WATER SUPPLY POTENTIALS OF OTUKPO LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN BENUE STATE Ogbo, Ocholuje Samuel. April, 2012.

ABSTRACT Water resources are subjected to vicissitudes which include, ever increasing demand, seasonality, deprecation, poor methods of abstraction, storage, and the complications of global warming. The available water resource in Otukpo is inadequate due majorly to seasonality. This is evident from the fact that scarcity commences after rainy seasons, pointing to the fact that water storage facilities are inadequate. The issue of seasonal scarcity can be overcome by the use of improvements to the already existing structures, this includes the combined construction of dams and underground tanks, which both reduced water loses due to evaporation and increases both usage and detention time of retained water. Dried bamboo sticks lining of wells can also be used to control caving-in and siltation of wells.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION: Water demand has been on the increase in sub-Saharan Africa, as has been reported by several researchers (Sharma, 1996). This has been due to several factors which include but not limited to; phenomenal increase in population, rising agricultural demand, urbanisation, increased industrial usage, and all associated water stresses as well as frequent droughts in the arid and semi-arid regions of the continent, where drought induced water scarcities have brought social shocks on incipient fragile economies. Geophysical investigation of ground water potentials to identify favourable formations and locations that have economic water yield was carried out in several areas in Otukpo by several researchers including Ogah, (2009). The results suggest that the area is hydro-geologically unfavourable for ground water development, except areas where some discontinuities, indicating problems, faults or fractures were encountered. Ground water quantities changes with the geographical location and mans interference with the natural environment in general. The average daily water consumption of a community is primarily a function of population. The population of Otukpo as given in the 2006 census stood at 261,700 persons. At a population growth of 5% the population today can be computed to 447596 by the compound formula for population estimation. This goes further to show case the inadequacy of the water supply structures in the local government area as a whole. Computation of projected population figures at a growth rate of five percent (5%) is in line with design requirements, with water structures having a life of between 25-50 years design period. Agunwamba,(2000). As reported by the daily water supply of the Otobi water works was 55litres/second/day at 14 hours a day. This sums to 2,772,000 litres per day, which is inadequate as compared with the water demand although the recent dam construction should increase the value appreciably. Ijigba,(1997). This paper specifically examines water resources in terms of resource profile and strategies to be adopted to enhance optimal exploration. 2.0 WATER RESOURCE ENDOWMENT. Natural sources of water abound in Otukpo, though plagued with seasonality, they proof valuable but inadequate. There sources of water include: I. II. III. Surface water. Ground water. Rain water.

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The issue with their sources range from seasonality to difficulty in abstraction. These problems can be solved by the appropriate engineering scheme 2.1 SURFACE WATER. Sources of surface water in Otukpo include: I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Okokoro stream. Akpegede stream Okponyega. Otobi Otetlenyi. Itor spring water.

Of all these only Otobi is not majorly affected by seasonal variability. Some of these streams are believed to have some negative spiritual under tones and people tend to avoid them, thereby aggravating the problem. Okokoro, is sourced from an underground confide acquire and flows all year round. The minimum flow rate is about 0.015m3/s. River water can supply water to a community throughout the year or where it is not enough it may be stored during times of flood and then supplied to the community. 2.2 GROUND WATER Ground water occurs in two different zones they are: (i) (ii) The unsaturated The saturated zone.

The Saturated zone is the main source of ground water. Recharge of the zone occurs by percolation of water from the surface of the ground through the unsaturated zone. Underground formation refers to as aquifers hold ground water. Aquifers are geologic formations that are capable of holding or transmitting water. Geophysical surveys carried out by Ogah,(2009) using the ventral electrical sounding (VES) technique applying schlumberger array at distance between 80m to 160m, suggest that the area is hydro geologically unfavourable for ground water development. Except areas where some discontinuities, indicating probable faults or fractures were encountered. Geologically Otukpo town is under laid by Agwo Shale formation which is composed of soft, fine sand, shale mudstone and muddy limestone with little potential for ground water development. These are evident by the behaviour of wells and the fact that bore-hole drilled in the area have not survived.

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In Otukpo, the method used to harness ground water is mainly by digging wells. The water obtained is clean drinkable with minimal treatment required. 2.3 RAIN WATER Rain water can be used in very small communities which do not have any other source of water or areas where water is unpalatable. The component of rain water system includes: I. II. III. ROOF: Rain water is usually collected from the roof of buildings. The roof should be pitched to increase the speed of runoff which in turn reduces the time the water is in contact with harmful substances. As recommended by Agunwamba,(2000) the roofing material should not exude any harmful substance and should be resistance to weathering, concrete, slate, plastic or tiled roofs are satisfactory while roofs of asbestos and grass are not suitable. FILTERS: Self cleaning filters which do not retain dirt and prevents germination from taking place are the recommended ones. They help to prevent dirt. They are placed in upright position. STORAGE: The modern practice is to design reservoirs, both underground and surface level storage tanks. Tanks are designed with calmed inlet to enable settling of sediments which are regularly flushed through a plugged drain pipe. The tank is oxygenated by directing in coming water towards the surface. Optimal tank sizing ensures that the tank will overflow two or three times a year. 3.0 CHEMICAL ANALYSISN OF GROUNDWATER. Water samples were collected from wells at various locations. Two litres of water was collected from each well for chemical analysis. These were stored in clean and sealed cans. The water samples in the cans were labelled PW1 to PW3 for identification purpose. The analysis gave results as stated below: Roof. Filters. Storage.

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Table 3.0 Test Result of Otukpo Water Samples.

S/No. Test Parameter Water Samples

1 PH 2 Conductivity 3 TDS ( ) 4 Appearance 5 Na+ 6 K+ 7 Ca++ 8 Fe2+3 9 Mg( ) 10 NO311 C112 SO42Note: C/C= Clear and Colourless ND = Not Determined

PW1 6.8 310 205 C/C Trance ND 1.97 0.09 20.00 0.03 1.7 0.38

PW2 6.9 300 217 C/C NIL ND 1.23 0.03 14.64 0.2 6.5 0.18

PW3 7.2 298 200 C/C ND ND 1.88 0.06 7.11 0.18 3.0 0.2

= Parts per million=milligram/litre (Mg/L) = Total Dissolved Solids. Table 3.1 Guideline on Drinking water by World Health Organization, (WHO) and National Agency for Food and Drug Administration Control (NAFDAC, Nigeria) (1994).
S/No. Test Maximum Acceptable Concentration (WHO) Maximum Acceptable Concentration NAFDAC

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 5|Page

Colour PH Range Turbidity Odour Taste Total solid Iron Sulphate Magnesium Calcium Chloride Zinc Copper Aluminium Nitrate Lead Selenium

5PtCo 7.0-8.5 5NTU Unobjectionable Unobjectionable 100mg/L 0.05-0.3mg/L 200mg/L 50mg/L 50mg/L 200mg/L 5.0mg/L 2.0mg/L 0.5mg/L 50mg/L 0.01mg/L 0.01mg/L

6.5-8.5 Unobjectionable Unobjectionable 500mg/L 200mg/L 30mg/L 75 200mg/L 5.0mg/L -

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Total Hardness

500mg/L

1. WHO- Standards are adopted by NAFDAC where no values are stated. 2. NTU- Nephelo metric turbidity units The results of the analysis carried out on the water samples are as shown in table 3.0. WHO, values for some of the parameters evaluated are as shown in table 3.1. The water is weakly mineralised. The averaged PH value of 7 for water in the study area is within the limit of 7.0 8.5 recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO) for drinking water. The slight drop from PH value of 7 in sample PW1 and PW2 is an indication of infiltration and percolation of ground water from disposal of domestic refuse. The results of the analysis for parameters investigation on comparison with recommended standard by international agencies show lower value than the maximum acceptable concentration limits. There is an insignificant level of anthropogenic degradation of the environment, due to its local sitting, absence of industries and large scale agricultural practices. The water from the well are generally soft, colourless, tasteless, contain little or no suspended solids and also odourless. The electrical conductivity (EC) of the water is of average value, since this is a function of dissolved ions such as calcium (Ca+), magnesium (Mg++), present in the water. Nitrate ions (NO3-) level was found to be ranges between 0.03 and 0.18 the values are not high enough to cause irritation. The nitrate levels are equally safe for babies. 4.0 ENGINEERING SCHEMES AND IMPROVEMENTS. The various modes of water abstraction employed in Otukpo are plagued to various levels by certain natural occurrences which include but not limited to: siltation of river courses, failure of bore-holes, caving-in of well, failure of dams and so on. This is not unrelated to the fact that structures tend to deteriorate our time. 4.1 SEDIMENTATION Sediment accumulation is proportional to the sediment caring capacity and the sediment lead of the stream at any particular time. They help to reduce the effective volume of flow for channels, rivers and dams, thus it is important to consider the mechanism by which suspended particles are transported in both the vertical and horizontal direction and incorporating same in to the design of such structures. Comprehensive mathematical analysis of suspended sediment transport confirms that the particles are transported by their centrifugal acceleration within rotational eddies (Hicks,2002) with very small particles in fast-flowing streams, sediment concentrations vary across flow cross-sections and suspension nearly homogeneous. As the particle size increases, the concentration near the bed becomes higher than the average, eventually reaching a stage where suspended load transport ceases and bed load transport occurs.

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4.1.1 SEDIMENT DELIVER RATE. Two methods of approach are available for predicting the rate of sediment accumulation in a reservoir; both involve predicting the rate of sediment delivery. One method depends on historical records of the silting rate for existing reservoirs and is strictly improved. The second general method involves determining the rate of sediment transport as a function of stream discharge and delivery of suspended silt. An accepted formula for the quantity of sediment transported as bed load is Schoklitsch formula:

=
Where = total bed load (Kg/s)

).

= effective grain diameter in (mm) S = slop of energy gradient = total instantaneous discharge (m3/s) b = width of river (m) = critical discharge (m3/s) per (m) of river with, Using Okokoro, as case study: = 0.015 m3/s as measured minimum value. = 0.025mm on the average. S = 1.250 (4.0x10-3) B = 7.62m And = = 2.095x10-4 (m3/s) m Hence, substituting for , gives the value of 11.76kg/s = (0.00532/54/3)

Clearly then, this value of sedimentation necessitates dredging of the bed of this stream and equally others within this area as the soil properties are similar. In the design of water extraction works, information may not only be required regarding the average long-term sediment load, but also regarding the maximum suspended sediment concentrations that need to be allowed for. High

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renewability is not only a characteristic of suspended sediment concentration but also of daily and even annual sediment loads (Rooseboom, 2000)

4.1.2 CAVING-IN OF WELLS.

The causes of caving-in of well can be likened to several causes: there include (i) siltation due to particle displacement as abstraction occurs, (ii) active over burden pressure in wells that are not lined and most importantly, (iii) the ground formation. Most well owners clean-up their wells at least once in two years, or when it is observed that the yield of the well has dropped significantly. The case of siltation is not unrelated to alternating negative and positive pore water pressures hydrostatic pressure and the afore mentioned alternating pore water pressure both below and above the ever fluctuating pheatic level aids well siltation by similar mechanism as explained by Darcys law at governs seepage.

Where k, (m2) is the intrinsic permeability of the soil and = dynamic viscosity of the per meant (KNs/m2)
f

and

= unit weight of per meant.

The sides of wells are structural can retaining walls to some degree. As wells are narrow excavations. Strong upward seepage between the two retaining walls will lead to much higher pore water pressure than indicated by the linear seepage approximations (Powrie, 2000). Such high pore-water pressure within a stratum of clay will both induce and enhance siltation and caving in. This dual problem can be solved by the introduction of a porous retaining structure;

4.2.0 ENGINEERING SCHEMES.

Schemes that can further facilitate both surface and ground water abstraction include but not limited to, I. II. III. IV. Dams Underground storage tanks. Dredging of water channels Lining of wells (Bamboo stick lining).

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4.2.1 DAMS. Dams are structures that bar or detain the flow of water in an open channel or water coarse. In this paper when dam is used reference is only made to gravity dams; thus are dams that depend on only gravity to resist the resorting hydrostatic pressure. Dams are plagued by losses by seepage, evaporation and the reduction in effective volume by the deposition of sediment; Sedimentation.

4.2.2 EARTH DAMS Guidelines for Design of Dams The downstream slope of earth dams without seepage control measures should be no steeper than 1:3. If seepage control measures are provided, the downstream slope should be no steeper than 1:2. The upstream slope of earth dams should be no steeper than 1:3 The side slope of homogeneous earth dams may have to be made flatter based on the results of design analysis or if the embankment material consists of fine grained plastic soil The maximum allowable top width (w) of the embankment shall be the greater division of 10m felt or w, as calculated by the formula:

Where: H is the height of the embankment (infelt). The top of the dam should be sloped to provide drainage and minims surface in filtrations and should be cambered so that the design free board is maintained after post-construction settlement takes place. Interior drainage trenches, downstream pervious zones or drainage blankets should be in plane to keep the line of seepage from emerging on the downstream slope and to control foundation seepage. Hazard class-A dams less than 20 felt and Hazard class-B dams less than 10 feet in height (New York State Department) 4.2.3 EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION Other than seepage, the other means of water loss; Evaporation and transpiration The merger equation, development from Daltons law, is one of many evaporation formulas and is popular for making evaporation rate calculation:

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Where: E = evaporation rate, in 30 day-month C = empirical co-efficient, equal to 15 for small, shallow pools and 11 for large and deep reservoirs = saturation vapour pressure, in (mm) of mercury, corresponding to monthly mean water or corresponding to water temperature instead of air temperature for large bodies of deep water ea = actual vapour pressure, in (mm) of mercury, in air based on monthly mean air temperature and relative humidity at near-by statures for small bodies of shallow water based on information obtained about (9.14m) above surface for large bodies of deep water w = monthly mean wind velocity (km/h) at about 9.14m above ground = wind factor. An example of the evaporation that may occur from large reservoir, the mean evaporation from Lake Mead is 1.82m. This value multiplied by the total surface give an idea of the volume of water lost part time. 4.2.4 UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS. Underground water storage structures are more efficient and economical if there is space availability as obtainable in rural areas. The volumes of the tanks are determined by the population, water demand, the recharge rate of supply sources and so on. The capacity of underground tanks to store water is dependent on the stability of the retaining walls and the porosity of the walls itself. Failure of underground storage facilities has majorly been due to neglecting same. The design of retaining walls may be split into three fundamental stages: 1. Stability analysis 2. Bearing pressure analysis and 3. Member design and detailing,

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All at the ultimate limit state considering serviceability limits. Mosley, (2007)

4.2.5 DREDGING.
Dredging of water courses is pertinent as siltation is a natural process and must occur at any rate (determined by soil stratification, nature of soil up stream, volume flow rate, and agrarian practice among others.) Dredging will effectively increase the effective flow area of flow, water retention, depth for aquatic organisms and in general improve bioremediation. Environmental impact analysis of the effects of dredging a stream or water source should be carried out as it verifies the economic importance of the process. Machinery used for small scale dredging includes; Backsatters, Pay loaders, Dumpers etc. 4.2.6 BAMBOO STICK LINING. The twin problem of Caving-in and siltation and siltation of wells in this area can be solved by the introduction of bamboo sticks as lining material. Availability of the material and ease of installation makes it economically viable. This is cheaper than the burnt brick that has been used all this while. The use of dried bamboo for this purpose is not new as it has been practiced in India. The invention and installation of same has been reported by various researchers. The sticks are placed around the depth of the well and then held together to by rings (also made with bamboo).

4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION. 4.1 CONCLUSION. The available water in Otukpo (LGA) is clearly in sufficient compared with the ever increasing population and corresponding water demand. Other factors that have helped to further aggravate the situation include: seasonality, poor method of abstraction, poor maintenance and the consequent depreciation of present infrastructure. Since during the raining season there is no water scarcity issue, improvements made to major steams, wells and construction of dams in the various communities or group of communities will in a major way keep the problem of water outages confined to the past. 11 | P a g e

4.2 RECOMENDATION. Based on the findings, the following recommendations have been reached I. The construction of units of small to medium size dams combined with underground reservoir. This combination proves to be a better option as a higher volume of water is conserved and can be used during seasons of draught. Dam-Reservoir system proves to be more effective than single large volume dams as they are less prone to agents of siltation and evaporation. They provide a smaller surface area. At locations where dams cannot be sited, the stream should be dredged to facilitate water flow, abstraction, storage and aquaculture. The populace should be educated on the need for controlled agricultural practices that aid the siltation process and dumping of refuse in drainage paths. Many steams are victims of the latter. Encourage communal participation in solving these problems. The structures put in place should be ones that require minimal maintenance. This implies that the design of these structures should have this as one of the parameters to be used.

II. III. IV. V.

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REFERENCES Agunwamba, J.C. (2000) Waste Engineering Systems Pp.17-31, 33-88 Agunwamba, J.C. (2001). Waste Engineering and Management tools. Boyce, James K. (2003) Inequality and Environmental Protection. Programme on Development and Peace-Building, Political Economy and Research Institute, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Chandra, S. (2008) Contribution of Geophysical Methods in Exploration and Assessment of Ground Water in Hard Rock Aquifers. Federal Government of Nigeria: (2003). Obasanjos Economic Policy Direction, 1999-2003. The presidency,Abuja. Hicks,T.G. (2010) Civil Engineering Formulas. Mc Graw Hill, New York. Ijigba, E. A. (1997). An Assessment of the Sources of Water Supply in Otukpo. Magnani, Elisabetta: (2000) The Environmental Kuznets curve, environmental protection policy and income distribution, Ecological Economics, 32(3):431-443. Mosley, B., Bungey, J. huls, R. (2007). Reinforced Concrete Design. Palgrave Macmillan. Houndmill, Basingstroke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 fifth Ave. New York. Orubu, C. O. (2006). Water Resource, Environment and Sustainable Development in Nigeria. Ogah, V.E. (2010) Metallic Minerals Exploration in Otukpo L. G. A. Of Benue State Ogah, V.E., Ocheche, G.A. (2009). Groundwater Quality Analysis in Pipe-Line Area of Otukpo. Ogbo, O. S. (2008). Valuation of Water Supply Options, Seminar Presentation 2nd semester Final year. Sharma, Naranda, P.; T. (1996) Damhaup and Associates: Africa Waste Resources: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Development, (Technical Paper No. 331, Africa Technical Department Series). The World Bank, Washington D.C. Powrie, W. (2002) Soil Mechanics: Concept and Applications. E & FN Spons Press. Craig, R.F. (2002). Soil Mechanics. E & FN Spons Press.

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