Lecture 2

Jayasankar Variyar School of Mechanical and Building Sciences

What is Fluid Mechanics/ Momentum Transfer?

Fluid Mechanics is that section of applied mechanics, concerned with the statics and dynamics of liquids and gases. A knowledge of fluid mechanics is essential for the Mechanical engineer, because many processing operations are conducted either partially or totally in the fluid phase. The handling of liquids is much simpler, much cheaper, and much less troublesome than handling solids. Even in many operations a solid is handled in a finely divided state so that it stays in suspension in a fluid. Fluid Statics: Which treats fluids in the equilibrium state of no shear stress Fluid Mechanics: Which treats when portions of fluid are in motion relative to other parts. 2

Fluid Statics
Fluid Statics: Which treats when portions of fluid are stationary
Pressure Head Forces on bodies

Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics: Which treats when portions of fluid are in motion relative to other parts.
Forces due to flows Torques Change in Angular momentum

Fluids: Statics vs Dynamics

Fluids and their Properties

In everyday life, we recognize three states of matter: solid,liquid and gas. liquids and gases have a common characteristic in which they differ from solids: they are fluids lacking the ability of solids to offer a permanent resistance to a deforming force.

Fluids and their Properties

A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under the action of shearing forces, however small they may be. It follows that:
If a fluid is at rest, there can be no shearing forces acting All forces in the fluid must be perpendicular to the planes upon which they act.

Shear stress in a moving fluid

No shear stress in a fluid at rest, shear stresses are developed when the fluid is in motion If the particles of the fluid move relative to each other they have different velocities, causing the shape of the fluid to become distorted. If the velocity of the fluid is same at every point, no shear stresses will be produced
since the fluid particles are at rest relative to each other.
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Differences between solids & fluids:

For a solid strain is a function of the applied stress
providedthat the elastic limit is not exceeded.

The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied The deformation disappears when the force is removed.

Differences between liquids & gases:

A liquid is difficult to compress and, for many purposes, may be regarded as incompressible. A given mass of liquid occupies a fixed volume, irrespective of the size or shape of its container A free surface is formed if the volume of the container is greater than that of the liquid.
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Differences between liquids & gases:

A gas is comparatively easy to compress. Changes of volume with pressure are large
cannot be neglected related to changes of temperature.

A given mass of gas has no fixed volume

Will expand continuously unless restrained by a containing vessel.

A gas will completely fill any vessel in which it is placed

no free surface!
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Differences between solids & fluids:

For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied stress. A fluid continues to flow as long as the force is applied Will not recover its original form when the force is removed.

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What Happens When a Fluid Flows

The liquid changes shape When shape changes there are shear stresses in the fluid The magnitude of the shear stress depends on
Viscosity Rate of sliding

When final shape is reached the shear stresses vanish (liquid is at equilibrium)
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What Happens When a Fluid Flows - 2

No viscosity

With viscosity

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Momentum Transfer - 1
In the flow of liquids and gases molecules are free to move from one layer to another. When the velocity in the layers are different as in viscous flow, the molecules moving from the layer at lower speed to the layer at higher speed have to be accelerated. Molecules moving from the layer at higher velocity to a layer at a lower velocity carry with them a higher value of momentum and these are to be slowed down. Molecules diffusing across layers transport a net momentum introducing a shear stress between the 15 layers.

What is Viscous force?

Force will be zero if both layers move at the same speed or if the fluid is at rest. When cohesive forces exist between atoms or molecules these forces have to be overcome, for relative motion between layers. Shear force is to be exerted to cause fluids to flow. Viscous forces can be considered as the sum of these two, namely, the force due to momentum transfer and the force for 16 overcoming cohesion.

Viscous Force in Liquids

In the case of liquids, the viscous forces are due more to the breaking of cohesive forces than due to momentum transfer (as molecular velocities are low).

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Viscous Force in Gases

In the case of gases viscous forces are more due to momentum transfer as distance between molecules is larger and velocities are higher.

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Laminar & Turbulent Flow Laminar & Turbulent Flow

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Laminar and Turbulent Flow - 2

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Turbulence
At low flow rates pressure drop increases directly with velocity At high flow rates pressure drop increases with the square of the velocity Reynolds studied the transition from laminar to turbulent: it depended on four quantities
Diameter of the tube Viscosity Density Average velocity of the liquid

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Laminar vs Turbulent
Flow above 2100 Re does not automatically mean turbulence Laminar flow can persist up to 24000Re!
If a fluctuation occurs, the flow will turn turbulent With nFluctuations such a velocity variation will get amplified

Below 2100, fluctuations will get damped and the flow will be laminar
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Wake Formation

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Laminar Flow
At low velocities fluids tend to flow without lateral mixing, and adjacent layers slide past one another. There is no cross current, axial mixing, eddies vortexes etc. This regime is called laminar.
Distance from Wall Plane A Plane B Plane C
y

0 Fluid Velocity u

0 24 du/dy (velocity gradient/ Shear)

Shear Stress
Fluids resist shear, hence a shear force will exist where there is a time rate of shear. In a 1-d flow, the shear force acts parallel to the plane of shear. Fs is the shear force that acts at plane C. From Newtons third law, an equal and opposite force acts below the plane C. Force per unit area or the shear stress is represented by .
Distance from Wall Plane A Plane B Plane C

FS -FS

Fluid Velocity u

F = S A S
Where As is the area of the plane.

Shear Stresses and forces are there is both laminar and turbulent flow

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Effect of Pressure Gradient Open Flows

Because of the pressure some fluid is forced up the first sheet against atmospheric pressure. As the fluid continues to the right, its local pressure drops, and the fluid from below cannot rise as strongly against gravity. For a liquid, this is not an effect of the fluid slowing down: what goes in on the left must come out on the right, otherwise, liquid would "pile up" in the middle of the pipe.
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Classification
water suspensions of clay, fly ash, Bingham Plastic sewage sludge Ideal Plastic Real Plastic Pseudo Plastic Shear Thinning Rubber latex, Paint, Tooth Paste, Printers ink, Mayonnaise Liquids and Newtonian gases Quick Sand, Dilatant Starches in water, Wet beach Sand Shear Thickening du/dy
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Manometer

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