct u a l l y t h er e, b u t t h ey a r e " h i d d en ." I n t h is a p p lic a t io n , t h e p H s o l u t io n i t s e lf p r o v i d es a
p a t h f o r I A i n p u t b i a s c u r r en t c o n d u c t io n t o gr o u n d . C o n t a c t t o t h e c o n d u c t iv e c o n t a i n er is
l ab e le d " So l u t io n G r o u n d ." I n c a s es w h er e a n o n c o n d u c t iv e s o l u t io n c o n t ai n e r is u s e d , a t h i r d
e le c t r o d e m a y b e i n t r o d u c e d in t o t h e s o l u t io n t o p r o vi d e a b i a s cu r r en t r et u r n p a t h .
O n e m ig h t b e t e m p t e d t o u s e a r es ist o r f r o m e a c h I A in p u t t o g r o u n d a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e
"So l u t i o n G r o u n d " b i a s cu r r en t r et u r n , b u t t o m a i n t a i n t h e a m p lif ier ' s h ig h i n p u t i m p e d a n c e ,
r e s ist o r s w i t h a n e x t r e m e ly h ig h v a l u e a r e r eq u i r e d . F i n d i n g t e r ao h m r es ist o r s is n o t a n ea s y t a s k ;
b e s i d es, t h ey a r e exp en sive s o w h e n p o s s ib le , t h e y s h o u l d b e o m i t t e d .
V ery L ow Impedance Sensors
T h er m o c o u p le s a r e v e r y lo w im p e d a n c e t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r s wi t h o u t p u t vo l t a ges i n t h e
m i lli v o l t r a n ge . An i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ier f o r t h er m o c o u p le u s e m u st o f f er h ig h g a i n w it h
l o w o f f se t vo l t age, l o w d r if t , l o w n o is e, a n d si n ce t h e t h er m o c o u p le is f r e q u en t l y i n a n
e le c t r ic a lly n o is y e n v i r o n m e n t ver y h ig h C R R . B ip o l ar i n p u t I A s wi t h t h e i r i n p u t N P N
t r a n s ist o r s r u n n i n g h ig h c o lle c t o r cu r r en t s o f f er ver y l o w i n p u t n o is e
1
b u t p a y a p e n a l t y b y
h a v i n g h i gh er i n p u t b i a s c u r r en t a n d c u r r en t n o ise. F o r t u n a t e l y, b i a s c u r r en t a n d c u r r en t n o is e
a r e o f l i t t le c o n c e r n w h en i n t er f a ci n g a n I A t o a l o w im p e d a n c e s o u r ce.
Power Supply Constraints
W af er p r o c es s es p l ace l i m i t s o n t h e o p e r at i n g v o l t a ges o f t h e i n t egr a t ed ci r cu i t s b u i l t o n t h o se
p r o cesses. B r ea k d o w n v o lt a ges a r e o n l y o n e o f t h e p a r a m e t er t r a d eo f f s t h a t a r e m a d e w h e n a n
I C p r o cess is o p t im iz ed f o r a p a r t ic u la r p u r p o s e. O x id e t h ic k n es s , s ilic o n r es ist iv i t y, a n d f ea t u r e
s iz e a r e s o m e o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s t h a t d et er m i n e t h e I C s o p e r at i n g v o l t age.
D e v ic e s b u ilt o n s t a n d a r d li n ea r b i p o l a r a n d 1 5 m ic r o n C M O S p r o c es s es u s u a lly h a n d le a w i d e
r a n ge o f o p e r at i n g v o l t ages wh ile h igh s p e e d l i n e a r a n d m u c h h ig h e r d e n s i t y C M O S d ev ic es a r e
l i m i t e d t o a m u c h l o we r o p er at i n g v o l t age. T a b le 9 - 1 . lis t s a f ew r eco m m e n d e d i n st r u m e n t a t io n
a m p li f ie r s a n d d if f e r e n c e a m p lif ie r s a n d t h ei r s u p p l y vo l t a ge r a n ge.
1 . T h e B u r r - B r o w n I N A 1 0 3 I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n A m p l i f ie r a c h ie v e s a n i n p u t n o is e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y o f 1 n V / r t H z @ 1 k H z
a n d o n l y 2 n V / r t H z @ 1 0 H z .
Device Fa mily
Pa rt N u mb e r
Device F u nc tion Bipolar Supply
Op era ting Ra ng e
(t tVDC)
Device Descript ion
I N A1 0 3 3 O p Am p I n s t . A m p 9 t o 2 5 Ver y Lo w N o is e & D ist o r t io n
I N A1 0 6 D if f e r e n c e A m p lif ie r 5 t o 1 8 G = 10V/ V
I N A1 1 1 3 O p Am p I n s t . A m p 6 t o 1 8 H ig h Sp e e d F E T
I N A1 1 6 3 O p Am p I n s t . A m p 4 . 5 t o 1 8 E lec t r o m e t er D ife t
I N A1 1 7 D if f e r e n c e A m p lif ie r 5 t o 1 8 t2 0 0V C o m m o n M o d e R a n g e
I N A1 1 8 3 O p Am p I n s t . A m p 1 . 35 t o 1 8 P re c is io n , Lo w P o we r
I N A1 2 1 3 O p Am p I n s t . A m p 1 . 35 t o 1 8 Lo w P o we r F E T
I N A1 2 2 2 O p Am p I n s t . A m p 1 . 1 t o 1 8 Si n g le Su p p l y, M ic r o p o we r
I N A1 2 5 3 O p Am p I n s t . A m p 1 . 35 t o 1 8 O n -c h ip Vo l t age R e fe r e n c e
I N A1 2 6 2 O p Am p I n s t . A m p 1 . 35 t o 1 8 Lo w C o s t , M ic r o p o we r
I N A1 3 2 D if f e r e n c e A m p lif ie r 1 . 35 t o 1 8 G en er a l P u r p o s e
I N A1 4 1 3 O p Am p I n s t . A m p 2 . 25 t o 1 8 P re c is io n , G = 1 0 & 1 0 0V/ V
Table 9- 1. A Selection of Instrumentation Amplifiers and Difference Amplifiers.
Common Mode V oltage Range Requirements
Discussion & T able of recomme nded I As for diffe rent CMV requirements here.
Improving Common Mode Rejection
M o n o l i t h ic d i ffe r e n c e a m p li f ie r s a r e m a d e w it h m e t al f i l m r esist o r s d e p o s it e d o n -c h i p . T o
a c h ie ve go o d a c c u r a c y t h e r esist o r n et wo r k s a r e l ase r t r i m m e d t o m at c h a s a c c u r a t ely a s p o s s ib le .
I n ev it a b l y, t h e r e is s o m e s h if t i n t h e t r i m m e d r e s ist o r s v a l u e i n t h e p r o cess o f a t t a ch i n g t h e
s ilic o n d ie t o i t s m e t al lea d f r a m e a n d i n t h e p l ast ic m o l d i n g o r cer a m ic p a c k a ge s e a lin g p r o cess.
T h u s t h e f i n a l p r o d u c t d o es n o t h a ve q u i t e a s h ig h C M R a s i t w a s o r ig i n al l y t r i m m e d . T h is
f i n al C M R is f u lly s p e c if ie d i n m a n u f a c t u r er s d a t a s h eet s a n d it is f u lly a d e q u a t e f o r m o s t
a p p lic a t io n s .
I n c r it ic a l a p p l i ca t i o n s w h er e i t i s n ecessa r y t o s q u eez e t h e l ast b i t o f C M R o u t o f a d if f e r e n c e
a m p li f ier o r i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r , we c a n a d d a b i t o f c i r c u i t r y t o m a k e s o m e
i m p r o v e m e n t .
D if f e r e n c e a m p lif ie r s c a n b e t r im m e d b y a d d i n g a f ix e d r e s ist o r i n t o o n e i n p u t a n d t h en
b a la n c i n g t h e s u m o f t h a t e x t er n a l f ix e d r esis t o r a n d i t s s er ie s i n t er n a l r esist o r w i t h t h e s u m o f
a n o t h er ext er n a l va r i ab le r e s ist o r a n d i t s s er ies i n t er n a l r e s ist o r . T h u s a r e s ist o r a n d a
p o t en t io m e t er is a l l t h a t is r e q u i r e d . T o m a i n t a i n t h e in t e r n a l n e t wo r k s t e m p c o m a t c h i n g a n d
t o h a ve a h ig h r es o l u t i o n C M R a d j u st m e n t , t h e e x t er n a l r e s ist o r s s h o u l d b e s m a l l c o m p a r e d t o
t h e v a l u es o f t h e i n t er n a l r esist o r s.
T wo s im ila r d if f a m p t r i m c i r c u i t s a r e s h o w n i n F ig u r e 9 - 2 ( a . ) a n d ( b . ) .

+Vs
-Vs
R1
R2
R3
R4
Output
200 ohms
CMR trim
100 ohms
metal film
INA105
Differential
Input
Reference

+Vs
-Vs
R1
R2
R3
R4
Output
200 ohms
CMR trim
100 ohms
metal film
INA105
Differential
Input
Reference
Figure 9- 2. (a.) Difference Amplifier CMR Trim (b.) Difference Amplifier CMR Trim-- Alternate
T wo a n d t h r e e o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r s m u s t u s e a d if f e r en t a p p r o a c h a s t h er e is n o
r e s ist o r n et wo r k o n t h e i r i n p u t s. C l a ssic a l t h r e e o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r s d o h a v e a
d i f f am p (t h e t h i r d o p a m p ) b u r ie d w it h i n t h e i r c i r c u i t r y b u t t h e r e is n o a c c es s t o o n e o r m o r e
r e s is t o r s i n t h e d i f f am p n e t wo r k. F o r t u n a t e l y, t h e r e is a R e fe r e n c e P i n t h a t is a c c es s ib le o n a l l
I As wh ic h c a n b e u s e d t o t r i m t h e a m p lif ie r s C M R a s we ll a s t o t r i m t h e o u t p u t o f f set o f t h e
I A.
Sim p l y a d d i n g a va r i ab le r e s is t o r b et w e e n t h e R e fe r e n c e P i n a n d g r o u n d ( o r c o m m o n ) m a y
wo r k if t h e r es ist o r n e t wo r k h a s a t o o - l o w r esis t a n c e in t h a t le g . St a t ist ic a lly, o n e wo u ld n e e d t o
su b t r a ct r esist a n ce f r o m t h a t le g i n 5 0 % o f t h e a m p lif ie r s (i n a l a r ge sa m p le ), b u t M u r p h y s Law
sa ys i t w i ll b e W r o n g M o s t O f T h e T i m e. I n a n y c a s e, h o w d o we s u b t r a ct r es is t a n c e? E n t er t h e
N e ga t iv e I m p e d a n c e C o n v e r t er ( N I C ). T h is u s ef u l l i t t l e c ir c u it t r a n sf o r m s im p e d a n c e b y
f eed b a ck . V a r yi n g t h e r a t io o f p o s it iv e t o n ega t iv e f eed b a c k i n a n o p a m p , i t s i n p u t c a n a p p ea r
t o b e e it h er a p o s it ive ( n o r m a l) r e s is t o r o r a n e g a t i v e r e s ist o r . Th a t s j u st w h a t w e n eed ! See F ig u r e
3 4 .
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA122
511
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
10nF
+15VDC
Output
10nF
10nF
OPA134
10nF
+15V
-15V
6
2
3 4
7
10k
10k
1k
100
100
-15VDC
Input
Input
Negative Impedance
Converter
Gain= 100V/V
As Shown
CMR
Trim
Figure 9- 3. CMR Trimming a Classical Instrumentation Amplifier With A Negative Impedance Converter.
T wo o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r s o f f er m a n y a d v a n t a ges a la r ge C M V r a n ge a n d l o w
I q , f o r e x a m p le b u t t h ey d o s u f f er f r o m o n e d is a d va n t a ge: l o we r h igh f r e q u e n c y c o m m o n
m o d e r e jec t io n . T h is we a k n e s s is i n h er en t i n t h e t wo o p a m p t o p o lo gy. A n a l ys is o f t h is
a r c h it e c t u r e wi ll s h o w t h a t o n e o p a m p h a s a h igh e r n o is e ga i n t h a n t h e o t h er . T h e r ef o r e ,
i d e n t ic a l ga i n b a n d w id t h o p a m p s w i ll d is p l a y d i f f er en t b a n d w id t h a n d p h a s e c h a r a c t er ist ic s .
C o m m o n m o d e r e je c t i o n d e p e n d s o n m a i n t a i n i n g a p r ec is e m a t c h b e t w een t h e s ign a ls t h r o u g h
b o t h o p a m p s . W h e n t h e ga i n a n d p h a s e m is m a t c h b e c o m e s s ig n if ic a n t , t h e A C C M R d e gr a d es
a c c o r d i n g l y.
Si n ce t h is A C m is m a t c h is p r e d ic t ab le a n d a lw a ys i n t h e s a m e d i r ec t io n , we c a n t a k e a d va n t a ge
o f t h e m i r r o r i m a ge c h a r a c t er ist ic s o f t h e c i r c u i t s h o w n i n F ig u r e 3 5 . T h e i n p u t s t o ea c h
I N A1 2 6 t wo o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r ar e c o n n e c t e d o u t o f p h a s e ( a n t i- p a r al le l) a n d
e a c h o u t p u t is c o n n e c t e d t o a n I N A 1 3 4 d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ie r .
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out
INA126
845
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
10nF
10nF
Rg
Rg
Ref
V+
V-
Out INA126
845
6
5
4
7
2
3
1
8
10nF
+15VDC
Output
10nF
-15VDC
+Input
-Input
+Vs
-Vs Ref
Output
INA134
2 --
3 +
6
5
Sense
10nF
10nF
1 4
7
Figure 9- 4. Mirror Image Amplifier Extends High Frequency CMR Of Two Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifiers.
I n p u t s ig n a ls a r e a m p lif ie d 1 8 0 d e gr ees o u t o f p h a s e b y t h e t wo I As a n d t h e r ef o r e a d d t o get h er
i n t h e d i f f am p . E a c h I N A 1 2 6 i n o u r exa m p le is s h o wn i n a ga i n o f 1 0 0 V/ V s o o u r o ve r al l
c o m p o s it e g a i n i s 200V/ V . A C C M R e r r o r s a p p ea r i n - p h a s e ( 0 d egr ees) a t t h e I A o u t p u t s a n d
t h e r ef o r e t h e y a r e c a n c e le d b y t h e d i f f am p . A l t h o u gh t h e i n p u t a m p lif ie r s C M R d e gr a d es a t
h ig h f r e q u en c y, t h e C M R o f t h e d i f f am p m a i n t a i n s t h e m i r r o r i m a ge a m p lif ie r s o ve r al l C M R .
I d ea lly, we h a v e t h e C M R o f t h e i n p u t I A a d d e d t o t h e C M R o f t h e d i f f am p . I n p r a c t ic e , t h is
c ir c u i t d o e s n t q u i t e a c h ie v e t h e c o m p o s it e D C C M R o f 9 4 d B + 9 0 d B b ec a u s e t h e o ver a ll
a m p li f ier is u n a b le t o s ig n if ic a n t l y i m p r o ve o n t h e d i f f am p s C M R a lo n e .
A s m a l l D C g a i n m is m a t c h i n t h e i n p u t a m p lif ie r s m a y c a n c e l r e s id u a l er r o r s i n t h e d i f f am p s
r e s ist o r n et wo r k a n d m a k e a s lig h t i m p r o ve m e n t o n 9 0 d B , b u t it m a y a ls o m a k e it wo r se . A t
h ig h f r e q u en cy, t h i n gs wo r k t o o u r a d va n t a ge. A t 1 0 k H z , we s ee i n t h e I N A 1 2 6 d a t a s h eet t h a t
i t s t yp ic a l C M R is o n l y a b o u t 4 8 d B i n a ga i n o f 1 0 0 V / V. T h e m i r r o r i m a ge a m p lif ie r ac h ie ve s
f a r b et t er C M R d u e t o t h e I N A1 3 4 s 9 0 d B C M R a t 1 0 k H z .
M e a s u r e m e n t s o n r a n d o m p a i r s o f I N A 1 2 6 i n t h e i n p u t a m p lif ier s t age o f a m i r r o r i m a ge s h o w
c o n s is t en t l y al m o s t 9 8 d B C M R @ 1 0 k H z f o r t h e I N A 1 2 6 & I N A1 3 4 c o m b i n a t io n a n
i m p r o ve m e n t o f 5 0 d B ! See F igu r e 3 6 . f o r m e a s u r ed d a t a o n u n a d j u st e d C M R o f b o t h a s i n g le
I N A1 2 6 i n a vo l t age g a i n o f 1 0 0 V/ V a n d t h e m i r r o r- im a ge I N A 1 2 6 & I N A1 3 4 c o m b i n a t io n i n
a v o l t age g a i n o f 2 0 0 V/ V. I n b o t h c a ses, a C M V t est sign a l o f 1V p ea k- t o - p e a k w a s u sed .
O r d i n a r y 1 % m e t al f i l m r e s ist o r s we r e u s e d t o set t h e I N A 1 2 6 ga i n .
Common Mode Rejection
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000
Frequency (Hz)
C
M
R

(
d
B
)
INA126 CMR (dB)
Overall CMR (dB)
Figure 9- 5. Measured CMR Of A Mirror- Image Instrumentation Amplifier vs. Single INA126.
I n a d d it io n , t h e I A i n p u t n o is e is s u m m e d vec t o r ia lly s o t h e o ve r al l n o is e is i m p r o ve d b y 2 .
I f we h a d a l a r ge n u m b e r o f i n p u t a m p lif ie r s-- i n st ea d o f o n l y t w o we c o u ld a ls o exp ec t t h ei r
i n p u t o f f set v o l t a ges, d r if t , a n d P SR e r r o r s t o s u m t o z e r o
1
. A n i n f i n i t e n u m b e r o f a m p lif ie r s h a s
n o e r r o r .
W h ile s o m e o t h e r h ig h q u a l i t y t h r e e o p a m p i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r s c a n e x h ib i t e x c e llen t
h ig h f r e q u en c y C M R , t h is u n iq u e m i r r o r- i m a ge c ir c u i t p r eser ves t h e t wo o p a m p I As v e r y
w i d e co m m o n m o d e r a n ge.
O n e m a y b e t e m p t e d t o e x t e n d t h is m i r r o r - im a ge t e c h n iq u e t o I As o t h er t h a n t h e t wo o p
a m p t o p o lo gy d es c r ib e d a b o ve . U n f o r t u n a t el y, o t h er t o p o l o gie s d o n o t h a ve t h e p r e d ic t ab le
C M R e r r o r alw ays i n t h e s a m e d i r ec t io n a n d t h e r es u lt s wi ll b e d is a p p o i n t i n g. T o t est t h is
h yp o t h e s is, a sim i la r m i r r o r- i m a ge a m p l i f ier w a s b u i lt w it h ve r y l o w n o is e I N A 1 0 3 s a t t h e
i n p u t
2
. I n st e a d o f i m p r o v i n g t h e C M R , t h e c i r c u i t w a s a ct u a l ly a b o u t 3 - 6 d B w o r se t h a n a s i n g le
I N A1 0 3 !
A l i t t l e t h o u gh t a n d a n a l ysis wi ll r e ve a l w h y t h is is. T h is I A t o p o lo gy h a s a C M R e r r o r t h a t is
a l m o s t c o m p le t e ly r a n d o m it is d e t er m i n e d b y t h e m a t c h o f i n t er n a l t h i n - f i l m r e s ist o r s. I n
p r o d u c t io n , t h ese r esist o r s a r e l ase r- t r im m ed a s a c c u r a t e ly a s p o s s ib le a n d a n y r esid u a l er r o r is
u n c o r r e llat e d b e t w e e n r a n d o m I N A1 0 3 s .
1. See Lunat ic Fringe Amplifier, Burr- Brown OPA111 dat a sheet .
2. The Burr- Brown INA103 achieves an input noise spectral density of 1nV/ sq rt Hz @ 1kHz and a CMR of about 93dB
@10kHz in a gain of 100V/ V.
D e p e n d i n g o n p h a s e , t h e C M R e r r o r o f t h e t wo I N A1 0 3 s m a y e it h er a d d o r s u b t r a c t i n t h e
o u t p u t d if f e r e n c e a m p lif ie r . I f i t s u b t r a ct s C M R e r r o r a n d i m p r o ves t h e o ver al l C M R , i t s j u st
l u c k so m e t h r ee o p a m p I A. p a i r s w i ll i m p r o ve C M R b u t a n e q u a l n u m b e r w i ll d e g r a d e C M R .
I n p u t vo l t a ge n o is e d o e s im p r o ve s o m e w h a t , h o w e ve r , as it is u n c o r r e llat e d a n d a d d s v e c t o r i al l y
wh ile t h e s ig n a l , b e i n g 1 0 0 % c o r r e l at e d , a d d s a r i t h m e t ic a lly. T h u s t h e m i r r o r- i m a g e a m p l if ie r s
S N R is i m p r o ved . Ba n d w id t h a n d s lew r at e a r e d o u b le d b y u s i n g t wo m i r r o r- i m a ge I A s i n st ea d
o f o n e . T h e o u t p u t d if f e r e n c e a m p lif ie r m u s t a ls o b e c a p a b le o f t h is le v e l o f p e r f o r m a n c e if it is
t o b e r e a liz e d , h o w ever .
Bandwidth A nd Settling Time
Discussion & T able of recomme nded I As for diffe rent BW & settling time requirements
here.
N oise and Distortion
A u d io a p p l ic a t io n s r e q u i r e a c t iv e c o m p o n e n t s wi t h e s p e c ia lly l o w n o is e, lo w d ist o r t io n , a n d
w i d e b a n d w id t h . T h es e r e q u i r e m e n t s ar e n o t n ec es s a r ily r est r ic t e d t o a u d io a p p lic a t io n s ,
h o w ever , as s o m e a n a l yt ic a l a p p l i ca t i o n s a l so b en ef i t f r o m t h es e s a m e p a r a m e t e r s.
So u r ce r e s is t a n c e is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t io n i n c h o o s i n g a l o w n o is e a m p lif ie r . S im p l y
s elec t i n g t h e l o w est n o is e a m p lif ie r o n e c a n f i n d m ay, i n f a c t , b e a v e r y b a d c h o ic e . W h e n
m a n u f a c t u r e r s s p e a k o f lo w n o is e t h ey a r e a l m o st a l w ays r ef er r i n g t o l o w v o l t a ge n o is e r a t h er
t h a n l o w cu r r e n t n o ise. I t is i m p o r t a n t t o c h o o s e t h e c o r r e c t lo w n o is e a m p lif ie r b a s ed o n t h e
i n p u t s ig n a ls s o u r ce r esis t a n c e o r i m p e d a n c e .
A s imple rule of t humb:
1 . F o r a l o w im p e d a n c e s ign a l so u r ce a p p lic a t io n , c h o o s e a n a m p lif ie r w it h l o w v o lt a ge n o is e
(e
n
), i .e ., a b i p o l a r t r a n sist o r i n p u t st a ge.
2 . F o r a h ig h i m p e d a n c e s ig n a l so u r ce a p p lic a t io n , c h o o s e a n a m p lif ie r w it h l o w cu r r en t n o is e
( i
n
), i.e ., a JFE T i n p u t st a ge.
3 . F o r a m e d i u m i m p e d a n c e s ig n a l so u r ce a p p lic a t io n , c h o o s e a n a m p lif ie r w it h a b a l a n ce o f
b o t h l o w v o l t age n o is e (e
n
) a n d l o w c u r r en t n o is e ( i
n
), i .e ., a l o w p o we r b ip o la r t r a n sis t o r
i n p u t st a ge.
An a m p lif ie r s i n p u t vo l t ag e n o is e s p ec t r a l d e n s i t y (e
n
) is u s u a lly f o u n d i n a ven d o r s d a t a sh eet ,
b u t s o m e t i m es i t s c u r r en t n o is e s p ec is m is s i n g. I t c a n b e ea s ily c a lc u l at e d if t h e b i a s cu r r en t is
k n o w n .
I n p u t b i a s cu r r en t sp ect r a l n o is e d e n s i t y ( i
n
) is d e f i n e d a s t h e r m s n o is e c u r r en t i n a b a n d w id t h
o f 1 H z t h a t is c e n t e r e d o n a s p e c if ie d f r e q u en c y, s u c h a s 1 k H z . I t is r el at e d t o i n p u t b i a s cu r r en t
b y:
i
n
2qI w h e r e I= b ia s c u r r e n t a n d q= e le c t r o n c h a r ge = 1 . 6 0 2 x 1 0
-1 9
c o u lo m b s .
W h e n s e lec t i n g a l o w i n p u t b i a s cu r r en t b i p o l a r a m p lif ie r , d o n t b e f o o le d b y t h i n k i n g t h a t a n
a m p li f ier w it h l o w I
b
m u st a ls o e x h ib i t lo w i
n
. W h ile t h is is u s u a lly t h e c a s e, t h e r e a r e ex c ep t io n s
s u c h a s b i as- c u r r e n t c a n c e le d a m p lif ie r s.
I n t h e c a s e o f b i as- c u r r e n t c a n c e le d a m p lif ie r s, we a r e s eei n g o n l y a sm a l l p o r t io n o f t h e a c t u a l
i n p u t b i a s cu r r en t o f t h e a m p lif ie r . O n l y a r em a i n d er o f t h e i m p e r f ect cu r r e n t c a n c e lla t io n
t ec h n iq u e a p p e a r s a t t h e d e vic e i n p u t s t h e a c t u a l b i a s cu r r en t f l o w i n g i n s i d e t h e d e v ic e m a y b e
t wo o r d e r s o f m a g n it u d e h ig h e r . C u r r en t n o is e is d e t e r m i n ed b y t h e t o t a l i n t er n a l b i a s cu r r en t ,
n o t t h e t i n y u n c a n c e lle d p o r t io n t h a t a p p ea r s a t t h e a m p lif ie r s i n p u t s.
JFE T i n p u t a m p lif ie r s o f fe r ver y l o w b i a s c u r r en t a n d , c o n s eq u en t l y, ver y l o w c u r r en t n o is e.
A lt h o u g h a JFE T s v o l t age n o is e is h ig h e r t h a n t h a t o f a b i p o l a r t r a n sist o r ( es p ec ial l y wh e n
o p e r at i n g a t h ig h c o lle c t o r c u r r en t ) , t h ey c a n o f f er a q u i t e a c c e p t ab le e
n
f o r m e d i u m t o h ig h
i m p e d a n c e a p p lic a t io n s .
I f o n e is c o n c e r n e d w it h o n l y a c h ie v i n g v e r y l o w i n p u t b i a s cu r r en t , t h er e is a n o t h e r c h o ic e
C M O S . A lt h o u g h a i n s u l at ed - ga t e C M O S i n p u t d evic e c a n a c h ie v e e x t r e m e ly l o w b i a s cu r r en t ,
i t e x h ib i t s a n o is e v o l t a ge ch a r a ct er ist ic t h a t m a k e s i t a less a t t r a ct iv e c h o ic e t h a n a JFE T i n p u t
d ev ic e. A l t h o u gh t h e y a r e c a p a b le o f g o o d n o is e p e r f o r m a n c e a t 1 0 k H z a n d a b o ve , t h e C M O S
a m p li f ier is h a n d ic a p p e d b y a h ig h 1 / f n o is e c o r n er f r eq u en c y a n d s o , f o r a u d io a p p lic a t io n s ,
a r e le s s p o p u l ar .
M u c h p r o gr es s h a s b een m a d e i n t h e l ast f ew yea r s o n l i n ea r C M O S d e s ig n t ec h n iq u e s a n d o n
w af e r p r o cessi n g t o a c h ie ve l o w n o is e, st a b le C M O S d e v ic es . W h e r e it w a s o n c e u n t h i n k a b le t o
c o n s i d er u si n g a C M O S a m p lif ie r , t h e y a r e n o w u sed r o u t i n e l y. A l l t h i n gs b ei n g eq u a l
(cu r r e n t s, d ev ic e g e o m e t r y, seco n d -s t age c o n t r ib u t io n , et c. ), t h e JFE T is s t i ll a b e t t er c h o ic e f o r
l o w est n o is e i n t h e 2 0 H z t o 2 0 k H z a u d io r a n ge.
Bes t FE T - i n p u t n o is e p e r f o r m a n c e ( e
n
) is a c h ie v e d b y l a r ge- geo m e t r y, h ig h t r a n s c o n d u c t a n c e,
N - c h a n n e l JF E T s. T h e m o r e c o m m o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d P - c h a n n e l d ev ic e is e a s ier t o i n t egr a t e i n
a n I C p r o cess, b u t it h a s a h igh e r n o is e v o l t a ge t h a n t h e h igh er c a r r ier m o b i l i t y N - c h a n n e l.
I n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r s a n d d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ie r s t h a t a r e r eco m m e n d e d f o r a u d io
a p p lic a t io n s a r e s h o w n i n T a b le 9 -2 .
Mo d e l
N u mb e r
I nst .
Amp
D iff.A
mp
e n @ 1 k H z
( n V H z)
i n @ 1 k H z
( p A H z)
T H D 1kH z
( %)
Ba ndwid t h
( kH z)
Ga i n
Ra ng e
(V/ V)
CMR
60H z ( d B)
Slew Ra te
(V/ us)
I N A103 X 1 2 0.0009
(G=100V/ V)
800
(G=100V/ V)
1 to 1000 125 15
I N A111 X 10 0.0008 0.002
(G=10V/ V)
2000
(G=10V/ V)
1 to 10000 110 17
I N A134 X 52* * 0.0005 3100 1 90 14
I N A137 X 26* * 0.0005 4000 0.5 or 2 90 14
* Difference amplifier noise is typically specified as the total output noise in a bandwidth of 20Hz to 20kHz, and includes both op amp voltage and
current noise and resistor noise. Specifications for the INA134 and INA137 output voltage noise are 7V rms and 3.5 rms (G= 0.5V/ V)
respectively.
Table 9- 2. Instrumentation Amplifiers and Difference Amplifiers Recommended for Audio Applications.
A d a t a sh eet is a va ila b le f o r ea c h m o d e l a n d i t s h o u l d b e c o n s u l t ed f o r d et a i le d t e c h n ic a l
i n f o r m a t io n . C h e c k t h e BB w e b s it e o ft e n f o r n ew m o d e ls t h a t m a y n o t b e lis t e d in t h e t ab le .
Rail- To- Rail Input & Output Swing
Discussion & T able of recomme nded I As for R-R input & R-R out put swing require ments
here. Me ntion OPA340 design for 2 op amp I A.
F irst , a ca vea t : t h er e a r e n o i n d u st r y- a ccep t ed d ef in it io n s o f w h a t c o n s t i t u t es r a i l- t o - r a i l (R-R )
sw i n g i n p u t o r o u t p u t . W it h t h a t i n m i n d , we wi ll p lu n g e o n w a r d w it h t h is r a t h er a r b i t r ar y R-
R d e f in it io n : a c a p a b i l i t y o f s w i n g i n g w it h i n a f ew h u n d r e d m i l l iv o lt s o f t h e r a i l wh ile a ls o
m a i n t a i n i n g t h e d evic e s im p o r t a n t s p ec if ie d p a r a m e t er s, su ch a s l i n ea r i t y.
T h is l a st r eq u i r em en t is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e. An i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r s o u t p u t sw i n g is n o t
s im p l y h o w c lo s e yo u c a n d r iv e i t t o t h e s u p p lie s ( o r t o gr o u n d i n si n gle s u p p l y a p p l ic a t io n s) .
T h e I A l i n e a r i t y w i ll b e s e r io u s l y d egr a d ed we ll b e f o r e i t s o u t p u t st a ge sa t u r a t es b eca u se t h e
i n t er n a l o p a m p s h a ve r u n o u t o f ga i n w h e n d r iv e n i n t o t h e s u p p l y r a ils .
R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r i n p u t sw i n gs t o t h e n ega t iv e r a i l we r e d is c u s s ed ea r lie r i n t h e c u r r en t s h u n t
sect io n o f t h is H a n d b o o k . I n p u t sw i n g t o t h e p o s it iv e r ai l al l o w s t h e d es ign e r c o n s i d er a b l e
f le x ib i l i t y i n t h e c h o ic e o f d e vic es f o r h is a p p l ic a t io n .
A s a n i l l u st r a t io n o f h o w t h i s c a n b e a d va n t a geo u s , c o n s i d er t h e p r o b le m o f m e a s u r i n g c u r r en t
w it h a h igh - s i d e s h u n t i n a 1 2 V D C b a t t er y- o p e r at ed s ys t e m . A f u r t h er r eq u i r e m e n t is t h a t
u n d e r a lo a d d u m p c o n d i t i o n , t h e l i n e v o l t age c a n r is e t o 2 8 V . U n d er t h es e c o n d i t io n s , t h e
d i ffe r e n c e o r i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ier m u s t b e c a p a b le o f o p e r at i n g w it h a 1 2 t o 28V D C
c o m m o n m o d e v o l t age. I f o n l y d i gi t a l syst em + / -5V p o we r s u p p lie s a r e a v a ila b le , we c a n u s e t h e
-5V s u p p ly f o r t h e a m p lif ier s n ega t iv e s u p p l y a n d t h e D C l i n e v o l t a ge f o r o u r a m p lif ie r s
p o s it iv e s u p p ly a s we ll a s t o c o n n ec t t o o n e s i d e o f t h e c u r r en t s h u n t r es ist o r . See F igu r e x x .
+Vs
-Vs
R1
R2
R3
R4
Output
Output
INA132
Reference
-5V
Rshunt
Load 12VDC
Supply
7
10nF
5
6
2
3
4 1
10nF
Figure 9- 6. Unity Gain Difference Amplifier Common Mode Range Automatically Follows High- Side Shunt Voltage.

Figure 9- 7. (a.) INA132 Common Mode Range With +12/ -5VDC Supply (b.) INA132 Common Mode Range With +28/ -5VDC Supply
A s t h e la r ge wh it e a r ea s i n t h e C M V p lo t s o f F ig u r e x x . il l u st r a t e , o u r a llo wa b le c o m m o n m o d e
i n p u t v o l t age t r ac k s t h e I N A 1 3 2 p o s it iv e s u p p l y. T h e d if f e r e n c e a m p lif ie r o u t p u t vo l t a ge ca n
sw i n g f r o m z e r o t o + 10V f u l l sca le wit h a n i n p u t C M V r a n ge t h a t is we ll a b o ve i t s i n p u t a n d
p o s it iv e s u p p l y.
T h is is u n li k e ly i n t h is c a s e, as we a r e u s i n g a u n i t y- g a in d i f f e r e n c e a m p lif ier t o s en s e t h e
v o l t age a c r o ss t h e s h u n t r esis t o r a n d , t o m i n i m iz e t h e vo l t age d r o p a c r o s s t h e s h u n t , it s
r e s is t a n c e w i l l u s u a lly b e lo w. Sm a l l s ig n a l u n i t y- ga i n o p er a t io n is f ea sib le if t h e I N A 1 3 2 i n p u t
o f f set vo l t a ge ( 75 V t yp , 2 5 0 V m a x ) a n d d r if t (1 V/ C t yp , 5 V m a x) a r e w it h i n a n a c c ep t ab le
m e a su r e m e n t er r o r b u d g e t .
U s i n g a n e w- g e n er a t io n p r ec is io n C M O S o p a m p s u c h a s a n O P A 3 4 0 o r t h e d u a l ver sio n ,
O P A 2 3 4 0 , a n d a f ew p r ecis io n r esist o r s, i t i s p o ssib le t o ea s ily b u ild a t wo o p a m p
i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ier w it h o u t s t a n d i n g R -R i n p u t a n d R -R o u t p u t s w i n g. T h e c ir c u it
d i agr a m o f t h is g a i n - o f- 1 0 i n st r u m e n t a t io n a m p lif ie r is s h o w n i n F ig u r e 9 - 8 .
T h e a b i l i t y o f t h e O P A 3 4 0 a n d O P A 2 3 4 0 t o h a ve i t s in p u t sw u n g 3 0 0 m V b e y o n d g r o u n d o r i t s
p o s it iv e s u p p ly t o get h er w it h i t s o u t p u t c a p a b i l i t y o f s w i n g i n g t o w it h i n 1 0 m V ( R
L
= 10k) o f
e it h e r gr o u n d o r i t s p o s it iv e s u p p ly p r o d u c es t h e b es t R -R s i n g le s u p p l y I A cu r r en t l y a va i l a b l e!
I f d esir e d , w i d er b a n d w id t h a n d i m p r o ve d h igh f r e q u en c y C M R c a n b e o b t ain e d b y s im p l y
s u b s t it u t i n g f a st er O P A 3 5 0 s ( o r a d u a l O P A2 3 5 0 ) f o r t h e O P A3 4 0 s ( o r d u a l O P A2 3 4 0 ) o p
a m p s . T h e O P A 3 5 0 f ea t u r es a m u c h h ig h e r ga i n b a n d w id t h p r o d u c t t h a n t h e O P A 3 4 0 --
3 5 M H z vs . 5. 5 M H z G B W .
100k
25k
Inverting
Input
Non-Inverting
Input
Reference
Output
+Vs
+
-Vs
OPA340
+
+Vs
-Vs
OPA340
Rg
40k
25k
100k
Figure 9- 8. A R-R Input And R-R Output Instrumentation Amplifier With a Gain Of 10V/ V.
Figure 9- 9. OPA340 Instrumentation Amplifier R-R Output Swing Into A 10k Load With Vs = t2.5VDC And Vin = 250mV p-p.
RFI Problems
Input Rectification-- the Most Common Problem
In days gone bybefore computers-- kids were frequently introduced to the world of electronics
by building a crystal set. These simple radio receivers consisted of a long wire antenna, a
tuned circuit (the coil was usually wound on a Quaker Oats box!) , a good ground connection,
and a simple detector
1
. Early experimenters used a Galena crystal and cat whisker as a detector
and spent endless hours searching for the most sensitive spot on the crystal.
With a good antenna and earth ground connection, a nearby AM radio station would give an
audio signal adequate to drive a pair of high impedance headphones. In the authors experience,
given a very strong AM signal, the headphones could even be heard across a room. Of course, it
helped to have AFN Frankfurtrunning 150 kW on 873kHzonly 20 kilometers away!
The introduction of commercial semiconductor diodes made life easier for crystal set builders
the germanium 1N34 eliminated all the tweaking with the cat whisker but it also eliminated a
lot of the challenge! Silicon diodes such as the 1N914, in turn, eventually replaced the
germanium ones. Interestingly, as the crystal set detectors evolved, they became less sensitive.
Looking at the detector diodes I-V curve (Figure xx.) shows why. Since the detectors in these
simple receivers operated at zero bias, a large RF voltage was required to reach the diodes
conduction knee and cause current to flow into the headphones. As the semiconductor
material evolved from galena
2
to germanium to silicon, the diodes conduction knee voltage
increased due to higher bandgap energy and a larger and larger RF input voltage was required
i.e., less detector sensitivity.
1 . T h e o l d -f a s h i o n e d g a l e n a d e t e c t o r i s a r a t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g d e v i c e . G a l e n a i s a n a t u r a l l y - o c c u r r i n g l e a d s u l f i d e o r e i n
c r y s t a l l i n e f o r m . W h e n t o u c h e d l i g h t l y b y a s h a r p p o i n t e d w i r e , a q u a n t u m - t u n n e l i n g j u n c t i o n c a n b e f o r m e d i f t h e
experiment er is very careful. Lit t le did we kids know how high t ech we were back in t hose halcyon days of yest eryear.

2
Galen a an d ot her mat erials, such as iron pyrit e (fools gold) an d silicon carbide ( Carborundum) were used as RF
detectors as far back as 1901.
Figure 10- 1. I-VCurves For Germanium and Silicon Diodes.
Forward biasing a silicon (high bandgap) detector diode greatly improves its RF sensitivity. In
fact, we find a sensitive RF detector in the base- emitter junctions of the input transistors of an
op amp. Any significant RF on these junctions will be rectified, causing a net DC shift in its
operating point. This appears as an input offset voltage change. If the RF signal is an amplitude
modulated carrier (AM), its modulation envelope will appear and a corresponding AC signal
can be seen with an oscilloscope on the amplifiers output. Feeding the AC signal into an audio
amplifier and loudspeaker can sometimes reveal the source of the RF interference. AM
broadcast stations are frequently heard but FM stations generate only a DC offset.
Other sources can sometimes be identified by listening to a demodulated RFI carriera loud
buzz can be caused by SCR AC line controllers or the video carrier of a TV broadcast station, a
regular buzzing that comes and goes periodically can be caused by pulse radar, etc. A good
spectrum analyzer is still the best method of identifying the RFI source, though.
Typical Instrumentation A mplifier Swept- Power RFI Tests
To evaluate RFI sensitivity and test the effectiveness of input filtering, a series of RF tests were
run on a Burr- Brown INA129 instrumentation amplifier. In each test, an RF generator was
connected to both IA inputs to apply a common mode RF signal. The generator input was AC
coupled to eliminate possible generator DC offset voltage and it was properly terminated with a
50 ohm (actually, it was 49.9 ohms) load. The resistor R3 provides a bias current return path to
ground.
The generator was swept over a range of 100kHz to 1GHz in steps of 1x, 2x, 5x, and 10x. Power
levels were varied over a range of 100dBm to 0dBm and the amplifiers DC offset was
recorded. After subtracting the baseline DC offset at 100dBm, the INA129s delta Vos was
plotted vs. frequency.
The test results of the unf ilte red INA129 RFI response test circuit (Figure xx) is shown in Figure
xx. Equivalent input offset can be found by simply dividing the output offset voltage by the test
circuits amplifier gain of 200V/ V.
As one might expect, this test confirms that high RFI levels can create serious DC offset
problems.
Figure 10- 2. Un filtered INA129 Input Offset Shift: Note +200, -700 mV Vertical Scale.
INA129P
-700
-600
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency (MHz)
O
u
t
p
u
t

O
f
f
s
e
t

(
m
V
)
Output Offset (mV) @ -100 dBm
Output Offset (mV) @ -50 dBm
Output Offset (mV) @ -40 dBm
Output Offset (mV) @ -30 dBm
Output Offset (mV) @ -20 dBm
Output Offset (mV) @ -10 dBm
Output Offset (mV) @ -0 dBm
Figure 10- 3. Un filtered Input INA129 RFI Test Circuit.
Input RFI Filtering
As can be seen in the previous test, reducing the INA129 RFI input power level to below 30
dBm gives dramatically lower RFI- induced input offset shift. This can be accomplished by
adding a simple low- pass filter (LPF) to the instrumentation amplifiers inputs. But how
effective are filters?
Many LPF configurations are possible but we will limit out investigation here to only the
simplest implementations. More complex and effective filters are certainly possible and these
may be required for extremely severe RFI environments.
Analog Devices in their AD620 data sheet (Figure xx.) recommends a simple RFI filter circuit
that makes a worthwhile improvement in RFI performance. In essence, this is a simple one- pole
RC low pass filter. Although AD recommends that C1 & C2 be no larger than 150pF, a low
frequency filter cut off can be obtained by using suitably high values of R1 & R2. As resistor
values are limited by IA input bias current errors, however, very low cut off frequencies cannot
be obtained.
One important point to remember from our previous discussion of input filters is that R1 C1
should be as closely matched to R2C2 as possible to avoid converting common mode voltages
to a differential voltage.
Figure 10- 4. One Approach To Input RFI FilteringThe AD Filter.
Test results for a Burr- Brown INA129similar to an AD620with an AD Filter added are
shown in Figure 10- 5. A dramatic improvement in the amplifiers response to input RFI is
clearly seen.
Figure 10- 5. Input Offset Shift With Analog Devices Filter: Note t 5mV Vertical Scale.
INA129P+AD FILTER DELTA Vos
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency (MHz)
D
e
l
t
a

O
u
t
p
u
t

O
f
f
s
e
t

(
m
V
)
Both the INA129 and AD620 are current- feedback IAs and a connection of the filter capacitor
between the IA input and its gain setting resistor is effective, in this case, because of the wide
bandwidth of the current- feedback input stage. In a conventional IA, this approach is not
nearly as effective, however.
An improved performance LPF can be realized by taking a different approach. This is an all-
passive approach that requires one more capacitor than in the AD Filter. In addition to better
RFI performance, this type of filter (Figure xx.) is effective on either current- or voltage-
feedback instrumentation amplifiers and it is less sensitive to RC matching.
To distinguish the two filter types, the author has arbitrarily dubbed this approach the BB
Filter. This type of filter has been used in industry for years and certainly no claims of
invention are made here.
Figure xx. An Improved Input RFI FilterThe BB Filter.
Figure 10- 6. An Improved All Passive Input Filter--Dubbed the BB Filter.
Test data (Figure 10- 7.) for the BB Filter illustrates how much of an improvement we see with
a BB Filter filter. Note that the graph scale is only t 2mV for this test! This type of filter
with appropriately scaled resistors-- is highly recommended for any instrumentation amplifier.
Good layout techniques and a solid ground plane are a must if the filter is to remain effective
into the VHF/ UHF range. Short capacitor leads will minimize inductance and their push self-
resonant frequency to as high as possible. Surface mount components have an advantage; due to
their small size, lead inductance is less of a consideration. NPO or COG ceramic capacitors are
particularly effective in RFI filters but they are practical only up to about 1000pF.
Figure 10- 7. Input Offset Shift With Improved BB Filter: Note t 2mV Vertical Scale.
Circuit diagrams of both types of instrumentation amplifier filter test circuits are included in
Figure 10- 8 for reference.
Note: The term dBm is a logarithmic measure of power (referred to 1mW) that is commonly
used in RF. For example, 0dBm is equal to one milliwatt and is equivalent to 223 .6 mV rms
across 50 ohms. Here is a quick reference table showing the conversion:
RF Power (dBm) Voltage Across 50 Ohms (mV rms)
-50 0.707
-40 2.24
-30 7.07
-20 22.36
-10 70.7
0 223.6
Table 10- 1. RF Input Power To RF Input Voltage Conversion Table.
INA129P+BB FILTER DELTA Vos
-2
-1
0
1
2
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency (MHz)
D
e
l
t
a

O
u
t
p
u
t

O
f
f
s
e
t

(
m
V
)
Figure 10- 8. RFI Test Circuits For Measuring Offset Shift Of INA129 With AD LPF.
Figure 10- 9. RFI Test Circuits For Measuring Offset Shift Of INA129 With BB LPF.
Other RFI Considerations
While input filtering will solve most conducted RFI problems , other wires are capable of
conducting interference into a circuit as well. Power supply lines should be filtered by including
a small inductor of about 10uH to 1000uH in series with each power lead. Dont ignore the
outputs, either. An inductor in the output can also be helpful in some cases.
Murata- Erie makes a very nice little RFI noise filter that has excellent broadband attenuation
and can handle 10 amps. Their BNX002-01 achieves a minimum of 40dB attenuation over a
range of 1MHz to 1GHz and it also provides ground return filtering to minimize noise due to
ground loops. One of these on each power lead or even on the output of a two-wire 4- 20mA
current transmitter can do wonders.
In short, filte r everyt hing that goes in and out of your housing or PCB.
Complimenting the practice of RFI filtering is the practice of shielding. Enclosing your circuit
in a conductive housing will reduce RFI problems by making your filtering more effective.
Creating a Faraday cage around your circuit will eliminate problems from radiated RFI. as it
presents an effective barrier to RF fields.
Radiated RFI consists of both an E- field (electric) and an H-field (magnetic). Shielding
effectiveness will depend on what type of shielding material is chosen and which field (E or H)
is the culprit.
Only a thin conductive shield is needed to be highly effective against E- fields. Aluminum or
copper foil offers high attenuation, as does virtually any other type of sheet metal. Sprayed- on
conductive coatings containing graphite or nickel on a plastic housing can also be acceptable.
H-fields are more difficult to shield effectively with non-ferrous material. Fortunately, steel is
readily available and inexpensive. Low frequency shielding can be accomplished very effectively
with a high permeability material such as Mu-metal. Commonly used materials such as
aluminum or copper foil offer almost no attenuation for low frequency H-fields.
This is due t o t he fact t hat non-ferrous met als such as copper, aluminum, or brass
at t enuat e H-fields by induced eddy current s and at low frequency t heir required t hickness
becomes prohibitive.
Miscellaneous Applicat ions
Circuit s
A bsolu te-V alu e A m p lifier
O c c a s io n a lly yo u m a y n e e d a n a m p lif ie r t h a t g iv e s yo u a n o u t p u t t h a t is p r o p o r t io n a l t o t h e
a b s o l u t e v a l u e o f i t s i n p u t s ig n a l . T h a t is, i t s o u t p u t is a lw a ys p o s it iv e ( o r n ega t iv e ) ir resp ect iv e o f
t h e p o l a r i t y o f t h e i n p u t sig n a l! T h is is n t a s d i ff ic u l t a s m a y s o u n d . O n e t yp e o f a b s o l u t e va l u e
c ir c u it is s h o w n i n F ig u r e 1 1- 1 .
F igu r e 1 1 - 1 . U n i t y G a in Ab s o l u t e V a l u e C ir c u it Po sit iv e O u t p u t .
A F E T o p a m p is u s e d t o m i n i m iz e b i a s c u r r en t er r o r s a n d sm a ll-s ign a l s i li c o n d io d e s s t eer
t h e o p a m p s o u t p u t t o t h e a p p r o p r i at e d i ffe r e n c e a m p lif ier i n p u t T h is wa y, t h e I N A1 3 3 o u t p u t
r e m a i n s p o s it iv e f o r a n y i n p u t vo l t a ge p o l a r i t y. T h e o u t p u t c a n b e m a d e n e ga t iv e b y s im p l y
r ever si n g D 1 a n d D 2 .
+Vs
-Vs
R1
R2
R3
R4
Output
Output
INA133 Reference
+Vs
-Vs
Input
C1 10pF
D1 1N4148
D2 1N4148
R5
2k
OPA130
5
6
2
3
1
2
3
6
4
7
A s m a l l c a p a c i t o r , C 1 , p r o v i d es h i gh f r eq u en c y f eed b a c k t o m a i n t a i n l o o p st a b i l i t y i n t h e i n p u t
o p a m p .
F igu r e 1 1 - 2 . Ab s o l u t e-V al u e C ir c u it I n p u t ( Bo t t o m C u r ve) vs. O u t p u t ( T o p C u r ve) T r an sf er F u n c t io n . T h e A m p lif ier s O u t p u t I s A lw a ys P o s it iv e .
Avoiding Difference Amplifier
Pit falls
A dding E xternal ResistorsDont !!
Lo o k i n g a t t h e c i r c u i t d i a gr a m o f a d if f e r e n c e a m p lif ie r , i t ap p e a r s ea sy t o s im p l y a d d ex t er n a l r e s ist o r s
t o e a c h i n p u t a n d t h er e b y a c h ie ve a n i n c r ea s ed c o m m o n m o d e v o l t age r a n ge. Ad d i n g a c o u p le o f 1 %
m e t al f i l m r esist o r s t o t h e in p u t s ( sh o w n i n F ig u r e 1 2- 1 .) a n d m e a su r i n g t h e r esu lt i n g C M R
performance reveals a precipitous drop in the circuits common mode rejection.
Thinking the 1-% resistor tolerance may be causing the problem, you find a pair of precision 0.01%
matched resistors and try again. The CMR is still terriblewhats going on?
There is a good explanation, but it isnt obvious from Figure 12- 1.
F igu r e 1 2 - 1 . H o w T o R u i n Y o u r D if f eren c e A m p lif ier s C o m m o n M o d e R e ject io n A dd E x t er n a l Resist o r s.
10k
10k
Input
+15VDC
Output
-15VDC
+Vs
-Vs Ref
Output
INA132
2 --
3 +
6
5
Sense
10nF
10nF
1 4
7
Input
40k
40k
40k
40k
D R A F T C O P Y
DRAFT COPY 2
The problem with this circuit is that the 40k resistors shown in the INA132 block diagram are only
their nominal values; not their exact resistor values. In actuality, these on-chip metal film resistors are
laser trimmed to a very high precision ratio match in order to achieve the amplifiers CMR and gain
specification, but not to a high accuracy absolute value. Nominal values may, in fact, differ from the
actual trimmed value by as much as 5%.
Calculating the effect of adding 40k resistors to a difference amplifier with resistor network values of
38k to 42k will clearly show the folly of adding external resistors. CMR drops to a very low value!
To investigate these effects, we can perform a circuit simulation on two difference amplifier circuits,
each consisting of a high precision OPA227 op amp and a matched-ratio resistor network. In one case,
we add precisely matched external 40k resistors to the diff amp inputs while in the other case it remains
a conventional input connection (Figure 12- 2.).
F igu r e 12- 2. C i r cu i t D i ag r am T o I n ves t iga t e E f f ect s O f Ad d i n g E x t e r n a l Resist o r s T o A R a t i o- T r im m e d D if f er en ce A m p lif ie r .
D R A F T C O P Y
DRAFT COPY 3
A 1VAC signal source is connected to each of the diff amps inputs as a common mode signal and we
look at the output error voltagecommon mode rejection.
Figure xx. reveals how much CMR is sacrificed by adding even perfectly matched resistors to a ratio-
trimmed difference amplifier. Remember that we are doing a simulation here; we can have perfectly
trimmed resistors and no parasitics so the theoretical CMR of the OPA227 diff amp is very, very high.
In practice, we might achieve 120 dB with great care, super precision discrete resistors, a good layout,
and lots of luck.
Even so, adding external 40k resistors and dropping the CMR to less than 60 dB is a disaster.
F igu r e 1 2 - 3 . T h eo r et ica l C M R W i t h A n d W i t h o u t E xt er n a l 4 0 k Resist o r s A B ig D if f er en ce !.
D R A F T C O P Y
DRAFT COPY 4
If a difference amplifiers resistor network were trimmed to exact values, adding external resistors to
increase its CMV range would be a viable option, so one might ask, Why not trim the resistor network
to absolute values? The answer is Cost. Laser trimming adds cost to the final product and, to keep
the price low, only a ratio trim is performed.
If you are the type who cant give up this idea easily, here are a few things to consider:
1. You might be extremely fortunate and have the external resistor tolerance compensate the internal
networks absolute value mismatch. Dont count on it.
2. Interchanging the position of the external resistors may improve the CMR; but its just as likely that
it will get worse.
3. Adding a trimpot in series with one of the external resistors can trim CMR to an acceptable value,
but to restore gain accuracy, a second trimpot must also be added in series with the resistor
network.
4. An INA117 or INA148 can achieve an input range of t200V when it is operated on t15VDC
supplies. This is the easy way out of a CMV limitation predicament. Of course, adding external
resistors to an INA117 or INA148 will cause problems, too, but with such a high CMV range they
wouldnt be necessary.
5. Of course, there is still the option of building your own difference amplifier with a precision op
amp and matching precision resistors. Remember that to achieve CMR of higher than 80dB, you
must use resistors of better than 0.01%. And dont forget bias current errors.
A dding E xternal Resistors Sometimes?
After warning you about the pitfalls of adding external resistors to the inputs of a difference amplifier,
an exception to the rule must be pointed out-- there is one case where adding external resistance is
actually beneficial and recommended! In this case, we are only adding resistance to compensate for an
unavoidable external resistance that is mandated by its applicationthe current shunt resistor.