CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Differentiate the three main components of a modern power system. 2. Explain the types of connection used in power system. 3. Describe various energy resources used to generate electricity. 4. Explain the impact of electricity industry to human and environment. 5. Explain the power industry in Malaysia.

1.1

INTRODUCTION

Harnessing and utilizing energy has always been a key factor in improving the quality of life. The use of energy, has aided our ability to develop socially, and live with physical comfort. As a matter of fact, there is a close relationship between the energy used per person and his standard of living. The greater the per capita consumption in a country, the higher is the standard of living of its people. Energy exists in different forms in nature, but the most important form is the electric energy. The modern society is so much dependent upon the use of electrical energy that it has become a part and parcel of our life. It is the most popular form of energy, because it can be transported easily at high efficiency and reasonable cost.

1.2

HISTORY OF ELECTRICAL POWER

The first electric network was established in 1882 at the Pearl Street Station in New York City by Thomas Edison. The station supplied dc power for lighting the lower Manhattan area. The power was generated by dc generators and distributed by underground cables. In the same year the first water wheel driven generator was installed in Appleton, Wisconsin. Within a few years many companies producing energy for lighting were established operated under Edisons system. However due to excessive power loss (RI2 at low voltage), Edisons companies could deliver energy only a short distance from their stations. The invention of the transformer by William Stanley in 1885, and the invention of the induction motor by Nikola Tesla in 1888, paved the way for ac system to be established. The advantageous of the ac system became apparent, thus made it prevalent. Due to lack of commutators in the ac generators, more power can be produced conveniently at higher voltages. The first single-phase ac system in the USA was at Oregon City where power was generated by two 300 hp waterwheel turbines and transmitted at 4 kV to Portland. Southern California Edison Company installed the first three-phase system at 2.3 kV in 1893. Many electric companies were developed. In the beginning, individual companies

were operating at different frequencies anywhere from 25 Hz to 133 Hz. However, as the need for interconnection and parallel operation became evident, a standard frequency of 60 Hz was adopted through-out US and Canada. Most European and other parts of the world selected 50 Hz system. Transmission voltages have risen steadily. The extra high voltage (EHV) of 765 kV was put into operation in USA in 1969.

1.3

SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The electrical power system can be divided into three major parts: 1. Generation, the production of electricity. 2. Transmission, the system of lines that transport the electricity from the generating plants to the area in which it will be used. 3. Distribution, the system of lines that connect the individual customer to the electric power system. The parts of the power system are illustrated in Figure 1.1. The generation plants are generally located away from heavily populated areas when possible. Land is less expensive and few people want a generating plant next door.

Figure 1.1: Major power system components

1.4

GENERATION

One of the important components of power system is the three-phase ac generator known as synchronous generator or alternator. Synchronous generators have two synchronously rotating fields: One field is produced by the rotor driven at synchronous speed and excited by dc current. The other field is produced in the stator windings by the three phase armature currents. The dc current is provided by excitation systems. In todays system the excitation current is provided from rotating rectifiers, known as brushless excitation systems. Because they lack commutator, modern ac generators can generate high power at high voltage, typically 30 kV. In a power plant, the size of generators can vary from 50 MW to 1500 MW. The source of the mechanical power, commonly known as the prime mover, may be hydraulic turbines at waterfalls, steam turbines whose energy comes from burning coal, gas and nuclear fuels, gas turbines or internal combustions engines burning oil. Steam turbines operate at relatively high speeds of 3600 or 1800 rpm. The generators to which they are coupled are cylindrical rotor, two-pole for 3600 rpm or four-pole for 1800 rpm operation. Hydraulic turbines, especially those with low pressures, operate at low speed. Their generators are usually a salient type rotor with many poles. In a power station several generators are operated in parallel in the power grid to provide the total power needed. They are connected at a common point called a bus. With todays emphasis on environmental consideration and conservation of fossil fuels, many alternate sources are considered for employing the untapped energy sources of the sun and the earth for generation of power. Some of these alternate sources are solar, geothermal, wind, tidal and biomass. The insulation requirements and other practical design problems limit the generated voltage to low values, usually up to 30 kV. Hence, step-up transformers are used for transmission of power. At the receiving end of a transmission lines, step-down transformers are used to reduce the voltage to suitable values for distribution or utilization. In a modern power system, the power may undergo four or five transformations between generator and ultimate user.

1.5

TRANSMISSION

Large amounts of electric power must be moved from the sites where it is generated to the points where it is distributed for use. Transmission lines also interconnect neighboring utilities which permits not only economic dispatch of power within regions during normal conditions, but also the transfer of power between regions during emergencies. As in other parts of electrical power system this must be done as efficiently as possible. If a transmission line is to move 1000MW at 95% efficiency and an additional investment can improve the efficiency to 96%, the additional investment must be seriously considered. The 1% saving is 10 MW. At say RM 0.05 per kWh this represents a saving

of 0.05 10,000 kW = RM500 per hour. If the line has an expected life time of 40 years the total savings will be: RM 500/h 24 h/day 365 days/year 40 years = RM 175.2 million. Hence a lot of money is spent to obtain as much efficiency as possible in transmission lines. The losses will be discussed in detail in Chapter 3 of this text but are briefly discussed here: 1. Resistance: The series resistance of a conductor depends on the resistivity of the conductor material, its length, which is affected by the amount of spiraling of its strands, temperature and the skin effect. Resistance losses are kept low by making transmission voltages as high as practical. 2. Inductance: The magnetic flux produced by the ac current produces series inductive reactance because of both self inductance along a conductor and mutual inductance between conductors. It does not dissipate power, but results in a voltage drop along the line and volt-amperes-reactive. Any reactive power on the line must be supplied by the generator in addition to the load power. 3. Capacitance: Conductors separated by a distance have capacitance. The capacitance of a transmission line depends on a conductor size, spacing, height above the ground, and voltage. Transmission line capacitance must be charged before a line can transfer power, and even though the shunt loading of a line is low, some power is shunted to ground from the line through the capacitance reactance. 4. Corona: Corona is caused by the breakdown of air around a transmission line because of high voltage. The effect is most severe around small conductors and at sharp points and corners. Corona absorbs energy from the line. Bundling of high voltage conductors, separating conductors with spacers placed periodically along the line, can reduce corona loss. Large amounts of power are transmitted from the generating stations to load centers substations at extra high voltage (EHV) transmission 345kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV for ac, and around 500 kV (250 kV), 800 kV ( 400 kV), and 1000 kV ( 500 kV) for dc systems. Typical voltage for transmission lines are 138 kV and 230 kV. The typical values for sub-transmission lines are 34.5 and 69 kV. Some large industrial customers may be served from the sub-transmission system. Capacitor banks and reactor banks are usually installed in the sub-stations for maintaining the transmission line voltage. Figure 1.2 shows an elementary diagram of a transmission and distribution system. High voltage transmission lines are terminated in substations, which are called highvoltage substations, receiving substations, or primary substations. The function of some substations is switching circuits in and out of service; they are called switching stations.

Figure 1.2: Typical Modern Power System

1.6 DISTRIBUTION Distribution networks differ from transmission networks in several ways. Distribution is mainly concerned with the conveyance of power to consumers by means of lower voltage networks. The number of branches and sources is much higher in distribution network 5

compared to transmission. A typical system consists of a step-down transformers (e.g. 132/11 kV) on-load tap-changing transformer at a bulk supply point feeding a number of lines which can vary from a few hundred metres to several kilometers. A series of stepdown three phase transformers, e.g. 11 kV/415 V, are spaced along the route and from these are supplied the consumer three-phase, four-wire networks which give 240 V, single-phase supplies to houses and similar loads. The typical voltage levels for distribution networks are 33 kV, 22 kV and 11 kV for industrial and commercial consumers. Residential consumers may be connected to 415 V three-phase or a 240 V single phase supply. The three types of distribution systems are: a) the radial system b) the ring or loop system c) the mesh system.

a) The radial distribution system A radial system has only one supply source and it feeds a number of loads. Figure 1.3 shows one feeder (circuit) of a simple radial system.

Supply Source

To other circuits Load Transformers Circuit Breakers Figure 1.3: A radial distribution system Load Load

The advantages of a radial distribution system are: i. simple to design load estimation and sizing of components is easy ii. estimation of the fault level is easy iii. grading of the protection relay is easy. The disadvantage of a radial distribution system is that there is no alternative route of supply to any consumer. A fault on a feeder will result in power outage to all consumers after the fault location on the feeder. 6

b) The ring distribution system A ring system has two or more supply sources. distribution system. Figure 1.4 shows a simple ring

Load To other circuits

Load

Supply Source 1

Supply Source 2 Load Load

Figure 1. 4 A simple ring distribution system The system provides two separate routes of supply to any load. A faulty feeder is easily disconnected and the supply to the affected load re-routed. The disadvantages of a ring system are:

i. ii. iii.

It costs more than a radial system with the same number of secondary sub-stations and serving the same consumers. Coordination of the protection relays is also difficult when compared with a radial system. Estimation of fault level is relatively more difficult when compared with aradial system.

c) The mesh distribution system A mesh distribution system consists of a number of inter-connected ring systems. Figure 1.xx shows a mesh distribution system. Load Load

To other circuits

Power Source 1

Power Source 2 Load Load

Figure 1.5: A mesh distribution system 8

The advantages of a mesh distribution system are: i. More than one alternate route of supply ii. Very flexible in load transfer iii. No interruption of power supply if faulty equipment/section is isolated quickly The disadvantages are: i. Extremely difficult in grading of protection relays ii. Extremely difficult to estimate fault level iii. System is more expensive than the radial and ring networks.

1.7

CONSUMERS DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The widely used systems in the electrical installations of commercial and industrial buildings are radial distribution systems. Figure 1.6 shows a typical 22 kV distribution system in a high rise building and Figure 1.7 shows the 400V/230V distribution system. Electricity is supplied to a consumer through switchboards. Equipment in the switchboards includes the following items: 1. Circuit breakers a switch which can be switched on/off manually or automatically to connect or disconnect the electricity supply from the power supply company or electricity to the various loads. 2. Busbars a set of copper or aluminum bars for distributing the electricity to the various loads. 3. Indicating and measuring instruments includes indicating lights, voltmeters, ammeters, kilowatt meters, power factor meters, kilowatthour meters and current transformers. The consumers distribution system can also be remotely monitored and controlled by a microprocessor system in this case, it is usually part of the complexs building automation system.

Figure 1.6: A typical 22 kV distribution system in a high rise building

Figure 1.7: A typical 400V/230V distribution system 10

1.8

GRID NETWORK

The network formed by the very high voltage transmission lines is called the super-grid. Most of the large and efficient stations feed through transformers directly into this network. This grid in turns feeds a sub-transmission network operating at 132 kV -115 kV. 1.9 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Conversion of one form of energy to another produces unwanted side effects, as well as pollutants which need to be controlled and disposed of. Increasingly, worldwide, environmental pressure groups are having an impact on development of energy sources, especially electricity production, transmission and distribution. Safety and health are subject to increasing legislation by national and international bodies. Engineers are now required to be aware of the laws and regulations governing the practice of their profession. The extraction of fossil fuels from the earth is not only hazardous business but also controlled through licensing by governments. Every type of power plants, even hydro plants require careful study and investigation through modeling, widespread surveys and impacts statements to gain acceptance. In recent years, considerable emphasis has been placed on sustainable development, by which is meant the use of technologies that do not harm the environment, particularly in the long term. It also implies that anything we do now to affect the environment should be recoverable by future generations. Irreversible damage, e.g. removal of the ozone layer or increase in CO2 in the atmosphere, should be avoided. a) Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect in its natural form has existed on the planet for hundreds of millions of years and is essential in maintaining the Earths surface at a temperature suitable for life. Without it, we would all freeze. The suns radiant energy, as it falls on the earth, warms its surface. The earth in turn reradiates heat energy back into space in the form of infra-red radiation. The temperature of the earth establishes itself at an equilibrium level at which the incoming energy from the sun exactly balances the outgoing infra-red radiation. If the earth had no atmosphere, its surface temperature would be approximately minus 18 C, well below the freezing point of water. However our atmosphere, whilst largely transparent to incoming solar radiation in the visible part of the spectrum, is partially opaque to outgoing infra-red radiation. It behaves in this way because, in addition to its main constituents, nitrogen and oxygen, it also contains very small quantities of greenhouse gases. Put simply, these enable the atmosphere to act like the panes of glass

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in a greenhouse, allowing the sun to enter but inhibiting the outflow of heat, so keeping the earths surface considerably warmer than it would otherwise be. The average surface temperature of the earth is in fact around 15 C, some 33 C warmer than it would be without the greenhouse effect. The most important greenhouse gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane, though other gases such as the Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) also play significant but lesser roles. Water vapour evaporating from the oceans plays a major part in maintaining the natural greenhouse effect, but human activities have very little influence on the vast processes through which water cycles between the oceans and the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is also primarily generated by natural processes. These include the process of respiration, in which organisms breathe out carbon dioxide; and the emissions of CO2 that occur when organisms die and the carbon compounds of which they are composed decay. But since the industrial revolution, the burning of fossil fuels by humanity has been adding substantial quantities of CO2 to our atmosphere. The fossil fuels are essentially compounds of carbon and hydrogen. Coal consists mostly of carbon, the chemical symbol for which is C. Natural gas, the chemical name for which is methane, consists of carbon and hydrogen. Each carbon atom is surrounded by four hydrogen atoms, so in chemical shorthand its symbol is CH4. Oil is a more complex mixture of many different hydrocarbon molecules. When any of these fuels is burned, carbon dioxide is produced, along with water. The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere in pre-industrial times was around 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) but levels have been steadily rising since then, reaching some 360 ppmv in 2000. The other main greenhouse gas, methane, is given off naturally when vegetation decays in the absence of oxygen for example, under water. However various human activities, including increasing rice cultivation, which causes methane emissions from paddy fields, and leaks of fossil methane from natural gas distribution systems, have caused the levels of methane in the atmosphere to increase sharply. Concentrations have risen from about 750 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) in pre-industrial times to around 1750 ppbv in 2000. These additional emissions of carbon dioxide and methane are the main causes of the socalled anthropogenic that is, human-induced greenhouse effect. Unlike the operation of the natural greenhouse effect, which is benign, the anthropogenic greenhouse effect is almost certainly the cause of a global warming trend that could have very serious consequences for humanity. The majority of scientists now believe that the anthropogenic effect, acting to enhance the natural processes, has already caused the mean surface temperature of the earth to rise by about 0.6 C during the twentieth century (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001). Moreover, if steps are not taken to limit greenhouse gas emissions, atmospheric CO2 levels will probably rise by 2100 to

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between 540 and 970 ppmv (depending on the assumptions made). These levels would be between two and three times the pre-industrial CO2 concentration, and would be likely to lead to rises in the earths mean surface temperature of between 1.4 and 5.8 C by the end of the century. Such temperature rises would be unprecedented since the ending of the last major Ice Age, more than 10,000 years ago. These temperature rises would be very likely to result in significant changes to the earths climate system. Such changes would probably include more intense rainfall, more tropical cyclones, or long periods of drought, all of which would disrupt agriculture. Moreover, ecosystems might be damaged with some species unable to adapt quickly enough to such rapid changes in climate. In addition, due to thermal expansion of the oceans, sea levels would be expected to rise by around 0.5 metres during the twenty-first century, sufficient to submerge some lowlying areas and islands. In the longer term, further sea level rises would result if the Antarctic ice sheets were to melt significantly. One way of mitigating climate change that could be important is called carbon sequestration. To sequester means to put away, and sequestration of carbon essentially involves finding ways of removing the carbon generated by fossil fuel burning and storing it so that it cannot find its way back into the atmosphere. One way of sequestering carbon is to plant additional trees which soak up CO2 from the atmosphere while they are growing. However, whilst this could provide a partial response to the problem of rising CO2 levels, the sheer magnitude of world emissions is now so great that sequestration in forests alone is probably impractical Another approach to sequestering CO2 is to extract it after combustion in, for example, a power station and store it in some suitable location. It appears to be technically possible to transport by pipeline large quantities of post-combustion CO2 and store it indefinitely in disused oil or gas wells or in saline aquifers beneath the sea bed. Further research is required to confirm the feasibility, security, safety and economic viability of such techniques. They would only be a realistic option in the case of power stations or similar large installations: it would hardly be practicable to apply this approach to emissions from vehicles or homes. b) Atmospheric pollution

As mentioned above the emissions associated with power plants are mainly sulfur oxides, particular matter, and nitrogen oxides. Sulfur dioxide accounts for about 95% of these emissions and is a by-product of the combustion of coal or oil. The sulfur content of coal varies from 0.3 to 5 percent, and for generation purposes is specified internationally to be below a certain percentage. A 1000 MW(e) coal power plant burns approximately 9000 t of coal per day. If this has sulphur content of 3%, the amount of SO2 emitted per year is 2105 t. Such a plant

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produces the following pollutants per hour in kg: CO2 8.5 105, CO 0.12 105, sulphur oxides 0.15 105, nitrogen oxides 3.4 103 and ash. Both SO2 and NOx are reduced considerably by installation of special corrective systems. Gas fired CCGT plants produce very little NOx or SO2. Their CO2 output is about 55% of an equivalent size coal-fired generator. Sulfur dioxides forms H2SO4 in the air which causes damage to buildings and vegetation. Sulphate concentrations of 9 10 g/m3 of air aggravate asthma, lung and heart disease. Sulphur oxide emission can be controlled by: The use of fuel with less than 1% sulphur; The use of chemical reaction to remove the sulphur, in the form of sulphuric acid, from the combustion products, e.g. limestone scrubbers or fluidized-bed combustion; Removing the sulphur from the coal by gasification or flotation processes. In most countries the governments now limit the amount of SO2, NOx, and particulate emission. This has lead to the retrofitting of flue gas desulphurization (FGD) scrubbers to some coal-burning plants, thus increasing the cost of production by up to 20%. Emission of NOx can be controlled by fitting advanced technology burners which ensures a more complete combustion process, hence reducing the oxides going up the chimney. Particulate matters refer to particles in the air. In sufficient concentration particulates are injurious to the respiratory system, and by weakening resistance to infection may affect the whole body. Particulates settled on the ground or building to produce dirt, and may reduce the solar radiation entering the polluted area (haze). Reported densities (particulate mass in 1 m3 of air) are 10 g/m3 in rural (less polluted) areas to 2000 g/m3 in polluted areas. About one-half of the oxides of nitrogen in the air is due to the power plants and originate in high temperature combustion processes. At levels of 25 100 parts per million, oxides of nitrogen can cause acute bronchitis and pneumonia. c) Thermal Pollution

Steam from the low-pressure turbine is liquefied in the condenser at lowest possible temperatures to maximize the steam-cycle efficiency. Where large supplies of water exist, the condenser is cooled by once-through circulation of sea or river water. Where water is more restricted in availability, e.g. away from coast, the condensate is circulated in cooling towers in which it is sprayed in nozzles into a rising volume of air. Some of the water is evaporated, providing cooling. The latent heat of water is 2 106 J/kg compared with 4200 J/kg per degree C in once-through cooling. A disadvantage of such towers is the increase in humidity produced in the local atmosphere. Dry cooling towers in which the water flows through enclosed channels, past which air is blown, avoid local humidity problems, but at a much higher cost than wet towers. A crucial point of once-through cooling in which the water flows directly to sea or river is the increased temperature of the latter due to the large volume per minute of heated coolant. The chemical reaction rate doubles for each 10 C rise in temperature, causing

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an increased demand for oxygen, but the ability of the water to dissolve oxygen is less at the higher temperatures. Therefore, extreme care must be taken to safeguard marine life, although the higher temperatures can be used effectively for marine farming if conditions can be controlled. d) Electromagnetic radiation

The biological effects of electromagnetic radiation have produced considerable concern among the general public as to the possible hazards in the home and work place. Proximity of dwellings to overhead lines and even buried cables has led to concerns of possible cancer-inducing effects, with the consequence that research effort has been needed to allay such fears to show that they are unfounded The electric field and magnetic field strengths below typical high voltage transmission lines are given in Table 1.1. Table 1.1: Likely maximum electric and magnetic field strengths directly under over-head lines. Note that magnetic field is dependent upon current carried. Line Voltage (V) Electric field strength Magnetic flux density (V/m) (T) 400 000 11 000 40 275 000 6 000 40 132 000 2 000 11 33 000 350 7 11 000 120 7 415 <1 1 UK National Radiation 10 000 15 000 1600 Protection Board Guidelines for safety Earths magnetic field 40 50

e)

Visual and audible noise impacts

The presence of overhead lines constitutes an environmental problem on several counts: 1. Space is used which could be used for other purposes. The land allocated for the lines is known as the right of way (or wayleave). The area used for this purpose is already very appreciable. 2. Lines are considered by many to mar the landscape. It cannot be denied that several lines converging on a substation or plant, especially from different directions, may be offensive to some eyes. 3. Radio interference (RI), audible noise (AI), and safety considerations must also be considered.

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1.10

ELECTRICITY SUPPLY INDUSTRY IN MALAYSIA

Electricity was first generated in the country in 1894 when two enterprising tin miners operated a generator in a tin mine in Rawang, a small town at the outskirts of Kuala Lumpur, for supplying electricity to run the water pumps in the mine. In 1905, the first public power station, the Ulu Gombak Power station, was commissioned supplying electricity to Kuala Lumpur. On 1st September 1949, the Central Electricity Board (CEB) was established under the Electricity Supply Act 1949, and was responsible for the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity in most part of Malaya (Peninsular Malaysia). Besides CEB, there were also some smaller regional electricity generation and supply companies in the country such as Perak Hydro and Kinta Electricity Distribution in the State of Perak and City Council in the island of Penang. On 22nd June 1965, CEB was named the National Electricity Board (NEB) or Lembaga Letrik Negara (LLN). NEB took over all the other major regional electricity generation and supply companies in the Peninsular. The Sabah Electricity Board (SEB) is the utility responsible for the electricity supply in the State of Sabah, while the Sarawak Electricity Supply Corporation (SESCO) is responsible for the State of Sarawak. On 1st September 1990, the National Electricity Board was corporatised as Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) bringing the electricity supply industry into the privatization era. This is in line with the global trend in turning to the private sector for development funds, to increase efficiency in the utilities and to allow competitive market forces to shape the electricity industries. As result of privatization, besides TNB, SEB and SESCO, many independent power producers (IPP) licenses have been issued. By 1997, 15 IPPs have been approved, contributing 35% of energy generated in the country. In 2004, IPP with installed capacity of 46.7% of 20,580 MW, generated 54.8% of the electricity consumed. TNB, SEB and SESCO, also undertake transmission, distribution and supply activities in their respective areas of supply. The power sector in Malaysia is likely to remain, in the near future, as regulated industry with vertically integrated utilities while the government is searching for an industry structure, which is most suitable for the country. This structure is believed, at least for now, to be most suitable in meeting the social-economic objectives of the country and the national interest. In order to ensure security, reliability and quality of power supply, the industry is governed by policies, regulations and acts such as Fuel Policy for Electricity Generation, Electricity Regulation 1994, Malaysia Grid Code, Power Purchase Agreements etc. The government also has embarked on programs in promoting efficient use of energy and use of renewable energy as contribution to the reduction of green house gases.

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The following data would give some indication about the development of electricity industry in Malaysia. Table 1.2: Selected data on past, present and future status of electricity industry in Malaysia Year 1980 1985 Consumption 8682 12540 (GWh) Maximum Demand NA NA Peninsular (MW) Generation Mix (%) Oil 84.9 61.8 Natural Gas 1.2 13.2 Hydro 13.9 25.0 Coal 0 0 Biomass 0 0 National Energy Balance Malaysia * Ninth Malaysia Plan NA = Not available. 1990 19932 NA 1995 39225 6381 2000 60299 9712 2004 2010* 77258 137909 12023 18187

49.2 22.4 15.1 13.4 0

20.8 57.0 13.7 8.5 0

8.9 71.4 11.6 7.6 0.5

2.9 66.5 5.8 23.5 0.6

0.2 55.9 5.6 36.5 NA

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