Qc Sponsoring Etor: Peer Rene Project Eto: Naney ight Manuseript Eto: Rath Ves Designers: Gary A. Head and Shaten I, Sith Production Coonsinatr: Frank Mint ‘Mlastaton Coordinator: Batyoh Fanos Arts: Flin Coopee Syntax leterntionl DAA SS OK S2 ADSo c oPy 4 Library of Congress Cataloging in Puiston Data ae wien ad Compary bosk maybe reproduced by any raphe, petmisson fromthe publics Printed inthe United Stat of Ameen “Twenty fest pr 13,2000 1 Kroemer, About the Authors Charles Kittel has tought sol ty of California at Berkeley since 1951, having previously been at the Bell Laboratories, 1 undergraduate work in physics was done at M.LT. and at the Laboratory of Cambridge University. His Ph.D. research was in nuclear physics with Professor Gregory Br He has been awarded three Gugge te Physics, and, fr contrib of the American Assocation of Physics Teachers. He is a member o National Academy of Science and of the Ametican Academy of Arts ad SSlences His research has been in magnetism, magnetic resonance, semi: ‘ductors, and the statistical mechanics of solids id technofogy of semiconductors igh-requency transistors, negative- lasers, the Gunn effect, electron-holePreface This book gives an elementary account of then simple, the methods ars powerful, and Ro other physical theory is used more widely throughout seience and engineering. and for electrical engineering students generally orposes have strong common bonds, mast notably a conce ses, whether in semiconductors, metals, stats, oF ied by the clarity of the we were taught when we were stude We have not emphasized several t are no loge and tome because 1 eal mechanics would make the course more diffe nour Gel Wheeter, Help was given by 1 kos, Margaret Geller,treface Verhoogen, John Wheatley, and Carol Tung for the typed manuscript and Sari the index, K of the greenhouse effect in the 1994 on page 115, added t0 page 223 in 2000. instructors who have adopted the course for classroom use, a solutions manual is available via the freeman web site (hitpsshfrecman, ‘comu/hermalphysics). Berkeley and Santa Barbara Charles Kitel Herbert Kroemer Note to the Student um coverage of the concepts presented in each chapter, the the following exercises. Chaps Chapter 4: 1,24, 14,15; Chapter 7:2, 3.5.6 ‘Chapter 10: 1,2, 3; Chapter 3.7.8, 10; Chapter 14: 1,3, 4, 5; Chaptor 15: 2, 3,4, 6 2: 1,2, 3; Chapter 3:1, 2.3.4.8, 8; Chapter 5: 1, 3, 4,6, 8 Chapter 6: 1,2, 3,6,12, 3, 5,6, 7; Chapter 9:Contents Guide to Fundamental Defi General References xv Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter Chapter 12 Chapter 13 hapter 14 Chapter 1 Appendix. Appendix B Boltzmann Distribution and Free Energy 55 ‘Thermal Radi \n and Planck Distrib remical Potential and Gibbs Dis Weal Gas 151 Fermi and Bose Gases ‘SHeatahd Work 225 Gibbs Free Energy and Chemical Reactions 261 Phase Transformations 275 Binary Mixtures 309 Cryogenics 333 Semiconductor Kinetic Theory 389 ies 353 Propagation 423 Some Integrals Containing Expone 445 439 ‘Temperature Sc xAppendix © Appe Appendix Inder 465 Db Guide to Fundamental Definitions 19 Boson 183, Chemical potential Classical regime, n < Ensemble of systems Enthalpy, HH = Ut p¥ 246 Entropy,e 40 Fermion 183, bs factor, expf(Nu— ele] 138 Gibbs fee energy, G=U—10 + pV 262 Gibts or gfand sum, 3138 Heat capacity, C63 Heat,Q 68,227 Helmholtz free energy, F = U~ 10 68 Landau free energy function, F, 298 1 ‘aiGuide to FundamentetDefaitons Quantum concentration, ng & (Mr/2xh)? 73 Reve le process 64 Temperature, 41 ‘Thermal average 62 Thermal equilibrium — 39 Work, WW 227 General References Thermodsnay A.D. Pippard, Elements of es 196 MW. Zemanshy and RH ‘thermodynamics, Combridge Univesity Press, tan, Hew book, 6th cay MEGraw-Hil, 198) Wiley, 1988, is 2and 3 reat applications nas been expanded iota the HB. Dvigh, Tables of integrals and o 1961, A widely useful small Applications Asteophysiss RJ. Toyion, The sar ready sate and Springer, 1985General References Coyopenies end low tinperatire OK Wi Pres, 1987 Irreversible thermodynas 2A. McLennan, nn 1539, 1. Prgosine and 1. Stenges, Onder out of chaos: Random House, 1984, : , 1986, 1976, HL Jensen, Transport phenamena, Oxford University Press, 1989, Phase transitions P. Peay and G. Toulouse, ‘Metals 2nd atlogs P.Hiasea, Piysical m lurgy, 2nd ef, Cambeidge Univesity Pr Bousdary value problems HS. Cardaw and J.C. Jaeger, Conduction of heat in solids, 2nd ed, Oxford Univer: sity Pres, 1986, ©1989, Semiconductor devices ‘0 applied sold state physics, Plenum, 1990, K Seeger, Semiconductor physics: an inroduction, Sth ed, Springer, 1991 SUM. Sze, Physics of semiconductor devices, 208 td, Wiley, (981. Solid state physics C Kittel, Intracuction solid state physics, 6th ed, Wiley, 1986, Reeredtoas ISSP.Thermal PhysicsIntroduction pearance, the leading charac the Boltzmann factor, the chemi sion fonctions ‘The enteopy mee A close system: 25 the number af quantum states aceeseible toa esto ‘be in any ofthese quantum states and (we assume) than exp( 10), and of gis ‘When wo system they may transfer number of accessible states: more is better, and moce likly. T the kernel ofthe law of increase of entropy, whict isthe generat express energy. What isthe most probable outcome of the encounter? One system will, ‘gain energy at the expense of the other, and meanwhile the total entropy ofthe two systems the num for ‘the given total energy. Is not dificult to show (Chapter 2) that the maximum,Invocton 0 €9f@U}xy for one sysiem ig equal tothe value of forthe second st n. Thisequality property for two oir has energy Up and wi ' When the smalls)stem sin the state of energy othe have energy Ug — cand fo ~ 8} states access it. By the fundames he probs small syste of fin 20) _ Ws ~ 9 Fo) 0 7 The reser encopy @ may be expanded io» Taylor serie olWa)~ Hot = ot, o temperature. Higher ord energy (4) ofthe v0 st: perature ¢ Plt.) = O-P(O) + ePie) me FSP =U) nd > T Te ey, Iuadecton suum of the prob 0 he average energy of ‘Chapter 4 as the frst, tor at temperature z and we do this step in the derivation of the Planck radiation law. ‘The most important extension of the theory is to systems reservoir, For two systen Ibe a maxima ray. Not For two systems in thermal and difusive contact, ry = ry and ly = py. The sign in (7) evosen to ensure that the direction of particle {s approached js from high chemical poten he Gibbs factor of Chapter 5 is an extens one with 1 particle th reservoie at temperature + and ‘extend (3) forthe reseevoie entropy: a{Ue ~ ENy = 1) = olUaiN) = eesti = a(UaiNe) ~ ut + af. PO) = expfe ~ eve] « PU) = 0) ele=Chapter 1 s fs own a the FermiDirac dissibution funtion and is wed pa the theory of tetas fo deserib temperature nceneation (Chapter 7h. “The classic ditibition function used is jot te limit of) when the ose ‘This pac leciron gas at low jon ofthe ideal gas law ancy PAs) s much less than L Stat Pla) = expll ~ ae es of a Model System is of the idea! gas ave developed fr fre enetgy F = U i result in Chapter 6 — te appears as an import ion (2F they = —o offers BINARY MODEL SYSTEMS » computa ty Funeton 4 he easiest method 7 6 18 2 2 2 SUMMARY. 26 scopie and the macroscopic.Cheptee 1 Stes of a Motel Stem land Becouse i yields depar 1 Gibbs pressive the greater she si tore different kinds of things it relares, pide aloud ad applicability. Therefore A. nstcin tes ofa Mode Sytem ‘Thermal physic isthe fei Mechanics tells us the mea heat. Thete are ordinary mechani their definitions is theceater ur point of departure for the d of the stationary quantum states of a ssstem of paticles. When sve ean cou the quantum states accessible to @ system, we know the entiopy af the sy for the entropy is defined as the logirithm of the numberof states (Chapter 2) dependence of the entropy on the energy ofthe system defines ture. From the entropy, the temperatue, andthe fieenerpy we ind the pressure, and all other thermodynamic properties ofthe system, ry quantum state, al observable physical properties such as the energy and the nutnber of panicles are independent ofthe tine For brevity we usually omit the word stationary; the quantum states that we ars stationary except when we discuss transport processes in Chapters ‘The systems we discuss may he composed ofa si ‘of many particles. The theory is developed to handle general systems of inten, pauticles, but powerful simplifications eam be made in speciat problems for which the interactions may be neglected Each quantum state has a defini istic and mechanical of work; ermal physics ferinal physics that do n0t appe: entropy, temperature, and fee energy. We shal w frst three chapters and deduce their conse le particle or, more oft ial energies ace ty or degeneracy of an ith very nearly the same