SPSS FOR WINDOWS VERSION 11.

0 BASIC GUIDE II

For further information contact:

Julie Morris or Bernice Dillon Department of Medical Statistics Tel: x 5815, 5800 Email: Julie.Morris@manchester.ac.uk Bernice.Dillon@manchester.ac.uk

Qualitative Variables: Two independent groups

In this example we want to examine the differences between two groups ( disease 0=no, 1=yes) for a binomial variable (smoker 0=no, 1=yes). We have already shown in Basic Guide I, that we can describe categorical variables using percentages with the Crosstabs command (Analyse>Descriptive statistics>Crosstabs ).

SMOKER * DISEASE Cross tabulation DISEASE 1.00 4 2 66.7% 33.3% 80.0% 28.6% 1 5 16.7% 83.3% 20.0% 7 1.4% 5 7 41.7% 58.3% 100.0% 100.0% .00

To tal 6 100.0% 50.0% 6 100.0% 50.0% 12 100.0% 100.0%

SMOKER

.00

1.00

Total

Co unt % within % within Co unt % within % within Co unt % within % within

SMOKER DISEASE SMOKER DISEASE SMOKER DISEASE

So, in this example, 33% of Non-Smokers (Smoker=0) have a disease whereas 83% of Smokers (smoker=1) have a disease. To test for differences between groups, we create this table, and run one of the following tests: If the table is 2x2 and the numbers are large enough in each cell, we use ChiSquare with Yates Continuity Correction. If the table is greater than 2x2 and the numbers are large enough in each cell, we use Pearsons Chi-Square If the numbers are not large enough, we use Fishers Exact Test

Look at the Expected Count less than 5 displayed below the table produced by SPSS. If this is greater than or equal to 20% then the numbers are not large enough and we should use Fishers Exact Test (and always use the two sided test) To obtain a p-value using CROSSTABS Click on Statistics. Tick the Chi-Square box and then click on Continue.

Click OK

In this example, we get the following table

Chi-S quare Tests
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) 1 1 1 .079 .242 .071 .242 2.829 12 1 .093 .121 Exact Sig. (2-sided) Exact Sig. (1-sided)

Value Pearson Chi-Square Continuity Correction Likelihood Ratio Fisher's Exact Test Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases
a. Computed only for a 2x2 table
a

df

3.086b 1.371 3.256

b. 4 cells (100.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minim expected count is 2.50. um

One of the deciding factors of which test to use

Under the table it says that 100% of our cells have an Expected Count less than 5, therefore we dont have enough subjects in our sample to use a chi-square. Therefore we shall use the Fishers Exact Test. Our p-value is two-sided, so in this case, p=0.24. We have no evidence that smokers are more likely to develop the disease (although, this is a lot to do with the sample size and power of the study)

Qualitative variables: More than two groups

When we look at categorical variables by group, we are again forming a table of counts and can analyse it using chi-square. We use the exact same commands as we did for the two group example. In this case, we have three samples of workers each from a different work place and we are measuring the prevalence rate of a history of cough.
COUGH Yes 16 45.7% 31 59.6% 10 58.8% 57 54.8% Total No 19 54.3% 21 40.4% 7 41.2% 47 45.2% 35 100.0% 52 100.0% 17 100.0% 104 100.0%

WORK

Workplace 1

Total

Count % within WORK Workplace 2 Count % within WORK Workplace 3 Count % within WORK Count % within WORK

Chi-S quare Tests

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) 2 2 1 .414 .414 .269

Value Pearson Chi-Square Likelihood Ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases 1.764a 1.762 1.222 104

df

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The m inimumexpected count is 7.68.

We observe that 46% of Workplace 1 have a history of cough, 60% of Workplace 2 and 59% of Workplace 3. We can also see that 0% of the expected counts are less than 5. Therefore, we would use the Pearsons Chi-Square p-value, which is equal to p=0.41. There is no evidence of any difference in proportions, between the three groups.

Chi Square tests using summary data

Sometimes we just want to use SPSS to carry out a chi-square test on the crosstabulation data without inputting all the raw data. Inputting crosstabulation data directly into SPSS To do this input 3 columns of data. The first column contains information about the coding of your first variable (eg. if the variable has just two categories then the codes would be 1 and 2). The second column contains information about the coding of your second variable (eg. if the variable has three categories then the codes would be 1, 2 and 3). The length of the columns (ie. the number of rows in the datasheet) corresponds to the number of cells in your crosstabulation ie. the number of different combinations of categories for your two variables (eg in the above example there are 6 cells, (6 = 2 x 3). The values in these first two columns cover the different combinations. The third column contains the frequencies, ie the number of subjects corresponding to each combination of variables. For example, for the workplace vs. cough data above, the spreadsheet will look like this:

cough
1 2 1 2 1 2

workplace
1 1 2 2 3 3

freq
16 19 31 21 10 7

The Freq column is now used to weigh the cases. Click on the Data menu Click on Weight cases Tick the weight cases by box Highlight the freq variable and click on the arrow to place it in the frequency variable box Click on OK Then use the Crosstabs command as before on the cough and workplace variables

Qualitative variables: Two matched groups

In this scenario we would not use a chi-square test because our data are no longer independent. To analyse whether a proportion changes at two points in time or whether two pairwise matched groups differ, we would use a McNemars Test. In this example, we wish to see if the rate of cough has changed from one year to the year after. Since we are using the same sample at year 1 and year 2, this would be a McNemars Test1 There are two ways of carrying out McNemars Test: 1. The McNemars Test is under the Crosstabs command that we have been using for the Chi-Square commands. Enter One Variable in the Row Box and One Variable in the Column Box

Click on Statistics and put a tick in the McNemar box. Click on Continue, Now Click on Cells and click the Total Percentages box

If there were two different groups at year 1 and year 2, then this would be a chi-square test.

 Click on Continue Click on OK In this example, we get the following table

YEAR1 * YEAR2 Crosstabulation
YEAR2 Yes YEAR1 Yes Count % of Total No Count % of Total Total Count % of Total 32 30.8% 25 24.0% 57 54.8% No 25 24.0% 22 21.2% 47 45.2% Total 57 54.8% 47 45.2% 104 100.0%

Chi-S quare Tests

Exact Sig. (2-sided) 1.000a 104

Value McNemar Test N of Valid Cases

a. Binomial distribution used.

The percentage of subjects coughing at year one is the total percentage for this row. It is, in this example, 54.8%. In fact, the percentage of coughs in year 2 is also 54.8%. It is no surprise, that the p-value for this 1.000 (Exact Sig. (2-sided)). There is no evidence that the prevalence rate of cough is changing between year 1 and year 2.

Alternatively, McNemars test is under the Non-parametric test 2 related samples option. Test type = McNemars Test pair = 2 matched variables

Quantitative data - Two independent groups

We describe continuous variables with a mean or a median to give a table such as. Secondary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease Mean (SD) Respondents Non-Respondents (n=1343) (n=578) Age (Years) 66.2 (8.2) 66.6 (8.7) Time since MI (mths)* 10 (6,35) 15 (8,47) Cholesterol (mmol/l) 6.5 (1.2) 6.6 (1.2) [*Median (Range)] The next question is Is one mean (or median) significantly greater than the other? Or, in other words, Is the difference we observe big enough to suggest it hasnt happened by chance. To answer this we need a confidence interval or a p-value as our tool of evidence. The method we use is dependent on whether the data are normal (when we are allowed to use means) or not. We have the following choices: If the data are NORMALLY distributed, we can get a confidence interval for the difference in means and perform an Independent samples t-test to get our pvalue. We can achieve ALL of this using the COMPARE MEANS option in SPSS If the data are LOG NORMALLY distributed, we can get a confidence interval for the ratio of means and perform an Independent samples t-test to get our pvalue. We can achieve ALL of this using the COMPARE MEANS option in SPSS. If the data are NEITHER NORMALLY NOR LOG NORMALLY distributed, we can get a confidence interval for the median difference and perform a Mann-Whitney U test to get our p-value. We can achieve SOME of this using the NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS option in SPSS. SPSS will not give you a confidence interval for the median difference.

Testing for Normality or Log Normality The tests for normality have been given SPSS Basic Notes 1 (and Basic Statistics 1). It is important to note that when we do group comparisons that the data must be normally distributed within each group. The easiest way to do this is to split the file by the group variable before doing your test of normality. Log normal data has a positive skewness. It is very common in biochemistry where there are more people with a normal, low value than people with a high value, which often indicates an illness. To test for log normality, we simply do a normality test on the variable after it has been log transformed. An example is given in these notes.

Independent Samples t-test

Independent Samples t-test Appropriate for comparing the means between two groups of different subjects, (who have not been matched in the sampling2.) The Compare Means option allows you to test for the difference in means for a continuous variable between two or more groups. 1) If the data are normally distributed To open the t-test box: Go to the Analyse menu, select Compare Means and then select Independent samples T test. Highlight the continuous variable to be tested and click on the relevant arrow to place it in the Test Variable box Highlight the variable that indicates the groups and click on the relevant arrow to place in the Grouping Variable box

Now click the Define Groups box and type in the values of the grouping variable. So for instance if you wanted to compare men and women, and in your data set men were coded as 1 and women coded as 2 then you would enter 1 and 2 into this box. Although you could argue that SPSS should be able to work this out, what this box does allow you to do is to select two subgroups of a variable. So, for instance if you had a variable coded 1=Yes, 2=No, 8=Dont Know, then you could compare just the yes and the no group by entering 1 and 2 into the box.

If the sample design includes matching then we have special methods for analysing. The Independent Samples t-test is not appropriate as through the Sample Design, you have forced the groups to be more alike than they would have been if they had been randomly sampled

Now press Continue then OK

An example of the output you should get is as follows: It tests for the difference in average heights between men and women, by using independent samples.
Levenes F Sig. Equal variances Not equal variances 0.005 0.942 t 11.019 11.053 df 112 62.74 t-test for equality of means sig Mean s.error Lower Diff Diff 0.000 15.52 1.408 12.728 0.000 15.52 1.404 12.713 Upper 18.310 18.325

There are two rows to this table. An assumption of the t-test is that our two groups (in this example, men and women) have the same variance. If they dont, it is often a sign of a violation of normality, but if we are sure that our data are normal but have different variances then we use the information given on the bottom row of the table, but more commonly, we use the top row. In order to test for equal variances between the two groups, we use the Levene Test of Equal Variances. The p-value is in the second column. If this p-value is below 0.05, we have evidence of a difference in variances and we must use the bottom row for our p-value and confidence interval. In our case we have observed that men are on average 15.52cm taller than women with a confidence interval of (12.73cm,18.31cm). The p-value is given as 0.000, which we should report as p<0.0013. Also spot that the confidence interval does not contain zero therefore we are 95% certain that men are taller than women. 2) If the data are log-normally distributed We can also do an independent samples t-test, but this time, we have to transform the data first. To this we use the Natural Log function (Ln) in Compute. We do not use the Log, base 10 function. In order to do this:
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Click on the Transform menu Click on Compute Enter a new variable name in the Target Variable box Form the expression ln(Variable Name) in the Numeric Expression box Click on OK

In most circumstances, a p-value can never equal zero. This is a consequence of using a sample to describe an unknown population. Therefore there is always a small probability that the difference that you have observed has happened by chance. Therefore, for small p-values that are reported in SPSS as 0.000, we would use p<0.001 in a paper. i.e. it is a small probability, but it still exists

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In our example the variable that we wish to transform is called Hdl and the new variable we have created is called loghdl4. Loghdl will now be the transformed version of HDL and it is this that we run the t-test on.

So to run the t-test, we repeat what we did in the example with the normally distributed variable Highlight the continuous variable to be tested and click on the relevant arrow to place it in the Test Variable box. This time the variable we put in is LOGHDL Highlight the variable that indicates the groups and click on the relevant arrow to place in the Grouping Variable box Now click the Define Groups box and type in the values of the grouping variable.

Youll get a similar output. In our example, which represents HDL levels between two groups, the first group in the treatment arm of a trial and the second group in the placebo arm, we get:
Levenes F Sig. Equal variances Not equal variances 0.441 0.511 t-test for equality of means sig Mean s.error Lower Diff Diff 0.905 -0.0097 0.08118 -0.17407 0.905 -0.0097 0.08118 -0.17422

T -0.120 -0.120

df 39 36.92

Upper 0.15462 0.15478

In statistics, Log is synonymous with Natural Logs as we hardly ever use Log, Base 10. Therefore, it is not unusual for our transformed variables to be called Log<variable> when Ln<variable> may seem more appropriate.

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Again we can assume equal variances (p=0.51). There is no evidence of any difference in levels of HDL betweem the two groups (p=0.91). We observe a mean difference of -0.0097, but this is between the log transformed outcomes. If we exponentiate the mean difference in the table, then we get 0.99. This is the ratio of the means of the treatment group and the placebo group, i.e. The average HDL reading of the treatment group is 0.99 times the average of the placebo group. If we exponentiate the limits of the confidence interval, then we get a confidence interval of this ratio, which is (0.84, 1.16), that is the average HDL after the treatment group is somewhere between 0.84 times and 1.16 times the average HDL after a course of the placebo. In order to exponentiate, we have to do it either with a calculator or a spreadsheet, using the EXP function.

Mann Whitney U test

If our data are not normally distributed then using a t-test is prone to increasing our chances of a Type I Error, i.e. giving us a significant p-value when there is no difference in the population. In order to combat this, we use a non-parametric test. The equivalent of the t-test is the Mann-Whitney U test. We may use medians to describe non-normal data, but the Mann-Whitney U is a rank test, so does not directly compare two medians. It compares two distributions. The menu for running a Mann-Whitney U test is under the Analyse mean, click on Nonparametric Tests, then click on 2 Independent Samples Highlight the variable to be tested and click on the relevant arrow to place it in the Test Variable box Highlight the variable defining the groups and click on the relevant arrow to place in the Grouping Variable box

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Click on the Define Groups box and type in the values of the grouping variable corresponding to the groups being compared. This is identical to the ttest example.

Click on Continue and then OK

In this example, comparing weight between men and women, we get the following output:
Ranks SEX Male Female Total N 80 34 114 Mean Rank 7 2.15 23.03 Sum o f Ranks 57 72.00 783.00

WEIGHT

a Tes t Statis tics

Mann-Whitney U Wilco xo n W Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

WEIGHT 188.000 7 83.000 -7 .264 .000

a. Gro uping Variable: SEX

We can see from the p-value (reported in SPSS as 0.000, but we should report as <0.001) that the weight of males is significantly different to females. There are, however NO descriptive statistics with this output as the mean rank and the sum of ranks that have been reported are completely meaningless. To get the medians, by group, use the Explore option. The confidence interval for the median difference is not available in SPSS. Either seek alternative software, calculate it by hand or ask a statistician.5

One reference for the formula for the Median Difference is: Campbell, M.J. and Gardner, M.J. (1989) Calculating confidence intervals for some non-parametric analyses. In Statistics with Confidence (eds M.J. Gardner and D.G.Altman), London: British Medical Journal, 71-9 [9.6.3, Ans 9.4] It is not a regularly seen statistic in papers so may not be necessary in order to get your paper published. Descriptives by group could be sufficient.

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Quantitative variables matched data

When we analyse two matched continuous variables within a single group, there are two possible scenarios. We have measured the same variable twice, maybe at two different time points and we are interested in whether this measure has changed in the duration. We have two separate groups but they have been pair-wise matched in some way As with most analysis with continuous variables the actual method of analysis is dependent on the assumption of normality. Let us consider our approach If normal, we can get a confidence interval for the average decline over time and a p-value from a paired-sample t-test. This is ALL available in the COMPARE MEANS option. If not-normal, we use the confidence interval for the median decline and a pvalue from a Wilcoxon Test. SOME of this is available in the NONPARAMETRIC TESTS option.

In this case the normality we are interested in is the normality of the paired differences. In order to test for normality in our paired differences, we need to calculate the difference between the two variables and test that for normality. Data that are normally distributed at both time points often have normally distributed differences. Also some data that are non-normal at both time points could have normal paired differences. For example, hdl may be log-normal at time 1 and log-normal at time 2 but the reductions in hdl could be normal. There is no hard and fast rule for the distribution of the paired differences, it will have to be checked. However normally distributed paired differences are very common.

Paired t-test
This test is appropriate when we have a repeated measure on a single group of subjects (or our groups have been matched in the design) and the paired difference between the paired variables is normally distributed. Select Compare Means Select paired-sample t-test Highlight the two variables to be tested and click on the relevant arrow to place in the Paired Variables box (e.g. In this case we choose pre and post you have to select them both before transferring them across)

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Click on OK

Here is an example of some output: It demonstrates the difference in calories taken by a sample of women, pre and post menstruation Paired Differences s.error Lower Upper 132.88 976.91 1589.75

Pair 1

Mean 1283.33

SD 398.64

t 9.658

df 8

sig 0.000

Therefore, we have observed that that dietary intake on pre menstrual days is 1283 calories higher than dietary intake on post menstrual days with a confidence interval of (977 calories,1590 calories). This is highly significant (p<0.001)

Wilcoxon signed rank test

This test is used for comparing repeated measures on the same subjects (or measures between two groups of subjects who have been matched in some way) where the differences are not normally distributed. As an example, we will use the menstruation data again, but this time, we assume that the paired differences are not normally distributed. Select Non-parametric tests Select 2 related samples Select Wilcoxon for we have continuous data Highlight the two variables to be tested and click on the relevant arrow to place in the Test Pair List box

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Click on OK

We get the following output.:

Ranks N Dietary intake po st menstrual - Dietary intake pre-menstrual Negative Ranks Positive Ranks Ties To tal Mean Rank 5.00 .00 Sum o f Ranks 45.00 .00

9a 0b 0c 9

a. Dietary intake po st menstrual < Dietary intake pre-menstrual b. Dietary intake po st menstrual > Dietary intake pre-menstrual c. Dietary intake pre-menstrual = Dietary intake po st menstrual

The mean ranks are not appropriate summary statistics. Therefore, the figure we are most interested in is the p-value in the table overleaf (Asymp. Sig.(2-tailed)). We can conclude there is a significant difference in calorie intake between the premenstrual and postmenstrual period (with a higher intake on premenstrual days as the mean negative rank exceeds the mean positive rank). This time to get the median difference, calculate the difference variable first and then Explore this new variable. To get the confidence interval for it seek alternative help. Quantitative variables Correlations
b Tes t Statis tics

Dietary intake po st menstrual - Dietary intake pre-menstr ual Z -2.666a Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .008 a. Based o n po s itive ranks. b. Wilco xo n Signed Ranks Test

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Correlations allows us to assess the strength of the relationship between two continuous variables. If normal data, we use a Pearsons correlation coefficient If non-normal data, we use a Spearmans correlation coefficient

Some people would say you need BOTH variables to be normal to do a Pearsons. This is true if you want the Confidence Interval. Without the confidence interval, you only need one variable to be normal but as we are advocating Confidence Intervals in this course, only use Pearsons if BOTH variables are normally distributed otherwise use Spearmans. An alternative correlation coefficient for non-normal data is Kendalls Tau-B but we will use Spearmans. The Correlate menu is under Analyse Click on Bivariate Highlight the relevant variables and click on the arrow to place them in the Variables box Select either Pearson or Spearman. - We use Pearson when we have normally distributed data and believe we have a linear relationship. - We use Spearmans when we have non-normally distributed data and/or a nonlinear relationship is to be assessed. (In this case, as we believe height and weight are normal, we shall click Pearson)

Click on OK

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SPSS gives the following outcome which shows that Height and Weight are highly correlated (correlation coefficient=0.747). SPSS does not give a confidence interval for the correlation coefficient.
Correlations HEIGHT Pearso n Correlatio n Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearso n Correlatio n Sig. (2-tailed) N HEIGHT WEIGHT 1.000 .747 ** . .000 114 114 .7 47** 1.000 .000 . 114 114

WEIGHT

**. Co rrelatio n is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

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Quantitative variables: More than two groups

The p-value for a comparative test between more than two groups will provide evidence for the hypothesis that all the groups, on average, are the same. Consider this example. In this dataset, three groups, defined by age, are given a task to reduce their stress levels.The stress is measured on a scale of 0 to100 where 0=No stress to 100=Total Stress and is measured twice, once before the task and then afterwards. It is theorised that age will be related to the efficacy of the task. Therefore we are comparing three means, the mean decline in stress of those aged 16-25, the mean decline for those aged 26-45 and the mean decline for those aged 45-65. The way we answer the question Are the average stress declines the same? depends on whether our continuous variable is normally distributed or not. Here, we need to examine normality within each of our groups.6 If it is normal, then we can get a p-value from a One Way Analysis of Variance. This is available in SPSS under the COMPARE MEANS option If it is Log normal, then we can get a p-value from a One Way Analysis of Variance after we have transformed our data. This is available in SPSS under the COMPARE MEANS option [No Example given] If it is not normal, then we can get a p-value from a Kruskal-Wallis Analysis of Variance. This is available under the NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS option.

One Way ANOVA

To run a one-way ANOVA, go to the Analyse Menu, select Compare Means, then select Oneway Anova Highlight the variables to be tested and click on the arrow to add them to the dependent list. Add the grouping variable, age, into the Factor box.

We also assume equal variances in each group.

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Click on Options and click Descriptives

In this example, we get the following

D e sc r ip tiv e s
95 % C onfidence Inter val for M ean N DEC LIN E 1 15 -25 2 26 -45 3 46 -6 5 T otal S T R PR E 1 15 -25 2 26 -45 3 46 -6 5 T otal 20 20 20 60 20 20 20 60 M ean 14.30 9.45 14.40 12.7 2 5 2.8 0 33.40 35 .6 0 40.6 0 S td. Deviation S td. Er r or 10.5 7 9 8 .924 12.47 5 10.8 27 11.218 15 .010 11.7 49 15 .298 2.36 5 1.995 2.7 8 9 1.398 2.5 09 3.35 6 2.6 27 1.97 5 Low er B ou nd U pper B ou nd M inim u m 9.35 5 .27 8 .5 6 9.92 47 .5 5 26 .38 30.10 36 .6 5 19.25 13.6 3 20.24 15 .5 1 5 8 .05 40.42 41.10 44.5 5 -3 -17 -1 -17 35 11 19 11 M axim u m 33 21 43 43 72 61 63 72

ANOVA
Sum of Squares DECLINE Between Groups Within Groups Total STRPRE Between Groups Within Groups Total 320.233 6595.950 6916.183 4513.600 9294.800 13808.400 df 2 57 59 2 57 59 2256.800 163.067 13.840 .000 Mean Square 160.117 115.718 F 1.384 Sig. .259

The p-value for the mean decline is 0.26, whereas for the levels of stress before the task (Variable name: strpre) it is <0.001. We can conclude that there is no evidence of any difference in the average decline of stress after the task but there is strong evidence that

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the levels of stress before the task were different. We can see from the descriptives that the younger age group were more stressed with a mean score of 52.80 (95% C.I.=(47.6,58.1)) compared with mean scores of 33.4 for the 26-45 age group and 35.6 for the 46-65 age group. The middle age group showed the smallest decline, average 9.5 (95% C.I.=(5.3,13,6)) but this was not significantly smaller. Multiple Comparison Tests Click on Post Hoc and put a tick in the box corresponding to one of the multiple comparison tests (eg. Scheffe, Duncan, Tukey). Click on Continue.

Kruskal-Wallis
For example purposes, we are using the same stress data set but in this case we are assuming it is not normally distributed. If this were the case, then by using a One-way Analysis of Variance, we have a large chance of invoking a Type I error. Therefore, we choose the non-parametric version, the Kruskal-Wallis One Way Analysis of Variance.

Enter the variables that you want to test into the Test Variable List. Enter the grouping variable, age, into the Grouping Variable box.

Click on Define Range. Enter the range of categories that you want to test, in this case we want to test from 1 (16-24) up to 3 (45-64). i.e we are choosing a subset of the possible age groups. Click on Continue

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Click on OK

We get the following output:

Test S tatisticsa, b
DECLINE Chi-Square df Asymp. Sig.
a. Kruskal Wallis Test b. Grouping Variable: AGE

STRPRE 19.268 2 .000 2

1.712

.425

I have missed out the mean ranks from the output as, again, they are meaningless if you wish to explore further where any differences lie use the Explore option. We see there is little evidence of a difference between groups in the levels of stress decline (p=0.43) but there is strong evidence of a difference in levels of stress before the task (p<0.001)

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APPENDIX
Entering Data for Paired and Unpaired Tests
The golden rule for data entry is ONE ROW PER SUBJECT. No more and no less. Therefore, when we are comparing independent groups, we would get a data sheet such as.

i.e., we have a group variable, work, which tells us which workplace the subject is in and an outcome variable, cough, which tells us whether the subject has a history of cough. It is not appropriate in this case to create three variables, one for each workplace. We would then have 3 subjects per row. When we have paired data, we get a data set such as the set overleaf.

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This time year 1 is in one column and year 2 is in another column. We do not have a year variable because that would mean that we would have two rows for one subject. The consequence of all this is that the menus for the paired analysis are set up differently for the menus of the unpaired analysis. However, both menus are set up to accommodate: ONE ROW PER SUBJECT and ONE SUBJECT PER ROW

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