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Technical Manual

MTS 004 Iss. C


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Manager
Dept code: BTE/CC/CM Validation Name: JF. IMBERT
Name: J. HUET Function : Deputy Department
Group Leader
Dept code: BTE/CC/A
Date: 11/99
Signature
This document is the property of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS; no part of it shall be reproduced or transmitted
without authorization of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS and its contents shall not be disclosed.
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999
4page 1
X
Static stress manual,
metallic materials
Volume 1
Purpose Methods for calculating static failure loads and stresses for
aircraft metallic structural details.
Scope All programmes, static justification of metallic structures.
EDP tool
supporting this Manual
Not applicable.
Contents
V1 - 1 Stiffened panels
V1 - 2 Buclking of plates and thin shells
V1 - 3 Stiffeners
V1 - 4 Thin web beams
V1 - 5 Stable web beams
V1 - 6 Bolted or rivetted junctions
V1 - 7 Lugs
V1 - 8 Hole reinforcements
V1 - 9 Stabilisers
1
4
5
4
5
2
1
2
Structural
Design Manuals
Title - Annex
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C 4Ann. page
Reference documents C BE 019: Drawing up of the Structural Justification Dossier
Documents to be consulted See bibliography at the beginning of each chapter.
Abbreviations See Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR
See "General" paragraph of each chapter
Definitions List of words the definitions of which are integrated into the
Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR:
Highlights
Issue Date Pages modified Justification of the changes made
A 02/98 V1 - 1 V1 - 3
V1 - 7 V1 - 9
New document.
B 05/99 V1 - 7
V1 - 4
Changes as per table page V1-7.i.
New chapter.
C 11/99 V1 - 1 Changes as per table page V1-1.i.
Created paragraph V1-1-8.
V1 - 5 New chapter.
Static stress manual, metallic materials - Management information
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C page IG1
NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION
List of approval
Dept. code Function Name / First name Signature
BTE/CC/CM Chef de Dpartement CAZET G.
Key words Calcul
Bibliography Nant
Distribution list
Dept. code Function Name / First name (if necessary)
BQP/TE Archives Diderot SIBADE Alain
BQP/TE Bibliothque BQP/TE SIBADE Alain
BTE/SM/MG Bibliothque Technique BTE BOUTET Fernand
Distribution list managed in real time by BIO/D (Didocost application)
MCS V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Issue 2 Contents page i
AEROSPATIALE 1999
CONTENTS
issue date change
V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
V1-1 1 General
V1-1 2 Preparing basic data
V1-1 3 Pocket folding stresses
V1-1 4 Calculating stiffened panels single compression
V1-1 5 Calculating flat stiffened panels single nominal shear
V1-1 6 Calculating curved stiffened panels single nominal shear
V1-1 7 Calculating stiffened panels compression and shear
V1-1 8 Calculating stiffened panels compression and bending
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
8/1999
1/1998
1/1998
1/1998
1/1998
1/1998
1/1998
1/1998
8/1999
Creation V1-1 8
Creation
Creation
Creation
Creation
Creation
Creation
Creation
Creation
1 GENERAL
1.1- Definitions (V1-11/1)*
1.2- Behaviour, failure modes (V1-11/3)
1.3- Calculation methodology (V1-11/5)
1.4- Scope (V1-11/6)
2 PREPARING BASIC DATA
2.1- Material characteristics (V1-12/1)
2.2- Super-stiffener sections (V1-12/2)
2.3- Example (V1-12/5)
3 POCKET FOLDING STRESSES
3.1- Hypotheses (V1-13/1)
3.2- Boundary conditions (V1-13/2)
3.3- Design
3.4- Example (V1-13/3)
4 CALCULATING STIFFENED PANELS SINGLE COMPRESSION
4.1- Principles (V1-14/2)
4.2- Widths and load-carrying section (V1-14/3)
4.3- Effective buckling length, clamping factor (V1-14/4)
4.4- Allowable stresses at UL (V1-14/6)
4.4.1 Local buckling
4.4.2 Crippling, lateral buckling, allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio in stiffener
(V1-14/7)
4.4.3 Allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio in super-stiffener
4.5- Calculating margin at UL using Engesser formula (V1-14/8)
4.5.1 Principle
4.5.2 Modified Engesser formula
4.5.3 Limits, accuracy
4.5.4 Methodology
4.5.5 Example (V1-14/10)
*: Page number between brackets
MCS V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
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AEROSPATIALE 1999
4.6- Calculating margin at UL using Johnson formula (V1-14/15)
4.6.1 Principle
4.6.2 Limits, accuracy
4.6.3 Methodology (V1-14/16)
4.6.4 Example (V1-14/18)
4.7- Simplified approach to the Johnson formula (V1-14/22)
4.7.1 Method
4.7.2 Example (V1-14/23)
5 CALCULATING FLAT STIFFENED PANELS SINGLE NOMINAL
SHEAR
5.1- Diagonal tension theories (V1-15/2)
5.2- Limits (V1-15/6)
5.3- Calculation principle for stiffened panels incomplete diagonal tension (V1-15/7)
5.4- Loading ratio, diagonal tension factor (V1-15/9)
5.5- Widths and load-carrying sections
5.6- Stresses in super-stiffener (V1-15/11)
5.6.1 General method
5.6.2 Simplified approaches (V1-15/12)
5.7- Stresses in skin (V1-15/14)
5.7.1 In pocket
5.7.2 At stiffener
5.8- Stresses in stiffener (V1-15/15)
5.9- Allowable stresses at UL
5.9.1 Local buckling
5.9.2 Forced crippling
5.9.3 Buckling of super-stiffener (V1-15/16)
5.9.4 Skin failure
5.10- Skin stiffness
5.11- General instability, design (V1-15/17)
5.12- Example (V1-15/18)
6 CALCULATING CURVED STIFFENED PANELS SINGLE NOMINAL
SHEAR
6.1- Diagonal tension theories (V1-16/2)
6.2- Limits (V1-16/5)
6.3- Calculation principle for stiffened panels incomplete diagonal tension (V1-16/6)
6.4- Loading ratio, diagonal tension factor (V1-16/7)
6.5- Widths and load-carrying sections (V1-16/8)
6.5.1 Stiffener orientation
6.5.2 Frame orientation (V1-16/10)
6.6- Stresses in super-members
6.7- Stresses in skin (V1-16/12)
6.7.1 In pocket
6.7.2 At stiffener
6.8- Stresses in stiffener (V1-16/13)
MCS V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Issue 2 Contents page iii
AEROSPATIALE 1999
6.9- Stresses in frames (V1-16/14)
6.10- Allowable stresses at UL
6.10.1 Local buckling
6.10.2 Forced crippling
6.10.3 Buckling of super-stiffener
6.10.4 Skin failure
6.11- Skin stiffness (V1-16/15)
6.12- General instability, local buckling of frames, design
6.13- Example (V1-16/17)
7 CALCULATING STIFFENED PANELS COMPRESSION AND SHEAR
7.1- Calculation principles (V1-17/2)
7.2- Limits (V1-17/4)
7.3- Loading ratio, diagonal tension factor
7.3.1 Loading ratio
7.3.2 Diagonal tension factor
7.4- Widths and load-carrying sections (V1-17/5)
7.4.1 Stiffener orientation
7.4.2 Frame orientation (V1-17/6)
7.5- Stresses in super-members
7.6- Stresses in super-stifffener (V1-17/8)
7.6.1 In skin
7.6.2 In stiffener
7.7- Stresses in frames (V1-17/9)
7.8- Allowable loads
7.8.1 At limit loads
7.8.2 At ultimate loads
7.9- Example (V1-17/11)
8 CALCULATING STIFFENED PANELS COMPRESSION AND BENDING
8.1- Introduction (V1-18-1)
8.2- Allowable stresses at ultimate load (V1-18-2)
8.3- Pocket folding load compression / bending
8.3.1 Detection of minimum folding stress
cp
8.3.2 Search for load transmitted P
t
8.3.3 Example (V1-1 8-5)
8.4- Compression / bending stress (V1-18-8)
8.4.1 Position of extreme fibres
8.4.2 Compression / bending stresses at Max moment point
8.4.3 Compression / bending stresses at Min moment point (V1-1 8-9)
8.4.4 Limits, accuracy (V1-1 8-10)
8.4.5 Sign conventions
8.4.6 Example (V1-1 8-11)
8.5- Amplified bending margin (V1-18-14)
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Page V1-1/1 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
SYMBOLS USED
A: Transverse Member pitch
a: skin bay length
B: Stiffener pitch
b: Skin bay width
C: Compression
UL: Ultimate loads
C
flf
: Forced crippling coefficient
LL: Limit loads
CS: Single shear
D: Fastener diameter
E: Young' s modulus
E
s
: Secant modulus
E
t
: Tangent modulus
e: skin bay thickness
e
t
: Skin pad thickness
e
s
: Stiffener skin side flange thickness
G: Coulomb' s modulus
G
TDI
: Effective shear modulus under TDi
h: Stiffener height
I: Section moment of inertia
IG: General instability
K: End fixity coefficient
k: Diagonal tension factor
L: Buckling effective length (column)
L
t
: Load-carrying width
M: Bending moment
MS: Static margin
N: Normal force
n: Stress-strain curve shape factor (Ramberg
and Osgood)
P: Compression force (P> 0)
P
admCE
: Compression load-carrying capacity
P
crit
: Column buckling load
p: Fastener pitch
q : Transverse distributed load
R: Loading rate
R
c
: Single compression loading rate
RF: Reserve factor
R
s
: Single nominal shear loading rate
r: Panel curvature radius
S: Cross section area
T: Shear load
TD: Diagonal tension
TDP: Pure diagonal tension
TDI: Incomplete diagonal tension
t: Shear flow
W: Cross section static moment
: Angle of diagonal tension
: Flattening deflection
: Strain (expansion)
: Normal flow (tension or compression)
: Shear strain
: Plasticity factor
: Slenderness ratio
v: Poisson factor
: Normal stress

0
: Column buckling at zero slenderness ratio

0.2
: Conventional allowable compressive
yield stress

cp
: Skin bay buckling stress in compression

crit
: Column buckling

enr
: Column buckling at zero slenderness
ratio stiffener alone

firp
: Skin inter-rivet buckling stress

flf
: Forced crippling stress

flr
: Stiffener local buckling stress
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Page V1-1/2 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998

R
: Failure tension stress
: Shear stress

flf
: Forced crippling shear loading stress

max
: Maximum shear stress (in Tresca line of
thought)

R
: Failure shear stress
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Page V1-1/3 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1- Paul Kuhn, J ames P. Peterson, and L. Ross Levin: " A summary of diagonal tension" , part 1
(methods and analysis), NACA TN 2661, Washington, May 1952.
2- Paul Kuhn, J ames P. Peterson, and L. Ross Levin: " A summary of diagonal tension" , part 2
(experimental evidence), NACA TN 2662, Washington, May 1952.
3- Bruhn: " Analysis and design of flight vehicle structure" (in particular chapter C11).
4- Pablo Rodriguez: " Prdimensionnement d' une partie basse de fuselage en GLARE" (Pre-
sizing of a low part of the fuselage in GLARE), rapport de stage de fin d' tude (end of study
report), INSA Toulouse, 1995.
5- Koos Verolme: " The development of a design tool for fibre metallic laminate compression
panels" , Ph. D. thesis, Delpht University, Nov. 1995.
6- F.R. Shanley: " Inelastic column theory" , J ournal of Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 14, no. 5,
pp 261-267, May 1947.
7- F. Engesser: " On the buckling strength of straight columns" , Zeitschift fr Architectur
Ingenieurwesen, Vol. 35, no. 4, pp 455-462, 1889.
8- L. Euler: " Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas maximi minimive proprietate gaudentes" ,
Annexe 1 (" De curvis elasticis" ), Bousq uet, Lausanne et Genve, 1744.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
General information - Page V1-11/1 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 1-GENERAL INFORMATION
A large proportion of aircraft structures is designed using a box beam type construction basis.
The box beams are made of stiffened panels.
As thin web beams are also considered as being part of this category, stiffened panels can be
considered as the main basic element of aircraft airframes.
V1-1 1.1-DEFINITIONS
A stiffened panel is a flat or curved " skin" to which stiffeners are laid parallel to the normal
dominating stress direction. For example, with box beams, this direction corresponds to the
direction of internal forces generated by bending moments.
The stiffeners are longitudinal members attached to the skin over their entire length either
because they are " sewn" by means of bolts, rivets or tack welding and in this case they are
called " fastened stiffeners" , or because the whole skin is machined from a thick plate - in this
case they are called " integrate stiffeners" .
Thus, stiffened panels comprise transverse members, the function of which is to provide
supporting points, more or less evenly spaced, and more or less stiff for the stiffeners and
possibly the skin. For example, frames perform this function in fuselage panels.
Therefore, the skin is latticed in sq uares by members. The sq uares of panels defined in this
manner are called " bays" .
For stressing purposes, the panels are broken down into " super-stiffeners" each consisting of a
stiffener and half skin bays.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
General information - Page V1-11/2 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Pocket bottom
Pad Members
BAY
=
=
=
=
Stiffener
SUPER-STIFFENER
B
B
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
General information - Page V1-11/3 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 1.2-BEHAVIOUR, FAILURE MODES
The skin of stiffened panels is load-carrying unlike the fabric in wooden and fabric
constructions.
These panels are capable of carrying/transferring two types of loads:
- loads in the skin plane (N
x
,
y
, T
y
, M
y
),
- loads normal to the skin plane, for example due to the pressure applied to it (T
z
).
Stresses resulting from these forces are:
- Normal (
x
) and tangential (
xz
;
zx
) in the stiffener,
- Normal (
x
), transverse (
y
) and tangential (
xy
;
yx
) in the skin.
The crux of the problem in the stressing of stiffened panels is due to the fact that skin
behaviour depends on the type and intensity of loading:
Tension: the static limit of skin strength at UL is given by the characteristics of the
material.
Shear: this is also the case even though the folds occur beyond the critical shear
stress of bays. These folds are obliq ue in relation to the edges. For this reason,
through misuse of language, the term " diagonal tension" is used.
This property of dependence is further emphasised in the case of compression. This
is related to the instability of thin sheets.

y
M
y
T
y
T
z
N
x
G
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
General information - Page V1-11/4 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Three types of instability are differentiated:
SKIN INSTABILITY:
Thin sheets fold under relatively low compression and/or shear loads.
In compression, the skin is saturated when its buckling stress is reached. At greater values,
the load is picked up by the stiffeners and small portions of neighbouring skin which j ustifies
the idea of breaking down panels into super-stiffeners.
This saturation phenomenon does not exist under shear stressing. After folds occur, the skin
transfers the excess load partly in the form of shear stress and the remainder as diagonal
tension. The tangential flows at skin bay edges at constant loads are the same with or without
folds. On the other hand, the diagonal tension induces normal flow at these same edges
which causes overloads, especially in the stiffeners.
However, these phenomena only create a dependence of the overall behaviour of stiffened
panels on the intensity of the loads applied to them. Instability of the skin does not cause
panel failure and therefore is not a cause of limitation at UL.
INSTABILITY OF SUPER-STIFFENERS:
If the transverse members spaced at a pitch A are sufficiently stiff, the super-stiffeners
behave as columns with a length A, generally simply supported.
Therefore, the initial failure occurs in the most critical super-stiffener either by buckling of
the column or by local buckling. Our panels are designed in this manner.
GENERAL INSTABILITY:
This may occur if the wave nodes of the buckle pattern are no longer at transverse members
due to insufficient stiffness of these members.
High-speed amplification of this type of buckle pattern entails the total ruin and practically
the explosion of the whole panel. This is to be prohibited.
A A
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
General information - Page V1-11/5 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 1.3-CALCULATION METHODOLOGY
The information that this chapter of the manual makes possible to calculate is:
- The stresses in the studied structural element corresponding to the applied loads
(these values, amongst others, are needed as they can be compared with
measurements made during non-destructive testing).
- The load causing the occurrence of folds in skin bays. This should not occur too
early (in general, not before 80% of LL).
- The static failure load, i.e. the load allowable at UL.
- The safety margin at UL, which is determined by comparing the allowable load and
the applied load.
In simple cases (stable shear and tension, tension), the calculation of the stresses under a given
load does not cause any special problems. The panels are broken down into super-stiffeners
that are assimilated to beams. The failure load is the one at which the eq uivalent stress on Von
Mises reaches the allowable tension failure stress of the material (therefore, this criterion is
systematically verified).
If the skin folds before the failure load, then the stresses are no longer a simple linear function
of loads. In this case, the general procedure to use to calculate a super-stiffener is as follows:
- Select any stress value in the skin at the stiffener.
- Calculate the " load-carrying section" corresponding to it.
- The load corresponding to the selected skin stress is determined by summing the
stresses on the load-carrying section. Also, the properties of the load-carrying section
and the material properties are used to determine whether or not the failure load is
reached at this time.
By varying the initial parameters, a stress-load curve of the super-stiffener is obtained and we
can therefore associate a stress level to with a given load. Naturally, this curve is increasingly
monotonic.
Data varying with the skin stress is req uired to determine the allowable load at UL. This
problem is solved by plotting the evolution of the failure load (it is written in italics because
the true failure load is naturally a constant) depending on this same initial parameter. This
curve is decreasingly monotonic. The allowable load searched for is at the intersection of the
load-stress and failure load-stress curves.
Often, internal loads in the studied piece of structure are linear, with the general loads applied
into the entire structure (more or less). For this reason, the margins are calculated by
comparing the loads and not the stresses.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
General information - Page V1-11/6 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 1.4-FIELD OF APPLICATION
The methods described in this chapter exclusively apply to the calculation of " typical areas" :
- Stiffeners are parallel one with the other and perpendicular to the transverse
members.
- The studied stiffener does not edge an opening.
- No stiffener run-outs in the studied area.
- Each rectangular skin bay may be considered as having a constant thickness.
- Stiffeners may be considered as having constant cross sections between two
transverse members.
- The skin curvature is in the plane normal to the stiffeners.
The special cases indicated below are discussed in Chapter V1-4 (thin web beams):
- In plane bending of stiffeners edging an opening under the effect of the diagonal
tension.
- Other effects induced by the presence of an opening in the skin.
- Secondary bending at run-outs.
- Calculation of the fasteners binding the panels together.
- Sizing of the fasteners binding the stiffeners to the skin.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Preparation of basic data - Page V1-12/1 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 2-PREPARATION OF BASIC DATA
V1-1 2.1-MATERIAL PROPERTIES
STABILITY CALCULATIONS:
The elastic-plastic behaviour of materials has to be taken into account in these calculations. To
this end, the Ramberg and Osgood model (refer to V2-2 " Material Behaviour" ) is used:
=

E
+ 0,002

0 2 ,

n
E
s
=

1 1
Et
= +
n
E
n
E s
Therefore, for each material used, the following is req uired:
Young' s compression modulus, E.
Conventional allowable compression yield stress,
0.2
.
R.&O. factor, n.
ALL CALCULATIONS:
Well designed stiffened panels (general buckling impossible) are damage tolerant structures.
Choose " B values" type statistical properties.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Preparation of basic data - Page V1-12/2 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 2.2-SUPER-STIFFENER CROSS SECTIONS
Assumption related to the section of curved panels: the curvature of panels is sufficiently
small for them to be considered as flat panels.
CROSS SECTION (INTEGRAL STIFFENER):
Initial cross section: Lt
i
= B
i
/2
PROPERTIES:
Area: S
Moment of inertia/Gy: I
Centre of gravity offset: d
Load-carrying width: Lt
1
, Lt
2
Bay thicknesses: e
1
, e
2
d
Lt
1
Lt
2
e
1
e
t
e
2
G
z
B1 B2
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Preparation of basic data - Page V1-12/3 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
CROSS SECTION (FASTENED STIFFENER):
Initial cross section: Lt
i
= b
i
/2
b
1
and b
2
are the distances between the end rows of fasteners
SKIN PROPERTIES: STIFFENER PROPERTIES:
Cross section area: S
p
S
r
Static moment/YY: W
YYp
W
YYr
Moment of inertia/YY: I
YYp
I
YYr
Load-carrying width: Lt
1
, Lt
2
Bay thickness: e
1
, e
2
Centre of gravity offset: d
p
=
W
S
YYp
p
d
r
=
W
Sr
YYr
Remark: W
YYp
is negative whereas W
YYr
is positive.
Lt
1
Lt
2
Y Y Gp
d
e
1
e
2
Gr
dp
dr
G
z
b
1
b
2
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Preparation of basic data - Page V1-12/4 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
SKIN + FASTENED STIFFENER PROPERTIES:
The skin and the stiffener may be made from different materials. In this case, corrected cross
sections are used so as to be in the simple case of a beam made of a homogeneous fictitious
material (somewhat like an average material).
The secant modulus and the tangent modulus of the eq uivalent homogeneous material is:
E
s
=
S
S
E
S
S
E S S S
p
sp
r
sr p r

= + ;
E
t
=
S
S
E
S
S
E
p
tp
r
tr

The properties of the corrected section are:


S = S
p
+ S
r
=
E
E
S
E
E
S
sp
s
p
sr
s
r

W
YY
=
E
E
W
E
E
W
sp
s
YYp
sr
s
YYr

d =
W
S
YY
I
YY
=
E
E
I
E
E
I
sp
s
YYp
sr
s
YYr

I = I
YY
- Sd
2
The secant modulus may be replaced by the Young' s modulus in the following formulas as
long as one remains in the linear elastic domain.
The average stress calculated by using the properties of the corrected cross section is
fictitious. The real stresses in the skin and the stiffener are:

p
=
E
E
sp
s

r
=
E
E
sr
s


Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Preparation of basic data - Page V1-12/5 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 2.3-EXAMPLE
The stress in the super-stiffener below, subj ect to a sufficiently low compression load for no
instability to occur (stability calculations are discussed in paragraph 3) has to be calculated.
The skin material properties (2024 PLT 351) are:
E
p
= 70300MPa,
0.2p
= 270 MPa, n
p
= 7,05
The stiffener material properties (7075 T 73510) are:
E
r
= 73800MPa,
0.2r
= 420 MPa, n
r
= 13,83
Stiffener: Skin:
S
r
= 185 mm S
xp0
= 375 mm
I
YYr
= 62186 mm
4
I
YYp0
= 1485 mm
4
d
r
= 13,9 mm d
p0
= - 1,86 mm
W
YYr
= 2572 mm
3
W
YYp0
= - 698 mm
3
= =
170
35
3
2
= =
25
3
30
2
4
16
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Preparation of basic data - Page V1-12/6 revision 1
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Skin + stiffener section:
S = 185 + 375 = 560 mm
HOMOGENEOUS FICTITIOUS MATERIAL:
Young' s modulus (linear elastic material assumption):
E =
185
560

73800 +
375
560

70300 = 71456 MPa


CORRECTED CROSS SECTION PROPERTIES:
Skin + stiffener corrected cross section area:
S = 560 mm
(Check that: 185 + 375 =
73800
71456

185 +
70300
71456

375 = 560)
Static moment in relation to YY:
W
YY
= -
70300
71456

697,5 +
73800
71456

2571,5 = 1969,6 mm
3
Centre of gravity offset in relation to YY:
d =
1969 6
560
,
= 3,52 mm
Moment of inertia in relation to YY:
I
YY
=
70300
71456

1485 +
73800
71456

62186 = 65687 mm
4
Moment of inertia at the centre of gravity:
I = 65687 - 560 x 3,52 = 58759 mm
4
EXAMPLE OF STRESS CALCULATION:
If N
x
is - 10000N, the " average stress" is:
= -
10000
560
= - 17,9 MPa
The skin stress is:

p
= -
70300
71456

17,9 = - 17,6 MPa


And the stiffener stress:

r
= -
73800
71456

17,9 = - 18,1 MPa


Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Skin bay buckling stresses - Page V1-13/1 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 3-SKIN BAY BUCKLING STRESSES
V1-1 3.1-ASSUMPTIONS
Paragraph 2.2 explained that the properties of the cross section of a super-stiffener are
determined assuming that the skin is flat. This assumption is sound as long as the curvature
radius of our panels is long in comparison to the dimension of the skin bays (make sure that
the proportions comply with information in paragraph 6.2).
On the other hand, the curvature, no matter how slight it may be, has a non-negligible effect
on bay folding stresses. In particular, a curved bay is more stable than a flat bay, especially
under compression.
Each bay is assimilated to a constant thickness rectangular plate, whether a flat or curved. The
folding stresses
cp
and
cp
are buckling stresses (as indicated in paragraph 1.2 only shear and
compression are taken into account).
Generally, folding occurs at the same time on a set of contiguous bays. The appearance of the
skin is then wavy under compression:
Stiffeners are stopped from rotating in their longitudinal axis by means of cleats located at the
transverse members. However, members generally have an open section and their torsional
stiffness is low. This explains the conservative boundary conditions indicated in paragraph 3.2.
Refer to the next chapter (V1-2BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS) to
make these calculations.
BUMP
HOLLOW
HOLLOW
BUMP
A
B
B
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Skin bay buckling stresses - Page V1-13/2 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 3.2-BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
If the members are made of open sections, the edging conditions to be selected to
calculate pocket buckling stresses are: four simply hinged edges.
BAY WIDTH, b (measured in transverse member direction):
Integrated stiffeners: b = B
Fastened stiffeners: b = b'
All types if (e
t
3e): b = b"
BAY LENGTH, a (measured in stiffener direction):
Same principle with A, a' , a" .
V1-1 3.3-DESIGN
Generally, req uirements stipulate that bay buckling shall not occur before a certain percentage
of limit load. To check out this condition, the folding stresses are compared with the average
stresses at LL (linear static).
b'
e
b"
e
t
B
(distance between fasteners)
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Skin bay buckling stresses - Page V1-13/3 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 3.4-EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE 1: Use the example in paragraph 2.3, assuming the bays are flat, under the
average stresses at LL:
= 45MPa ; = 50 MPa
Skin material: 2024PLT3
Ep = 70300 MPa ; = 0,33
Bay geometry to the right and to the left of the stiffener (zero curvature):
B = b' = b = 170 mm ; A = a' = a = 530 mm ; e = 2 mm
Boundary conditions:
Four simply hinged edges.
SINGLE COMPRESSION
a
b

1 ( ) kc = 4
Refer to example in V1-2.2.5:

cp0
= 36 MPa ; R
c
=

cp0
= 1,25
SINGLE SHEAR
b
a
=

0 32 , ( ) ks = 5 74 ,
Refer to example in V1-2.2.5:

cp0
= 52 MPa ; R
s
=

cp0
= 0,962
COMPRESSION-SHEAR INTERACTION
R
R R R
cp cp
c
c s
= = =
+ +
=

2 2
4
2
1 77 , folding at 56% of LL
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Skin bay buckling stresses - Page V1-13/4 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
EXAMPLE 2: Use example 1 assuming that there are curved bays (r=2820mm), under
average stresses at LL:
= 45MPa ; = 50 MPa
SINGLE COMPRESSION
See the example in V1-2.3.5:

cp0
= 45 MPa ; R
c
=

cp0
= 1
SINGLE SHEAR
See the example in V1-2.3.5:

cp0
= 57 MPa ; R
s
=

cp0
= 0,877
COMPRESSION-SHEAR INTERACTION
R
R R R
cp cp
c
c s
= = =
+ +
=

2 2
4
2
151 , folding at 66% of LL
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/15 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 4.6-CALCULATION OF THE ALLOWABLE LOAD AT UL USING
THE JOHNSON FORMULA
V1-1 4.6.1-Principle
The J ohnson formula is used to estimate the critical buckling stress of a column with a low
slenderness ratio using a smoothing curve. This curve is a parabola expressing
crit
as a
function of the slenderness ratio between = 0 and the limit value '
0
. The point of tangency
with the Euler curve corresponds to this limit value.

crit
is written as follows:
'
0
=
2
0
E

J ohnson: (0 '
0
)

crit
E
=

0
2
2 0
2
4
Euler: ( '
0
)

crit
E
=

0
is the allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio in the super-stiffener (refer to paragraph
4.4.3).
V1-1 4.6.2-Limits, accuracy
This method is used for the stressing of panels made of aluminium alloy, typically used in the
aeronautical industry.

crit

0/2
'
0

Euler
J ohnson
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/16 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
The accuracy of the failure load calculation depends on the form of the curves (, ), the
q uality of the local buckling analysis and the stiffener warping analysis. The result is
satisfactory (skin in 2024, stiffeners in 7xxx) to slightly conservative (skin and stiffeners in
7xxx). However, the stability of a compressed structural element may be affected by
imperfections. For sizing, it is advisable to take into account minimum 15% margins,
confirmed by partial tests. Moreover, these margins may be used to readj ust
0
.
V1-1 4.6.3-Methodology
Now the following data is available:
Basic material data (refer to paragraph 2.1): ( ) ( ) E n E n p p p
r r
r ; ; , ; ; .
.
0 2
0 2
Basic geometrical data (refer to paragraphs 2.2 and 4.3): ( ) S I L
0 0
; ;
Pocket folding (refer to paragraph 3):
( )

cp cp 1 2
;
Local buckling stresses (refer to paragraph 4.4.1):
( )

firp flr
;
Zero slenderness ratio allowable stress
(refer to paragraph 4.4.3):
( )

0 0 0 p r
; ;
Also, a set of rules and equations can now be used to calculate:
The load-carrying section area for a given skin stress (refer to paragraph 4.2): (Sp, S)
,
r
, and the tangent and secant moduli corresponding to
p
, using the material
properties:
=

r
r
E
+ 0.002

r
r
nr
0 2 .

p
p
E
+ 0.002

p
p
np
0 2 .

E
sr
=

r
; E
sp
=

p
The secant modulus of the eq uivalent homogeneous material corresponding to
p
(refer to paragraph 2.2):
E
s
=
S
S
p

E
sp
+
S
S
r

E
sr
; = E
s
=
S
S
p


p
+
S
S
r


r
The inertia of the load-carrying section (refer to paragraphs 2.2 and 4.2): I
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/17 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Slenderness ratio:
=
L

; =
I
S
By varying the parameter
p
:
The curve giving in function of or vice-versa (this eq uation is biunivocal) is
obtained.
Also, the curve giving the buckling load of the super-stiffener as a function of and
vice-versa (this eq uation is also biunivocal) is obtained:
'
0
=
2
0
E

J ohnson: (0 '
0
)

crit
E
=

0
2
2 0
2
4
Euler: ( '
0
)

crit
E
=

2
2
Buckling of the super-stiffener occurs when:
=
crit
P
crit
= S
crit
The load-carrying capacity of the super-stiffener is the allowable load at UL. If the
stiffener or skin local buckling value is reached before P
crit
then the load-carrying capacity is
the value of the corresponding P:
P
admUL
= min { P
crit
, P(
firp
), P(
flr
)}
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/18 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 4.6.4-Example
Use the example in paragraph 4.4.5.
Allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio of the super-stiffener

0p
= 267 MPa ;
0
= 0.565%

0r
= 380 MPa
Effective width and load-carrying section as per paragraph 4.2, for
p
=
0p
:
L
t
= 85
36
267
= 31.2 ; S = 2 x (85 - 31.2) x 2 = 215
S
p
= S
p0
- S = 160 ; S = S
p
+ S
r
= 345
Average allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio (refer to paragraph 4.4.3):

0
=
S
S
p


0p
+
S
S
r


0r
328 MPa
Calculation of the load-carrying capacity and stresses at UL:
A spread sheet was used for these calculations (tables and graphs on following pages).
Stresses at UL: P = 38000 N (
p
= 84 MPa ;
r
= 88 MPa)
Load-carrying capacity: P
crit
= 89800 N (
p
= 225 MPa ;
r
= 277 MPa)
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/19 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Modelling of material curves:
epsilonp sigmap epsilonr sigmar Epsilon Sigmap Sigmar Sigma
0.00051
0.00114
0.00217
0.00268
0.00309
0.00333
0.0036
0.00376
0.00429
0.00472
0.00523
0.00565
0.00584
36
80
150
180
200
210
220
225.154
240
250
260
267.05
270
0.0005
0.00114
0.00215
0.00267
0.00308
0.00332
0.00359
0.00376
0.00428
0.00471
0.00521
0.00565
0.00583
0.00585
37
84
159
197
227
245
265
276.916
313
340
364
380
385.5
386
0.051%
0.114%
0.217%
0.268%
0.309%
0.333%
0.360%
0.376%
0.429%
0.472%
0.523%
0.565%
0.584%
36.0
80.0
150.0
180.0
200.0
210.0
220.0
225.2
240.0
250.0
260.0
267.1
270.0
37.8
84.0
159.8
197.4
227.7
245.5
265.5
276.9
313.6
340.2
364.8
380.0
385.7
36.6
81.7
154.7
188.7
214.1
228.2
243.6
252.1
278.7
297.8
316.0
327.6
332.2
Input data is the skin and stiffener stresses, columns 2 and 4. The stiffener stresses
corresponding to (=
p
) in column 7 are obtained by linear interpolation in columns 3 and 4.

p
=

p
p
E
+ 0.002

p
p
np
0 2 .

;
r
=

r
r
E
+ 0.002

r
r
nr
0 2 .

; =
P
S
Secant modulus:
epsilonp Sp S P (N) Esp Esr Es
0.051%
0.114%
0.217%
0.268%
0.309%
0.333%
0.360%
0.376%
0.429%
0.472%
0.523%
0.565%
0.584%
375.0
263.1
201.6
187.1
179.2
175.8
172.5
171.0
166.7
164.0
161.5
159.8
159.2
560.0
448.1
386.6
372.1
364.2
360.8
357.5
356.0
351.7
349.0
346.5
344.8
344.2
20492
36588
59799
70193
77978
82323
87081
89720
98025
103941
109485
112981
114319
70300
70277
69270
67286
64808
63115
61086
59905
56000
52981
49702
47268
46227
73800
73800
73800
73798
73790
73773
73727
73676
73180
72095
69739
67258
66031
71456
71731
71438
70524
69370
68580
67627
67062
65038
63113
60399
57993
56873
S
p
= S
p0
- be 1

cp
p
; P = S
p

p
+ S
r

r
; E
s
=

E
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/20 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Curves ( , ) of equivalent homogeneous skin and stiffener materials:
Critical load and stress:
Sigma S I Lambda sigcrit Sigmap Sigmar P Pcrit
37
86
155
189
221
228
244
252
279
298
560
442
387
372
362
361
358
356
352
349
58759
54058
51071
50436
50263
50267
50311
50350
50481
50533
51.74
47.95
46.11
45.52
45.01
44.90
44.68
44.56
44.24
44.05
226
240
247
249
251
251
252
252
253
254
36
84
150
180
205
210
220
225
240
250
38
88
160
197
236
245
266
277
314
340
20492
38002
89786 89788
Columns 3 and 4:
( = 37) S
0
; S = S - S
0
; W
YYp
= W
YYp0
+ e
e
t

2
S ; d =
1
S
E
E
W
E
E
W
sp
s
YYp
sr
s
YYr
+

I
YYp
= I
YYp0
- e
e e
t

2 12
2 2
S ; I =
E
E
sp
s
I
YYp
+
E
E
sr
s
I
YYr
- Sd
2
; = L
S
I
Column 5:
crit
=
0
-

2
2 0
2
4 E
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006
Epsilon
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
Sigmap
Sigmar
Sigma
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/21 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Curves (, ) and (
crit
, ):
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
43.00 44.00 45.00 46.00 47.00 48.00
Slenderness ratio
sigcrit
Sigma
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/22 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 4.7-SIMPLIFIED APPROACH TO THE JOHNSON FORMULA
V1-1 4.7.1-Method
The method consists in using the diagram on the following page to obtain an estimated value
of P
crit
.
This is nothing else than a parametric bundle of Euler-J ohnson curves. The parameter
100
0
x
E

is dimensionless. Each curve of the diagram associates the dimensionless variable


to

crit
0
.
Proceed as follows:
Determine the Young' s modulus of the eq uivalent homogeneous material and the
allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio as previously explained (refer to paragraph
4.6.3).
Determine S, I and corresponding to
0
, i.e.
p0
.
Determine
crit
using the diagram.
This method may be used for sizing. For example, it makes it possible to q uickly assess the
effect of a change in material.
Column buckling in the transition domain
J
o
h
n
s
o
n
E
u
l
e
r
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
0
0.2
0.4
0.8
1
1.2
0.6
Each curve is defined for: 100*Sigma0/E= Cte
Lambda
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.2
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
S
i
g
m
a
c
r
i
t
/
S
i
g
m
a
0
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/23 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 4.7.2-Example
Use the examples in paragraphs 4.4.5 and 4.6.4:
Allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio for the super-stiffener

0p
= 267 MPa

0r
= 380 MPa
Effective width and load-carrying section as per paragraph 4.2, for
p
=
0p
:
S
p
= 159 ; S = S
p
+ S
r
= 345 mm
Average allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio (refer to paragraph 4.4.3):

0
= 328 MPa
Young's modulus of the equivalent homogeneous material:
E = 71456 MPa
Calculation of the column buckling load:

0
328
71456 E
= = 0.46%
44

crit
= 0.77 x 328 = 252.6 MPa
P
crit
= 345 x 252.6 = 87100N

crit
0
= 0.77
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/24 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/1 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 4-CALCULATION OF STIFFENED PANELS UNDER SINGLE
COMPRESSION
A super-stiffener subj ect to a compression load P= -Nx, behaves like a column with a cross
section depending on P. At a given P, the section is assumed constant along the longitudinal
centreline of the stiffener.
The instability mode of super-stiffeners is described in paragraph 1.2 (" Behaviour, failure
modes" ). The transverse members are of sufficient stiffness and therefore general buckling of
the panel cannot occur.
As seen in paragraph 1.3, the problem of the stressman is:
To establish the relationship between the applied load P and stresses
p
and
r
.
To calculate the failure load by column buckling, P
crit
and the allowable load at UL,
P
admCE
(these two loads are not necessarily merged).
P
G
z
y
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/2 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 4.1-PRINCIPLES
LOAD-CARRYING WIDTH PRINCIPLE:
As long as the skin stress
p
is less than the smallest buckling stresses in compression of the
pocket bottoms involved,
p
is uniform.
The pockets saturate after folding. The average stress in their centres is approximately
constant whereas the stress continues to increase at the stiffener at the location where the
skin is fastened to the stiffener.
The load-carrying width concept is used to simplify calculations. These widths are fictitious
widths of skin such that, assuming
p
is uniform, the right distribution of loading in the
stiffener and in the skin is found.
The 0 index relates to the initial cross section, i.e. the section before folding. The load-
carrying widths of the initial section are given in paragraph 2.2 (" Super-stiffener sections" ).
The " load-carrying cross section" deduced from the load-carrying widths therefore depend on
P,
cp1
, and
cp2
. In fact, below it is explained that it is easier to deduce P from
p
than the
opposite.
FAILURE LOAD:
The cause of failure of the super-stiffener is either local buckling or column buckling.

cp1
Lt
1
Lt
2

cp2
Lt
1.0
Lt
2.0
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/3 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
In this text, local buckling designates highly localised phenomena, i.e. with a small buckle
pattern wave length, like local buckling of the inner flange or the web of the stiffener (if it is
of the open section type) or inter-rivet buckling of the skin. The phenomena occur abruptly
and cause j ust an abrupt drop in the strength characteristics of the column. Therefore, local
buckling stress constitutes peak values.
There are other stiffener buckling phenomena that could be called " semi-local" . Warping of
open section stiffeners, or " crippling" . It occurs more progressively and have a larger wave
length and entail permanent deformation of transverse sections. If this type of phenomenon
can occur before the yield stress of the material, it is combined with column buckling. The
result is the same as if
0.2
was reduced. As
0.2
, the warping stress and the crippling stress
are parameters affecting column buckling and not simple peak values.
For as long as the slenderness ratio of a column is sufficient, the stress and the critical
column buckling load are given by the Euler formula:

crit
=

2
2
E

; =
L

; =
I
S
P
crit
=

2
2
EI
L
This formula is only valid in the linear elastic domain, being for
crit
less than the material
limit of proportionality. However, in aircraft construction, small slenderness ratios are used.
Buckling of super-stiffeners, when it can occur appears in the elastic-plastic domain. This
explains the two problem solving methods described in this chapter, based on:
- The Engesser formula.
- The Johnson formula.
V1-1 4.2-EFFECTIVE WIDTH AND LOAD-CARRYING CROSS SECTIONS
The load-carrying widths to the right and to the left of the stiffener correspond to a given skin
stress
p
, and are calculated using the Karman formula (see figures in paragraph 2.2):
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/4 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
( ) p cpi ( ) Lt Lt i i = , 0 ; Lt
i,0
=
bi
2
( ) p cpi Lt Lt i i
cpi
p
=

.0

To calculate the characteristics of the load-carrying section, the simplest method is to subtract:
rather than reconstructing the entire cross section using load-carrying widths, remove from the
initial section (index 0) the two small skin rectangles that are not " load-carrying" . Then the
following is obtained:
S
i
= ( ) Lt Lt i i ,0 e
i
; S = Si
i=

1
2
S = S
0
- S
INTEGRATED STIFFENER COLUMN:
d = d
0
+
1
2
0
1
2
S
d
e
S
i
i
i


I = d
e e
S
i
i
i
i 0
2 2
1
2
2 12


I = I
0
- I - ( ) d d S 0
2

INTEGRATED STIFFENER COLUMN:


W
YYp
= W
YYp0
+ e
e
S t
i
i
i

2
1
2

I
YYp
= I
YYp0
- e
e e
S t
i
i
i
i

2 12
2 2
1
2

Naturally, the properties of the stiffener do not change. To calculate the properties of the
super-stiffener, the corrected section design rules given in paragraph 2.2 are used.
V1-1 4.3-EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF BUCKLING, END FIXITY
COEFFICIENT
The true length of a super-stiffener A is eq ual to the distance between the transverse members
delimiting it.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/5 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
The effective length of buckling, L, is the theoretical length of the column of the same cross
section both ends simply supported, buckling under the same critical load. L therefore depends
on the supporting conditions at the ends of the super-stiffener:
L = KA
The main fixity end coefficients, K, are given below. For more details refer to Chapter V2-5
" COLUMNS" .
In current areas, use K=1 (beam with two simple support ends).
MAIN END FIXITY COEFFICIENTS:
P P
P P
L
K=0,5 K=1
K=0,7 K=2
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/6 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 4.4-ALLOWABLE STRESSES AT ULTIMATE LOAD (UL)
V1-1 4.4.1-Local buckling
SKIN: Inter-rivet buckling,
firp
.
STIFFENER:
flr
is the smallest local buckling stress of the stiffener (web, inner flange,
inter-rivets, etc.)
Inter-rivet buckling:
The pitch between the fasteners binding the stiffener to the skin, the thickness of the skin pad
under the stiffener and the thickness of the stiffener skin side flange must be sized so that
inter-rivet buckling cannot occur.
Skin and stiffener inter-rivet buckling stresses
firp
and
firr
are calculated considering that
the length of the strips of sheet are eq ual to the fastener pitch p and that the non-loaded edges
are free. The end fixity coefficient K depends on the type of link:
FLAT HEAD SCREW, TACK WELDS: K=0.54
COUNTERSUNK HEAD SCREW, RIVETS: K=0.66
Refer to Chapter V1-3 " STIFFENERS" to calculate the inter-rivet buckling stresses.
Other local buckling stresses:
Refer to Chapter V1-3 (" STIFFENERS" ).
p
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/7 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 4.4.2-Crippling, warping, allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio in the
stiffener
Refer to Chapter V1-3 (" Stiffeners" ) to calculate the crippling
cr
and the warping
dr
stress.
The allowable stress associated with a zero slenderness ratio in the stiffener
enr
, is the
smallest value amongst the conventional allowable compression yield stress of the
material, warping stress and crippling stress:

end
= min { } 0 2 . ; ; r cr dr
V1-1 4.4.3-Allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio in the super-stiffener
This is the stress above which the deformation of the transverse cross section is permanent.
This limit is considered to be reached when the skin stress in
0.2
or when the stiffener stress is

enr
.
EXAMPLE:
In this illustration, the limit is due to the stiffener even though the zero slenderness ratio
allowable stress in the stiffener is greater than the allowable compressive yield stress of the
skin.
Stiffener
Equivalent homogeneous material
Skin

0p

0r

enr
=
0r

0.2p

0p
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/8 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 4.5-CALCULATION OF THE ALLOWABLE LOAD AT UL USING
THE ENGESSER FORMULA
V1-1 4.5.1-Principle
This is the Euler formula in which the Young' s modulus, E, is replaced by the tangent modulus
E
t
:

crit
=

2
2
Et

; P
crit
=

2
2
EI
L
t
However, when applied as such, these eq uations do not make it possible to take into account
possible warping or crippling of the stiffener.
V1-1 4.5.2-Modified Engesser formula
In fact, this is a modification of the laws of behaviour of materials: Use the Ramberg and
Osgood model (refer to paragraph 2.1) replacing
0.2
by
0
:
=

E
+ 0.002

n
; E
s
=

;
1
Et
=
n
Es
+
1 n
E
Furthermore, whatever the slenderness of the column:
max{ } crit =
0
V1-1 4.5.3-Limits, accuracy
This method is used to calculate panels built of any homogeneous and isotropic metallic
material of which the increasing monotonic curves (, ) can be modelled by means of R&O
formulas.
The accuracy of the failure load calculation is satisfactory as long as the possibilities of local
buckling and warping of stiffeners is correctly analysed. However, stability of a compressed
structural element may be affected by imperfections. For sizing, it is advisable to take into
account 15% minimum margins confirmed by partial tests. Furthermore, these margins may be
used to readj ust
0
.
V1-1 4.5.4-Methodology
Now the following data is available:
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/9 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Basic material data (refer to paragraph 2.1): ( ) ( ) E n E n p p p r r r ; ; , ; ; . . 0 2 0 2
Basic geometrical data (refer to paragraphs 2.2 and 4.3): ( ) S I L 0 0 ; ;
Skin pocket folding (refer to paragraph 3): ( ) cp cp 1 2 ;
Local buckling stresses (refer to paragraph 4.4.1): ( ) firp flr ;
Zero slenderness ratio allowable stresses
(refer to paragraph 4.4.3): ( ) 0 0 p r ;
Also, a set of rules and equations can now be used to calculate:
The load-carrying section area for a given skin stress (refer to 4.2): ( ) S S p,
,
r
and the tangent and secant moduli corresponding to
p
, using the modified
material properties:
=
r
r E
+ 0.002

r
r
nr
0

; E
sr
=

r
;
1
Etr
=
n
E
r
sr
+
1 n
E
r
r
=
p
p E
+ 0.002

p
p
np
0

; E
sp
=

p
;
1
Etp
=
n
E
p
sp
+
1n
E
p
p
The secant modulus and the tangent modulus of the eq uivalent homogeneous
material corresponding to
p
(refer to 2.2):
E
s
=
S
S
p

E
sp
+
S
S
r

E
sr
; E
t
=
S
S
p

E
tp
+
S
S
r

E
tr
The inertia of the load-carrying section (refer to 2.2 and 4.2): I
By varying the parameter
p
:
The curve giving P as a function of
p
,
r
or or vice-versa (this eq uation is
biunivocal) is obtained:
P = S
p

p
+ S
r

r
= S
Also, the curve giving the buckling load of the super-stiffener as a function of
p
,
r
or and vice-versa (this eq uation is also biunivocal) is obtained:
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/10 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
P
crit
=

2
2
EI
L
t
Column buckling of the super-stiffener occurs when:
P = P
crit
; and:
crit
=
P
S
crit

0
The load-carrying capacity of the super-stiffener is the allowable load at UL. If the
stiffener or skin local buckling value is reached before P
crit
then the load-carrying capacity is
the value of the corresponding P:
P
admCE
= min ( ) ( ) { } P P P crit firp flr , ,
V1-1 4.5.5-Example
Use the example in paragraph 2.3
The material properties of the skin (2024 PLT 351) are:
E
p
= 70300MPa,
0.2p
= 270 MPa, n
p
= 7.05
The material properties of the stiffener are (7075 T 73510) are:
E
r
= 73800MPa,
0.2r
= 420MPa, n
r
= 13,83
The load applied at UL is:
P = 3800daN
= =
170
35
3
2
= =
25
3
30
2
4
16
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/11 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Stiffener: Skin:
S
r
= 185 mm S
xp0
= 375 mm
I
YYr
= 62186 mm
4
I
YYp0
= 1485 mm
4
d
r
= 13,9 mm d
p0
= 1,86 mm
W
YYr
= 2572 mm
3
W
YYp0
= - 698 mm
3
Pocket folding
Refer to example 1 in paragraph 3.3 (a
1
= a
2
= 530 mm ; b
1
= b
2
= 170 mm):

cp1
=
cp2
= 36 MPa
Inter-rivet skin buckling
Linked by countersunk head bolts, pitch 25 mm: e
t
= 3 mm ; K = 0,66
Details of the skin local buckling stress calculation, as well as that of the other local buckling
stresses, are given in Chapter V1-3 (" STIFFENERS" ).

firp
= 289 MPa
Stiffener local buckling
inner flange: 504 MPa
web: 476 MPa
flr
= 413 MPa
inter-rivet: 413 MPa
Allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio of the stiffener
Allowable compressive yield stress:
0.2r
= 420 MPa
Warping:
dr
= 380 MPa
Crippling:
cr
= 461 MPa

enr
= 380 MPa ;
0r
=
380
73800
+ 0.002
380
420
13 83

.
= 0.565%
Allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio of the super-stiffener
Skin allowable compressive yield stress:
0.2p
= 270 MPa ;
0p
=
270
70300
+ 0.002 = 0.584%
The limit is due to the stiffener:
( ) 0 0 p r > ( )

0
0
0 0
0 2
0 0 565% 0 002 380 p
p
p
p
p
n
r
E
and MPa
p
= = +

= . .
.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/12 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
This eq uation is not reversible. A numerical solution has to be found:

0p
= 267 MPa checks:
0 565
100
.
=
267
70300
+ 0.002
267
270
7 05

.
Pocket folding load
( ) p cp MPa = = 36
( )
S S mm S S mm p p = = = = 0
2
0
2
375 560 ;
and =
36
70300
+ 0.002
36
270
7 05

.

36
70300
= 0.512%

r
= 37.8 MPa
Stress which checks out:
=
37 8
73800
.
+ 0.002
37 8
380
13 83
.
.


37 8
73800
.
= 0.512%
The load corresponding to the stresses is:
P
cp
= 36 x 375 + 37.8 x 185 = 20492 N, i.e. 81% LL
(The load applied at LL is eq ual to:
38000
15 .
25300 N).
Calculation of the load-carrying capacity and the stresses at UL
It can be seen that the local buckling stresses are greater than the allowable stresses at a
zero slenderness ratio both in the skin and in the stiffener. Therefore, the failure mode
of this super-stiffener is column buckling.
For these calculations, a spread sheet was used.
Stresses at UL: P = 38000 N (
p
= 84 MPa ;
r
= 88 MPa)
Load carrying capacity: P
crit
= 90200 N (
p
= 225 MPa ;
r
= 279 MPa)
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/13 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Modelling of material curves:
epsilonp sigmap epsilonr sigmar Epsilon Sigmap Sigmar Sigma
0.00051
0.0012
0.00217
0.00268
0.00323
0.00336
0.00364
0.00381
0.00436
0.00481
0.00536
0.0058
0.006
36
84.13
150
180
205
210
220
225.38
240
250
260
267.05
270
0.00051
0.0012
0.00217
0.00268
0.00323
0.00335
0.00364
0.00381
0.00436
0.00481
0.00536
0.0058
0.006
0.00609
37.8
88.4
160
198.1
237.9
247.1
267.5
279.2
311.9
332.2
349.3
359.5
363.4
365
0.051%
0.120%
0.217%
0.268%
0.323%
0.336%
0.364%
0.381%
0.436%
0.481%
0.536%
0.580%
0.600%
36.0
84.1
150.0
180.0
205.0
210.0
220.0
225.4
240.0
250.0
260.0
267.1
270.0
37.8
88.4
160.0
198.1
237.9
247.2
267.5
279.2
311.9
332.2
349.3
359.5
363.4
36.6
85.9
154.8
189.0
221.8
229.1
244.6
253.4
277.8
293.6
307.7
316.7
320.2
Input data is the skin and stiffener stresses, columns 2 and 4. The stiffener stresses
corresponding to (=
p
) in column 7 are obtained by linear interpolation in columns 3 and 4.

p
=
p
p E
+ 0.002

p
p
np
0

;
r
=
r
r E
+ 0.002

r
r
nr
0

; =
P
S
Tangent and secant moduli:
epsilon Sp S P(N) Esp Esr Es Etp Etr Et
0.051%
0.120%
0.217%
0.268%
0.323%
0.336%
0.364%
0.381%
0.436%
0.481%
0.536%
0.580%
0.600%
375.0
257.4
201.6
187.1
177.5
175.8
172.5
170.9
166.7
164.0
161.5
159.8
159.2
560.0
442.4
386.6
372.1
362.5
360.8
357.5
355.9
351.7
349.0
346.5
344.8
344.2
20492
38003
59835
70318
80393
82648
87445
90168
97710
102468
106614
109196
110207
70300
70266
69187
67050
63536
62591
60436
59131
55082
51932
48536
46032
44966
73800
73800
73800
73793
73730
73684
73484
73254
71589
69014
65206
61972
60527
71456
71744
71395
70403
68739
68279
67188
66472
63765
60987
57436
54584
53331
70300
70061
63141
52396
40159
37627
32689
30150
23848
20123
16894
14905
14139
73800
73800
73797
73753
73307
72992
71630
70116
60606
49568
38255
31464
28986
71456
71624
68241
63015
57077
55762
52838
50925
43185
35730
28299
23789
22120
Columns 2 and 4: S
p
= S
p0
- be 1

cp
p
; P = S
p

p
+ S
r

r
Columns 5 to 7: E
s
=

; columns 8 and 9: E
t
=
n
E
n
E s
+


1
1
; column 10: E
t
=
S
S
p
E
tp
+
S
S
r
+ E
tr
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under single compression - Page V1-14/14 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Critical stresses and loads:
Sigma S WYYp d IYYp I P Pcrit Sigmap Sigmar
37
86
155
189
222
229
245
253
278
560
442
387
372
362
361
358
356
352
-698
-462
-351
-322
-302
-299
-293
-289
-281
3.52
4.96
6.00
6.42
6.84
6.93
7.13
7.24
7.52
1485
975
733
671
629
622
608
601
582
58759
54059
51088
50478
50333
50341
50383
50411
50435
20492
38003
59835
70318
80393
82648
87445
90168
97710
147524
136043
122492
111764
100941
98630
93536
90200
76526
36
84
225
38
88
279
Columns 3 to 6:
( = 37) S
0
; S = S - S
0
; W
YYp
= W
YYp0
+ e
e
t

2
S ; d =
1
S
E
E
W
E
E
W
sp
s
YYp
sr
s
YYr +

I
YYp
= I
YYp0
- e
e e
t

2 12
2 2
S ; I =
E
E
sp
s
I
YYp
+
E
E
sr
s
I
YYr
- Sd
2
Column 8: P
crit
=

2
2
EI
L
t
P and P
crit
as a function of :
P and P
crit
as a function of the average stress
160000
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0 100 200 300 400
P
P
crit
Sigma (MPa)
Sigma
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/1 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 5-CALCULATION OF FLAT STIFFENED PANELS UNDER
SINGLE NOMINAL SHEAR
Flat stiffened panels designed to transfer shear in the skin plane are classified in three
categories corresponding to their behaviour mode:
- Panels under stable shear.
- Panels under pure diagonal tension.
- Panels under semi-diagonal tension or incomplete diagonal tension.
There are no special comments to make concerning the stressing of stable panels in shear. This
paragraph is dedicated to incomplete diagonal tension. The approach given here is based on
theoretical analyses, readj usted following tests. it applies to the domain defined in the " Limits"
paragraph.
G
z
Ty
x
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/2 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 5.1-DIAGONAL TENSION THEORIES
Let us consider a rectangular plate, with thickness e, surrounded by members hinged together
at their ends, subj ected to a shear flow t.
The members are infinitely stiff in bending and symmetrical in relation to the centre plane of
the skin. The horizontal members have the same cross section, as do the vertical members.
The stable shear behaviour is as follows at the scale of a 2D-element from the skin:
=
At and after a certain load level, folds appear caused by the diagonal compression stress. The
excess load then causes the augmentation of the diagonal tension stress alone.
The pure diagonal tension theory is from Wagner:
If the mechanic and geometric properties of the skin and the load are such that the diagonal
compression critical stress is nil or negligible compared to the diagonal tension stress, the
panel reacts in pure diagonal tension (TDP).
t
t
y
A
B
x
e
CS

c
= -
t
= -
t
c
/4
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/3 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
The result is that the skin pulls on its edges, in both x and y directions thus inducing
compression stresses in the members.
=
(these values are easily found using the Mohr circle)
The normal forces induced in the members are:
N
x
TD
= -

Be
2 tan
= -
tB
2
cotan ; N
y
TD
= -
Ae
2
tan = -
tA
2
tan
The angle is such that the variation in internal energy of the system is minimal entailing the
following result:
tan
2
=


TDP x
TDP y

In which
TDP
is the diagonal strain of the skin (tension) and
x
and
y
the horizontal and
vertical members strains (compression).
TDP

TDP
=
2
2

sin

TDP
TDP

TDP
TDP TDP

yp

xp

x
=

tan
;
y
= tan
= nominal shear stress
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/4 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
The incomplete diagonal tension theory was developed by Kuhn, Peterson and Levin for the
NACA
(1)
:
Very often, the critical diagonal compression stress to which the skin shear critical stress
corresponds is not negligible. The skin then reacts in stable shear for part of the load and in
diagonal tension for the remaining part of the load:
+
k is the "diagonal tension factor":
k [ 0; 1]
k = 0: CS
k = 1: TDP
The stresses in the rectangular sheet result from overlaying CS + TD on a 2D-element of the
base (x, y) are:

x
=
k
tan

y
= ktan

1
: NACA technical note 2661: " A summary of diagonal tension"
Part 1 - Methods of analysis - May 1952.
TDI

TD
=
2
2
k
sin

TD
TD

c
= -
t
= - (1 - k)
/4

t
CS
TDI

yp

xp
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/5 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
And on one 2D-element according to the theoretical folds:

1
=
2
2
k
sin
+ (1 - k) sin 2

2
= - (1 - k) sin 2

12
= (1 - k) cos 2
In practice, is close to 45. Under these conditions,
1
and
2
are practically the principal
stresses, giving:

max
=

1 2
2

=
The incomplete diagonal tension theory is q ualified as "theoretical engineering" by its authors
because it is developed on the basis of theoretical analyses (in particular those of Wagner) and
readj usted following a great number of tests. However from these tests it appears that the skin
continues to be pure shear loaded beyond cp.
Therefore, the diagonal tension factor k is calculated using an empirical formula. Furthermore,
if the members are fastened to the skin, a portion of the skin must be subj ected to the same
compression stresses as these members. The load-carrying width calculation formula is
obtained from this, which is also empirical, and is given in this method.
These load-carrying widths must not, in any case, be confused with those from Karman
(compressed panels). In TDP, they tend to zero, the entirety behaving as a frame on which a
film has been stretched.
In TDI, the stresses of the centre plane of skin bays are not constant especially if these bays
are in an end span (for example, at the edge of an opening). In this latter-mentioned case, the
edge members bend and the diagonal tension tends to concentrate in the tensioned diagonals.

12
TDI

2
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/6 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
For these reasons, the term " incomplete" diagonal tension is used instead of semi-diagonal
tension considered as the overlaying of a pure shear state and a diagonal tension state (not
pure).
The fineness of the results is based on the two empirical formulas that have j ust been
mentioned. Considering this, it is easy to understand why the use of this method is limited to
the use domain specified in the following paragraph.
V1-1 5.2-LIMITS
The member flange on the skin side must not be too thin:
e
e
s
0.6
The proportions of the bays must be within the range:
0.2
B
A
1 ; 120
A
e
1500
Riveting:
2.5
p
D
10
Pay attention to very thick skin bays (outside the domain): possibility of non-conservative
forecasts.
Stiffeners are approximately evenly spaced and the thicknesses of adj acent bays are similar.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/7 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 5.3-PRINCIPLE OF THE STIFFENED PANEL STRESSING UNDER
INCOMPLETE DIAGONAL TENSION
The theory of the incomplete diagonal tension was developed to calculate thin web beams
consisting of flanges with the same section connected by a constant thickness web, which is
stiffened by identical vertical members:
The shear load is constant along the beam and therefore the web bays, all identical, are
subj ected to the same constant shear flow.
Under these conditions, the fold angle is the same in all bays.
As seen in paragraph 5.1, is such that the internal energy variation is minimum. To
determine , it is necessary to know the strain of the web in the fold direction, the strain of the
flanges and the strain of the uprights. However, these values themselves depend on .
In practice, is close to 45. To solve this problem, an initial set of strain values is calculated
assuming that the folds are at 45, then the resulting tan value is calculated. This calculation
is then reiterated using the angle calculated in the previous step until convergence. In
general, three iterations suffice.
In a general case, the shear flow varies from one point to another of the panel. In principle, it
is known at the centre of each bay. Also, the thickness of the skin may vary from one bay to
another as well as the sections of the members. However, there is no simple analytical method
to calculate the variations of the tension field. Here it is necessary to use some simplifications
making it possible to return locally to the simple configuration described above.
This results in the calculation point notion. The information below makes it possible to
estimate the static failure loads and stresses in stiffeners and in the skin at stiffeners. The
section area of transverse members is only used to determine the fold angle. In and around the
studied super-stiffener, the diagonal tension field is assumed uniform and the skin thickness,
the section and the pitch distance of members constant.
T
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/8 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
To determine the same effects at the transverse members, it may be necessary to repeat the
same type of calculation considering the transverse members as stiffeners and vice-versa. The
choice will be made considering the dimensional variations and the variations of the nominal
shear field in the skin and the margins obtained.
If the safety margins are low (less than 15%) it is necessary to confirm then by structural tests.
This being said, and as we are concerned by what happens at a stiffener, we shall use the
super-stiffener notion as in the compressed panel cases (refer to paragraphs 1.1, 2.2, 4.1 and
4.2).
If the super-stiffener is not symmetrical in relation to the plane (G, x, z) it is necessary to build
an eq uivalent symmetrical super-stiffener.
Calculation point

x
y
Lt
1.0
Lt
2.0
Y Y Gp
d
e
1
e
2
Gr
dp
dr
G
z
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/9 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
The index 0 concerns the initial section in the following eq uations:
e =
e e
1 2
2
+
; Lt
0
=
e Lt e Lt
e e
1 1 0 2 2 0
1 2
. .
+
+
Diagonal tension factor: k =
k k
1 2
2
+
Loading rate: R
s
=
1
1
2 3
+

k
k
.
=
e e
e e
1 1 2 2
1 2
+
+
V1-1 5.4-LOADING RATE, DIAGONAL TENSION FACTOR
The loading rate of a mesh R
s
is the ratio between the nominal shear stress and the critical
buckling stress.
The diagonal tension factor formula is as follows:
R
s
cp
= <

1 (k = 0)
(R
s
1) k
R
R
s
s
=

+

0 4343
0 4343
1
1
.
.
V1-1 5.5-LOAD-CARRYING SECTIONS AND WIDTHS
L
t0
L
t
TD TD

xp

p
L
t0
e
L
t
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/10 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Index 0 relates to the initial section, i.e. before folding.
Load-carrying widths (NACA formula):
Lt
TD
= (1 - k)
Lt
0
2
Stiffener direction: Lt
0
=
b
2
; Transverse member direction: Lt
0
=
a
2
Load-carrying section:
Exactly the same method is used as for the compressed super-stiffeners, i.e. the subtractive
method: instead of rebuilding the load-carrying section from load-carrying widths, remove
the initial section which is not load-carrying.
S
TD
= 2 (Lt
0
- Lt
TD
) e = (1 + k) Lt
0
e
S
TD
= S
0
- S
TD
The calculation of the moment of inertia of the load-carrying section is only useful in the
stiffener direction.
INTEGRAL STIFFENER:
W
TD
= d
e
0
2

S
TD
d
TD
= d
0
+
W
S
TD
TD
I
TD
= d
e e
0
2 2
2 12

S
TD
I
TD
= I
0
- I
TD
- (d
0
- d
TD
)
2
S
TD
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/11 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
FASTENED STIFFENER:
W
YYp
TD
= W
YYp0
+ e
e
t

2
S
TD
I
YYp
TD
= I
YYp0
- e
e e
t

2 12
2 2
S
TD
Then apply the rules of the corrected section property calculation given in paragraph 2.2
(different materials) assuming that materials are of the linear elastic type.
E =
S
S
Ep
S
S
E
p
TD
TD
r
TD r

W
YY
TD
=
E
E
W
E
E
W
p
YYp
TD r
YYr

d
TD
=
W
S
YY
TD
TD
I
YY
TD
=
E
E
I
E
E
I
p
YYp
TD r
YYr

I
TD
= I
YY
TD
- S
TD
d
TD
2
V1-1 5.6-STRESSES IN THE SUPER-STIFFENER
V1-1 5.6.1-General method
The load, the average stress and the average compression strain induced by the diagonal
tension in the super-stiffener is formulated as follows:
N
x
TD
= -
2
0
kLt e
tan
;
x
TD
=
N
S
x
TD
x
TD
;
x
TD
=

x
TD
x
E
In fact, compression is not constant along the stiffener. It is at the minimum level at the
transverse members (gusset effect) and in the middle, at maximum:

x
TD
x
TD
min
= (1 - k) 1 78 0 64 . .

b
a
+ k ;

x
TD
x
TD
min
1
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/12 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
The same applies in the transverse member direction:
N
y
TD
= - kae tan ;
y
TD
=
N
S
y
TD
y
TD
;
y
TD
=

y
TD
y
E

y
TD
y
TD
min
= (1 - k) 1 78 0 64 . .

a
b
+ k ;

y
TD
y
TD
min
1
The diagonal tension strain in the skin is:

TD
=
2
2
1 1 2
k
k
E
p
sin
( ) ( ) sin



+ +

The fold angle in relation to the stiffeners is such that:


tan
2
=


TD x
TD
TD y
TD

V1-1 5.6.2-Simplified approaches


As the fold angle is close to 45, it is assumed that sin2 is equal to 1. This gives:

TD
= ((1 + k) + (1 - k))

E
p
ASSUMPTION 1: If the stiffening ratio and the stiffener material are similar to that of
the transverse members, the folds are considered to be at 45 whatever k is.
ASSUMPTION 2: If the transverse members can be considered as being infinitely stiff,
determine
x
TD
using the chart on the following page.
Remark: This assumption is not conservative for the stiffener as the folds axis tends to turn to
the most rigid members direction.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/13 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
CHART GIVING

x
TD
, WHEN:
The transverse members are infinitely rigid.
= 0.33
Plot k on the X axis, and
S
be
x0
1

on the Y axis. If necessary, interpolate to obtain the


req uired value.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k
(
S
0
/
b
e
)

-

1
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.50.55 0.6 0.7 0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.5
3
4
5

x
TD
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/14 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 5.7-STRESSES IN THE SKIN
V1-1 5.7.1-In the pockets
The pockets assumed identical on either side of the stiffener are subj ected to in plane stress:
Tresca criterion:

max max
tan
; = +

1
2 4
1
2
k
V1-1 5.7.2-At the stiffener
In the middle between the transverse members, the maximum compression in stiffener
direction is:

xp
TD
p
x
TD
E
E
min min
=
The skin is also highly stressed in the cut-out plane passing through the skin-stiffener fastener.
Here, the Tresca criterion in the hatched section is:

'
.
max
= +
+

13 1
1
2
e
e
k
k
t
TDP

k/tan
k.tan
y
x
e
e
t
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/15 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 5.8-STRESSES IN THE STIFFENER
Compression in the stiffener is at the maximum in the middle between the transverse members
and is:

r
TD
min
=
E
E
r
x
TD

min
Also, the average compression stress of the stiffener is:

r
TD
=
E
E
r
x
TD

As indicated in paragraph 1.4, these calculations are only applicable to typical areas. There are
no stiffener run-outs and stiffeners react in single compression. The case of stiffener run-outs
is discussed in Chapter V1-4 (" THIN WEB BEAMS" ).
V1-1 5.9-ALLOWABLE STRESSES AT UL
V1-1 5.9.1-Local buckling
The inter-rivet buckling failure mode does not exist when the skin reacts in diagonal tension.
A forced crippling mode substitutes this mode which is described in the next paragraph.
Therefore, natural local buckling can only occur in the stiffener (refer to Chapter V1-3).
V1-1 5.9.2-Forced crippling
In reality, this is amplified bending: because the stiffener skin side flange is loaded
transversely by skin undulations, its free edge tends to follow these undulations whereas the
edge it forms with the web remains straight. In this case, local bending stresses due to the
transverse loads induced by the buckle pattern of the skin, amplified by compression are added
to the compression stresses due to diagonal tension.
With skin shear failure, forced crippling is one of the two main causes of failure.
Refer to Chapter V1-3 (" STIFFENERS" ) to determine the allowable compression stress
flf
and the corresponding nominal shear stress
flf
.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/16 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 5.9.3-Super-stiffener column buckling
Strength with regard to column buckling is checked, in principle, by comparing the average
compression stress
x
TD
and the critical column buckling stress. To calculate this, it is
necessary to take the specific features of the flat panels in diagonal tension into account.
When stiffener bending starts, the diagonal tension attempts to oppose it. Reactions are as if
the column was fastened over its entire length to an elastic foundation. The end fixity
coefficient calculation given below takes this phenomenon into account:
L
TD
= K
TD
A ; K
TD
=
1
1 3 4
2 0
+

k
Lt
A
Then calculate
xcrit
TD
using (S
TD
, I
TD
, L
TD
) with the information given in paragraph V1-14.
Depending on the slenderness ratio of the super-stiffeners, it is possible that the column
buckles under a two half wave mode. For this reason, it is advisable to check that
x
TD
min
does
not exceed the buckling stress calculated with the slenderness ratio
L
TD
TD
2
.
V1-1 5.9.4-Skin failure
Generally, the skin is thicker at stiffeners than at the bottom of bays. Failure may then occur
either at the bay-pad blend radii or in the stiffener-skin fastener rows.
Failure in the pocket (TRESCA):
max allowable
=

R
2
Failure at skin-stiffener fasteners: '
max allowable
=

R
2
V1-1 5.10-SKIN STIFFNESS
As long as the skin remains stable, the skin shear stiffness is represented by Coulomb s
modulus, G. In diagonal tension, it is appreciably more elastic. The effective transverse shear
modulus is GTDI.
As we conceive incomplete diagonal tension as overlaying of a single shear state and of a
diagonal tension state, the following can be formulated:
(
TDI
=
CS
+
TD
)
1 1
G
k
G
k
G
TDI TD
=

+

Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS


Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/17 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
with:
E
G
S
Lt e
k
S
Ae
k
TD
mt
= +

+
+

4
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
0
0
2
sin
cot
( )
tan


Giving:
G
G
k E
TDI
p
x
TD
y
TD
= +

+
+

1
4
2
1
2
1



sin
cot tan
SPECIAL CASES:
( = 45) G
G
k
TDI
p
TD
=
+ +

1 4 1 2 ( )

Infinitely stiff transverse members:


G
TDI

G
k
E
E
p
x
TD
1 4 1 + + ( ) cot


with,

x
TD
obtained from the graph and:

x
TD
S
Lt e
k
k
0
0
1
2
+ ( )
V1-1 5.11-GENERAL INSTABILITY, DESIGN
These panels are protected from the general buckling risk for as long as the stiffeners are
designed to rupture under forced crippling or under super-stiffener column buckling under a
nominal shear load slightly less than the shear strength of the skin. Inversely, if the static
margin depends on the skin shear strength, then our panel is protected from any general
instability risk. This condition is satisfied if the stiffeners have sufficient inertia and super
flange thickness. If, in addition, the skin comprises pads of a sufficient thickness, then the
static margin is only governed by the shear strength of the skin material:

allowable
=

R
2
The study condition is satisfied if:
e
e
t
0.7
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/18 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 5.12-EXAMPLE
Use the example in paragraph 2.3 (also see paragraphs 4.5.5 and 4.6.4).
The nominal shear at UL in the bays adjacent to the stiffener is:
= 160 MPa
The properties of the skin (2024PLT3) are:
E
p
= 70300 MPa ;
Rp
= 440 MPa ;
0.2p
= 270 MPa
The properties of the stiffeners and transverse members (7075PLT6) are:
E
r
= 73800 MPa ;
Rr
= 495 MPa ;
0.2r
= 420 MPa
The two materials have the same Poisson ratio: = 0.33
SECTION IN STIFFENER DIRECTION:
= =
170
35
3
2
= =
25
3
30
2
4
16
Stiffener: Skin:
S
r
= 185 mm S
xp0
= 375 mm
I
YYr
= 62186 mm
4
I
YYp0
= 1485 mm
4
d
r
= 13.9 mm d
p0
= 1.86 mm
W
YYr
= 2572 mm
3
W
YYp0
= - 698 mm
3
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/19 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
SECTION IN TRANSVERSE MEMBER DIRECTION:
Small section: S
mt
= 509 mm ; S
y0
= 1604 mm ; S
yp0
= 1095 mm
The small section is the one where the stiffeners pass. Between the stiffeners, the section of
the transverse member alone is 509 mm. This value is used to calculate the fold angle and the
stresses in the transverse member halfway from the stiffeners, giving:
S
mt
= 509 mm ; S
y0
= 1604 mm
POCKET FOLDS
Refer to the example in paragraph 3.3 (a
1
= a
2
= A = 530 mm ; b
1
= b
2
= B = 170 mm):

cp1
=
cp2
= 52 MPa
LIMITS, AS PER PARAGRAPH 5.2
Stiffener flange:
e
e
s
=
3
2
> 0.6
530
35
3
3
2
24
8
6
2.5
90
120
24
4
4
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/20 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Skin-stiffener attachment with 4.8 diameter rivets, pitch distance 25 mm:
2.5 <
p
D
=

5 2 . < 10
Skin bay proportions:
0.2 <
B
A
=

0 32 . < 1 ; 120 <


A
e
=

265 < 1500


LOADING RATE, DIAGONAL TENSION FACTOR (paragraph 5.4)

cp
=
160
52
= 3.077
k =
3 077 1
3 077 1
0 4343
0 4343
.
.
.
.

+
= 0.24
LOAD-CARRYING WIDTHS AND SECTIONS AT UL (paragraph 5.5)
Stiffener direction:
S
x
TD
= (1 + k) Lt
0
e = 1.24 x 85 x 2 = 211 mm
S
x
TD
= S
0
- S
TD
= 560 - 211 = 349 mm
S
r
= 185 mm ; S
xp
TD
= 164 mm
W
YYp
TD
= W
YYp
TD
0
+ e
e
t
=

2
S
x
TD
= - 276 mm
3
I
YYp
TD
= I
YYp
TD
0
+ e
e e
t

2 12
2 2
S
x
TD
= 572 mm
4
E
x
=
164
349

70300 +
185
349

73800 = 72154 MPa


W
YY
TD
= -
70300
72154

276 +
73800
72154

2572 = 2361 mm
3
d
TD
=
2361
349
= 6.76
I
YY
TD
=
70300
72154

572 +
73800
72154

62186 = 64161 mm
4
I
TD
= 64161 - 349 x 6.76 48200 mm
4
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/21 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Transverse member direction:
S
y
TD
= (1 + k)
ae
2
= 1.24 x 530 = 657 mm
S
y
TD
= S
0
- S
y
TD
= 1604 - 657 = 947 mm
S
mt
= 509 mm ; S
yp
TD
= 438 mm
E
y
=
438
947

70300 +
509
947

73800 = 72181 MPa


STRESSES IN THE SUPER-STIFFENER, TD ANGLE AT UL (paragraph 5.6)
Compression in stiffener direction:
N
x
TD
= -
2
0
kLt e
tan
= 2 x 0.24 x 85 x 2 x 160 x cot = - 13019 cot

x
TD
=
N
S
x
TD
x
TD
= - 37.3 cot ;
x
TD
=

x
TD
x
E
= - 0.052%.cot
Compression in transverse members:
N
y
TD
= - kae tan = - 0.24 x 530 x 2 x 160 x tan = - 40590 tan

y
TD
=
N
S
y
TD
y
TD
= - 42.9 tan ;
y
TD
=

y
TD
y
E
= - 0.059%.tan
Diagonal tension (refer to paragraph 5.6.2):

TD
(1 + 0.24 + 0.33 (1 - 0.4))
160
70300
= 0.339%
Diagonal tension angle:
(
0
= 45) tan
. .
. .
2
1
0 339 0 52
0 339 0 059



=
=

=
+
+

TD r
TD
TD mt
TD
(
1
= 44.72) tan
. . / .
. . .
2
2
0 339 0 052 0 9903
0 339 0 059 0 9903
=
+
+

x
(
2
= 44.76) tan
. . / .
. . .
2
3
0 339 0 052 0 9916
0 339 0 0591 0 9916
=
+
+

x
= 44.7 ; tan = 0.99
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/22 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Super-stiffener stresses:

x
TD
= -
37 3
0 99
.
.
= - 37.6 MPa

x
TD
x
TD
min
= (1 - k) 1 78 0 64 . .

b
a
+ k = 0.76 (1.78 - 0.64 x 0.32) + 0.24 = 1.44

x
TD
min
= - 54.1 MPa
REMARK 1: The stiffening ratios in the stiffener and transverse member direction are similar
and the panel is a little stiffer in the stiffener direction.
560 170 2
560
x
= 0.39 ;
1604 530 2
1604
x
= 0.34
The use of the following approximation (deviation negligible in relation to the general
solution) is j ustified:
( 45) (
x
TD
= - 37.3 MPa ;
x
TD
min
= - 1.44 x 37.3 = - 53.7 MPa)
REMARK 2: Use of the assumption " infinitely rigid transverse members" and therefore the
chart in paragraph 5.6.1 gives the following results (- 6% deviation):
S
Lt e
k x MPa
x
TD
x
TD 0
0
2
1 0 65 0 24 0 22 0 22 160 35 2

= =

= = =

. ; . . ; . .


(- 37.3 cot = - 35.2) ( = 46.7)
POCKET STRESSES (refer to paragraph 5.7.1)
( 45) (
max
= = 160 MPa)
SKIN STRESS AT THE RIVET ROW (refer to paragraph 5.7.2)
'
max
= 13
2
3
1
0 24
124
2
.
.
.
+

x 160 = 0.883 x 160 = 141.2 MPa <


max
Therefore, skin failure will occur at the pocket blend radius.
SKIN COMPRESSION IN STIFFENER DIRECTION

xp
TD
min
=
E
E
p
x

x
TD
min
= -
70300
72155
54.1 = - 52.7 MPa
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/23 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
STRESSES IN THE STIFFENER (refer to paragraph 5.8)

r
TD
=
E
E
r
x
x
TD
=
73800
72155
37.6 = - 38.5 MPa

r
TD
min
=
E
E
r
x
x
TD

max
=
73800
72155
54.1 = - 55.3 MPa
ALLOWABLE STRESSES AT UL
Local stiffener buckling (refer to paragraph 4.5.5):
flange: 504 MPa, web: 476 MPa
Forced crippling (refer to example in paragraph V1-3 5.4):

flf
= 144 MPa ;
flf
= 283 MPa
Super-stiffener column buckling (refer to paragraph 5.9.3):
K
TD
=
1
1 3 4
1
1 0 24 3 4
85
530
2 0 2
+

=
+

K
Lt
A
.
= 0.94
L
TD
= 0.94 x 530 = 498 mm
J ohnson formula (refer to paragraph 4.6.4):

0
= 328 MPa ;
CE
TD
= L
TD
S
I
x
TD
TD
= 42.4
=
CE
TD
:
xcrit
TD
= 328 -
328 42
4 72155
2 2
2
x .4

= 260 MPa
=

CE
TD
xcrit
TD
2
: = 311 MPa
These values calculated with the slenderness ratio at UL are conservative as is
decreasingly monotonic with the applied load.
Therefore, with regards to stability, the allowable is given by the forced
crippling.
Skin failure at the pocket (refer to paragraph 5.9.4):

max allowable
=

Rp
2
440
2
= = 220 MPa
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Flat stiffened panels under shear - Page V1-15/24 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
STATIC MARGIN:

max
max
allowable
=
220
160
= 1.38

flf
=
283
160
= 1.77
In our example, the static margin results from the comparison of nominal shear stress at UL
with the failure stress of the skin material. The other margins are not very different, meaning
that the skin pad and the super flange of the stiffener are correctly sized. The risk of general
buckling of the panel is nil and the weight is close to the optimum.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/14 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 6.9-STRESSES IN FRAMES
The single maximum compression stress in frames riveted to the skin mid-way between
stringers is:

mt
TD mt
y
TD y
TD
E
E
min min
=
If frames are floating, apply the bending moments given in paragraph 6.6. The loads then
apply to the cross sections of frames alone.
V1-1 6.10-ALLOWABLE STRESSES AT UL
V1-1 6.10.1-Local buckling
Natural local buckling can only occur in stiffeners and in frames (refer to Chapter V1-3).
V1-1 6.10.2-Forced crippling
Proceed in the same manner as for flat panels (refer to paragraph 5.9.2). Refer to Chapter V1-3
" STIFFENERS" to calculate the allowable stresses. Check the strength of frame and stringer
outer flanges.
V1-1 6.10.3-Super-stiffener column buckling
Check the strength with regard to column buckling by comparing the maximum compression
stress
x
TD
min
and the critical buckling stress, calculated assuming that the super-stiffener is
clamped at frames.
Calculate
xcrit
TD
using (S
x
TD
; I
TD
) (refer to the J ohnson formula in paragraph V1-1 4).
V1-1 6.10.4-Skin failure
Generally, the skin is thicker at stiffeners than in pockets bottoms. Failure may then occur
either in the skin pad-pocket blend radii connection fillets or in the skin-stiffener fastener
rows.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/15 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Pocket failure (TRESCA):
max allowable
=

R
2
(0.65 + )
Failure at skin-stiffener fasteners: Ditto for
max allowable
With:
= 0.3 tanh
S
Ae
mt

+ 0.1 tanh
S
Be
r

The skin pads have to be included in member cross sections.


V1-1 6.11-SKIN STIFFNESS
Skin shear stiffness, for as long as the skin is stable, is represented by Coulomb s modulus, G.
It is appreciably more compliant in diagonal tension. The effective transverse modulus of
elasticity is G
TDI
:
G
G
k E
TDI
p
x
TD
y
TD
= +

+
+
1
4
2
1
2



sin
cot tan
V1-1 6.12-GENERAL INSTABILITY, FRAME LOCAL BUCKLING,
DESIGN
The nominal shear stress causing cylinder failure by general buckling
IG
is obtained using the
chart on the following page.
Frames must be designed so that the static margin of the panel is given by another criterion.
General instability must be impossible.
Furthermore, frame flanges shall be of a sufficient thickness so that the allowable load is not
limited by local buckling or forced crippling. In fact, it could be potentially dangerous in one
way or another for the general static margin to be the same as the margin of a frame (frames).
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/16 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
USE OF THE CHART:

B
A
<

1 : Calculate
x
and
y
, assuming that the entire sheet interacts with the stringers and
the frames (even floating).

B
A
>

1 : Calculate
x
and
y
, assuming that the sheet does not interact with the stringers
and the frames (member sections only). If
x
> 8.6 mm, take
x
= 8.6 mm.
The solid straight lines correspond to the domains covered by the tests (good correlation). No
explanation has been found for the abrupt transition from one to the other.
Do not extrapolate outside the scope of the chart.
Use the Young' s modulus in compression.
( )

x y
r AB
7
8
3
4
x 10
4
General instability criterion for curved panels
in shear
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

IG
E
x 10
3
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/17 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 6.13-EXAMPLE
Use again the example in paragraph 5 with r=2820 mm:
Nominal shear at UL in skin bays adjacent to the stiffener is:
= 160 MPa
The properties of the skin (2024PLT3) are:
E
p
= 70300 MPa ;
Rp
= 440 MPa ;
0.2p
= 270 MPa ; = 0.33
The properties of the stringers and the frames (7075PLT6) are:
E
r
= 73800 MPa ;
Rr
= 495 MPa ;
0.2r
= 420 MPa ; = 0.33
ASSOCIATED STRINGER AND SKIN:
Stiffener:
S
r
= 185 mm
I
YYr
= 62186 mm
4
d
r
= 13.9 mm
W
YYr
= 2572 mm
3
Skin:
S
xp0
= 375 mm
I
YYp0
= 1485 mm
4
d
p0
= - 1.86 mm
W
YYp0
= - 698 mm
3
= =
170
35
3
2
= =
25
3
30
2
4
16
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/18 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
ASSOCIATED FRAME AND SKIN:
The small section of the frame is the one at the stringer passage. Between the stringer
passages, the section area of the frame itself is 509 mm. This value is used to calculate the
angle of the folds and the stresses in the frame at mid-distance from the stringers, giving:
S
mt
= 509 mm ; S
y0
= 1604 mm
Properties of the small section:
Frame: Frame + skin
S
c
= 369 mm S
y0
= 1464 mm
I
c
= 355232 mm
4
I
0
= 2415091 mm
4
d
c
= 84.4 mm d
0
= 19.9 mm
530
35
3
3
2
24
8
6
2.5
90
120
24
4
4
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/19 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
POCKET FOLDING
Refer to example in paragraph 3.3
(a
1
= a
2
= A = 530 mm ; b
1
= b
2
= B = 170 mm ; R = 2820 mm):

cp1
=
cp2
= 57 MPa
LIMITS AS PER PARAGRAPH 6.2
Stiffener inner flange:
e
e
s
= >
3
2
0 6 .
Skin-stiffener connected by 4.8 diameter rivets, pitch distance 25 mm:
2.5 <
p
D
=

5 2 . < 10
Skin bay proportions (A> B):
0.2 <
B
A
=

0 32 . < 1 ; 120 <


A
e
=

265 < 1500 ; A <


2820
3
LOADING RATE, DIAGONAL TENSION FACTOR (paragraph 6.4)
0 2 0 5 0 5212
2
2820
. . .4343 . < <

= +

B
A
x
= 0.8039
R
s
=

cp
=
160
57
= 2.807
k =
2 807 1
2 807 1
0 8039
0 8039
.
.
.
.

+
= 0.393
For the identical flat panel subj ected to the same nominal shear stress (refer to the example in
paragraph 5), the diagonal tension factor is 0.24. Here, the effect of the diagonal tension is
more significant even though the folds occur a little later.
LOAD-CARRYING SECTION AND WIDTHS AT UL (paragraph 6.5)
Stringer direction:
S
x
TD
= (1 + k)Lt
0
e = 1.393 x 85 x 2 237 mm
S
x
TD
= S
x0
- S
x
TD
= 560 - 237 = 323 mm
S
r
= 185 mm ; S
xp
TD
= 138 mm
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/20 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
W
YYp
TD
= W
YYp
TD
0
+ e
e
t

2
S
x
TD
= - 224 mm
3
I
YYp
TD
= I
YYp
TD
0
- e
e e
t

2 12
2 2
S
x
TD
= 459 mm
4
E
x
TD
=
138
323

70300 +
185
323

73800 = 72303 MPa


W
YY
TD
= -
70300
72300

224 +
73800
72300

2572 = 2407 mm
3
d
TD
=
2407
323
= 7.45
I
YY
TD
=
70300
72300

459 +
73800
72300

62186 = 63920 mm
4
I
TD
= 63925 - 323 x 7.45 46000 mm
4
Frame direction:
The frames are fastened to the skin, giving:
S
y
TD
= 1.393 x
530 2
2
x
= 738 mm
S
y
TD
= 1604 - 738 = 866 mm
E
y
TD
= 1
509
866

x 70300 +
509
866

x 73800 = 72357 MPa


STRESS AND STRAIN, STRINGER AND FRAME DIRECTION, TD ANGLE AT
UL (paragraph 6.6)
Compression, stiffener direction:
N
x
TD
= -
kbe
tan
= - 0.393 x 170 x 2 x 160 x cot = - 21357 cot

x
TD
=
N
S
x
TD
x
TD
= - 66.1 cot ;
x
TD
=

x
TD
x
TD
E
= - 0.091%.cot
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/21 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Compression, transverse member direction:
N
y
TD
= - 0.393 x 530 x 2 x 160 x tan = - 66584 tan

y
TD
=
N
S
y
TD
y
TD
= - 76.9 tan ;
y
TD
=

y
TD
y
TD
E
= - 0.106%.tan
Diagonal tension:

TD
=
2 0 393
2
1 0 33 1 0 393 2
160
70300
x .
sin
( . ) ( . ) sin

+ +

TD
=
0179%
2
.
sin
+ 0.184% x sin 2
Diagonal tension angle:
B
A B
R
B
R
TD
x
TD
TD y
TD
<

=

+

=
2
1
1
24
1
24
0 015%
2
2
tan ; .


Considering the small amount of flattening strain,
0
= 45 was selected:
(
0
= 45) tan
. .
. . .
2
1
0 363 0 091
0 363 0106 0 015
=
+
+ +

(
1
= 44.1 ;
2
= 44.3 ;
3
= 44.2)
= 44.2 . tan = 0.974
Super-stiffener stresses:

x
TD
= -
661
0 974
.
.
= - 67.8 MPa

x
TD
x
TD
min
= (1 - k) 1 78 0 64 . .

b
a
+ k = 0.61 x (1.78 - 0.64 x 0.32) + 0.39 = 1.35

x
TD
min
= - 91.5 MPa
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/22 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Super-frame stresses:

y
TD
= - 76.9 x 0.974 = - 74.9 MPa
( ) . . .
min
1 1 78 0 64 0 26 1 1

+ = <

k
a
b
k
y
TD
y
TD

y
TD
min
= - 74.9 MPa
Bending moments in the super-stiffener:
M
TD
= 0.393 x
170 530
24 2820
2
x
x
x 160 x 2 x 0.974 = 86325 N.mm
SKIN POCKET STRESSES (refer to paragraph 6.7.1)
( 45) (
max
= = 160 MPa)
SKIN STRESS AT THE ROW OF RIVETS (refer to paragraph 6.7.2)
'
max
= 1.3 x
2
3
1
0 393
1393
2
+

.
.
x 160 = 0.9 x 160 = 144 MPa <
max
Skin failure will occur therefore in the pocket blend radius.
SKIN COMPRESSION, STIFFENER DIRECTION, BETWEEN FRAMES

p
TD
=
E
E
M
I
d e
p
x
TD x
TD
TD
TD
TD
t

max
( ) +

p
TD
=
70300
72303
915
86325
46000
7 3 x x +

. ( .45 ) = - 108 MPa


Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/23 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
STRESSES IN THE STIFFENER (refer to paragraph 6.8)
At mid-distance from frames:

r
TD
=
E
E
r
x
TD x
TD
=
73800
72303
x 67.8 = - 69.2 MPa

r
TD r
x
TD x
TD
E
E
min max
= =
73800
72303
x 91.5 = - 93.4 MPa
Outer flange:

rs
TD r
x
TD x
TD
TD
TD
E
E
M
I
d x =


max
. .45
73800
72303
915
86325
46000
7 = - 107.7 MPa
Inner flange:

rt
TD
x = +

73800
72303
915
86325
46000
30 7 . ( .45) = - 50.2 MPa
Inner flange stress at frames:

rt
TD
=

73800
72303
67 8
86325
46000
30 7 . ( .45) = - 112.5 MPa
STRESSES IN FRAMES (refer to paragraph 6.9)

mt
TD
min
= - 74.9 x
73800
72357
= - 76.4 MPa
ALLOWABLE STRESSES AT UL (paragraph 6.10)
Local stiffener buckling (refer to paragraph 4.5.5):
Inner flange: 504 MPa, web: 476 MPa
Stringer forced crippling (refer to example in paragraph V1-35.4):

flf
= - 177 MPa ;
flf
= 213 MPa
Frame forced crippling (refer to paragraph 6.10.2): Discussed in example
V1-35.4

flf
= - 171 MPa ;
flf
= 258 MPa
No danger from this standpoint.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/24 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Super-stiffener column buckling (refer to paragraph 6.10.3):
K
TD
= 0.5
L
TD
= 0.5 x 530 = 265 mm
J ohnson formula (refer to paragraph 4.6.4):

0
= 328 MPa ;
CE
TD TD
TD
TD
L
S
I
= = 22.2
( )
= =

CE
TD
crit
TD
x
MPa 328
328 22 2
4 72303
309
2 2
2
.
These values calculated with slenderness at UL are conservative as is monotonic,
decreasing with the applied load.
With regards to stability, the allowable value is given by the forced crippling.
Skin pocket failure (refer to paragraph 6.10.4):

max allowable
=

Rp
2
(0.65 + )
= 0.3 tanh
544
530 2 x

+ 0.1 tanh
220
170 2 x

= 0.2

max allowable
=
440
2
x 0.85 = 187 MPa
STATIC MARGIN:

max allowable
=
187
160
= 1.17

flf
=
213
160
= 1.33
FRAME SIZING (paragraph 6.12)

x
=
I
S
x
0
0
58759
560
= = 10.2 mm (refer to paragraph 2.3)

y
=
2415091
1464
= 40.6 mm (small frame section)
( )

x y
IG
r AB
x
E
x
7
8
3
4
4 3
10 16 8 10 3 =

>

.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/25 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
To be conservative, put down E= Ep, giving:

IG
> 211 MPa >
max allowable
Therefore, the frames are sized in such a manner that general instability is not possible,
which was what was required.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/26 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/1 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 6-STRESSING OF CURVED STIFFENED PANELS IN SINGLE
NOMINAL SHEAR
REMINDER: The curvature of the panel, radius r, is in the plane normal to the stiffeners (refer
to paragraph 1.4).
This paragraph is dedicated to incomplete diagonal tension. For more information, refer to
paragraph 5 (Calculation of flat stiffened panels in single nominal shear). The approach given
here is based on theoretical analysis, readj usted following tests. It applies to the domain
defined in the " Limit" paragraph.
G
z
x
Ty
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/2 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 6.1-DIAGONAL TENSION THEORIES
The analysis of the diagonal tension in curved panels is based on the methods developed for
flat panels. Therefore, the goal here is to describe the problems posed by the panel curvature.
The typical example of a cylindrical fuselage section subj ect to a torsion moment is a good
basis for discussion.
Pure diagonal tension theory:
If the cross section of the fuselage section was polygonal instead of circular, the diagonal
tension theory in flat webs would be applicable with some minor modifications. This will
also be the case if the circular cross section skin was supported by polygonal shaped frames
as the diagonal tension flattens the skin bays. However, in the present case, the frames, i.e.
the transverse members, are circular. Therefore, the diagonal tension in a bay no longer
resides in one plane.
To simplify the problem, Wagner established fundamental relations (eq uations) derived from
the flat panel theory for two cases:
a) Bays long in the axial direction, stringers (stiffeners) spaced close together:
A > 2B ; B <
r
3
b)Bays long in the transverse direction, frames (transverse members) spaced close
together:
B > 2A ; A <
r
3
In the first case (a), the maj or portion of the diagonal tension is in the planes of a polygonal
cylinder. In the second case (b), it is in hyperboloids of rotation.
In the case of flat panels subj ected to TDP (refer to paragraph 5.1), the angle is such that
the variation of internal energy of the system is minimal, giving the following result:
tan
2
=


TDP x
TDP
TDP y
TDP

B
r
A
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/3 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
This principle can be applied to curved panels considering that:
Case a: Flattening is unrestricted between two frames. The change from the circular cross
section shape to the polygonal cross section is eq uivalent to a decrease in the spacing of
stringers, , eq ual to the difference in length between arc

B and chord B:

1
24
3
2
B
r

.
The angle of the folds is then given by:
tan
2
=


TDP x
TDP
TDP y
TDP
B
r

1
24
2
Remark: Strain

B
is fictitious. It does not correspond to a stress in the frames.
Case b: In the case of long skin bays in the frame direction, the same type of reasoning
results in:
tan
2
=


TDP x
TDP
TDP y
TDP
A
r

1
8
2
2
tan
In practice, the first eq uation is used when A is greater than B and the second when B is
greater than A.
If the bays are " sq uare bays" , the same results should be obtained using the two eq uations,
which implies:
tan
2
1
3
=

( = 30)
The latter-mentioned value is q uite representative. In practice, the fold angle is from 20 to
45.
Another difference in behaviour between flat and curved panels due to skin bays flattening:
the " roof" effect at the stringers implies that the stringers are subj ect to radial loads. The
diagonal tension bends the curved panel stringers whereas it acts against stiffener bending in
flat panels.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/4 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Assuming that these radial loads are steadily distributed, there is:
q = e
B
r
tan : M
(0)
= M
(A)
= -
BA
r
2
12
e tan ; M
BA
r
A
2
2
24

= e tan
With the sign convention: (M > 0: compressed skin).
However, if the frames are fastened to the skin, there is no roof effect around the frames as
they remain curved. And if the bending moment mid-way between the frames is effectively
eq ual to M
(A/2)
, its modulus is much greater than M
(A)
at the frames.
Incomplete diagonal tension theory
1
:
Diagonal tension develops earlier in curved panels than in flat panels. The diagonal tension
factor k is given by generalising the experimental formula applicable to flat panels.
In stringer direction, the calculation formula of the load-carrying width is identical to the one
applicable to flat panels.
The same applies to the deformation eq uation
TD
.
There are two types of frames: frames directly connected to the skin and frames that are not
connected to the skin, which are named " floating frames" .
Normally, frames are connected to the skin and slotted where stringers pass. In this case, the
centripetal load applied to them due to the diagonal tension is uniform. They work in the
vault manner, meaning that they are subj ected to compression stresses only. The flanges of
these frames are likely to be destroyed under forced crippling. Here, the load-carrying
section is calculated like in the stringer direction.
Floating frames are only loaded at frame-stiffener intersections. Owing to this, they are
subj ected to bending moments. Furthermore, no load-carrying skin reacts and folds are free
to develop on either side of the frames.

1
: NACA technical note 2661: " A summary of diagonal tension"
Part 1 - Methods of analysis - May 1952
B
q
A
q
r
B
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/5 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
The use of floating frames can only be considered for panels with bays that are long in the
stringer direction (a) type).
If the frames are fastened to the skin, the bending moment of super-stringers at frames is
considered as being eq ual to that mid-way from frames, from a modulus standpoint. If the
frames are floating, this bending moment value is doubled.
V1-1 6.2-LIMITS
This method can be used in the design of panels made of aluminium alloys normally used in
the aeronautical industry.
Use the rules applicable to flat panels (paragraph 5) if the curvature radius is greater than
3800 mm.
These calculations only apply to typical areas (no stiffener run-outs) as indicated in paragraph
1.4.
The member flange (skin side) must not be too thin:
e
s
e
0.6
The bays proportions shall be in the following range:
B
A
B
A
A
e
A
r
<

<

1 0 2 1 120 1500
3
. ; ;
B
A
A
B
B
e
B
r
>

<

1 0 2 1 120 1500
3
. ; ;
Riveting:
2.5
p
D
10
Pay attention to very thick skin bays (outside field of application): possible non-conservative
estimates.
The stiffeners are practically evenly spaced and the thicknesses of adj acent bays similar.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/6 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 6.3-CALCULATION PRINCIPLE FOR STRESSING STIFFENED
PANELS IN INCOMPLETE DIAGONAL TENSION
To determine , the strain of the web according to the fold axis, the strain of the stringers and
the strain of the frames needs to be known. However, these values themselves depend on .
In practice, is between 20 and 45. To solve this problem, an initial set of strain values is
calculated assuming fold angle to be =
0
, then the resulting value of tan is calculated. This
calculation is then reiterated using angle calculated at the previous pitch up to convergence.
Three iterations suffice if
0
is properly selected.
There is no simple analytical method to calculate the variations in the tension field as indicated
for flat panels. Here it is necessary to use a simple approach making it possible to compare the
present problem to a simple configuration.
The information given below makes it possible to estimate the static failure loads and stresses
in stringers and in the skin at stringers. The frame sections were, in particular, used to
determine the fold angle. In and around the studied super-stiffener, the diagonal tension field
is assumed to be uniform. The thickness and the curvature radius of the skin, the section and
the spacing of members is assumed to be constant.
Calculations cannot be repeated considering the frames as stiffeners and the stringers as
transverse members due to the curvature. Experimental data on frame failure under diagonal
tension is not available. Frames will always be sized so that failure occurs either in the skin or
in the stringers. Frames are considered to be correctly sized when their local buckling does not
affect the general margin and overall instability of the fuselage.
If safety margins are low (less than 15%) it is mandatory to confirm them by structural
tests.
Calculation point

x
y
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/7 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
The super-stiffener notion will be used as for the flat panels (refer to paragraph 5.3). The
curvature of the skin is assumed to be sufficiently small for it not to be taken into account
when calculating the section properties.
An eq uivalent symmetrical super-stiffener has to be built if the super-stiffener is not
symmetrical in relation to the plane (G,x,z):
In the following eq uations, the index 0 relates to the initial section.
e =
e e
1 2
2
+
; Lt
0
=
e Lt e Lt
e e
1 1 0 2 2 0
1 2
. .
+
+
r =
r r
1 2
2
+
Diagonal tension factor: k =
k k
1 2
2
+
Loading rate: R
s
=
1
1
1
+

k
k

=
e e
e e
1 1 2 2
1 2
+
+
V1-1 6.4-LOADING RATE, DIAGONAL TENSION FACTOR
The loading rate of a skin bay Rs is the ratio between the nominal shear stress and the
critical buckling stress.
Lt
1.0
Lt
2.0
Y Y Gp
d
e
1
e
2
Gr
dp
dr
G
z
h
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/8 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
The general diagonal tension factor k is formulated as follows:
R
s
cp
= <

1 (k = 0)
(R
s
1) k
R
R
s
s
=

+

1
1
with:
0 5 1 0 260 6 . .4343 . < <

= +

B
A
eA
rB

0 5 1 0 260 6 . .4343 . < <

= +

A
B
eB
rA

0 2 0 5
0 2 0 5
0 5212
. .
. .
.4343 .
< <

< <

= +

B
A
A
B
e
r

V1-1 6.5-LOAD-CARRYING SECTIONS AND WIDTHS


V1-1 6.5.1-Stiffener direction
Load-carrying widths (NACA formula):
Lt
TD
= (1 - k)
Lt
0
2
L
t0

xp

p
L
t0
e
L
t
L
t
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/9 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Load-carrying section:
A procedure identical to the one use for compressed super-stiffeners is used, i.e. the
subtractive method. Rather than rebuilding the load-carrying section using load-carrying
widths, remove the initial section which is not load-carrying.
S
x
TD
= 2 (Lt
0
- Lt
TD
) e = (1 + k) Lt
0
e
S
x
TD
= S
x0
- S
x
TD
INTEGRAL STIFFENER:
W
TD
= d
e
0
2

S
x
TD
d
TD
= d
0
+
W
S
TD
x
TD
I
TD
= d
e e
0
2 2
2 12

S
x
TD
I
TD
= I
0
- I
TD
- (d
0
- d
TD
)
2
S
x
TD
FASTENED STIFFENER:
W
YYp
TD
= W
YYp0
+ e
e
t

2
S
x
TD
I
YYp
TD
= I
YYp0
- e
e e
t

2 12
2 2
S
x
TD
Then apply the design rules for the properties of the corrected section given in paragraph 2.2
(different materials) assuming that materials are of the linear elastic type.
E
x
TD
=
S
S
E
S
S
E
xp
TD
x
TD p
r
x
TD r

W
YY
TD
=
E
E
W
E
E
p
x
TD YYp
TD r
x
TD

W
YYr
d
TD
=
W
S
YY
TD
x
TD
I
YY
TD
=
E
E
I
E
E
p
x
TD YYp
TD r
x
TD

I
YYr
I
TD
= I
YY
TD
- S
x
TD
d
TD
2
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/10 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 6.5.2-Frame direction
Proceed in the same manner if frames are fastened to the skin:
S
y
TD
= (1 + k)
ae
2
S
y
TD
= S
y0
- S
y
TD
E
y
TD
=
S
S
S
S
E
yp
TD
y
TD
mt
y
TD mt

E
p
Calculation of the moment of inertia of the load-carrying section is not necessary.
It is even simpler if frames are floating:
S
y
TD
= S
mt
E
y
TD
= E
mt
V1-1 6.6-SUPER-MEMBER STRESSES
The compression force, average stress and average strain in the stringer direction induced by
diagonal tension is formulated as follows:
N
x
TD
= -
kbe
tan
;
x
TD
=
N
S
x
TD
x
TD
;
x
TD
=

x
TD
x
TD
E
Compression is not constant over the entire length of a stringer. Compression is minimum at
the frames (gusset effect) and maximum mid-way between frames:

x
TD
x
TD
min
= (1 - k) 1 78 0 64 . .

b
a
+ k ;

x
TD
x
TD
min
1
The same is calculated in frame direction:
N
y
TD
= - kae tan ;
y
TD
=
N
S
y
TD
y
TD
;
y
TD
=

y
TD
y
TD
E

y
TD
y
TD
min
= (1 - k) 1 78 0 64 . .

a
b
+ k ;

y
TD
y
TD
min
1
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/11 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Diagonal tension strain in the skin is:

TD
=
2
2
1 1 2
k
k
E
p
sin
( )( )sin



+ +

The fold angle in relation to stiffeners is such that:


B
A B
r
TD x
TD
TD y
TD
<

=

+

1
1
24
2
2
tan


B
A A
r
TD x
TD
TD y
TD
>

=

+

1
1
8
2
2
2
tan
tan



A
B
=

= =

1
1
3
30
2
tan ;
Bending moment in the super-stiffener half way from frames:
M
A
TD
2

= k
BA
r
2
24
e tan
This moment compresses the stringer skin side flange and the skin.
Bending moments in the super-stiffener at frames:
Frames fastened to the skin: M
( ) A
TD
= - k
BA
r
2
24
e tan
Floating frames: M
( ) A
TD
= - k
BA
r
2
12
e tan
This moment compresses the stringer inner flange.
Bending moments in floating frames mid-way from stringers:
M
B
TD
2

= - k
B A
r
2
24
e tan
This moment compresses the frame inner flange.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/12 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Bending moments in floating frames at stringers:
M
( ) B
TD
= k
B A
r
2
12
e tan
This moment compresses the skin.
V1-1 6.7-STRESSES IN THE SKIN
V1-1 6.7.1-In pockets
Tresca criterion:


max
tan
= +

1
2
2
k
V1-1 6.7.2-At the stringer
In the middle between transverse members, the compression stress is:

xp
TD
=
x
TD
min
-
M
I
A
TD
TD
( / ) 2
d
TD
, if integral stiffener

xp
TD
=
E
E
M
I
d e
p
x
TD x
TD A
TD
TD
TD
t

min
( / )
( ) +

2
, if fastened stiffener
The skin is also highly stressed in the cutting plane crossing the skin-stiffener fastener rows.
Here, the Tresca criterion in the hatched part is:

max
. = +
+

13 1
1
2
e
e
k
k
t
TDP

k/tan
k.tan
y
x
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Curved stiffened panels in shear - Page V1-16/13 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 6.8-STRESSES IN THE STIFFENER
In the middle between two transverse members, the maximum single compression stress,
the outer flange stress (fastened stiffeners) and the inner flange stress are respectively
eq uivalent to:

r
TD
min
=
E
E
r
x
TD x
TD

min

rs
TD
=
E
E
M
I
d
r
x
TD x
TD A
TD
TD
TD

min
( / )

rt
TD
=
( )
E
E
M
I
h d
r
x
TD x
TD A
TD
TD
TD

min
( / )
+

2
The average compression stress of the stiffener is:

r
TD
=
E
E
r
x
TD

x
TD
At frames, the outer flange stress is:

rt
TD
=
( )
E
E
M
I
h d
r
x
TD x
TD A
TD
TD
TD
+

( ) )
Reminder: If frames are floating, the bending moment is twice as great as the bending
moment at mid-distance from the frames.
e
e
t
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/1 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 7-STRESSING OF STIFFENED PANELS UNDER COMPRES-
SION AND SHEAR
REMINDER: The curvature of the skin is in the plane normal to the stiffeners (refer to
paragraph 1.4).
To calculate the skin bay folding load and the failure load of a fastened skin-stiffener
panel under combined compression and shear it is first of all necessary to determine
these same values in pure compression (refer to paragraph 4) then in single nominal
shear (refer to paragraph 5 or 6). The following is then obtained:
skin buckling stresses (
cp0
;
cp0
),
failure loads (P
allowable,0
;
flf
;
Rp
).
It is assumed that the skin failure load in single nominal shear
Rp
is not modified
significantly by the presence of a compression load. On the other hand, strain induced by
diagonal tension folds in fastened stiffeners outer flange affects the cross sections of the super-
stiffeners and therefore the allowable compression load. In other words, forced crippling
interacts with column buckling.
Naturally, this type of failure does not occur in integral stiffener panels. Here it is
accepted that the initial instability of the stiffener (local buckling or column buckling)
encountered when the panel is subjected to single shear interacts with the column
buckling.
G
z
x
Ty
P = - N
x
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/2 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 7.1-STRESSING PRINCIPLES
The method developed here is from Kuhn, Peterson and Levin
1
.
Under combined loading, the folds in the skin bays occur earlier. The buckling stresses
(
cp
;
cp
) are obtained using the interaction formula:

cp
cp
cp
cp 0 0
2
+

= 1, and before folding:

cp
cp
p
=
If the failure mode of the super-stiffener in single nominal shear is forced crippling of the
stiffener outer flange, then the failure load is obtained by the interaction formula:
P
P
allowable
allowable
allowable
flf .
.
0
1 5
+

= 1 ; and:
P P
allowable
allowable

=
If the failure mode of the super-stiffener under single nominal shear is skin failure, then the
interaction curve above is truncated by the vertical line of abscissa
Rp
:

1
: NACA technical note 2661: " A summary of diagonal tension"
Part 1 - Methods of analysis - May 1952
interaction curve
allowable loads
P
P
allowable.0
P
allowable
P
0

allowable

Rp

flf
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/3 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Integrally stiffened panels: The single shear load causing local buckling or column buckling
of the super-stiffener has to be determined. This is an iterative calculation. Then it is possible
to proceed as above replacing
flf
by
buckling
.
In all cases, the ideal situation is to determine
flf
(or
buckling
) by testing.
The calculation of stresses in the stiffeners and the transverse members under a given load is
more complex. The premature occurrence of folds affects the diagonal tension factor k. The
presence of a compression stress increases the angle of folds (90 in single compression, 20
to 45 in single shear, depending on the panel curvature). Furthermore, the load-carrying
section under compression is not eq ual to the effective section under shear. On the other
hand, it is accepted that there is no difference in nature between compression stress due to P
(direct) and the stress due to diagonal tension (indirect). The total stress is simply the
addition of the two.
If the super-stiffener is not symmetrical in relation to the plane (G,x,z) it is necessary to build
an eq uivalent symmetrical super-stiffener:
In the following eq uations, the index 0 relates to the initial section.
e =
e e
1 2
2
+
; Lt
0
=
e Lt e Lt
e e
1 1 0 2 2 0
1 2
. .
=
+


cp
cp cp
c c c
R R R
0
1 0 2 0
1 2
2
1 1
2
1 1
=
+

= +

. .
=
e e
e
l

1 2 2
2
+
Diagonal tension factors in single shear: k
0
=
k k
1 0 2 0
2
. .
+
R
s
=
1
1
0
0
1
+

k
k

Lt
1,0
Lt
2,0
Y Y
Gp
d
e
1
e
2
Gr
dp
dr
z
G
h
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/4 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 7.2-LIMITS
Those given in paragraphs 4, 5 and 6.
V1-1 7.3-LOADING RATE, DIAGONAL TENSION FACTOR
V1-1 7.3.1-Loading rate
The loading rate in single compression is:
R
c
=
P
P
cp0
Remark: A load ratio and not a stress ratio has to be used to eliminate non-linearity
between applied load and stresses. P
cp0
is the beginning of fold load.
The loading rate in single nominal shear is:
R
s
=

cp0
The loading rate under combined loads is:
R =
P
P
R R R
cp cp
c c s
= =
+ +

2 2
4
2

cp
cp
s
cp
cp
c
cp
cp
R
R
R
R
P
P
0 0 0
= = = ;
V1-1 7.3.2-Diagonal tension factor
The general diagonal tension factor is formulated as below:
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/5 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
(R < 1) (k = 0)
(R 1) k
R
R
=

+

1
1
with:
0 5 1 0 260 6 . .4343 . < <

= +

B
A
eA
rB

0 5 1 0 260 6 . .4343 . < <

= +

A
B
eB
rA

0 2 0 5
0 2 0 5
0 5212
. .
. .
.4343 .
< <

< <

= +

B
A
A
B
e
r

V1-1 7.4-LOAD-CARRYING CROSS SECTIONS AND WIDTHS


V1-1 7.4.1-Stiffener direction
Under the combined load (P, ), the load-carrying widths are:
Compression: Lt
C
= Lt
0

cp
p
,
Shear: Lt
TD
=
R
R
k
Lt
s
( ) 1
2
0

And variations to the corresponding sections are:


Compression: S
x
C
= 2 (Lt
0
- Lt
C
)e
Shear: S
x
TD
= 2 (Lt
0
- Lt
TD
)e
The properties of the load-carrying sections are then determined as previously in compression
or single shear (refer to paragraphs 2.2, 4.2 and 5.5).
If the stiffener and the skin are made of different materials, the corrected section design rules
given in paragraph 2.2 are used. Under compression, the secant modulus of the eq uivalent
homogeneous material is obtained using the secant modulus of the materials determined for
the compression mode alone. Under shear, use the same skin and stiffener secant moduli in the
interpolation law.
E
sx
C
=
S
S
xp
C
x
C

E
sp
+
S
S
r
x
C

E
sr
; E
sx
TD
=
S
S
xp
TD
x
TD

E
sp
+
S
S
r
x
TD

E
sr
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/6 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 7.4.2-Frame direction
If the frames are fastened to the skin:
S
y
TD
= (1 + k)
ae
2
S
y
TD
= S
y0
- S
y
TD
E
y
TD
=
S
S
E
S
S
E
yp
TD
y
TD p
mt
y
TD mt

If the frames are floating:


S
y
TD
= S
mt
E
y
TD
= E
mt
V1-1 7.5-STRESSES IN SUPER-MEMBERS
The compression load, average stress and strain, in the stringer direction, induced by diagonal
tension, are formulated as follows:
N
x
TD
= -
kbe
tan
;
x
TD
=
N
S
x
TD
x
TD
;
x
TD
=

x
TD
sx
TD
E
The stress and strain, in the stringer direction, induced by the single compression load, are
formulated as follows:

x
C
=
N
S
x
C
x
C
;
x
C
=

x
C
sx
C
E
The force, the average stress and the strain, in the stringer direction, are formulated as follows:
N
x
= N
x
TD
+ N
x
C
;
x
=
x
TD
+
x
C
;
x
=
x
TD
+
x
C
The compression due to is not constant along a stringer. It is at a minimum level at the
frames (gusset effect) and maximum mid-way from the frames:

x
TD
x
TD
min
= (1 - k) 1 78 0 64 . .

b
a
+ k ;

x
TD
x
TD
min
1 ;
x min
=
x
C
+
x
TD
min
Frame direction:
N
y
TD
= - kae tan ;
y
TD
=
N
S
y
TD
y
TD
;
y
TD
=

y
TD
y
TD
E
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/7 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998

y
TD
y
TD
min
= (1 - k) 1 78 0 64 . .

a
b
+ k ;

y
TD
y
TD
min
1
The diagonal tension strain in the skin is:

TD
=
2
2
1 1 2
k
k
E
sp
sin
( ) ( ) sin



+ +

The fold angle in relation to the stiffeners is such that:


B
A
R
R
B
r
TD y
s
TD x
<

=
+

1
1
24 2
2
cot


B
A
R
R
A
r
TD y
s
TD x
>

=
+

1
1
8 2
2
2
cot
tan



Bending moment in the super-stiffener, mid-way from the frames:
M k
BA
r
A
TD
2
2
24

= e tan
This moment compresses the stringer outer flange and the skin.
Bending moments in the super-stiffener, at the frames:
Frames fastened to the skin: M k
BA
r
A
TD
( )
=
2
24
e tan
Floating frames: M k
BA
r
A
TD
( )
=
2
12
e tan
This moment compresses the stringer inner flange.
Bending moments in floating frames, mid-way from stringers:
M k
B A
r
B
TD
2
2
24

= e tan
This moment compresses the frame inner flange.
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/8 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Bending moments in floating frames, at stringers:
M k
B A
r
B
TD
( )
=
2
12
e tan
This moment compresses the skin.
Riveted frames: no bending moment in frames.
V1-1 7.6-STRESSES IN THE SUPER-STIFFENER
V1-1 7.6.1-In the skin
In the middle between transverse members, the compression in stringer direction is:

xp min
=
x min
-
M
I
d
A
TD
TD
TD ( / ) 2
, if integral stiffener

xp min
=
( )
E
E
M
I
d e
sp
sx
C x
A
TD
TD
TD
t

min
( / )
+

2
, if fastened stiffener
V1-1 7.6.2-In the stiffener
The average compression stress of the stiffener is:

r
=
E
E
sr
sx
C
(
x
)
In the middle between transverse members, the maximum compression stress, the outer
flange stress (fastened stiffeners) and the inner flange stress are respectively:

r min
=
E
E
sr
sx
C

x min

rs
=
E
E
M
I
d
sr
sx
C x
A
TD
TD
TD

min
( / )

( )
rt
TD sr
sx
C x
A
TD
TD
TD
E
E
M
I
h d = +


min
( / ) 2
At frames, the flange stress is:

rt
=
( )
E
E
M
I
h d
sr
sx
C x
A
TD
TD
TD
+

( )
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/9 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Reminder: If frames are of the floating type, the bending moment is twice as high as the
moment at mid-distance from frames.
V1-1 7.7-STRESSES IN FRAMES
In frames fastened to the skin, the maximum compression at mid-distance from frames is:

mt min
=
E
E
mt
y
TD y
TD

min
If frames are floating, apply the bending moments given in paragraph 7.5. The loads are then
applied to the frame cross section alone.
V1-1 7.8-ALLOWABLE LOADS
V1-1 7.8.1-At limit load
The folding load/ratio limit load ratio is:
P
P
P
P R
cp
LL
cp
LL LL
= =

V1-1 7.8.2-At ultimate load


Generally, a shear stress (abscissa)-compression load (ordinate) diagram is used. The
combined failure load (
allowable
, P
allowable
) is, as indicated in paragraph 7.1, at the intersection of
the interaction curve and the straight line passing through points (0,0) and (,P).
P
P
allowable
allowable
allowable
crit . .
.
0 0
1 5
+

= 1 ; max {
allowable
} = min {
Rp
;
crit.0
} ;
P P
allowable
allowable

=
The same result is obtained when the following dimensionless diagram is used:
Mark the point

crit allowable
P
P
. .
;
0 0

, add, if necessary, the vertical straight line of the abscissa

Rp
crit.0
. The allowable load is determined as below.
FASTENED STIFFENERS:
crit.0
=
flf
INTEGRAL STIFFENERS:
crit.0
=
buckling
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/10 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Compression-shear (failure) interaction diagram
T/T0
P
P
0
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/11 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-1 7.9-EXAMPLE
Use the example in paragraph 4.6.4 and 5.12 (flat panel: r ).
The load applied to the super-stiffener at UL is:
N
x
= - 38000N ; = 160 MPa
The properties of the skin (2024PLT3) are:
E
p
= 70300 MPa ;
Rp
= 440 MPa ;
0.2p
= 270 MPa
The properties of the stiffeners and transverse members (7075PLT6) are:
E
r
= 73800 MPa ;
Rp
= 495 MPa ;
0.2r
= 420 MPa
The Poisson ratio of the two materials is the same: = 0.33
CROSS SECTION, STIFFENER DIRECTION:
= =
170
35
3
2
= =
25
3
30
2
4
16
Stiffener: Skin:
S
r
= 185 mm S
xp0
= 375 mm
I
YYr
= 62186 mm
4
I
YYp0
= 1485 mm
4
d
r
= 13.9 mm d
p0
= - 1.86 mm
W
YYr
= 2572 mm
3
W
YYp0
= - 698 mm
3
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/12 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
CROSS SECTION, TRANSVERSE MEMBER DIRECTION:
Small section: S
mt
= 509 mm ; S
y0
= 1604 mm ; S
yp0
= 1095 mm
The small section is the one at the stiffener passage. Between the passages, the cross section
area of the transverse member alone is 509 mm. This value is used to calculate the angle of
the folds and the stresses in the transverse member at mid-distance from stiffeners, giving:
S
mt
= 509 mm ; S
y0
= 1604 mm
530
35
3
3
2
24
8
6
2.5
90
120
24
4
4
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/13 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
FAILURE LOAD, MARGIN AT UL (paragraph 7.8.2)
Column buckling load in single compression: P
crit.0
= 90200 N
Forced crippling load (single shear):
flf
= 283 MPa
Skin bay failure shear:
Rp
= 220 MPa
Compression-shear interaction:
P
allowable allowable
90200 283
1 5
+

.
= 1 ; max {
allowable
} = 220 MPa ;
P
allowable
allowable

=
38000
160
= 237.5
Use of the dimensionless diagram:

flf
=
160
283
= 0.565 ; max

flf

=
220
283
= 0.777 ;
P
P
crit.0
38000
90200
= = 0.421
MS =
OM
Om
- 1 = 14%
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
M
m
Compression-shear (failure) interaction diagram
T/T0
P
P
0
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/14 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
FOLDING OF POCKETS UNDER SINGLE LOADS

cp0
= 52 MPa ;
cp0
= 36 MPa ; P
cp0
= 20492 N
LOADING RATE, DIAGONAL TENSION FACTOR (paragraph 7.3)
R
s
=
160
52
= 3.077 ; R
c
=
38000
20492
= 1.854
R =
1854 1854 4 3 077
2
2 2 2
. . . + + x
= 4.141
= 0.4343
k =
4141 1
4141 1
0 4343
0 4343
.
.
.
.

+
= 0.299
POCKET FOLDING
R
R
s
= =

3 077
4141
0 743
.
.
. (
cp
= 0.743 x 52 = 38.6 MPa)
R
R
C
= =

1854
4141
0
.
.
.448 (P
cp
= 0.448 x 20492 = 9175 N ;
cp
= 16.1 MPa)
P N
LL
= =

38000
15
25330
.
folding at:
9175
25330
= 36% LL
LOAD-CARRYING SECTIONS AND WIDTHS AT UL (paragraph 7.4)
Stiffener direction:
Modelling of material curves and load-carrying sections in compression
epsilonp sigmap epsilonr sigmar Epsilon Sigmap Sigmar Sigma
0.00023
0.00051
0.00149
16.1
36
104.73
0.00023
0.00051
0.00149
16.8
37.8
110
0.023%
0.051%
0.149%
16.1
36.0
104.7
16.9
37.8
110.1
16.4
36.7
107.6
epsilon Sp S P Esp Esr Es
0.023%
0.051%
0.149%
375.0
262.4
168.3
560.0
447.4
353.3
9164
16437
38001
70300
70300
70181
73800
73800
73800
71456
71747
72076
(These tables are compiled in the same way as those on page V1-14/19, with
cp
= 16.1.)
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/15 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
S
x
C
= 353 mm
S
r
= 185 mm ; S
xp
TD
= 168 mm
E
sx
C
= 72076 MPa
E
sp
= 70181 MPa ; E
sr
= 73800 MPa
Lt
TD
= 0.743 x (1 - 0.299) x
85
2
= 22,1 mm
S
x
TD
= 2 (85 - 22.1) x 2 = 251 mm
S
x
TD
= 560 - 251 = 309 mm
S
r
= 185 mm ; S
xp
TD
= 124 mm
E
sx
TD
=
124
309

x 70181 x
185
309

x 73800 = 72351 MPa


Frame direction (fastened to the skin):
S
y
TD
= 1.299 x
530 2
2
x
= 689 mm
S
y
TD
= 1604 - 688 = 915 mm
E
y
TD
= 1
509
915

x 70300 +
509
915

x 73800 = 72246 MPa


STRESSES AND STRAIN, STRINGER AND FRAME DIRECTION, TD ANGLE
AT UL (paragraph 7.5)
Compression, in stiffener direction, due to TD:
N
x
TD
= -
kbe
tan
= - 0.299 x 170 x 2 x 160 x cot = - 16266 cot

x
TD
=
16266
309
= - 52.6 cot ;
x
TD
=
52 6
72351
.
= - 0.073% cot
Single compression load, in stiffener direction:
N
x
C
= - 38000 N

x
C
= - 107.6 MPa ;
x
C
= - 0.149%
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/16 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
Compression, stiffener direction:
N
x
= - 16266 cot - 38000

x
= - 52.6 cot - 107.6 ;
x
TD
= - 0.073% cot - 0.149%
Compression, transverse member direction:
N
y
TD
= - 0.299 x 530 x 2 x 160 x tan = - 50730 tan

y
TD
=
N
S
y
TD
y
TD
= - 55.4 tan ;
y
TD
=

y
TD
y
TD
E
= - 0.077%.tan
Diagonal tension:

TD
=
2 0 299
2
1 0 33 1 0 299 2
160
70181
x .
sin
( . ) ( . ) sin

+ +

TD
=
0136%
2
.
sin
+ 0.213% x sin2
Diagonal tension angle:
B
A
TD y
TD x
<

1
2
cot


= 48.6 ; tan = 1.136
Super-stiffener stresses:

x
TD
= -
52 6
1136
.
.
= - 46.4 MPa ;
x
=
x
TD
+
x
C
= - 46.4 - 107.6 = - 154 MPa

x
TD
x
TD
min
= (1 - k) 1 78 0 64 . .

b
a
+ k = 0.7 x (1.78 - 0.64 x 0.32) + 0.3 = 1.4

x
TD
min
= - 65.1 MPa ;
x min
=
x
TD
min
+
x
C
= - 172.7 MPa
Transverse super-member stresses:

y
TD
= - 55.4 x 1.136 = - 62.9 MPa
( ) . .
min
1 178 0 64 1 1

+ <

k
a
b
k
y
TD
y
TD

y
TD
min
= - 62.9 MPa
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/17 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
SKIN COMPRESSION, STIFFENER DIRECTION (paragraph 7.6)

p min
=
E
E
sp
C
s
C

x min
= - 172.7 x
70181
72076
= - 168.3 MPa
STRESSES IN THE STIFFENER

r min
=
E
E
sr
C
s
C

x min
= -
73800
72076
x 172.7 = - 176.9 MPa
STRESSES IN THE FRAMES (refer to paragraph 7.7)

mt
TD mt
y
TD
E
E
min
=
y min
= - 62.9 x
73800
72246
= - 64.3 MPa
Static stressing manual V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS
Stiffened panels under compression and shear - Page V1-17/18 revision 2
AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Technical Manual
MTS 004 Iss. C
External distribution authorised: YES NO
Document
Manager
Dept code: BTE/CC/CM Validation Name: JF. IMBERT
Name: J. HUET Function : Deputy Department
Group Leader
Dept code: BTE/CC/A
Date: 11/99
Signature
This document is the property of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS; no part of it shall be reproduced or transmitted
without authorization of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS and its contents shall not be disclosed.
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999
3page 1
X
Static stress manual,
metallic materials
Volume 1
Purpose Methods for calculating static failure loads and stresses for
aircraft metallic structural details.
Scope All programmes, static justification of metallic structures.
EDP tool
supporting this Manual
Not applicable.
Contents
V1 - 1 Stiffened panels
V1 - 2 Buclking of plates and thin shells
V1 - 3 Stiffeners
V1 - 4 Thin web beams
V1 - 5 Stable web beams
V1 - 6 Bolted or rivetted junctions
V1 - 7 Lugs
V1 - 8 Hole reinforcements
V1 - 9 Stabilisers
1
4
5
4
5
2
1
2
Structural
Design Manuals
Title - Annex
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C 3Ann. page
Reference documents C BE 019: Drawing up of the Structural Justification Dossier
Documents to be consulted See bibliography at the beginning of each chapter.
Abbreviations See Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR
See "General" paragraph of each chapter
Definitions List of words the definitions of which are integrated into the
Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR:
Highlights
Issue Date Pages modified Justification of the changes made
A 02/98 V1 - 1 V1 - 3
V1 - 7 V1 - 9
New document.
B 05/99 V1 - 7
V1 - 4
Changes as per table page V1-7.i.
New chapter.
C 11/99 V1 - 1 Changes as per table page V1-1.i.
Created paragraph V1-1-8.
V1 - 5 New chapter.
Static stress manual, metallic materials - Management information
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C page IG1
NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION
List of approval
Dept. code Function Name / First name Signature
BTE/CC/CM Chef de Dpartement CAZET G.
Key words Calcul
Bibliography Nant
Distribution list
Dept. code Function Name / First name (if necessary)
BQP/TE Archives Diderot SIBADE Alain
BQP/TE Bibliothque BQP/TE SIBADE Alain
BTE/SM/MG Bibliothque Technique BTE BOUTET Fernand
Distribution list managed in real time by BIO/D (Didocost application)
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Contents page V1-2.i
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
CONTENTS
revision Date
V1-2
V1-21
V1-22
V1-23
V1-24
Buckling of thin plates and shells
General information
Flat plates
Curved plates
Cylinders and other shells
1
1
1
1
1
07/1996
07/1996
07/1996
10/1996
03/1997
Original issue
Original issue
Original issue
Original issue
Original issue
1- GENERAL
1.1- Introduction (V1-21/1)
*
1.2- Single and combined loading (V1-21/2)
1.3- Plasticity corrections (V1-21/3)
1.4- Field of application (V1-21/4)
2- FLAT PLATES
A - Summary of cases dealt with (V1-22/2)
B - Flat plate analysis procedure (V1-22/4)
2.1- Single loading (V1-22/5)
2.2- Plasticity correction factors (V1-22/6)
2.3- Buckling factors (V1-22/7)
2.3.1- Rectangular flat plates
2.3.2- Flat parallelogram plates
2.3.3- Flat triangular plates
2.3.4- Flat plates with evolutive width
2.4- Combined loading (V1-22/27)
2.4.1- Combined loading without transverse loading
2.4.2- Combined loading with transverse loading
2.5- Examples (V1-22/38)
3- CURVED PLATES
A - Summary of cases dealt with (V1-23/2)
B - Curved plate analysis procedure (V1-23/3)
3.1- Single loading (V1-23/4)
3.2- Plasticity correction factors (V1-23/5)
3.3- Buckling factors (V1-23/6)
3.3.1- Rectangular curved plates
3.4- Combined loading (V1-23/13)
3.4.1-Shear + compression (or tension)
3.4.2- Compression + side pressure
3.4.3- Shear + side pressure
3.5- Examples (V1-23/15)

*
: Page number between parentheses
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Contents page V1-2.ii
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
4- CYLINDERS AND OTHER SHELLS
A - Summary of cases dealt with (V1-24/2)
B - Circular cylinder analysis procedure (V1-24/3)
C - Elliptical cylinder analysis procedure (V1-24/4)
D - Spherical shell analysis procedure (V1-24/5)
E - Conical shell analysis procedure (V1-24/5)
4.1- Behaviour of circular cylinders under compression (V1-24/6)
4.1.1- Introduction
4.1.2- Linear theory and test results
4.2- Plasticity correction factors (V1-24/8)
4.3- Buckling factors (single loading) (V1-24/9)
4.3.1- Circular cylinders
4.3.2- Elliptical cylinders
4.3.3- Spherical shells
4.3.4- Conical shells
4.4- Interaction eq uations (combined loading) (V1-24/28)
4.4.1- Circular and elliptical cylinders
4.4.2- Conical shells
4.5- Examples (V1-24/33)
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Contents page V1-2.iii
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
SYMBOLS USED
a: Bay length, long axis of an ellipse
b: Bay width, short axis of an ellipse
Ci: Constants (curve eq uations)
C= 0.6*In (3.748*(r/e)
-0.15
) (constant)
C
f
: 1.3*C (constant in cylinder bending)
UL: Ultimate loads
LL: Limit loads
d: Diameter
e: Plate or cylinder thickness
E: Young' s modulus
E
s
: Secant modulus
E
t
: Tangent modulus
G: Shear modulus
G
s
: Secant shear modulus
I: Bending stiffness constant (inertia)
J : Torsion stiffness constant
K,k: Buckling factors
K
c
,k
c
: Compression buckling factors
K
s
,k
s
: Shear buckling factors
K
f
,k
f
: Bending buckling factors
K
t
,k
t
: Torsion buckling factors
K
y
,k
y
: Buckling factors under external radial
pressure
K
p
,k
p
: Buckling factors under hydrostatic
pressure
k
c
*
,k
f
*
,
k
p
*
: Buckling factors at the border of
two curves
k
c0
: Buckling factors of column plates under
single compression
k
pl
: Buckling factor of flat circular plates
L: Length
m: number of half waves
MS: Static margin
M
f
: Bending moment
M
f,cr
: Critical bending moment
M
t
: Torsion moment
M
t,cr
: Critical torsion moment
M
app
: Applied moment
n: Stress-strain shape factor (Ramberg and
Osgood)
n: Number of circumferential waves
n
0
: Number of circumferential waves when
L= r
p: Pressure
P
int
: internal pressure
P
cr
: Critical pressure (external)
P
c,cr
: Critical compression load
P
app
: Applied load
r
: Radius or small radius
r: Critical curvature radius
R
i
: Loading rate for load i alone
R
c
: Loading rate in single compression
R
s
: Loading rate in single shear
R
f
: Loading rate in single bending
R
p
: Loading rate under pressure
R
cs
: Loading rate under a shear load
R
ct
: Loading rate in torsion
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Contents page V1-2.iv
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
R: Large radius or loading rate under
combined loads
S
a
: Strength modulus of the elliptic cylinder
cross section
S
e
: Strength modulus of the elliptic cylinder
cross section
t =
r
e
e
1
2
(constant)
v: Distance to the neutral axis
y
cr
: Critical curvature radius position from the
neutral axis
Z =
L
re
e
2
2
1 (constant)
Z* = Z constant at the border of two curves
: Exponents in interaction curve eq uations
: Also used to designate angles
:
4
2
Z
t
(used here as a constant)
: Minimum curvature radius

moy
: Average curvature radius
: Strain (expansion)
: Flow
: Plasticity factor
e: Poisson' s ratio - elastic
p: Poisson' s ratio - plastic
: Poisson' s ratio - elastic - plastic
: Normal stress

0
: Reference stress for transverse loading

a
: Stress at position a

0.2
: Conventional allowable compressive
yield stress

R
: Tension failure stress

eq
: Eq uivalent normal stress

cr
: Critical stress

iadm,0
: Buckling stress corresponding to load i
alone

cc,0
: Critical single compression stress

cf,0
: Critical single bending stress

cy,0
: Critical stress under hydrostatic or radial
pressure

cp,0
: Critical stress under external pressure

cxe
: Elastic longitudinal critical stress

cye
: Elastic transverse critical stress

cx
: Longitudinal critical stress corrected and
taking transverse load into account

c,cr
: Critical compression stress

f.cr
: Contrainte critiq ue en flexion

c,cr
: Critical compression stress

c,cr
: Critical compression stress

t
: Longitudinal tension stress

cc,0
: Increase in critical compression stress
due to internal pressure

cf,0
: Increase in critical bending stress due
to internal pressure
: Shear stress

R
: Failure shear stress

cr
: Critical shear stress

cr,0
: Critical single shear stress

ct,0
: Critical single torsion stress

cs,0
: Critical shear stress due to a single shear
load

t,cr
: Critical torsion stress
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Contents page V1-2.v
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1- SCHILDCROUT & STEIN
Critical combination of shear and direct axial stress for curved rectangular panels.
NACA T.N 1928, August 1949.
2- G. GERARD & H. BECKER
HANDBOOK OF STRUCTURAL STABILITY
PART I: Buckling of flat plates. NACA T.N 3781, J uly 1957
PART III: Buckling of curved plates and shells. NACA T.N 3783, August 1957.
3- ENGINEERING SCIENCES DATA UNIT
Volume 1: General Data: Plasticity correction factors for plate buckling.
Volume 2: Buckling of rectangular plates and panels in compression.
Buckling of flat isotropic plates under uniaxial and biaxial loading.
Volume 9: Cylinders and Pipes.
Volume 10: Buckling of flat rectangular plates and panels in shear.
4- BRUHN
ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES
5- R.J . ROARK & W.C. YOUNG
FORMULAS FOR STRESS AND STRAIN
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Contents page V1-2.vi
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 General page V1-21.1
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 1-GENERAL
V1-2 1.1-INTRODUCTION
The definition and the description of the general behaviour of plates is given in Volume 2 of
this manual. Simply remember that a thin plate is a prismatic body which is thin in relation to
its other two dimensions. Thin plates are items with two dimensions.
The buckling stress of a thin flat plate is the stress at which a change to the stable
configuration of eq uilibrium occurs. The plate was flat then becomes slightly buckled. An
increase in the external load beyond this limit cause an accelerated increase in deflection. All
external loads, no matter how distributed are contained within the central plane (x,y).
The flat plate stability theory is flanged on the "thin plates with low deflection" assumptions.
All components of the stress may be expressed by the deflection which is a two dimension
function in the central plane.
Structural items held between sheets (stiffened panel bays, spar webs, etc.) may naturally be
considered as thin plates. Most angle sections may also be considered as consisting of an
assembly of plates. Thus, this Chapter 2 of Volume 1 can be used to determine load buckling
stresses in stringers, frames, stiffeners and other members.
A shell is always thin in relation to its other dimensions and its curvature radii. The surface
bisecting the thickness of a shell is the average surface. A shell is entirely defined
geometrically when the shape of its average surface and its thickness at each point is specified.
To analyse it, an infinitely small plate, limited by two pairs of adj acent planes, normal to the
surface and containing its principal curvatures is cut from it.
y
z
x

xy

y
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 General page V1-21.2
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
The theory of small deformations, which gives good results for buckling flat plates in the
linear elastic domain does not provide good results for buckling stresses of curved plates and
shells. For curved plates and shells it is necessary to select the large displacement assumption
and introduce a perturbation. This type of approach req uires the use of the finite element
method.
This chapter of the static stressing manual presents the results of the theoretical analysis of flat
plates and a semi-empirical approach for shells and curved plates.
V1-2 1.2-SINGLE AND COMBINED LOADING
The buckling stress of a plate subj ected to a single load, i.e. unidirectional, may be formulated
as follows:

cr
(or
cr
) = KE
e
b

2
K, the buckling factor (linear elasticity) depends on the supporting conditions at the edges and
the dimensions of the plate. The same applies to the plastic correction factor .
The plate is stable for as long as its buckling stress is greater than the stress (or ) of which it
is the seat. This stress is then linear with the applied load: =

e
To determine the buckling stresses of a plate subj ected to combined loads, the interaction
principle is used:
A plate subj ected to a system of m single loads, where
i
is the stress and
iadm,0
the
buckling stress (or allowable if buckling is not possible) corresponding to the load i alone.
The loading rate for load i alone is as follows:
R
i
=

i
iadm,0
Interdependence of m loads is represented by an interaction eq uation, the general
formulation of which is:
R R R R R
i
i
m
m
= + + + + +
1
1
2
2
... ...
The exponents i are determined by the theory or experimentally. Buckling occurs when
the interaction eq uation result reaches 1.
R is the loading rate under combined loads. R is such that:
R
R
R
R
R
R
i
i
m
m
1
1
1

+ +

+ +

=

... ...
This eq uation is the one of the req uired border. If this plate is subj ected to two loads, it
can be graphically illustrated in the form of an interaction curve.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 General page V1-21.3
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
The border is called the interaction curve and the margin with regards to buckling is:
MS =
1
R
- 1 R =

1
1
2
2 adm adm
=
V1-2 1.3-PLASTICITY CORRECTIONS
In addition to the type of plate and the boundary conditions, the plastic correction factor
depends on E, Et, Es and . These latter values depend on the stress value to be calculated.
The eq uation of the buckling stress can be formulated as follows:

cr
=
cre
Where
cre
is the linear elastic buckling stress. Therefore, this calculation is iterative.
In practice, for as long as
cre
is less than the proportionality limit
e
of the material, the
plastic correction factor may be considered as being 1.
For standard aluminium alloys:
e
=

0 2
2
.
Beyond that, the Ramberg and Osgood model is used:
=

E
n
+

0 002
0 2
.
.
E
s
=

1 1
E
n
E
n
E
t s
= +

1
adm.0
1
adm
1
0
2 2
adm
2
adm,0
interaction curve
Allowable loads
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 General page V1-21.4
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
The elastic-plastic Poisson ratio is obtained by interpolation between the elastic Poisson
ratio
e
and the plastic Poisson ratio
p
:
=
E
E
s

e
+ 1

E
E
s

p
;
p
= 0.5 (conservation of volume)
Apply the interaction formula at single load rates corrected for plasticity, for combined
loading.
V1-2 1.4-FIELD OF APPLICATION
The formulas and charts given in this chapter apply to thin plates and shells. They may be used
to calculate most shell and stiffened panel items encountered in flight vehicle structures.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.37
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
The 4 sides are fixed
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.38
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 2.5-EXAMPLES
A - Use the example in paragraph V1-1, paragraph 2.3
- Plate geometry: a = 530 mm ; b = 170 mm ; e = 2 mm
- Plate loading (at L.L.):

x
= 18 MPa

y
= 9 MPa

xy
= 27 MPa
- Plate material: 2024 PL T3
E = 70300 MPa

0.2
= 270 MPa

R
= 440 MPa
n = 7.05

e
= 0.33
- Plate boundary conditions:
The 4 sides are considered as being hinged.
pocket
BAY
land members
e = 2 mm
b = 170 mm
a = 530 mm
y
x
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.39
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
The 4 sides are hinged
Critical stress in longitudinal compression (paragraph 2.4.2, page 33)
- The reference stress is:

0
=

2
2
2
3 1
E e
b
e
( )

= 36 MPa
- Then the curves on page 34 are used:
a / b = 530 / 170 = 3.1

x
y
cxe
cye
cxe
cye
= =

2 2
0 0
- It is then possible to plot curve

cxe
0
as a function of
a
b
:
( )


cxe
cye
cxe cye
MPa MPa
0 0
0 5 0 18 9 = =

= = . ; ,25 ;
It is not necessary to calculate the plasticity correction.
R
c
=

x
cx.0
18
18
= = 1
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.40
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Critical stress in shear (paragraph 2.3.1.2, page 9)
- Rectangular plate simply supported on four edges.
-
b
a
= 0.32
Giving: k
s
= 3.8
b
a

2
+ 5.35 = 5.74
K
s
=

2
2
12 1
k
s
e
( )
= 5.3

cr.0
= 5.3 E
e
b

2
52 MPa
It is not necessary to calculate the plasticity correction.
R
s
=

cr.0
27
52
= = 0.52
Condition of critical stresses (paragraph 2.4.1, page 27)
According to the compression - shear interaction formula
R
R R R
cx cr
c c s
= = =
+ +
=

2 2
4
2
122 .
The plate folds at 82% of L.L.
The folding stresses are:

x
= 14.8 MPa

y
= 7.4 MPa
= 22.1 MPa
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.41
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
B - It is necessary to determine the buckling stress in longitudinal compression of the
same plate, which as a constant thickness of 5 mm.
- This is the same as case 5 of paragraph 2.3.1.1, page 8.
a
b
Lim = >

31 . (k
c
= k
c
= 4)
K
c
=
4
12 1 0 33
2
2

( . )
= 3.69

cce
= 3.69 E
e
b

2
= 224.5 MPa >

0 2
2
.
The table of plasticity correction factors on page 6 gives:

3
=
1
0 5 0 25 1 3 . . + +

E
E
t
s
;
1
=
1
1
2
2

e s
E
E
With:
[ E
s
, E
t
, ] calculated using the Ramberg and Osgood model as indicated in paragraph 1.3.
This calculation is iterative:
With one stress value
1
, associate
3
.
Then
2
=
3

cce
Convergence is obtained when:
1

2
In our case:
(
1
= 224.5 MPa) ( = 0.003738 ; E
s
= 60060 MPa ; E
t
= 31925 MPa ; = 0.355 ;
3
= 0.79)

2
= 0.79 * 224.5 = 176.5 MPa
To ensure convergence, repeat by putting down:
1
=

1 2
2
+

1
= 200.5 MPa
3
= 0.78 ;
2
= 195.3 MPa

1
= 197.9 MPa
3
= 0.878 ;
2
= 197 MPa
Finally:

3
= 0.879 ;
cc
= 197.4 MPa
It is possible to see the need to calculate the plasticity correction well before
cce
=
0.2
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.42
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.11
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.12
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.13
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.14
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.15
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.16
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.17
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 2.3.2-Flat parallelogram plates
V1-2 2.3.2.1-Single loads
Processed cases
Smoothed curves, cases 1 to 3:
0
1
2
2
2
3

a
b
Lim k C
a
b
C
b
a
C
c s ,
a
b
Lim k k
c s c s

=

( )
, ,
K
k
c s
c s
e
,
,
( )
=

2
2
12 1
Case 1 C
1
C
2
C
3
Validity (a/b) Lim K
c
(infinite)
= 0 0 2.9 6.98 0.8 -
6.98
= 30 0 4.15 6.98 0.75 -
6.98
= 40 0 5.53 6.98 0.9 -
6.98
= 45 0 7.5 6.98 1.0 -
6.98
Case 2 C
1
C
2
C
3
Validity (a/b) Lim K
c
(infinite)
= 0 1 1 2 0.3 - 1.0 1 4
= 15 0.5 1.11 2.8 0.3 - 1.2 1 4.26
= 30 - 0.24 1.12 5.9 0.4 - 2.6 2.6 4.35
= 45 - 0.45 4 7.3 0.5 - 2.8 2.8 4.7
= 60 0 15.38 4.87 1.0 -
4.87
Case 3 C
1
C
2
C
3
Validity (a/b) Lim K
c
(infinite)
= 0 0 5.53 8.98 0.8 -
8.98
= 45 0 4.65 8.98 0.8 -
8.98
Note: k (= 30) = 1.43 * k ( = 0) - 3.00
k (= 40= = 1.91 * k ( = 0) - 6.33 Eq uations valid only for case 1
k (= 45) = 2.59 * l ( = 0) - 11.07
* All angles are in degrees
** For angles < 15, use the curves corresponding to flat rectangular plates


a
b
4 fixed edges
case 1
4 hinged edges
case 2
4 fixed edges
case 3
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.18
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.19
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.20
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.21
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 2.3.3-Flat triangular plates
V1-2 2.3.3.1-Compression (with or without shear)
Processed cases:
Smoothed curves, cases 1 to 4:
0
1
2
2
2
3

a
b
Lim k C
a
b
C
b
a
C
c s ,
a
b
Lim k k
c s c s

=

( )
, ,
K
k
c s
c s
e
,
,
( )
=

2
2
12 1
C
1
C
2
C
3
Validity (a/b) Lim K
c
(infinite)
CASE 1 0 2.8 9.2 0.5 - 2.0 2 9.9
CASE 2 0 2.09 2.7 0.4 - 2.0 2 3.2
CASE 3 0 7.73 28.2 0.5 - 1.03 1.03 35.4
CASE 4 0 5.11 8.2 0.5 - 1.3 1.3 11
b
a
fixed edges
case 1
hinged edges
case 2
Compression,
no shear
fixed edges
case 3
hinged edges
case 4
Compression,
with shear
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.22
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.23
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.24
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 2.3.4-Flat plates with evolutive width
V1-2 2.3.4.1-Compression
1: compression side b1
2: compression side b2

cr
=
0 91
1
2
2
2
.

e
c
K E
e
b
CASE:

1
2
= 0.8
1 b1 2 b2
a
all sides are hinged
K
c
fixed loaded sides, all
other sides hinged
K
c
hinged loaded
sides, other sides
fixed
K
c
all sides are
fixed
K
c
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.25
AEROSPATIALE - 1998

1
2
= 1.0
all sides are
hinged
K
c
fixed loaded
sides, other
sides hinged
K
c
hinged loaded
sides, other sides
fixed
K
c
all sides are
fixed
K
c
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.26
AEROSPATIALE - 1998

1
2
= 1.2
K
c
all sides are
hinged
K
c
fixed loaded
sides, other
sides hinged
K
c
hinged loaded sides,
other sides fixed
K
c
all sides are
fixed
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.27
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 2.4-COMBINED LOADING
Applicable to the flat rectangular plate case.
V1-2 2.4.1-Combined loading without transverse loading
The interaction curve of a plate subj ected to compression combined with shear and bending is
given in the following form (refer to paragraph 1.2):
R
c

+ R
s

+ R
f

= 1 where R
i
=

i
iadm, 0
Exponents , , are determined by theory or by testing:
compression + shear:
Interaction eq uation: R
C
+ R
S
2
= 1
Rf = 0 ; = 1 ; = 2 MS =
2
4
2 2
R R R
C C S
+ +
- 1 (R
c
> 0)
Tension + shear:
(tension is considered as a negative compression)
Interaction eq uation: R
s
+ 0.5 R
c
= 1
MS =
1
0 5 R R
s c
+ .
- 1 (R
c
< 0)
Bending + shear:
Interaction eq uation: R
s
2
+ R
f
2
= 1
R
c
= 0 ; = 2 ; = 2 MS =
1
2 2
R R
s f
+
- 1
Bending + compression:
Interaction eq uation: R
f
1 75 .
+ R
c
= 1
R
s
= 0 ; = 1 ; = 1.75
Bending + compression + shear:
Interaction eq uation: R
c
+ R
s
2
+ R
f

1 75 2 . R R
R R
c s
c s
+
+
= 1
= 1 ; = 2 ; =
1 75 2 . R R
R R
c s
c s
+
+

MS may be determined graphically using the
interaction curve, on page 30 or numerically (refer to
paragraph 1.2)
MS may be determined graphically using the
interaction curves, on pages 31 and 32 or numerically
(refer to paragraph 1.2)
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.28
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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u
r
v
e
R
c
+
R
s
^
2
=
1

(
i
f

R
c
>
0

c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
)

R
s
-
0
.
5
R
c
=
1

(
i
f

R
c
<
0

t
e
n
s
i
o
n
)
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.29
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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t
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r
a
c
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c
u
r
v
e
R
s
^
2

+

R
f
^
2

=

1
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.30
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
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r
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R
c

+

R
f
^
1
.
7
5

=

1
S
S
M



V
1
-
2





B
U
C
K
L
I
N
G


O
F


T
H
I
N


P
L
A
T
E
S


A
N
D


S
H
E
L
L
S
R
e
v
i
s
i
o
n

1
F
l
a
t

p
l
a
t
e
s
p
a
g
e

V
1
-
2

2
.
3
1


A
E
R
O
S
P
A
T
I
A
L
E

-

1
9
9
8
Compression - shear - bending interaction curves
as a function of the different values of Rc/Rs indicated directly on the curves
S
S
M



V
1
-
2





B
U
C
K
L
I
N
G


O
F


T
H
I
N


P
L
A
T
E
S


A
N
D


S
H
E
L
L
S
R
e
v
i
s
i
o
n

1
F
l
a
t

p
l
a
t
e
s
p
a
g
e

V
1
-
2

2
.
3
2


A
E
R
O
S
P
A
T
I
A
L
E

-

1
9
9
8
Compression - shear - bending interaction curves
as a function of the different values of Rs/Rc indicated directly on the curves
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.33
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 2.4.2-Combined loading with transverse loading
The critical stress in a flat rectangular plate is subj ected to a combined loading with transverse
stress (tension or compression) is calculated as follows:
Without longitudinal compression:
The transverse load is processed as a longitudinal load by replacing the in value b formulas
by a value.
In the presence of other loadings such as shear or bending, the interaction curves in the
previous paragraph are used.
With longitudinal compression:
Plate stability not only depends on the various type of loads applied but also on the in-plane
dimensions. In fact, the ratio (a/b) defines the buckling mode.
The transverse load, whether tension or compression, affects the longitudinal critical
compression stress. The curves given on the following pages show the critical longitudinal

cxe
and transverse
cye
stresses as a function of the a/b (length/width) ratio and the boundary
conditions at plate edges.
In presence of other loads such as shear or bending, the interaction curves of the previous
paragraph are used, putting down:
R
c
=

x
cx
where
cx
= x
cxe
To use the curves on the following page, note that
0
is a reference stress:

0
=

2
2
2
3 1
E e
b
e
( )

without longitudinal stress with longitudinal stress


SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.34
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
The 4 sides are hinged
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.35
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
hinged
fixed
hinged
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.36
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
fixed
hinged
fixed
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.1
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 2-FLAT PLATES
Strictly speaking, a plate is entirely bordered by tracks (for single hinging or fixed ends).
The following figures show the column to plate transition when single supports (hinges) are
added at unloaded edges (the loaded edges are hinged).
y
z
a
b
e
COLUMN
FLANGE
PLATE
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.2
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
A - SUMMARY OF CASES DEALT WITH
RECTANGULAR FLAT PLATES
a - Single compression (page 8, curves pages 11 to 14)
FLANGES PLATES COLUMNS
free edge
hinged edge
fixed edge
b - Single shear (page 9, curves page 15)
c - Single bending (page 10, curves page 16)
Combined loading of rectangular flat planes studied on page 27, curves on pages 28 to 32.
FLAT PARALLELOGRAM PLATES
Single loads (page 17, curves 18 to 20)
CASE 1
CASE 2
CASE 3
CASE 4
CASE 5
CASE 6
CASE 7
CASE 8
CASE 9
CASE 10
CASE 1
CASE 2
CASE 1 CASE 2
CASE 1
CASE 2 CASE 3 CASE 4
CASE 1 CASE 2 CASE 3
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.3
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
FLAT TRIANGULAR PLATES
Compression (with or without shear) (page 21, curves pages 22, 23)
VARIABLE WIDTH FLAT PLATES
Compression: (page 24, curves pages 24 to 226)
3 cases are studied:

1
2
= 0.8 ;

1
2
= 1.0 ;

1
2
= 1.2
1 b1 2 b2
a
b
a
fixed edges
case 1
hinged edges
case 2
Compression,
no shear
fixed edges
case 3
hinged edges
case 4
Compression,
with shear
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.4
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
B - FLAT PLATE ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
Obtain the following data:
- plate geometry: a, b, e
- plate loading
- plate material properties
No
use the interaction curves (paragraph 2.4)
Calculate the buckling factors (paragraph 2.3)
Kc (as per x) if loading direction x
Kc (as per y) if loading direction y
Ks if shear
Kf if bending
Select the plastic correction factor
Calculate the critical buckling stresses
(paragraph 2.2 and 2.3) in:
compression as per x
compression as per y
shear
bending
Is the plate subj ected to combined loading?
Calculate Ri (paragraph 1.2)
MS = (1/Ri) - 1
with transverse compression?
Calculate cx (paragraph 2.4.2)
Calculate the loading rates (paragraph 2.2
and paragraph 2.4)
Rc if compression
Rs if shear
Rf if bending
Identify plate boundary conditions:
free, hinged, fixed edges, etc.
Yes
No
Yes
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.5
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 2.1-SINGLE LOADING
Three single in-plane loads are possible:
The corresponding buckling stresses are formulated as follows:

cc,0
= K
c
E
e
b

2
;
cr,0
= K
s
E
{ }
e
a b min ,

2
;
cf,0
= K
f
E
e
b

2
REMARK: If a plate is loaded with a transverse compression stress (as per y), replace b by a
in the formula.
The buckling factors of rectangular, parallelogram, triangular plates and plates with an
evolutive width under single loads are given in paragraph 2.3.
Compression
a
b

xy
Shear

x
Bending
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.6
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 2.2-PLASTICITY CORRECTION FACTOR
The plasticity correction is applied to the buckling stresses under single loads, even if the
studied plate is subj ected to combined loads.
Loading Boundary conditions Eq uation
Flange with one unloaded
hinged edge

1
=
1
1
2
2

e s
E
E
Flange with one unloaded
fixed edge

2
=
1
0 33 0 335 1 3 . . + +

E
E
t
s
Plate with unloaded hinged
edges

3
=
1
0 5 0 25 1 3 . . + +

E
E
t
s
Compression and
bending
Plate with unloaded fixed
edges

4
=
1
0 352 0 324 1 3 . . + +

E
E
t
s
Compression Column
5
=
E
E
t
Shear All conditions
6
=
G
G
s
In the particular case of shear, the compression stress-strain curve of the material will also be
used. Proceed as follows:
Calculate the eq uivalent normal stress:
eq
= 3
Calculate the corresponding E
s
and
eq

G
G
E
E
s e s
e
=
+
+

1
1
1
1
1


Remark:
1
>
3
>
4
>
2
>
5
Choose a conservative solution if doubt subsists.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.7
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 2.3-BUCKLING FACTORS
Except in the case of columns, the plate buckling factors in the linear elastic domain K are
formulated as follows:
K =

2
2
12 1 ( )
e
k
Classically, the curves giving k as a function of a/b are wavy. Each wave corresponds to a
buckling mode, the number of half waves of the buckle pattern m increases with a/b. Owing to
this, it is possible to observe relatively high variations of k for low variations of a/b.
As one is never absolutely sure to choose the best boundary conditions, it is mandatory to use
smoothed curves to determine k and to select conservative boundary conditions.
The curves show a horizontal asymptote for a/b tending toward the infinite.
m = 1
m = 2
m = 3
a/b
k
smoothed curve
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.8
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 2.3.1-Rectangular flat plates
V1-2 2.3.1.1-Single compression
Processed cases:
FLANGES PLATES COLUMNS
free edge
hinged edge
fixed edge
Smoothed curves, cases 1 to 10, except 7 and 8:
0
1
2
2
2
3

a
b
Lim k C
a
b
C
b
a
C
c
a
b
Lim k k
c c

=

( )
K
c
=

2
2
12 1
k
c
e
( )
When
a
b
tends towards 0, this tends toward the column plate case.
case 6: if
a
b
< 0.4
case 10: if
a
b
< 0.57
Smoothed curves, cases 7 and 8:
k
c
= k k
c c (unloaded hinged edges) (unloaded fixed edges)
.
K
c
=

2
2
12 1
k
c
e
( )
CASE 1
CASE 2
CASE 3
CASE 4
CASE 5
CASE 6
CASE 7
CASE 8
CASE 9
CASE 10
CASE 11
CASE 12
Use the formula for case 12
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.9
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Smoothed curves, cases 11 and 12:
k
c
= C
2

b
a

2
K
c
=

2
12
k
c

cc.0
=

2
2
12
C
E
e
a

2
C
1
C
2
C
3
Lim k
c
CASE 1
CASE 2
CASE 3
CASE 4
0
0
0.136
0.007
1
4.143
0.987
3.923
0.43
0.384
0.551
0.94

9.49
1.64
4.34
0.43
0.43
1.28
1.28
CASE 5
CASE 6
CASE 9
CASE 10
1
0
4.885
0
1
2.7
0.965
2.9
2
4
2.638
6.98
1

0.66

4
4
6.98
6.98
CASE 11
CASE 12
0
0
1
4
0
0

0
0
V1-2 2.3.1.2-Single shear
Smoothed curves:
k
s
= C
1
min ;
a
b
b
a
C

+
2
2
ks =

2
2
12 1
k
s
e
( )
C
1 C
2
= k
s
4 hinged edges (case 1)
4 fixed edges (case 2)
3.8
5.53
5.35
8.98
CASE 1 CASE 2
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Flat plates page V1-22.10
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 2.3.1.3-Single bending
free hinged fixed
Smoothed curves:
0
1
2
2
2
3

a
b
Lim k C
a
b
C
b
a
C
f
( )
a
b
Lim k k
f f

=

K
f
=

2
2
12 1
k
f
e
( )
C
1
C
2
C
3
Validity (a/b) Lim k
f
CASE1 3.33 1.66 18.1 0.4 - 0.6 0.6 23.9
CASE2 52.3 2.2 20.4 0.3 - 0.45 0.45 41.8
CASE3 1.3 1.96
CASE4 1.3 0.85
(*) the free edges are compressed
no reliable curve in cases 3 and 4 for a/b < 1.3
CASE 1
CASE 2 CASE 3 (*) CASE 4 (*)
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.11
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Buckling factor in shear for long curved panels,
simply supported
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.12
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Buckling factor in shear for wide curved panels,
simply supported
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.13
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 3.4-COMBINED LOADING
V1-2 3.4.1-Shear + compression (or tension)
The interaction curve of a curved plate subj ected to axial compression combined with shear is
given in the following form:
Interaction eq uation: R
c
+ R
s
2
= 1 with R
c
=

cc,0
MS =
2
4
2 2
R R R
c c s
+ +
- 1 Rs =

cr,0
where: R
c
> 0 compression and R
c
< 0 tension
V1-2 3.4.2-Compression - side pressure
The existence of internal pressure p increases the axial buckling stress in compression of the
curved sheet panel
cc
. The presence of an external pressure reduces it. Here, side pressure is
present and not hydrostatic pressure:
Side pressure:
x
= 0 ;
y
=
pr
e
Hydrostatic pressure:
x
=
pr
e 2
;
y
=
pr
e
The interaction eq uation is: R
c
2
+ R
p
= 1
in which R
c
=

c
cc
R
p
designating the ratio between the pressure effectively applied and the external
pressure that would have to be applied to buckle a cylinder of the same radius
as the panel (refer to paragraph 4.3.1.5, on page 4/15).
This external pressure is calculated using the curve on page 14.
In the above interaction eq uation, the value R
p
is taken as negative in the internal pressure
case.
V1-2 3.4.3-Shear + side pressure
The existence of an internal pressure p increases the buckling stress in shear of a curved sheet
panel
cr
. The presence of an external pressure reduces it. Here, side pressure is present and not
hydrostatic pressure:
Side pressure:
x
= 0 ;
y
=
pr
e
Hydrostatic pressure:
x
=
pr
e 2
;
y
=
pr
e
The interaction eq uation is: R
s
2
+ R
p
= 1 (R
p
< 0 in the case of internal pressure)
in which R
s
=

cr
R
p
designating the ratio between the pressure effectively applied and the external
pressure which would have to be applied to buckle a cylinder of the same
curvature radius as the panel (refer to paragraph 4.3.1.5, page 4/15).
This external pressure will be calculated using the curve on page 14.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.14
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Buckling factor under external radial pressure ky
as a function of Z
with:
t =
r
e
e
1
2

Z =
( )
a
re
e
2
2
1
2
1

cy
=
( )
k E
e
a
y
e

2
2
2
12 1

radial pressure
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.15
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 3.5-EXAMPLES
A - Use the example in V1-1, paragraph 2.3.
Assume that the plate is long and curved with a curvature radius of r.
- Curved plate geometry: a = 530 mm
b = 170 mm
e = 2 mm
r = 2800 mm
- Plate loading (at L.L.):

x
= 18 MPa
- Plate material:
E = 70300 MPa

0.2
= 270 MPa

R
= 440 MPa
n = 7.05

e
= 0.33
- Plate boundary conditions:
The 4 sides are considered as being hinged.
pocket
BAY
e = 2 mm
b = 170 mm
y
x
members land
a= 530 mm
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.16
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Longitudinal compression:
- Calculation of the buckling factor (using figure page 8):
Z =
( )
b
re
e
2
2
1
2
1 = 4,87
Kc = 4.95
r/e = 2800 / 2 = 1400
Thus, the critical longitudinal stress is (refer to paragraph 3.3).

cc,0
=
K E e
b
c
e

2
2
2
12 1 ( )

= x 44.5 MPa
Obviously it is not necessary to calculate the plasticity correction ( = 1).

cc,0
= 44.5 MPa Rc =

cc,
.
0
18
44 5
= = 0.4
The margin is: MS =
1
R
c

- 1 = 1.5 folding at 250% of L.L.


B - Use the example above assuming that in addition to longitudinal compression, the
curved plate is subjected to a 0.01MPa (refer to paragraph 3.4.2) internal pressure.
The buckling stress in compression was calculated above:

cc,0
= 44.5 MPa
To assess Rp, it is necessary to determine the external radial pressure which would cause
buckling of a circular cylinder with the same curvature as the curved sheet panel: (curves,
page 14).
Z =
a
re x
e
2
2
2
2
1
530
2800 2
1 0 33 = . = 47.4
k
y
= 8.5
cr
=
( )
K E
e
a
x x
x
x
y
e

2
2
2 2
2
2
12 1
8 5 70300
12 1 0 33
2
530 ( )
.
.

= 7.85 MPa
The external radial pressure capable of producing this buckling is:
P
cr
=
cr

e
r
= 7.85 x
2
2800
= 0.0056 MPa Rp = -
0 01
0 0056
.
.
= - 1.78
The interaction eq uation gives (refer to paragraph 1.2)

cc
cc
2
0
2
.
+ R
p
= 1 being

cc
2
2
44 5 .
- 1.78 = 1 Giving
cc
= 74.2 MPa
Thus, the effect of a 0.01 MPa internal pressure is to increase the axial buckling stress
from 44.5 MPa to 74.2 MPa.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.17
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
C - Use the example in A above assuming that in addition to longitudinal compression,
the curved plate is subjected to a 27 Mpa shear.
Longitudinal compression: (already calculated above)

cc,0
= 44.5 MPa R
c
=

cc,
.
0
18
44 5
= = 0.4
Shear: (as per paragraphs 3.1 and 3.3.1.2)
Linear elastic calculation:
cr,0
=
K E e
b
s

2
2
2
12 1 ( )

According to the curves on page 11:


Z =
( )
b
re
e
2
2
1
2
1 = 4.87 and
a
b
= =

530
170
31 . (K
s
= 6.2)
Thus:

cr,0
= x
K E e
b
s
e

2
2
2
12 1 ( )

= x 55.7 MPa
It is obviously not necessary to calculate the plasticity correction.

cr,0
= 55.7 MPa R
s
=

cr,
.
0
27
55 7
= = 0.48
Compression - shear interaction
R
R R R
cx cr
c c s
= = =
+ +
=

2 2
4
2
0 72 . Folding 139% of L.L.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.18
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
D - Use the same example A above but with a 5 mm pocket thickness.
Critical stress in compression
- Calculation of the buckling factor (using figure page 8):
Z =
( )
b
re
e
2
2
1
2
1 = 1.95
K
c
= 4.19
r
e
=
2800
5
= 560
Thus, the critical longitudinal stress is (refer to paragraph 3.3).

cc,0
=
K E e
b
c
e

2
2
2
12 1 ( )

= x 235.2 MPa
- Calculation of the plasticity correction factor, iterative method:
Use the Ramberg and Osgood formulas (refer to paragraph 1.3) at the first step of the
calculation:
=

E
+ 0.002

0 2
7 05
235 2
70300
0 002
235 2
270
.
.
.
.
.

= +

n
= 0.0041
E
s
=

=
235 2
0 0041
.
.
= 57366 MPa and =
E
E
s
x 0.33 + 1

E
E
s
x 0.5 = 0.361
1 1 7 05
57366
1 7 05
70300 E
n
E
n
E
t s
= +

= +
. .
= 0.00003684 E
t
= 27148 MPa
According to paragraph 3.2, page 3:

3
= (1 - c) x
1
1
0 5 0 2 1 3
2
2

+ +

e s t
s
s t
s
x
E
E
x
E
E
c x
E
E
x
E
E
. .
with c =
1
99
1
2
b
re

= 0.01075
0.5 + 0.25 1 3 +
E
E
t
s
= 0.889 and
E
E
x
E
E
x
s t
s
=
57366
70300
27148
57366
= 0.561
= (1 - 0.01075) x
1 0 33
1 0 361
57366
70300
0 889
2
2

.
.
( . ) x x + 0.01075 x 0.561 = 0.74
The critical stress cc,0 is then: 0.74 * 235.2 = 174 MPa
To ensure convergence, it is necessary to repeat the operation using as an initial value
for each iteration, the average between the value found and the initial value of the
previous step
= (235.2 + 174) / 2 = 204.6 MPa
= 204.6 MPa = 0.00319 E
s
= 64070 MPa E
t
= 41707 MPa = 0.856
cc.0
= 201.3 MPa
= 203 MPa = 0.00316 E
s
= 64334 MPa E
t
= 42509 MPa = 0.861
cc.0
= 202.5 MPa
Thus, after several iterations, convergence is towards
= 0.862 and
cc,0
= 202.7 MPa Rc =

cc,
.
0
18
202 7
= = 0.089
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.19
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
- Calculation of the plasticity correction factor, schematic method:
Plot the curve giving
cr
corrected according to elastic
cr
:
Assume as an initial value:
cr
corrected =

0 2
2
270
2
.
= = 135 MPa
=

E
+ 0.002

0 2
7 05
135
70300
0 002
135
270
.
.
.

= +

n
= 0.00194
E
s
=

=
135
0 00194 .
= 69752 MPa
E
t
=
n
E
n
E
s
+

= +

1 7 05
69752
1 7 05
70300
1
1
. .
= 66609 MPa
=
E
E
s

e
+ 1

E
E
s

p
=
69752
70300
0 33 1
69752
70300
x . +

x 0.5 = 0.331
= (1 - c)
1
1
2
2

e s
E
E
0 5 025 1 3 . + +

+
E
E
c
E
E
E
E
s t
s
t
s
= 0.985
elastic =

=
135
0 985 .
= 137.1 MPa
Thus, for corrected = 135 Mpa elastic = 137.1 MPa
By varying the corrected
cr
, it is possible to calculate the corresponding elastic stress
making it possible to plot the curve
cr
corrected according to elastic
cr
(refer to the
next page).
Then the req uired result is obtained directly from this curve:
elastic = 235.2 MPa corrected = 202.5 MPa
R
c
=

cc,
.
0
18
202 5
= = 0.089
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.20
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Plasticity correction
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
Corrected stress
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.1
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 3-CURVED PLATES
The curved plates discussed in this chapter are rectangular plates with a single curvature in the
loaded edge plane.
a
b
r
e
y
z
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.2
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
A - SUMMARY OF CASES DEALT WITH
RECTANGULAR CURVED PLATES
a - Single compression, single shear (page 7, curves pages 8 to 12)
hinged edge
fixed edge
Case 1 Case 2
Case 3 Case 4
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.3
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
B - CURVED PLATE ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
Obtain the following data:
- plate geometry:
- plate loading
- plate material properties
Identify plate boundary conditions:
free, hinged, fixed edges, etc.
Determine the buckling factors K
(paragraph 3.3)
K
c
(in x direction) if stress in x direction
K
s
if shear
Select a plastic correction factor (paragraph 3.2)
Calculate the elastic-plastic buckling critical
stresses (paragraphs 3.2 and 3.3) in:
compression in x direction
shear
Calculate Ri (paragraph 1.2)
Is the plate subj ected to combined loading?
Calculate the loading rates
(paragraphs 1.2 and 3.4)
R
c
if compression
R
s
if shear
Use the interaction eq uation to
calculate R and MS (paragraph
3.4)
Yes No
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.4
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 3.1-SINGLE LOADING
Two single stresses are possible:
The corresponding buckling stresses are formulated as below:

cc,0
= K
c
E
e
b

2
;
cr,0
= K
s
E
{ }
e
a b min ,

2
REMARKS: The buckling stress eq uation is the same as that for flat plates with higher
buckling factors K
c
and K
s
.
The buckling factors of rectangular curved plates are given in paragraph 3.3.
Compression
a
b

xy
Shear
x
y
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.5
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 3.2-PLASTICITY CORRECTION FACTOR
The plasticity correction is applied to buckling stresses under single load even if the studied
plated is subj ected to combined loads.
Loading Boundary
conditions
Flat plate Cylinder Curved plate
Flange, one
unloaded edge
hinged

1p
=
1
1
2
2

e s
E
E

c
=
E
E
E
E
s t
s

1
= (1 - c)
1p
+ c
c
Plate with
hinged
unloaded
edges

3p
=
1p
0 5 0 25 1 3 . . + +

E
t
Es

c
=
E
E
E
E
s t
s

3
= (1 - c)
3p
+ c
c
Compression
Plate with
fixed unloaded
edges

4p
=
1p
0 352 0 324 1 3 . . + +

E
t
Es

c
=
E
E
E
E
s t
s

4
= (1 - c)
4p
+ c
c
Shear All conditions
=
G
G
s
=
G
G
s
=
G
G
s
Factor c depends on the geometry of the curved plate: c =
1
99
1
2
b
re

The plasticity correction coefficients for a curved plate are calculated by linear interpolation
between the coefficients of the flat plate given with a geometric limitation 1 >
b
re
2
and those
of the cylinder given for
b
re
2
> 100.
Thus, the geometric boundarys of the plasticity correction coefficients given in the table above
are:
b
re
2
1 : =
p
(flat plate)
b
re
2
100 : =
c
(cylinder)
1 <
b
re
2
< 100 : =
i
(curved plate)
The stress-strain compression curve is also used in the particular case of shear loading.
Proceed as follows:
Calculate the eq uivalent normal stress:
eq
= 3
Calculate Es and corresponding to
eq
.

G
G
E
E
s e s
e
=
+
+

1
1
1
1
1


Remark:
1
>
3
>
4
Select a conservative solution if any doubt subsists.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.6
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 3.3-BUCKLING FACTORS
The plate buckling factors K in the linear elastic domain are formulated as follows:
K =

2
2
12 1 ( )
e
k
The curves representing k as a function of Z =
( )
b
re
e
2
2
1
2
1 (factor depending on the
geometry and on the material of the plate) are given in a logarithmic scale.
Note that:
- The k factors corresponding to small values of Z (Z < 1), therefore high values of r must
satisfy the flat plate theory.
- The k factors corresponding to high values of Z, therefore small values of r, must satisfy the
cylindrical shell theory.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.7
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 3.3.1-Rectangular curved plates
V1-2 3.3.1.1-Single compression
Processed cases:
The curves for long curved panels representing the k
c
buckling factor as a function of Z are
given on the next page.
The linear theory for small deflections applicable in the case of single compression of flat
plates, provides theoretical results higher than the results from tests performed on curved
plates.
Use the recommended curves to determine k.
V1-2 3.3.1.2-Single shear
Processed cases:
For each case, the long panels and the wide panels are processed.
The curves representing the buckling factor ks in function of Z are given on pages 9 to 12.
Case 1 Case 3
hinged edge
fixed edge
hinged edge
fixed edge
Case 2 Case 4
S
S
M



V
1
-
2





B
U
C
K
L
I
N
G


O
F


T
H
I
N


P
L
A
T
E
S


A
N
D


S
H
E
L
L
S
R
e
v
i
s
i
o
n

1
C
u
r
v
e
d

p
l
a
t
e
s
p
a
g
e

V
1
-
2

3
.
8


A
E
R
O
S
P
A
T
I
A
L
E

-

1
9
9
8
Theoretical curve
4 hinged edges
4 fixed edges
Buckling factor in axial compression for long curved
plates (*)
Recommended
curves, Reference
N.A.C.A. T.N.
1928
*4 hinged sides:
4 fixed sides:
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.9
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
B
u
c
k
l
i
n
g

f
a
c
t
o
r

i
n

s
h
e
a
r

f
o
r

f
i
x
e
d

l
o
n
g

c
u
r
v
e
d

p
a
n
e
l
s
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Curved plates page V1-23.10
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
B
u
c
k
l
i
n
g

f
a
c
t
o
r

i
n

s
h
e
a
r

f
o
r

f
i
x
e
d

w
i
d
e

c
u
r
v
e
d
p
a
n
e
l
s
c
y
l
i
n
d
e
r
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.33
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.4.2-Conical shells
The interaction eq uation relating the compression, the bending and the shear load and the
external pressure is:
(R
c
+ R
f
+ R
cs
)
1.2
+ R
p
1 2 .
= 1
with:
R
c
=
compression stress
critical compression stress
R
f
=
bending stress
critical bending stress
R
cs
=
shear stress due to a shear load
1.4 * critical torsion stress
R
p
=
applied pressure
critical pressure
(internal pressure: R
p
< 0)
V1-2 4.5-EXAMPLES
A- Take a circular cylinder made of 2024 PL T3 aluminium alloy with the following
geometrical and mechanical properties:
- Cylinder geometry:
L = 1950 mm
r = 1300 mm
e = 1,3 mm
- Cylinder material: 2024 PL T3
E = 70300 MPa

0.2
= 270 MPa

R
= 440 MPa
n = 7.05

e
= 0.33
- Cylinder boundary conditions:
The ends are hinged
- Cylinder boundary conditions:
Compression load = 135 000 N
Bending moment = 156 000 m.N
Torsion moment = 265 000 m.N
Internal pressure = 350 hPa
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.34
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Longitudinal compression with internal pressure (according to paragraphs 4.3.1.1 and
4.4.1.B):
- Calculation of the buckling factor:
r
e
=
1300
13 .
= 1000 ;
L
r
=
1950
1300
= 1.5
Z =
L
r e
e
2
2
2
2
1
1950
1300 13
1 0 33 =
* .
* . = 2124
Consultation of curves, page 10 (or formulas, page 9) C = 0.171 and k
c
= 421
Z* =
k
C
c0
0 58
1
0 58 0171 . * . * .
= = 10 < < 2124 long cylinder

cc,0
= C E
e
r

= * 0.171 * 70300 *
13
1300
.

= * 12 MPa
Shows that it is obviously not necessary to calculate the plasticity correction ( = 1)
The critical axial load is (without taking internal pressure into account):
P
cr
= 2 r e
cc,0
= 127 423 N
The internal pressure improves the critical compression load:
according to page 30:
p
E
r
e

2 2
0 035
70300
1300
13
.
.
= 0.5
according to the figure on page 30:

cc
r
E e
,0

= 0.175
cc,0
= * 0.175 *
70300 13
1300
* .
= = 12.3 MPa
The global critical compression stress:

cc,0
+
cc,0
= 24.3 MPa < <

0 2
2
.
giving = 1
On the other hand, the internal pressure induces a longitudinal tension load (page 30).

t
=
pr
e 2
0 035 1300
2 13
=
. *
* .
= 17.5 MPa F
t
= 2 r e
t
= 185 825 N
An external compression load should have already cancelled out this tension load before
subj ecting the cylinder to a longitudinal compression.
The critical compression load is then:
P
c,cr
= 2 r e (
cc,0
+
cc,0
+
t
) = 2 * 1300 * 1.3 * (12 + 12.3 + 17.5) = 443 857 N
The margin is given by the following formula:
M.S =
P
p
c cr ,
= 1
443 857
135 000
- 1 = 2.29
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.35
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Bending moment with internal pressure:
- Calculation of the buckling factor:
r
e
= 1000 ,
L
r
= 1.5 , Z = 2124
Consultation of the curve, page 12 (or formulas, page 11) K
f
= 553.5
C
f
= 0.222 Z* =
k
C
c
f
0
0 58
1
0 58 0 222 . * . * .
= = 7.8 < < 2124 long cylinder

cf,0
= C
f
E
e
r

= * 0.222 * 70300 *
13
1300
.

= 15.6 MPa ( = 1)
Thus, the critical bending moment in the absence of internal pressure is:
M
f,cr
=
cf,0

I
r

cf,0
* * r * e = 15.6 * * 1300 * 1.3 = 107 672 m.N
The internal pressure improves the critical bending moment:
according to page 31:
p
E
r
e

2 2
0 035
70300
1300
13
.
.
= 0.5
according to the figure on page 31:

cf
E
r
e
, 0

= 0.315
cf,0
= * 0.315 *
70300 13
1300
* .
= = 22.1 MPa
The global critical bending stress:

cf,0
+
cf,0
= 15.6 + 22.1 = 37.7 MPa < <

0 2
2
.
giving = 1
On the other hand, the internal pressure induces a longitudinal tension load (page 31).

t
=
pr
e 2
0 035 1300
2 13
=
. *
* .
= 17.5 MPa
The critical bending moment is then:
M
f,cr
= r e (
cf,0
+
cf,0
+
t
) = * 1300 * 1.3 * (15.6 + 22.1 + 17.5) = 381 000 m.N
The margin is given by the following formula:
M =
M
M
f cr
f
,
= 1
381 000
156 000
- 1 = 1.44
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.36
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Torsion moment with internal pressure:
- Calculation of the buckling factor:
r
e
= 1000 , Z = 2124
Intermediate cylinder with hinged edges (refer to page 13).
k
t
= 0.85 * Z
3
4
= 0.85 * (2124)
0.75
= 266 (or according to the figure on page 14)
K
t
=

2
2
12 1 0 33 ( . )
k
t
= 245.5

ct,0
= K
t
E
e
L

2
= * 245.5 * 73800 *
13
1950
2
.

= 8.1 MPa ( = 1)
The critical torsion moment is:
M
t,cr
=
ct,0

J
r
=
ct,0
* 2 r e = 8.1 * 2 * 1300 * 1.3 = 111 814 m.N
Internal pressure improves the critical torsion moment.
The critical hydrostatic pressure p
cr
, causing the collapse of the cylinder is according to
the figure on page 17 (or formulas, page 16):
Z = 2124 k
p
= 40.2 K
p
= k
p
*

2
2
12 1 0 33 ( . )
= 37.1

cp,0
= * K
p
* E *
e
L

2
= * 37.1 * 73800 *
13
1950
2
.

= 1.2 MPa ( = 1)
The critical pressure causing this circumferential stress in the cylinder is:
P
cr
=
cp,0

e
r
= 1.2 *
13
1300
.
= 12 hPa
The critical torsion stress with internal pressure is, according to the figure on page 32:
P
int
- P
cr
= 350 - 12 = 338 hPa

ct,0
= 38 MPa
The critical torsion moment is then:
M
t,cr
=
ct,0
* 2 r e = 38 * 2 * 1300 * 1.3 = 524 558 m.N
The margin is given by the following formula:
M =
M
M
t cr
t
,
= 1
524 558
265 000
- 1 = 0.98
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.37
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Compression - bending - torsion interaction
The applied loads are:
- P = 135 * 10
3
N (compression load)
- M
f
= 156 * 10
3
m.N (bending moment)
- Mt = 265 * 10
3
m.N (torsion moment)
- P
int
= 350 hPa (internal pressure)
The critical loads calculated taking internal pressure into account:
P
c,cr
= 443 857 N
M
f,cr
= 381 000 m.N
M
t,cr
= 524 558 m.N
Giving:
R
c
=
P
P
c cr ,
=
135 000
443 857
= 0.3
R
f
=
M
M
f
f cr ,
=
156 000
381 000
= 0.4
R
ct
=
M
M
t
t cr ,
=
265 000
524 558
= 0.5
The interaction eq uation is:
R
c
+ R
f
+ R
ct
2
= 1
0.3 + 0.4 + 0.5 = 0.95 < 1
The cylinder does not collapse under this combined load.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.38
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.11
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.3.1.2-Single bending
The critical buckling stress under single bending is formulated as below:
cf,0 = K
f
E
e
L

2
The buckling factor Kf is formulated as below:
K
f
=
( )

2
2
12 1
e
f
k
Calculation of k
f
The buckling factor depends on the parameter: Z =
L
r e
e
2
2
1
* Short cylinders and transition range
k
f
= k
c0
+
( . ) 0 581
2
0
x C x Z
k
f
c
K
c0
is the buckling factor of column plates under compression:
fixed edges: k
c0
= 4
hinged edges: k
c0
= 1
* long cylinders
k
f
= 1.16 x C
f
x Z
The critical buckling stress becomes:
cf,0
= C
f
E
e
r

C
f
factor:
The C
f
factor above is: C
f
= 1.3 * C (factor used in compression)
C = 0.6 x ln 3 748
0 15
.
.
x
r
e

; C 0.6
valid for: 8.52 <
r
e
< 3000
if
r
e
< 8.52 take C = 0.6
Border between the transition range and long cylinders:
Z* =
k
C
c
f
0
0 58 .
and k
f
* = 2 k
c0
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.12
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
loaded sides fixed loaded sides simply supported
Buckling factor in bending, k
f
, as a function of Z
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.13
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.3.1.3-Single torsion
Unlike what happens in compression, cylinders subj ected to torsion do not spontaneously
collapse after the occurrence of folding.
If a cylinder is gradually loaded, first of all slight deflections occur increasing in practically a
linear manner. The curvature gradually flattens around the occurrence of folding then maj or
deflections occur for a slight variation in the load.
The torsion moment drops when the cylinder collapses, whereas the side deflections continue
to increase.
Collapsing load
The folding stress is approximately 84% of the collapsing stress.
The critical collapsing stress under torsion is formulated as follows:

ct,0
= K
t
E
e
L

2
with K
t
=
( )

2
2
12 1
e
k
t
Calculation of Kt
The buckling factor depends on parameter: Z =
L
r e
e
2
2
1
* Short cylinders
For Z ---> 0: the cylinder behaves like an infinitely long flat plate.
Short cylinders have as a Z factor: 0 < Z < 1001
2

e
- fixed edges: k
t
= 8.98 + 0.204 Z
- hinged edges: k
t
= 5.35 + 0.216 Z
* Intermediate cylinders
- fixed edges: 100 1
2

e
< Z < 63
r
e
e
2
2
2
1 and k
t
= 0.93Z
3
4
- hinged edges: 100 1
2

e
< Z < 44
r
e
e
2
2
2
1 and k
t
= 0.85Z
3
4
* long cylinders
- fixed edges: Z > 63
r
e
e
2
2
2
1
- hinged edges: Z > 44
r
e
e
2
2
2
1

cr
is then formulated in the simpler form:

cr
= x 0.272
( )
1
2
3
4
3
2

e
E
e
r
k
t
=
0 33
1
2
1
2
. Z
r
e
e


SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.14
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Buckling factor under torsion, k
t
, as a function of Z
V1-2 4.3.1.4-Single shear
Collapsing load
The critical collapsing stress under a shear load is formulated as follows:

cs,0
= 1.25 K
t
E
e
L

2
with K
t
=
( )

2
2
12 1
e
k
t
Calculation of k
t
k
t
is the buckling factor calculated in the torsion case studied in the previous paragraph.
fixed
hinged
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.15
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.3.1.5-External radial pressure
Collapsing load
The critical collapsing stress under external radial pressure is formulated as follows:

cy,0
= K
y
E
e
L

2
with K
y
=
( )

2
2
12 1
e
k
y
Remember that with a radial pressure p, the longitudinal stress is nil whereas the transverse
stress is eq ual to pr/e.
Calculation of Ky (chart, page 17)
The buckling factor depends on the parameter: Z =
L
r e
e
2
2
1
* Very short cylinders
The case of very short cylinders is identical to that of infinitely long flat
plates in axial compression.
Values for Z= 0:
- hinged edges: k
y
= 4
- fixed edges: k
y
= 6.98
* Short cylinders and long cylinders
The difference between these cylinders is the number of waves obtained in the circumferential
direction:
short cylinders: the number of waves is greater than 2.
long cylinders: only 2 waves.
Let n
0
, be the number of circumferential waves obtained in the specific case
where Z = t, with: t =
r
e
e
1
2
; Z = t L = r
The ky factor calculation procedure (then
cr
) is as follows: (refer to the Appendix).
take n = 4

2
=
4
2
Z
t

2
=
n
0
2
2

k
y
=
( )
( )
1
12
1
2
2
2
2
4 2 2
2
+
+
+

cr
=

2
2
2
12 1
k E
e
L
y
e
( )

n
0
2
= 9.3 Z
0.5
n
2
=
t
Z
n
0
2
n
2
< 4
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.16
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.3.1.6-Hydrostatic pressure
Collapsing load
The critical circumferential collapsing stress under hydrostatic pressure is formulated as
follows:

cy,0
= K
p
E
e
L

2
with K
p
=
( )

2
2
12 1
e
k
p
Remember that with hydrostatic pressure p, the axial stress is eq ual to pr/2e, whereas the
transverse stress is eq ual to pr/e.
Calculation of k
p
:
The buckling factor depends on the parameter: Z =
L
re
e
2
2
1
* Very short cylinders
The case of very short cylinders is identical to that of infinitely long
flat plates in axial compression.
Values for Z= 0:
- hinged edges: kp = 2
* Short cylinders and long cylinders
The behaviour of long cylinders under hydrostatic pressure is similar to that of long cylinders
under radial pressure. This gives a kp curve that overlays the one obtained under radial
pressure for very high Z values which converge for small Z values towards kp= 2 instead of 4.
The kp curve will be conservatively plotted in the form of two straight lines (logarithmic
scale):
k
p
= 2 for 0 < Z < 10
k
p
= 0.5514 Z
0.56
for Z > 10
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.17
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Buckling factor under external radial pressure, k
y
, as a function of Z
radial pressure
hydrostatic pressure
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.18
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.3.2-Elliptical cylinders
V1-2 4.3.2.1-Single compression
Elliptical cylinders behave in the same manner as circular cylinders under the effect of
compression.
Therefore, the same formulas and the same charts as those used for the study of circular
cylinders will be used but this time with a curvature radius eq ual to a/b instead of r (circular
cylinder radius).
V1-2 4.3.2.2-Single bending
Calculation method
1- Calculate the strength modulus of the circumscribed circle: S
a
=
I

= a e
2- Calculate the strength modulus of the elliptical cylinder cross section S
e
= (S
e
/S
a
)*S
a
where
S
S
e
a
is the cross section efficiency.
Eq uation of the curve:
S
S
e
a
= 0.424 + 0.218 *
b
a

+ 0.521 *
b
a

2
- 0.163 *
b
a

3
Y
cr

cr
e
r
a
elliptical cross section
circumscribed circle
Compression
Tension
b
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.19
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
3- Calculate the following ratios:
y
a
cr

and
r
a
( r : critical curvature radius)
y
a
cr

= 0.5 * 1
2
0 5

b
a
.
and
r
a

= 0.649 *
a
b

with 0
b
a
0.866
if
b
a
> 0.866 buckling occurs at the end of the long axis r = a
4- Calculate the stress applied at the critical curvature:

ycr
=
M
S
y
a
f
e cr
*

; M
f
is the bending moment.
5- Calculate the allowable stress (long elliptical cylinders):

cr
=
C E e
r
f
* *
with C
f
= 1.3 * 0.6 * In 3 748
0 15
. *
.
r
e

6- Calculate the margin between the allowable stress and the applied stress.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.20
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.3.2.3-Single torsion
Collapsing load
The torsion moment applied around the elliptical section of the cylinder first of all causes folds
at the small axis, moving gradually towards the long axis where collapsing takes place.
As the curvature radius at the long axis is the smallest, this area stabilises the cylinder until the
folds cause collapsing.
The critical collapsing stress is calculated as for axi-symmetrical cylinders, putting down r = a
(refer to paragraph 4.3.1.3).
V1-2 4.3.2.4-Single shear
Collapsing load
The critical collapsing stress under a shear load is formulated as follows:

cs,0
= 1.25 K
t
E
e
L

2
with K
t
=

2
2
12 1 ( )
e
k
t
Calculation of k
t
:
k
t
is the buckling factor calculated for the torsion case.
a
b
folding propagation direction
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.21
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.3.3-Spherical shells
V1-2 4.3.3.1-External pressure
The critical buckling stress under external pressure is formulated as below:

cp,0
=
p

e
d

2
The buckling factors K
p
are formulated as follows:
K
p
=

2
2
12 1 ( )
e
k
p
Calculation of k
p
The buckling factor depends on the parameter: Z =
d
re
e
2
2
1
* Spherical shells with small Z
k
p
= k
pl
+
( . ) 0 581
2
x C x Z
k
pl
k
pl
is the buckling factor of flat circular plates.
k
pl
= 3
* Spherical shells with long Z
k
p
= 1.16 x C x Z
The critical buckling stress becomes:
cp,0
= C E
e
r

C factor:
The C factor used in the formulas above is:
C = e
A
with A = - 0.199 * In (r/e) - 0.235
valid for: 10 <
r
e
< 1000
if
r
e
> 1000 take C = 0.2
Border between two curves
Z* =
k
C
pl
0 58 .
and k
p
* = 2 k
pl
with k
pl
= 3
r
d
e
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.22
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
kp as a function of Z
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.23
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.3.4-Conical shells
V1-2 4.3.4.1-Single compression
The critical buckling stress under compression is formulated as:
P
c,cr
= 2 r e
c,cr
P
c,cr
: critical compression load.

c,cr
: critical compression stress (calculation, page 24).
: minimum curvature radius.
: cone half angle.
r: cone small radius.
e: cone thickness.
V1-2 4.3.4.2-Single bending
The critical buckling stress under bending is formulated:
M
f,cr
= r e
f,cr
M
f,cr
: critical bending moment.

f,,cr
: critical bending stress (calculation, page 25).
V1-2 4.3.4.3-Single torsion
The critical buckling stress under bending is formulated:
M
t,cr
= 2 r e
t,cr
M
t,cr
: critical torsion moment.

t,,cr
: critical torsion stress (calculation, page 26).
V1-2 4.3.4.4-Single external pressure
The critical external pressure is given by the following formula:
p
cr
=


2
2
3
2
12 1 ( )
e
y
moy
k
e
L
p
cr
: critical pressure (calculation, page 27).
k
y
: buckling factor under external pressure.

moy
: average curvature radius =
r R +
2 cos

r
M
f,cr
M
f,cr
L

r
P
c,cr
P
c,cr
L

r
M
t,cr
M
t,cr
L

moy
r
L
P
cr
R
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.24
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.3.4.5-Single loading curves
a) in compression
critical compression stress
Curve eq uations:
curves valid in the elastic domain with: 5 < < 11
L

= 4 :
c,cr
* (
1000
E
) = 4220 *

1 575 .
L

= 2 :
c,cr
* (
1000
E
) = 5040 *

1 575 .
L

= 1 :
c,cr
* (
1000
E
) = 5851 *

1 575 .
L

= 0.5 :
c,cr
* (
1000
E
) = 6569 *

1 575 .
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.25
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
b) in bending
critical bending stress
Curve eq uations:
curves valid in the elastic domain with: 5 < < 11
L

= 4 :
f,cr
* (
1000
E
) = 5361 *

1 565 .
L

= 2 :
f,cr
* (
1000
E
) = 6148 *

1 565 .
L

= 1 :
f,cr
* (
1000
E
) = 6977 *

1 565 .
L

= 0.5 :
f,cr
* (
1000
E
) = 7886 *

1 565 .
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.26
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
c) in torsion
critical torsion stress
Curve eq uations:
curves valid in the elastic domain with: 5 < < 11
L

= 8 :
t,cr
* (
1000
E
) = 545 *

1 407 .
L

= 4 :
t,cr
* (
1000
E
) = 598 *

1 362 .
L

= 2 :
t,cr
* (
1000
E
) = 695 *

1 328 .
L

= 1 :
t,cr
* (
1000
E
) = 764 *

1 285 .
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.27
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
d) under external pressure
CRITICAL EXTERNAL PRESSURE
Z =
L
2
moy


e
e
1
2

Curve eq uation:
0 < Z < 60 : ky = 4 + 0.12241 * Z - 0.0006 * Z
Z > 60 : ky = 1.456 * Z
0.45
Critical external pressure: P
cr
=


2
2
3
2
12 1
E
k
e
L
e
y
moy
( )
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.28
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.4-INTERACTION EQUATIONS (COMBINED LOADING)
V1-2 4.4.1-Circular and elliptical cylinders
A - No external pressure
a - Compression + bending + torsion + shear load
The interaction eq uation of a circular cylinder subj ected to axial compression combined
with bending, torsion and shear due to a shear load is:
Interaction eq uation: R
c
+ R
ct
2
+ R R
cs f
3 3
3
+ = 1
where:
R
c
=
applied compression load (or applied compression stress)
critical compression load (or critical compression stress)
R
ct
=
shear stress due to torsion
critical torsion stress
R
cs
=
shear stress due to the shear load
critical shear stress
R
f
=
bending moment applied (or bending stress)
critical bending moment (or critical bending stress)
The intermediate interaction eq uations are derived from the general information above.
Thus:
b - Longitudinal compression + pure bending: R
c
+ R
f
= 1 ; M.S =
1
R R
c f
+
- 1
c - Longitudinal compression + torsion: R
c
+ R
ct
2
= 1 ; M.S =
2
4
2 2
R R R
c c ct
+ +
- 1
d - Pure bending + shear load: R
f
3
+ R
cs
3
= 1 ; M.S =
1
3 3 3
R R
f cs
+
- 1
e - Longitudinal compression + pure bending + torsion:
R
c
+ R
f
+ R
ct
2
= 1 ; M.S =
2
4
2 2
R R R R R
c f c f ct
+ + + + ( )
- 1
f - Longitudinal compression + pure bending + shear load: R
c
+
3 3 3
R R
cs f
+ = 1
refer to the charts on the following page.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.29
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Interaction curves under axial compression,
bending, shear load
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.30
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
B - With internal pressure
The internal pressure appreciably improves the cylinder' s strength whatever the loading mode.
Thus, the interaction formulas above remain valid provided that the new critical stresses,
improved by the presence of an internal pressure, are taken into account.
a) Compression + internal pressure:
The increase in critical stress in compression due to internal pressure is given below:
Increase in critical stress in compression due to internal pressure
100
An isostatic internal pressure p implies a longitudinal tension at the cylinder
t
:
t
=
p r
e 2
A radial pressure implies nil longitudinal tension:
t
= 0
The critical compression load is then:
P
c,cr
= 2 r e (
cc,0
+
cc,0
+
t
)

cc,0
,
cc,0
,
t
are all positive values.
The safety margin is then: M.S =
P
P
c cr
app
,
- 1

c
c
,
0

E
r e
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.31
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
b) Bending + internal pressure:
The increase in critical stress in bending due to internal pressure is given below:
increase in critical stress in bending due to
the internal pressure
An isostatic internal pressure p implies a longitudinal tension at the cylinder
t
:
t
=
p r
e 2
A radial pressure implies a nil longitudinal tension:
t
= 0
The critical bending moment is then:
M
f,cr
= r e (
cf,0
+
cf,0
+
t
)

cf,0
,
cf,0
,
t
are all positive values.
The safety margin is then: M.S =
M
M
f cr
app
,
- 1

c
t
,
0

E
r e
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.32
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
c) Torsion + internal pressure:
The critical stress in torsion due to the internal pressure is given below:
effect of the internal pressure on the critical torsion stress
The interaction eq uation is:
R
ct
2
+ R
p
= 1 (R
p
< 0, if p is an internal pressure)
R
ct
=
applied torsion stress
critical torsion stress
; R
p
=
applied pressure
critical pressure
d) Shear load + internal pressure
The interaction eq uation is:
R
cs
2
+ R
p
= 1 (R
p
< 0, if p is an internal pressure)
R
cs
=
applied shear stress
critical shear stress
; R
p
=
applied pressure
critical pressure
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.1
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4-CYLINDERS AND OTHER SHELLS
The thin shells discussed in this chapter are circular and elliptical cylinders, spherical caps and
truncated cones.
e
r
L
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.2
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
A - SUMMARY OF CASES DEALT WITH
CIRCULAR CYLINDERS (single load)
compression, bending, shear, torsion, radial pressure, hydrostatic pressure
ELLIPTICAL CYLINDERS (single load)
compression, bending, shear, torsion
SPHERICAL SHELLS (single load)
external pressure
CONICAL SHELLS (single load)
compression, bending, torsion, external pressure
Compression Bending Shear
Torsion Radial pressure Hydrostatic pressure
Compression Bending Shear Torsion
External pressure
Compression Bending Torsion External pressure
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.3
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
B - CIRCULAR CYLINDER ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
Determine the following data:
- cylinder geometry: L, e, r
- cylinder loading,
- properties of the cylinder material
Identify the cylinder boundary conditions:
free, hinged, fixed edges, etc.
Determine the buckling factors K (paragraph 4.3.1)
K
c
if compression
K
f
if bending
K
t
if torsion or shear load
K
y
if external radial pressure
Select a plastic correction factor (paragraph 4.2)
Calculate the buckling elastic-plastic critical stresses
(paragraphs 4.2 and 4.31):
compression, bending, torsion, shear, radial pressure
Is the cylinder subj ected to combined loading?
Calculate Ri
Calculate the loading rate
(paragraph 4.4.1.A)
R
c
if compression
R
cs
if shear
R
ct
if torsion
R
f
if bending
with internal pressure?
Calculate the loading rate
(paragraph 4.4.1.B)
R
c
if compression
R
cs
if shear
R
ct
if torsion
R
f
if bending
Use the interaction eq uation
R
c
+ R
ct
^ 2 + (R
cs
^ 3 + R
f
^ 3)^ 0.33 = 1
Yes
No
No Yes
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.4
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
C - ELLIPTICAL CYLINDER ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
Select a plastic correction factor (paragraph 4.2)
Determine the following data:
- geometry of the cylinder: L, e, a, b
- cylinder loading
- properties of the cylinder material
Determine the buckling factors K (paragraph 4.3.2)
K
c
if compression
K
f
if bending
K
t
if torsion or shear
Identify the cylinder boundary conditions:
free, hinged, fixed edges, etc.
Calculate the buckling elastic-plastic critical stresses
(paragraphs 4.2 and 4.3.2) in:
compression, bending, torsion, shear
Is the cylinder subj ect to combined loading?
Calculate Ri
Calculate the loading
rates (paragraph 4.4.1.A)
R
c
if compression
R
cs
if shear
R
ct
if torsion
R
f
if bending
with internal pressure?
Calculate the loading
rates (paragraph 4.4.1.B)
R
c
if compression
R
cs
if shear
R
ct
if torsion
R
f
if bending
use the interaction eq uation
R
c
+ R
ct
^ 2 + (R
cs
^ 3 + R
f
^ 3) ^ 0.33 = 1
Yes No
No
Yes
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.5
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
D - SPHERICAL SHELL ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
E - CONICAL SHELL ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
Determine the following data:
- shell geometry: d, e, r
- shell loading: external pressure
- properties of the shell material
Determine the buckling factor Kp (paragraph 4.3.3)
Select a plastic correction factor (paragraph 4.2)
Calculate the buckling elastic-plastic critical stress
(paragraphs 4.2 and 4.33) under: external pressure
Determine the following data:
- shell geometry: L, e, r, R, ,
- shell loading
- properties of the shell
Determine the buckling factors K (paragraph 4.3.4)
K
c
if compression
K
f
if bending
K
t
if torsion
K
y
if external pressure
Select a plastic correction factor (paragraph 4.2)
Calculate the buckling elastic-plastic critical stresses
(paragraphs 4.2 and 4.3.4) in:
compression, bending, torsion, external pressure
Is the cylinder subj ect to combined loading?
Calculate Ri Calculate the loading rates (paragraph 4.4.2)
R
c
if compression
R
f
if bending
R
ct
if torsion
R
y
if external pressure
use the interaction eq uation
(R
c
+ R
f
+ R
ct
) ^ 1.2 + R
y
^ 1.2 = 1
No Yes
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.6
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.1-BEHAVIOUR OF CIRCULAR CYLINDERS UNDER COMPRES-
SION
V1-2 4.1.1-Introduction
Circular cylinders may have 4 different types of behaviour under the effect of compression:
Short cylinders
The deflected shape after buckling is similar to that of column
plates (cylinders with an infinite radius). The buckling waves
are similar to those obtained in flat plates (half sine waves).
The supporting conditions at ends have a considerable
influence on the critical stress.
Long cylinders
The deflected shape after buckling is of a diamond-like
appearance. The supporting conditions at ends have no affect
on the critical stress.
Transition length cylinders
The transition length is in between the two extreme lengths
defining the short cylinders and the long cylinders.
The buckle pattern is an interaction of two shapes:
This is a combination of the half sine waves and diamond
shape.
Very long cylinder
A cylinder is very long when its column buckling stress is less
than its local buckling stress.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.7
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.1.2-Linear theory and test results
Here we shall deal with the first 3 types of behaviour mentioned above.
The energy causing the occurrence of an inward blister is much lower than that req uired to
obtain an outward blister.
With compressed cylinders, unlike what happens in flat plates, the occurrence of an inward
blister entails the formation of a transverse compression membrane stress. This stress make
the blister even more unstable.
The linear stability theory (low deflection) gives satisfactory results when positive or nil
membrane transverse stresses (tension) accompany folding. This is the case for flat plates,
cylinders subj ected to torsion or radial pressure, curved plates in shear or under side pressure.
On the other hand, for curved plates and cylinders in compression or bending and for spheres
or spherical caps subj ected to an external radial pressure, the surface stresses can no longer be
considered as linear functions of transverse displacements.
The formulas and charts given in this document are derived from the linear theory readj usted
following a great number of tests.
A good correlation of tests and stresses calculated in this manner is obtained for short or long
cylinders in compression or bending. On the other hand, the results are highly conservative in
the transition range. In this latter case, the test results are located between the theoretical
linear calculations and the semi-empirical calculations.
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.8
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.2-PLASTICITY CORRECTION FACTOR
Even if the studied shell or cylinder is subj ected to combined loads, the plasticity correction is
applied to the buckling stresses under single loading.
CIRCULAR AND ELLIPTICAL CYLINDERS
Cylinder loading Plasticity correction factor
Compression, Bending
=
E
E
E
E
s t
s
Shear, Torsion =
G
G
s
Radial or hydrostatic pressure =
E
E
E
E
s e t
s
1
1
0 25 0 75
2
2

. .
SPHERICAL CONES AND TAPERED CONES
Cone loading Plasticity correction factor
External radial pressure
=
E
E
E
E
s t
s
In the particular case of shear, the compression stress-strain curve of the material is also used.
Proceed as follows:
Calculate the eq uivalent normal stress:
eq
= 3
Calculate E
s
and corresponding to
eq
,

G
G
E
E
s e s
=

1
1
2

SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS


Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.9
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V1-2 4.3-BUCKLING FACTORS (SINGLE LOADING)
V1-2 4.3.1-Circular cylinders
Six different loadings cause the occurrence of stress in the surface of a cylinder:
The corresponding buckling stresses are given in the paragraphs below in function of the
geometry of the cylinder and the boundary conditions.
V1-2 4.3.1.1-Single compression
The critical buckling stress under single compression is formulated as below:

cc,0
= K
c
E
e
L

2
with K
c
=
( )

2
2
12 1
e
c
k
Calculation of kc
The buckling factor depends on the parameter: Z =
L
r e
e
2
2
1
* short cylinders and transition range
k
c0
: buckling factor of column plates
k
c
= k
c0
+
( . ) 0 581
2
0
x C x Z
k
c
fixed edges: k
c0
= 4
hinged edges: k
c0
= 1
* long cylinders
k
c
= 1.16 x C x Z
cc,0
= C E
e
r

C factor
The C factor used in the formulas below is:
C = 0.6 x ln 3 748
0 15
.
.
x
r
e

; C 0.6 valid for: 8.52 <


r
e
< 3000
if
r
e
< 8.52 take C = 0.6
Border between the transition range and long cylinders:
Z* =
k
C
c0
0 58 .
and k
c
* = 2 k
c0
Compression Bending Shear
Torsion Radial pressure Hydrostatic pressure
SSM V1-2 BUCKLING OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS
Revision 1 Cylinders and shells page V1-24.10
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Buckling factor in compression kc as a function of Z
loaded sides fixed loaded sides simply supported
Technical Manual
MTS 004 Iss. C
External distribution authorised: YES NO
Document
Manager
Dept code: BTE/CC/CM Validation Name: JF. IMBERT
Name: J. HUET Function : Deputy Department
Group Leader
Dept code: BTE/CC/A
Date: 11/99
Signature
This document is the property of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS; no part of it shall be reproduced or transmitted
without authorization of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS and its contents shall not be disclosed.
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999
3page 1
X
Static stress manual,
metallic materials
Volume 1
Purpose Methods for calculating static failure loads and stresses for
aircraft metallic structural details.
Scope All programmes, static justification of metallic structures.
EDP tool
supporting this Manual
Not applicable.
Contents
V1 - 1 Stiffened panels
V1 - 2 Buclking of plates and thin shells
V1 - 3 Stiffeners
V1 - 4 Thin web beams
V1 - 5 Stable web beams
V1 - 6 Bolted or rivetted junctions
V1 - 7 Lugs
V1 - 8 Hole reinforcements
V1 - 9 Stabilisers
1
4
5
4
5
2
1
2
Structural
Design Manuals
Title - Annex
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C 3Ann. page
Reference documents C BE 019: Drawing up of the Structural Justification Dossier
Documents to be consulted See bibliography at the beginning of each chapter.
Abbreviations See Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR
See "General" paragraph of each chapter
Definitions List of words the definitions of which are integrated into the
Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR:
Highlights
Issue Date Pages modified Justification of the changes made
A 02/98 V1 - 1 V1 - 3
V1 - 7 V1 - 9
New document.
B 05/99 V1 - 7
V1 - 4
Changes as per table page V1-7.i.
New chapter.
C 11/99 V1 - 1 Changes as per table page V1-1.i.
Created paragraph V1-1-8.
V1 - 5 New chapter.
Static stress manual, metallic materials - Management information
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C page IG1
NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION
List of approval
Dept. code Function Name / First name Signature
BTE/CC/CM Chef de Dpartement CAZET G.
Key words Calcul
Bibliography Nant
Distribution list
Dept. code Function Name / First name (if necessary)
BQP/TE Archives Diderot SIBADE Alain
BQP/TE Bibliothque BQP/TE SIBADE Alain
BTE/SM/MG Bibliothque Technique BTE BOUTET Fernand
Distribution list managed in real time by BIO/D (Didocost application)
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Page V1-3 / 1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
A - CONTENTS
Chapter Title Issue Date
V1.3 STIFFENERS 1 12 / 1996 Original issue
V1.3.1 GENERAL 1 12 / 1996 Original issue
V1.3.2 DATA PREPARATION 1 12 / 1996 Original issue
V1.3.3 LOCAL BUCKLING 1 12 / 1996 Original issue
V1.3.4 WARPING 1 12 / 1996 Original issue
V1.3.5 FORCED CRIPPLING 1 12 / 1996 Original issue
V1.3.6 INTER-RIVET BUCKLING 1 12 / 1996 Original issue
V1.3.7 CRIPPLING 1 12 / 1996 Original issue
V1.3.8 OPTIMIZATION 1 12 / 1996 Original issue
Pages
V1.3 STIFFENERS V1.3.1
A - Contents V1.3.1
B - Symbols V1.3.3
C - References V1.3.5
V1.3.1 GENERAL V1.3.1/1
V1.3.2 DATA PREPARATION V1.3.2/1
V1.3.3 LOCAL BUCKLING V1.3.3/1
V1.3.3.1 Assumptions V1.3.3/1
V1.3.3.2 Local buckling of the flange V1.3.3/2
V1.3.3.2.1 Flat flange V1.3.3/2
V1.3.3.2.1.1 Critical local buckling stress flt V1.3.3/3
V1.3.3.2.1.2 Local buckling factor V1.3.3/3
V1.3.3.2.1.3 Plasticity correction factor V1.3.3/4
V1.3.3.2.2 Curved flange V1.3.3/5
V1.3.3.2.2.1 Critical local buckling stress flt V1.3.3/5
V1.3.3.2.2.2 Local buckling factor V1.3.3/6
V1.3.3.2.2.3 Plasticity correction factor V1.3.3/6
V1.3.3.2.3 Block diagram V1.3.3/7
V1.3.3.2.4 Example V1.3.3/8
V1.3.3.3 Local buckling of the web V1.3.3/11
V1.3.3.3.1 Critical local buckling stress fla V1.3.3/12
V1.3.3.3.2 Local buckling factor kc V1.3.3/12
V1.3.3.3.3 Plasticity correction factor V1.3.3/13
V1.3.3.3.4 Block diagram V1.3.3/15
V1.3.3.3.5 Example V1.3.3/16
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Page V1-3 / 2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Pages
V1.3.3.4 Sizing of a flanged edge V1.3.3/19
V1.3.3.4.1 Lip V1.3.3/19
V1.3.3.4.2 Bulb V1.3.3/24
V1.3.3.4.3 Block diagram V1.3.3/25
V1.3.4 WARPING V1.3.4/1
V1.3.4.1 Assumptions V1.3.4/1
V1.3.4.2 Stiffness of the eq uivalent elastic medium V1.3.4/2
V1.3.4.3 Warping stress (linear elasticity) V1.3.4/3
V1.3.4.4 Determination of m
0
minimising
~

dr
V1.3.4/4
V1.3.4.5 Calculation of
~

dr
V1.3.4/5
V1.3.4.6 Plasticity correction V1.3.4/5
V1.3.4.7 Block diagram - summary V1.3.4/7
V1.3.4.8 Example V1.3.4/8
V1.3.5 FORCED CRIPPLING V1.3.5/1
V1.3.5.1 Assumptions V1.3.5/1
V1.3.5.2 Allowable stresses V1.3.5/2
V1.3.5.3 Eq uivalent thickness of the stiffener skin side flange V1.3.5/5
V1.3.5.4 Example V1.3.5/6
V1.3.6 INTER-RIVET BUCKLING V1.3.6/1
V1.3.6.1 Assumptions V1.3.6/1
V1.3.6.2 Critical stress V1.3.6/1
V1.3.6.3 Example V1.3.6/3
V1.3.7 CRIPPLING V1.3.7/1
V1.3.8 OPTIMISATION V1.3.8/1
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Page V1-3 / 3 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
B - SYMBOLS
A: cross section area
b: width
C: buckling coefficient for a curved flange
e: thickness
E
c
: Young' s modulus in compression
E
S
: secant modulus
E
T
: tangent modulus
f: deflection
h: height
I: Inertia
k
c
: buckling factor for a flat item
k: diagonal tension factor
K: end fixity factor
L: length
m: number of half wave lengths
n: stress-strain shape factor (Ramberg and Osgood)
p: inter-rivet pitch
R: curvature radius
r: radius
: Poisson' s ratio in the elastic-plastic field

e
: Poisson' s ratio in the elastic domain

p
: Poisson' s ratio in the plastic field
: plasticity correction ratio
: elastic foundation modulus
: column slenderness

dr
: critical flange warping stress

crip
: critical crippling stress

fla
: critical buckling stress of the web

flf
: critical forced crippling stress

flt
: critical buckling stress of flange

ir
: critical inter-rivet buckling stress

r
TD
min
: compression stress due to diagonal tension in the stiffener

c0.2
: 0.2% yielding point (conventional allowable compression yield stress)
: shear stress in the panel

cp
: critical folding stress of the panel

flf
: critical forced crippling shear stress
~
: stress calculated before plasticity correction
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Page V1-3 / 4 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Meaning of indexes
a: " web"
c: " compression"
bt: " flanged edge"
p: " skin"
r: " stiffener"
s: " skin side flange"
t: " flange"
tp: " pad"
x, y, z: " reference axes"
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Page V1-3 / 5 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
C - REFERENCES
REF. 1: Theory of elastic stability TIMOSHENKO
REF. 2: Analysis and design of flight vehicle structures BRUHN
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Page V1-3 / 6 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
General - Page V1-31/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 1-GENERAL
The purpose of this chapter is to make it possible to:
1 - calculate the various allowable stresses in compression proper to stiffeners
(conseq uently, the following shall be considered as a complement to chapter
V1-1 STIFFENED PANELS).
2 - optimise a stiffener in the design phase.
V1-3 1.1-DEFINITIONS
Stiffeners are members secured to the panel to which they are supposed to increase the
stiffness. These members are laid in the normal dominating stress direction. For example, with
a fuselage the stiffeners are called " stringers" .
If the panel and the stiffener are two distinct items, the stiffener is then called a " fastened
stiffener" (it is fastened to the panel over its entire length with bolts, rivets or tack welds).
If the panel/stiffener assembly is machined from a thick plate, the stiffener is then called an
" integral stiffener" .
In all cases, the length of a stiffener is always much greater than its transverse dimensions.
For local studies, these stiffeners are broken down into skin side flanges (secured to the skin),
webs and flanges.
Skin side flange: Part of the stiffener connected to the panel by riveting or welding, of which
the centre plane is parallel to the centre plane of the panel.
Cap: Free part of the stiffener of which the centre plane or the axis (curved cap
stringer) is parallel to the centre plane of the panel.
Web: Part of the stiffener connecting the flanges of which the centre plane is
perpendicular or forms an angle with the centre plane of the panel.
Flanged edge: Part of the stiffener connected to the cap and located opposite the web.
STIFFENER
CAP
FLANGED EDGE
SKIN SIDE FLANGE
W
E
B
SKIN
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
General - Page V1-31/2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 1.2-BEHAVIOUR, FAILURE MODES
Stiffeners are capable of handling a normal load N
x
, a shear load T
z
and a bending moment
M
y
.
Bending and normal loads result in stresses. The shear load causes shear stresses in the web
but which may be considered as negligible (long beam assumption).
The stiffener is mainly subj ected to tension and compression stresses.
* Tension: The static strength limit of the stiffener at UL is given by the properties.
* Compression: This stiffener may be unstable under this type of load. Such instabilities are:
- under a short wave length mode (local):
Local buckling of the flange
Local buckling of the web
- under an average wave length mode:
Stiffener warping
- at the skin side flange and related to the fact that rivets are used:
Forced crippling
Inter-rivet buckling
- related in general to the stiffener:
Crippling resulting in stiffener failure. This phenomenon only occurs after
local buckling.
It is easy to understand the advantage of breaking down the stiffener into small flat or curved
interconnected plates, in order to be able to study each of the phenomena separately.
panel
M
y
T
z
N
x
G
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
General - Page V1-31/3 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
A stiffener is optimised if no local instability can occur in it before the conventional
compression allowable compression yield stress. Its allowable stress is then
c0.2
.
WARPING
LOCAL
BUCKLING
OF THE CAP
CRIPPLING
(closed type
cross section)
FORCED
CRIPPLING
LOCAL
BUCKLING
OF THE WEB
INTER-RIVET
BUCKLING
STIFFENER INSTABILITY
CAP
FLANGED
EDGE
STIFFENER
W
E
B
SKIN SIDE FLANGE
SKIN
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
General - Page V1-31/4 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Data preparation - Page V1-32/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 2-DATA PREPARATION
V1-3 2.1-MATERIAL DATA
STABILITY CALCULATIONS:
These calculations req uire the incorporation of the elastic-plastic behaviour of materials. To
this end, the Ramberg and Osgood model is used (refer to V2-2 " Material behaviour" ):
=

E
c c
n
+

0 002
0 2
. .
.
E
s
=

1 1
E
n
E
n
E
T s c
= +

Therefore, the following is needed for each type of material used:
the Young' s modulus in compression, E
c
,
the conventional allowable compression yield stress
c0.2
,
the Ramberg & Osgood coefficient, n.
V1-3 2.2-GEOMETRICAL DATA
As the data req uired to study the stiffener are specific to each phenomenon, they are detailed
in the paragraphs involved.
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Data preparation - Page V1-32/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/24 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.4.2-Bulb
For a bulb flange there is:
A
bt
=
D
bt
2
4
I
bt
=
D D D e
bt bt bt t
4 2 2
64 4 2
+

with I
bt
inertia of the bead in relation to the
neutral line of the flange.
Assumption: the critical buckling stress of the bead is always greater than that of the flange.
In this case, there is only one condition to verify:
The bead must be at least one support for the flange.
This means, using the Eq . 1.3.3.4.1:
D
e
D
e
D
e
b
e
bt
t
bt
t
bt
t
t
t

4 3 2
16 0 374 7 . . .44 ;
Eq. 1.3.3.4.2
By representing this eq uation by the following curve (Fig. 1.3.3.4.2.1), it is possible to
determine the minimum diameter of the bead D
bt
as a function of dimensions e
t
and b
t
of the
flange:
Minimum values of the D
bt
/ e
t
ratio as a function of the dimensions b
t
and e
t
of the flange, so that a bead is a support for the flange
Fig. 1.3.3.4.2
bulb flange
b
t
e
t
D
bt
bulb flange
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/25 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.4.3-Block diagram
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
FLANGED EDGE SIZING
CONDITIONS
1 - 2.73
I
b e
A
b e
bt
t t
bt
t t
3
5 and 2 -
~

fl
bt

~

fl
flange
Type of flanged edge? lip bead
A
bt
= b
bt
e
bt
I
bt
=
1
3

e
bt

b
bt
3
bt
bbt
ebt
et
lip
A
bt
=
D
bt
2
4
I
bt
=
D D D e
bt bt bt t
4 2 2
64 4 2
+

bulb flanged
edge
bt
et
Dbt
if e
bt
and b
bt
are to be defined
( )
.
min.
b
b
e
b
b
e
bt
t
t
t
t
t
0 55 1 1 6
2 2

+ +
( )
( )
.
min.
e
b
e
b
bt
bt selected
t
t
=

3 05
refer to Fig. 1.3.3.4.1.1
if e
bt
to be defined and b
bt
imposed
with
t
=
b
b
bt
t 0
and b
t
= b
t0
-
e
bt
2
it is therefore necessary that:
e e
b
b
e
b
e
bt
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
b
0 0
3 0
3
0
1 1 6 1
5
2 5 0 91

+

max .
. .
;

e
b
bt
t 0
1
refer to Fig. 1.3.3.4.1.2
if b
bt
to be defined and e
bt
imposed
by putting down
t
=
e
e
bt
t
it is necessary that:
b
e
b
e
b
e
b
e
b
e
bt
t
t
t t
t
t
t
t
t
t t t t t t
+ +

0 55 5 25
0 163
0 55 5 25
0 163
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
.
.
.
.

b
e
b
e
bt
t
t
t
t

0 328 .
refer to Fig. 1.3.3.4.1.3
Condition 2 is always verified and condition 1
imposes at least:
D
e
D
e
D
e
b
e
bt
t
bt
t
bt
t
t
t

=
4 3 2
1 6 0 374 7 44 . . .
refer to Fig. 1.3.3.4.2
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/26 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/13 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.3.3-Plasticity correction factor
The critical stress noted
~

fla
is calculated with = 1,
if:
~

fla
0.5 .
c0.2
then
fla
= .
~

fla
,
This calculation is iterative as = (E
S
, E
T
, ) = g(
fla
). It converges when:

fla

~

fla
To be applied in the case when:
fla
0.5 .
c0.2
According to Chapter V.1.2 (paragraph 2.2) of this manual, there is:
- For a flange-type plate (no cap):
1
=
1
1
2
2

e S
c
E
E
- For a plate simply supported in compression:
3
=
1
0 5 0 25 1 3 . . + +

E
E
T
S
Eq. 1.3.3.3.3
with:
E
c
: Young' s modulus in compression
E
S
: secant modulus
E
T
: tangent modulus

e
: Poisson s ratio in the elastic domain
: Poisson s ratio in the elastic-plastic domain
Remark:
If the stiffener does not have a cap, then refer to the previous chapter (V1.3.3.2) for calculation
of the local buckling of the web proceeding as for a flat flange without a flanged edge (side
skin flange-type plate).
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/14 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/15 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.3.4-Block diagram
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
LOCAL BUCKLING OF THE WEB
CALCULATION OF k
c
Is the flange a
support for the
web?
2.73
I
h e
A
h e
t
a a
t
a a
3
5
yes no
k
c
= 4
kc = 4 + 0.714 2 73 5
3
.
I
h e
A
h e
t
a a
t
a a

Eq . 1.3.3.3.2.1
CALCULATION OF
fla
~

fla
= k
c

E
12 (1 )
e
h
c
2
e
2
a
a
2

Eq . 1.3.3.3.1
PLASTICITY CORRECTION
yes no
end
~

fla
0.5 .
c0.2
Eq . 1.3.3.3.3

fla
=
3
.
~

fla
if flange

fla
=
1
.
~

fla
if no flange
with:

3
=
1
0 5 0 25 1 3 . . + +

E
E
T
S
and:

1
=
1
1
2
2

e S
c
E
E
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/16 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.3.5-Example
Use the stiffener studied in this chapter:
The geometrical properties are: (refer to paragraph V1.3.1)
cap thickness: e
t
= 4 mm
cap width: b
t
= 15 mm
web thickness: e
a
= 2 mm
web height: h
a
= 26,5 mm
The characteristics of the materials are: (refer to paragraph V1.3.2)
- stiffener:
7075 T73510
r
= 495 MPa E
c
= 73800 MPa

c0.2
= 420 Mpa n = 19.66

e
= 0.33
p
= 0.5
V1-3 3.3.5.1-Calculation of k
c
0.91
e b
h e
b e
h e
t t
a a
t t
a a
3
3
3
3
0 91
4 15
26 5 2
4 15
26 5 2
56 8 5 = = .
( )
. ( )
.
. .
.
The condition Eq .1.3.3.3.2.1.1 is verified and therefore the flange is a sufficient support for the
web.
k
c
= 4
V1-3 3.3.5.2-Calculation of
fla
~

fla
= k
c

( )
E e
h
c
e
a
a

2
2
2
2
2
2
12 1
4
73800
12 1 0 33
2
26 5 ( )
( )
( . ) .

let:
~

fla
= 1552MPa
16
4
2
30
2
35
25
3
3
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/17 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.3.5.3-Plasticity correction

fla
=
3
~

fla
with:

3
=
1
0 5 0 25 1 3 . . + +

E
E
T
S
and
1
=
1
1
2
2

e S
c
E
E
=
E
E
E
E
S
c
e
S
c
p
+

1
E
s
=
1
1 0 002
0 2 0 2
1
E
c c
fla
c
n
+


.
. .

E
T
=
1
1 0 002
0 2 0 2
1
E
n
c c
fla
c
n
+


.
. .

After numerical resolution, the following is found:

fla
= 476 Mpa
Remark:
This critical local buckling stress of the web is greater than the 0.2% yielding point.
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/18 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/19 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.4-SIZING OF A FLANGED EDGE
Flanged edges are of two types: lips and beads.
The purpose of a flanged edge is to provide, at least, a single support for the flange. However,
for this flanged edge to be efficient, it must not buckle before the flange. These two conditions
are translated as follows:
- The flanged edge must be a support for the flange: (Ref. 2, paragraph C7.9)
2.73
I
b e
A
b e
bt
t t
bt
t t
3
5 Eq. 1.3.3.4.1
with: A
bt
: cross section area of the flanged edge
I
bt
: inertia of the flanged edge in relation to the neutral line of the flange
- The flanged edge must not buckle before the flange: the critical local
buckling stress of the flanged edge must be greater than that of the flange.

fl
bt

fl
talon
Eq. 1.3.3.4.2
V1-3 3.4.1-Lip
For a lip, there is:
A
bt
= b
bt
e
bt
I
bt
=
1
3
3

e b
bt bt
b
t
b
bt
e
bt
e
t
lip bead
b
t
e
t
D
b
t
b
bt
e
bt
e
t
lip
bending axis
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/20 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Being, for the first condition (Eq . 1.3.3.4.1):
0.91
b
e
b
e
b
e
bt
t
bt
t
t
bt


3
5 0 Eq . 1.3.3.4.1.1
For the second condition, the limits are set in the elastic domain as, if this condition is satisfied
in this domain, it is all the more so satisfied in the plastic domain.
In fact, if put down:
-
1
and
3
the plasticity correction factors respectively of the flanged edge and the
flange then:
1

3
(refer to Chapter V.1.2 (paragraph 2.2)) of this manual.
-
~

fl
the critical buckling stress calculated in the elastic domain, such as:
fl
=
~

fl
then:
~

fl
bt

~

fl
flange
and
fl
bt

fl
flange

1

3
The sufficient condition is therefore:
~

fl
bt

~

fl
flange
which is formulated as follows:
k
cbt

E e
b
k
E e
b
c
e
bt
bt
c
C
e
t
t
flange

2
2
2
2
2
2
12 1 12 1 ( ) ( )


b
e
k
k
b
e
bt
bt
cbt
cflange
t
t

Eq. 1.3.3.4.1.2
with the k
c
factors given in the previous chapter:
k
c flange
= 4: for the flange
k
c bt
= 0.43: for the flanged edge
The minimal e
bt
eq uation is deduced:
e
bt
=
4
0.43

e
b
t
t
b
bt
let e
bt
= 3.05
e
b
t
t

b
bt
Using this eq uation in Eq .1.3.3.4.1.1 it is possible to obtain the minimum value of the ratio
( )
min.
b
b
bt
t
as a function of the ratio
e
b
t
t
of the flange, so that the lip is at least a single support
for the flange:
( )
.
.
.43
min.
b
b
e
b
b
e
bt
t
t
t
t
t
=

+ +

1
182
1 1 18 2
0
4
2 2
let: Eq. 1.3.3.4.1.3
( )
min.
b
b
e
b
b
e
bt
t
t
t
t
t
=

+ +

055 1 1 6
2
2
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/21 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Having chosen a value for b
bt
so that (b
bt
)
selected
(b
bt
)
min.
, it is necessary to determine the
minimum width of the flanged edge so that it does not buckle before the flange. To this end,
Eq . 1.3.3.4.1.2 is used:
( )
( )
e
b
e
b
bt
bt
selected
t
t
min.
.43
=

4
0
let
( )
( )
e
b
e
b
bt
bt
selected
t
t
min.
. =

3 05 Eq. 1.3.3.4.1.4
Finally, the straight flanged edge dimensions should verify that:
b
bt
(b
bt
)
min.
e
bt
(e
bt
)
min.
with:
Minimum dimensions e
bt
and b
bt
of a flanged edge as a function of the flange dimensions.
1 - b
bt
minimum as a function of b
t
and e
t
.
2 - e
bt
minimum as a function of b
t
, e
t
and b
bt
selected in 1.
Fig.: 1.3.3.4.1.1
(
b
b
t
)
m
i
n
.


b
t
(
e
b
t
)
m
i
n
.
(
b
b
t
)
s
e
l
e
c
t
e
d
e
t

b
t
1
2
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/22 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Determination of the thickness ebt of a flanged edge
the height of the flanged edge bbt is imposed in relation to
dimensions et and bt0 of the flange
here b bt = 0.25 b t0
Special cases:
Case 1: If b
bt
is imposed then by putting down
t
=
b
b
bt
t 0
, such that b
t
= b
t0
-
e
bt
2
and b
t0
fixed:
it is necessary:
- according to Eq . 1.3.3.4.1.1:
e
b
b
e
b
e
bt
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
0
3 0
3
0
5
2 5 0 91

. .
- according to Eq . 1.3.3.4.1.2:
e
b
e
b
e
b
bt
t
bt
t
t
t
t 0
2
0 0
2 61 0

+ . .
The second condition is only possible if:
e
b
t
t 0
6.1 .
t
, then in this case it is necessary:
1 1 61 1 1 61
0 0 0
+ . .
t
t
t
bt
t
t
t
t
e
b
e
b
e
b
Furthermore, the case e
bt
b
t0
means making the flange thicker, which is not the purpose of
this study. Therefore, work is limited to cases: e
bt
b
t0

e
b
bt
t 0
1;
To conclude, if b
bt
is imposed with
t
=
b
b
bt
t 0
and b
t
= b
t0
-
e
bt
2
, then it is necessary:
max 1 1 61
5
2 5 0 91
1
0
3 0
3
0
0

. ;
. .


t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
bt
t
e
b
b
e
b
e
e
b
Eq. 1.3.3.4.1.5
e
bt
must be selected in the following non-hatched domain: (case where = 0.25).
Fig.: 1.3.3.4.1.2
b
t
b
bt
e
bt
e
t
b
t0
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/23 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
The flanged edge buckles
before the flange
The flanged edge is not a
support for the flange
Case 2: If e
bt
is imposed, then by putting down
t
=
e
e
bt
t
, it is necessary that:
0 55 5 25
0163
0 55 5 25
0163 0 328
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
.
.
.
. .


t t
t
t t
t
t t t
t
t t
t
t
bt
t
t
t
t
b
e
b
e
b
e
b
e
b
e
b
e
+

Eq. 1.3.3.4.1.6
For example, this is the case of a bent over edge. Then there is
t
=
e
e
bt
t
= 1 and b
bt
has to be
selected in the following non-hatched domain:
Dimensions of the straight flanged edge as a function of the dimensions of the flange if
they both have the same thickness e
t
: = 1
Fig.: 1.3.3.4.1.3
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3-LOCAL BUCKLING
V1-3 3.1-ASSUMPTIONS
For these calculations a stiffener angle section may be broken down into plates, the unloaded
edges of which are either hinged or free. Then the rules given in Chapter V1-2 are used
" Buckling of thin plates and shells" .
Local buckling concerns all parts of the stiffener which are not connected with the skin (the
cap, the web, etc.). This is low wave length instability.
The length of the unloaded edges is very long in relation to the width of the parts making up
the angle section and therefore in relation to the half wave length of the pattern. The cap or the
web must be considered as being infinitely long plates in single compression and therefore the
final constant buckling factors must be used.
The dimensions used for local buckling calculation or sizing of the flanged edge are as
follows:
b
t
b
bt
e
bt
e
t
flat flange with a
lip edge
straight flange
with bead
b
t
e
t
D
bt
curved flange
e
t
r
t
e
a
h
a
e
a
h
a
web
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.2-LOCAL BUCKLING OF THE FLANGE
V1-3 3.2.1-Flat flange
The boundary conditions at unloaded edges depend on two points:
- Stiffness of the link between the flange and the web,
- Whether or not there is a flanged edge and the amount of support provided by it.
* Conservatively in all cases, the web-flange connection shall be considered as a
single support.
* The condition on the extreme edge of the flange depends on the presence or absence
of a flanged edge:
if there is a flanged edge, take into account the amount of support it provides in
relation to the flange; otherwise, it is a free edge.
e
t
b
t
L
e
t
b
t
L
without a flanged edge with a flanged edge
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/3 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.2.1.1-Critical local buckling stress
flt
To calculate the critical local buckling stress of a flat flange, the results from Chapter V.1.2
(paragraph 2.3.1.1) of this manual (flat plate buckling) are used.
In all cases (whether a flanged edge or not) the eq uation of the critical local buckling stress of
the flat flange shall be:

flt
= k
c

E e
b
c
e
t
t
2
2
2
12 1 ( )

Eq. 1.3.3.2.1.1
with:
b
t
: flange width
e
t
: flange thickness
E
c
: Young' s modulus in compression

e
: Poisson ratio in the elastic domain
k
c
: local buckling factor (dpendant des C.L. et de la gomtrie)
: plasticity correction factor
To calculate this critical stress, it is therefore necessary to determine the local buckling factor
k
c
and the plasticity correction factor , as a function of the boundary conditions and the
geometry of the stiffener.
V1-3 3.2.1.2-Local buckling factor
- without a flanged edge: k
c
= 0.43 (one edge supported, one free edge)
# If the flange has a flanged edge, then the factor k
c
of the flange depends on the amount of
support this flanged edge provides.
To ensure a simply supported condition, it has to satisfy the following conditions: (ref. 2,
paragraph C7.9).
2.73
I
b e
A
b e
bt
t t
bt
t t
3
5 Eq. 1.3.3.2.1.2.1
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/4 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
k
c
is calculated as follows:
- with a flanged edge such that: 2.73
I
b e
A
b e
bt
t t
bt
t t
3
5 then k
c
= k
c
= 4
- with a flanged edge such that: 2.73
I
b e
A
b e
bt
t t
bt
t t
3
< 5 then k
c
= 4 + 0.714 2 73 5
3
.
I
b e
A
b e
bt
t t
bt
t t

Eq. 1.3.3.2.1.2.2
with:
b
t
: flange width
e
t
: flange thickness
A
bt
: cross section area of the flanged edge
I
bt
: inertia of the flanged edge in relation to the neutral line of the flange
(refer to paragraph 3.4 for the eq uations of A1 and I1 in the case of a lip or a bulb (bead))
V1-3 3.2.1.3-Plasticity correction factor
The critical stress noted
~

flt
is calculated with = 1,
if:
~

flt
0.5 .
c0.2
then
flt
= .
~

flt
,
This calculation is iterative as = f (E
S
, E
T
, ) = g(
flt
). It converges when:

flt

~

flt
According to Chapter V.1.2 (paragraph 2.2) of this manual, there is:
- For a flange without a flanged edge:
1
=
1
1
2
2

e S
c
E
E
- For a flange with a flanged edge:
3
=
1
0 5 0 25 1 3 . . + +

E
E
T
S
Eq. 1.3.3.2.1.3
with:
E
S
: secant modulus
E
T
: tangent modulus
E
c
: Young' s modulus in compression

e
: Poisson s ratio in the elastic domain
: Poisson s ratio in the elastic-plastic domain
Remark:
3
<
1
in case of doubt, choose the conservative solution.
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/5 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.2.2-Curved flange
For local buckling calculation of a curved flange, the stiffener flange is compared to an
infinitely long cylinder under single compression (refer to paragraph V1.2.4 of this manual:
" Long cylinder buckling" ).
V1-3 3.2.2.1-Critical local buckling stress
flt
To calculate the critical local buckling stress of the curved flange, the results from Chapter
V.1.2 (paragraph 4.4.1) of this manual (long cylinder buckling) are used.
The eq uation for the critical local buckling stress of the flange shall be:

flt
= CE
c

e
r
t
t

Eq. 1.3.3.2.2.1
with:
r
t
: flange radius
e
t
: flange thickness
E
c
: Young' s modulus in compression
C: local buckling coefficient
: plasticity correction factors
r
t
e
t
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/6 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
To calculate this critical stress it is therefore necessary to determine the local buckling
coefficient C and the plasticity correction factor .
V1-3 3.2.2.2-Local buckling factor
According to Chapter V.1.2 (paragraph 4.4.1) of this manual, considering the case of long
cylinders:
- For: 8.52
r
e
t
t
3000: C = 0.6 * In 3 748
0 15
.
.
r
e
t
t

- For:
r
e
t
t
8.52: C = 0.6
Eq. 1.3.3.2.2.2
V1-3 3.2.2.3-Plasticity correction factor
Noting the critical stress
~

flt
calculated with = 1,
if:
~

flt
0.5 .
c0.2
then
flt
= .
~

flt
,
This calculation is iterative as = f (E
S
, E
T
, ) = g (
flt
). It converges when:

flt

~

flt
According to Chapter V.1.2 (paragraph 4.3) of this manual, there is:
- For a long cylinder in compression: =
E
E
E
E
S
c
T
S
Eq. 1.3.3.2.2.3
with:
E
c
: Young' s modulus in compression
E
S
: secant modulus
E
T
: tangent modulus
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/7 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.2.3-Block diagram
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
LOCAL BUCKLING OF THE FLANGE
flat flange curved flange
CALCULATION OF k
c
CALCULATION OF C
Flanged
edge?
yes
flanged edge
= hinged edge?
2.73
I
b e
A
b e
bt
t t
bt
t t
3
5
yes
k
c
= 4
no
kc = 4 + 0.714 2 73 5
3
.
I
b e
A
b e
bt
t t
bt
t t

Eq . 1.3.3.2.1.2.1
no
k
c
= 0.43
CALCULATION OF
flt
~
flt = kc
E e
b
c
e
t
t

2
2
2
12 (1 )

CALCULATION OF
flt
~
flt = CEc
e
r
t
t

k
c
= 0.6
C = 0.6 In 3 748
0 15
.
.
r
e
t
t

r
e
t
t
8.52 8.52
r
e
t
t
3000
PLASTICITY CORRECTION
yes no
flat flange curved flange
flanged
edge?
yes no

flt
=
3
.
~

flt
with:

3
=
1
0 5 0 25 1 3 . . + +

E
E
T
S
and:

1
=
1
1
2
2

e S
c
E
E

flt
=
1
.
~

flt
with:

1
=
1
1
2
2

e S
c
E
E

flt
= .
~

flt
with:
=
E
E
E
E
S
c
T
S
Eq . 1.3.3.2.1.3
Eq . 1.3.3.2.1.3 Eq . 1.3.3.2.2.3
end
Eq . 1.3.3.2.1 Eq . 1.3.3.2.2.1
Eq . 1.3.3.2.2.2
~
flt 0.5 . c0.2 ?
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/8 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.2.4-Example
Use the stiffener studied in Chapter V1-1:
The geometrical characteristics are: (refer to paragraph V1.3.1)
flange thickness: e
t
= 4 mm
flange width: b
t
= 15 mm
The materials properties are: (refer to paragraph V1.3.2)
- stiffener:
7075 T73510
r
= 495 MPa E
c
= 73800 MPa

c0.2
= 420 MPa n = 13.83

e
= 0.33
p
= 0.5
V1-3 3.2.4.1-Calculation of k
c
No flanged edge, therefore: k
c
= 0.43
V1-3 3.2.4.2-Calculation of
~

flf
(linear elastic material)
~

flt
= k
c

E e
b
c
e
t
t

2
2
2
12 1 ( )

= 0.43
( )
( )
( )
73800
12 1 0 33
4
15
2
2
2

.
let:
~

flt
= 2082MPa
16
4
2
30
2
35
25
3
3
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/9 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.2.4.3-Plasticity correction

flt
=
1

~

flt
with:

1
=
1
1
2
2

e S
c
E
E
=
E
E
S
c

e
+ 1

E
E
S
c

p
E
s
=
1
1 0 002
0 2 0 2
1
E
c c
flt
c
n
+


.
. .

After numerical resolution there is:

flt
= 504MPa
Remark:
This critical local buckling stress of the flange is greater than the 0.2% yielding point.
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/10 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/11 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.3-LOCAL BUCKLING OF THE WEB
The boundary conditions on the unloaded edges depend on the stiffness of the connections
between the web and the cap, between the web and the skin side flange.
* Conservatively and in all cases, the web-skin side flange connection is considered as
a single support.
* The web-cap connection depends on the amount of support the flange provides in
relation to the web.
Remark:
If the stiffener is not provided with a cap, then it is necessary to refer to the previous chapter
(V1.3.3.2) to calculate the local buckling of the web, proceeding as for a flat flange without a
flanged edge (skin side flange-type plate).
e
a
h
a
L
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Local buckling - Page V1-33/12 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 3.3.1-Critical local buckling stress
fla
To calculate the critical local buckling stress of the web, the results from Chapter V.1.2
(paragraph 2.3.1.1) of this manual (flat plate buckling) are used.
The eq uation of the critical local buckling stress of the web is:

fla
= k
c

E e
h
c
e
a
a
2
2
2
12 1 ( )

Eq. 1.3.3.3.1
with:
h
a
: loaded edge length (web height)
e
a
: web thickness
E
c
: Young' s modulus in compression

e
: Poisson s ratio in the elastic domain
k
c
: local buckling factor
: plasticity correction factor
Therefore, to calculate this critical stress, the local buckling factor k
c
and the plasticity
correction factor , have to be determined in function of the boundary conditions and the
geometry of the stiffener.
V1-3 3.3.2-Local buckling factor k
c
For the flange to truly support the web, it has to satisfy the condition given in Eq . 1.3.3.2.1.2.1
(refer to paragraph C7.9):
2.73
I
h e
A
h e
t
a a
t
a a
3
5 Eq. 1.3.3.3.2.1
A
t
: cross section area of the flange
I
t
: inertia of the flange in relation to the neutral line of the web
If the flange satisfies this condition then, according to Chapter V.1.2 (paragraph 2.3.1.1) in
this manual, the web is considered as an infinitely long plate simply supported on unloaded
edges:
k
c
= k
c
= 4 if 2.73
I
h e
A
h e
t
a a
t
a a
3
5
k
c
= 4 + 0.714 2 73 5
3
.
I
h e
A
h e
t
a a
t
a a

if 2.73
I
h e
A
h e
t
a a
t
a a
3
< 5
Eq. 1.3.3.3.2.2
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Optimisation - Page V1-38/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 8-OPTIMISATION
Critical stresses in a correctly sized stiffener are very close one to the other and are greater
than the conventional allowable yield stress of the material.
V1-3 8.1-SKIN SIDE FLANGE
The fastener pitch must be such that the inter-rivet buckling stress is high enough. Ideally, this
stress must be greater than or eq ual to the conventional allowable compression yield stress of
the stiffener. This gives:
countersunk head bolts, rivets:
p
e
E
n
c
c

+
138
0 002
0 2
.
.
.

flat head bolts, tack welding:


p
e
E
n
c
c

+
1 70
0 002
0 2
.
.
.

The maximum fastener pitch shall depend on the thickness of the skin under the stiffeners.
Then, care shall be taken to ensure that the thickness of the stiffener skin side flange is
sufficient, and that the pitch selected is compatible with the diameter of the fasteners:
3
p
D
6
p
D
= 4.5 is a freq uently used value (" sealed pitch" )
Example:
Skin made of 2024 PLT3, riveted stiffeners:
p
e
10.2 (E = 70300 MPa,
c0.2
= 270 MPa, n = 7.05)
If the skin thickness is 3 mm, the following is necessary: p 30.6 mm
Stiffener made of 7075 T73510
p
e
7.5 (E = 73800 MPa,
c0.2
= 420 MPa, n = 13.83)
If the thickness of the base is 3 mm, the following is necessary: p 22.5 mm
However, if p=30 mm, then it is necessary to have e
sr
4 mm
In the first case, the following fasteners shall be used: 4.8 (
p
D
= 4.7),
In the second case, the following fasteners: 6.35 (
p
D
= 4.7).
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Optimisation - Page V1-38/2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
The skin side flange width shall be determined using the diameter of the selected fasteners
(minimum edge distance = 2D, minimum distance between the centreline of the fasteners and
the web).
If the skin is subj ected to diagonal tension, the pad thickness under the stiffener shall ideally
be 1.5 times the thickness of the adj acent pockets:
e
e
t
= 1.5
V1-3 8.2-WEB
Ideally, folding should not occur before
c0.2
. This is the case if the ratio
h
e
satisfies the
following conditions:
Plate with a free unloaded edge:
h
e
E
c
c

+
0 66
0 002
0 2
.
.
.

Plate with two hinged unloaded edges:


h
e
E
c
c

+
175
0 002
0 2
.
.
.

Example:
Stiffener made of 7075 T73510 (E = 73800 MPa,
c0.2
= 420 MPa, n = 13.83) with flange:
h
e
20
Generally, the height of the web is limited for space allocation reasons.
2D mini
D
e e
t
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Optimisation - Page V1-38/3 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 8.3-FLANGE
The local buckling condition is governed by the rule defined for the web. Ideally, it would also
be better if the warping stress was greater (or eq ual) to the allowable yield stress of the
material.
If the stiffener is provided with a single flange (Z stiffener), this last condition is practically
impossible to satisfy.
It is necessary, at least, for the flange to be a support for the web.
V1-3 8.4-CRIPPLING
Imposes a supplementary condition on the skin side flange: refer to paragraph 8.2 (plate with
one unloaded free edge).
Example:
Stiffener made of 7075 T73510:
b
e
s
s
7.5. This results in a skin side flange width equal to the
fastener pitch.
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Optimisation - Page V1-38/4 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Forced crippling - Page V1-35/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 5-FORCED CRIPPLING
The forced crippling phenomenon may occur when the panels carry loads in diagonal tension
(refer to paragraphs V1-1.5 and V1-1.6: stiffened panels in single nominal shear).
V1-3 5.1-ASSUMPTIONS
Waves caused by folding of panel bays induce local deflection in the skin side flange of the
stiffener which increases when the thickness of the flange is thinner than that of the panel.
The free edge (AA) of the flange tends to follow the waves of the skin whereas the edge it
makes with the web (BB) remains straight.
Fig. 1.3.5.1.1
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Forced crippling - Page V1-35/2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Fig. 1.3.5.1.2
Then the local bending stresses amplified by the compression are added to the compression
stresses due to the diagonal tension.
V1-3 5.2-ALLOWABLE STRESSES
Forced crippling occurs when the maximum compression in the stiffener reaches a value
defined by a empirical equation integrating the plasticity of the material:
STRAIGHT STIFFENER (e.g.: Stringer...R(Curvature radius) > 3800 mm)

flf
= - 0.051 .

c r
c r
cr
sr cr
p cp
E
k
e E
e E
0 2
0 2
2 3
1 3
0 002
.
.
/
/
.
. .
' .
.
+

Eq . 1.3.5.2.1 (Ref. 2, Fig. C11.38)


with:
e'
sr
: eq uivalent thickness of the stiffener skin side flange
E
cr
: compression of the stiffener Young' s modulus
e
p
: panel thickness
E
cp
: compression of the panel Young' s modulus
k: diagonal tension factor (paragraph V-1.1.5.4)

c0.2
: conventional allowable compressive yield stress of the stiffener
panel
stiffener
A
A
A.A
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Forced crippling - Page V1-35/3 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
CURVED STIFFENER (e.g.: Frame...500 mm r (curvature radius) 3800 mm)

flf
= - (0.511r + 3095.3) . 10
-5
.

c r
c r
cr
sr cr
p cp
E
k
e E
e E
0 2
0 2
2 3
1 3
0 002
.
.
/
/
.
. .
' .
.
+

Eq . 1.3.5.2.2 (Ref. 2, Fig. C11.38)


with:
e'
sr
: eq uivalent thickness of the stiffener skin side flange
E
cr
: compression Young' s modulus of the stiffener
e
p
: panel thickness
E
cp
: compression Young' s modulus of the panel
k: diagonal tension factor ( V-1.1.5.4)

c0.2
: conventional allowable compression yield stress of the stiffener
r: stiffener curvature radius
The forced crippling calculation is to be integrated in the general iteration of the calculation of
a stiffened panel when the critical stiffener stress calculation step is reached. At each iteration,
k, according to the applied stress, is set. Like this it is possible to calculate the compression
stress value applied to stiffener
r
TD
min
as well as the allowable stress value.
The calculation converges when:
flf

r
TD
min
The calculated value of
flf
must be clipped at
c0.2
.
In other words, forced crippling occurs when the shear stress in the panel reaches a critical
value: =
flf
To determine the load =
flf
causing forced crippling of the stiffener skin side flange, it is
necessary to increment (single shear stress in the panel) until

rmin
TD
=
flf
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Forced crippling - Page V1-35/4 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
The following method is used to estimate
flf
with sufficient accuracy:
RF
(0)
=

flf
r
TD
( )
min( )
0
0
R
S(0)
=

( ) 0
cp
It is possible to estimate R
S(1)
(iteration 1) using the following eq uation
R
S(1)
= RF
(0)
(R
S(0)
- 1) + 1 Eq . 1.3.5.2.3
Knowing R
S(1)
and
cp
, it is possible to deduce and therefore
flf
:

flf
= RS(1) . cp Eq . 1.3.5.2.4

flf
(i) = R
S
(i) .
cp
Then to iterate until RF(i) 1, putting down: k(i) =
R i
R i
S
S

( )
( )

+
1
1
(*)
k i R i
k R
i
S
S
r
TD
r
TD
( ). ( )
( ). ( )
( )
( )
min
min
0 0 0
=

with:

flf
(i): Critical forced crippling stress at iteration (i)

r
TD
min
(i): Compression stress due to diagonal tension in the stiffener at iteration (i)
(i): Shear stress in the panel at iteration (i)

cp
: Critical panel folding stress

flf
: Critical forced crippling shear stress
(*) Reminder:
According to paragraph V1-1.6.4, if (R
S
1) (k(i) =
R i
R i
S
S

( )
( )

+
1
1
)
with
0 5 1 0 260 6 . .4343 . < <

= +

B
A
e A
rB
p

0 5 1 0 260 6 . .4343 . < <

= +

A
B
e B
rA
p

0 2 0 5
0 2 0 5
0 5212
. .
. .
.4343 .
< <

< <

= +

B
A
B
A
e
r
p

where:
A: transverse member pitch
B: stiffener pitch
r: panel curvature radius
e
p
: panel pocket thickness
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Forced crippling - Page V1-35/5 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 5.3-EQUIVALENT THICKNESS OF THE STIFFENER SKIN SIDE
FLANGE
The presence of a panel over thickness under the stiffener (PAD) delays the occurrence of
forced crippling. e'
sr
, the effective thickness of the skin side flange, is then greater than e
sr
(Eq . 1-3.5.2.1 or 2):
Fig. 1.3.5.3.1
Eq uivalent thickness of the skin side flange:
e'
sr
=
( )
e
E
E
e e
sr
p
r
tp p
2
2
+ limited to e
sr
' 1.35 . e
sr
Eq . 1.3.5.3.1
if e
tp
> 1.5 e
p
, take e
tp
= 1.5 . e
p
in the calculation of e'
sr
with:
e
tp
: pad thickness
e
sr
: stiffener skin side flange thickness
e
p
: panel pocket thickness
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
b
sr
e
p
e
t
p
b
tp
e
s
r
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Forced crippling - Page V1-35/6 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 5.4-EXAMPLE
Use the stiffener studied in Chapter V1-1 considering the case when it is straight, then the case
in which it is curved:
Stiffener material: 7075 T73510
r
= 495 MPa E
cr
= 73800 MPa

c0.2
= 420 MPa
stiffener skin side flange thickness: e
sr
= 3 mm
skin side flange width: b
sr
= 25 mm
Panel material: 2024 PLT351
r
= 440 Mpa E
cp
= 70300 MPa

c0.2
= 270 Mpa
skin thickness: e
p
= 2 mm
pad thickness: e
tp
= 3 mm
pad width: b
tp
= 35 mm
frames pitch: L = 530 mm
V1-3 5.4.1-Straight stiffener
According to the example in paragraph V1-1.5.12, there is:
k = 0.24
= 160 MPa

cp
= 52 MPa

r
TD
min
= - 55 MPa
V1-3 5.4.1.1-Equivalent thickness
e'
sr
=
( )
e
E
E
e e
sr
p
r
tp p
2
2
+
application: e'
sr
= ( ) 3
70300
73800
3 2
2
2
+ e'
sr
= 3.15 < 1.35 . e
sr
= 4.05
e'
sr
= 3.15
16
4
2
30
2
35
25
3
3
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Forced crippling - Page V1-35/7 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 5.4.1.2-Normal critical stress
In the case of a straight stiffener, the critical stress is formulated:

flf
= - 0.051 .

c r
c r
cr
sr cr
p cp
E
k
e E
e E
0 2
0 2
2 3
1 3
0 002
.
.
/
/
.
. .
' .
.
+

with k = 0.24 (refer to paragraph V1-1.5.12), therefore:

flf
= - 0.051 .
420
420
73800
0 002
0 24
315 73800
2 70300
2 3
1 3
+

.
. . .
. .
.
/
/

flf
= - 111 MPa
with
r
TD
min (0) = - 55.3 MPa (refer to paragraph V1-1.5.12), therefore:
RF(0) =

flf
r
TD
( )
min( )
0
0
111
55
=

RF
(0)
= 2.017
V1-3 5.4.1.3-Critical shear stress
with
(0)
= 160 MPa and
cp
= 52 MPa (refer to paragraph V1-1.5.12), therefore:
R
s(0)
=

( ) 0
160
52
cp
=
R
s(0)
= 3.0769
Calculation of R
S(1)
:
R
S(1)
= RF
(0)
(R
S(0)
- 1) + 1
R
S
(1) = 2.017 (3.0769 - 1) + 1
R
S(1)
= 5.189
Calculation of the new panel loading :

(1)
= R
S(1)
.
cp
= 5.189 . 52

(1)
= 269 MPa
This new shear value in the panel will give a new loading factor k and therefore a new
stiffener stress. By continuing the calculation loop in paragraph V-1-1.5.12, there is:
k(1) =
R
R
k R
k R
S
S
s
s
r
TD
r
TD
( )
( )
. ;
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
.41
.
.
min
min
1
1
1
1
0 343
1 1
0 0
1
0
2
0 4343
0 4343

+
= =


r min(1)
TD
= - 133 MPa
and
flf (1)
= - 141 MPa
RF(1) =

flf
r
TD
( )
( )
min
1
1
141
133
= RF
(1)
= 1.062
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Forced crippling - Page V1-35/8 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
giving the new R
s
:
R
S(2)
= RF
(1)
(R
S(1)
- 1) + 1
R
S(2)
= 1.062 (5.1499 - 1) + 1
R
S(2)
= 5.45

(2)
= 283 MPa
This new shear value in the panel will give a new loading factor k and therefore a new
stiffener stress. By continuing the calculation loop of paragraph V-1-1.5.12, there is:
k(2) = 0.352;
k R
k R
s
s
r
TD
r
TD
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
min
min
2 2
0 0
2
0

= 2.6
r min(2)
TD
= - 143 MPa
and
flf (2)
= - 143 MPa
and therefore a new RF:
RF
(2)
= 1.001
An RF very close to 1 is obtained after two iterations. The calculation is stopped here and
therefore:

flf
= 283 MPa
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Forced crippling - Page V1-35/9 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 5.4.2-Curved stiffener
According to the example in paragraph V1-1.6.13, there is:
r = 2820 mm
k = 0.393
= 160 MPa

cp
= 57 MPa

r min
TD
= - 76 MPa
V1-3 5.4.2.1-Equivalent thickness
e'
sr
=
( )
e
E
E
e e
sr
p
r
tp p
2
2
+
application: e'
sr
= ( ) 3
70300
73800
3 2
2
2
+ e'
sr
= 3.15 < 1.35 . e
sr
= 4.05
e'
sr
= 3.15
V1-3 4.5.1.2-Normal critical stress
With a curved stiffener, the critical stress is formulated:

flf
= - (0.511 . r + 3095.3) . 10
-5
.

c r
c r
csr
sr cr
p cp
E
k
e E
e E
0 2
0 2
2 3
1 3
0 002
.
.
/
/
.
. .
' .
.
+

with k = 0.393 (refer to paragraph V1-1.6.13), therefore:

flf
= - (0.511 . 2820 + 3095.3) . 10
-5
.
420
420
73800
0 002
0 393
315 73800
2 70300
2 3
1 3
+

.
. . .
. .
.
/
/

flf
= - 137 MPa
with
r
TD
min (0) = - 76 MPa (refer to paragraph V1-1.6.13), therefore:
RF(0) =

flf
r
TD
( )
min( )
0
0
137
76
=

RF
(0)
= 1.804
V1-3 5.4.1.3-Critical shear stress
with
(0)
= 160 MPa and
cp
= 57 MPa (refer to paragraph V1-1.6.13), therefore:
R
s(0)
=

( ) 0
160
57
cp
=
RS
(0)
= 2.807
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Forced crippling - Page V1-35/10 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Calculation of R
S(1)
:
R
S(1)
= RF
(0)
(R
S(0)
- 1) + 1
R
S(1)
= 1.804 (2.807 - 1) + 1
R
S(1)
= 4.26
Calculation of the new panel loading :

(1)
= R
S(1)
.
cp
= 4.26 . 57

(1)
= 242 MPa
This new shear value in the panel will give us a new loading factor k and therefore a new
stiffener stress. By continuing the calculation iteration of paragraph V-1-1.6.13, there is:
k(1) =
R
R
k R
k R
S
S
s
s
r
TD
r
TD
( )
( )
. ;
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
.
.
.
min
min
1
1
1
1
0 524
1 1
0 0
1
0
2 023
0 8039
0 8039

+
= =


r min(1)
TD
= - 154 MPa
and
flf (1)
= - 166 MPa
RF(1) =

flf
r
TD
( )
( )
.
.
min
1
1
166 97
154 59
= RF
(1)
= 1.08
giving the new R
S
:
R
S(2)
= RF
(1)
(R
S(1)
- 1) + 1
R
S(2)
= 1.08 (4.26 - 1) + 1
R
S(2)
= 4.52

(2)
= 257 MPa
This new shear value in the panel will gives us a new loading factor k and therefore a new
stiffener stress. By continuing the calculation iteration of paragraph V-1-1.5.12, there is:
k(2) = 0.541;
k R
k R
s
s
r
TD
r
TD
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
min
min
2 2
0 0
2
0

= 2.22
r min(2)
TD
= - 169 MPa
and
flf (2)
= - 170 MPa
and therefore a new RF:
RF
(2)
= 1.007
An RF very close to 1 is obtained after two iterations. The calculation is stopped here and
therefore:

flf
= 257 MPa
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Inter-rivet buckling - Page V1-36/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 6-INTER-RIVET BUCKLING
The inter-rivet buckling phenomenon occurs when there is local buckling in the panel (or the
stiffener skin side flange) between two consecutive rivets. It may occur if the panel is loaded
in compression. To prevent this phenomenon from occurring, the compression stress in the
panel (or in the stiffener skin side flange) is limited to a value that will be defined here after.
V1-3 6.1-ASSUMPTIONS
A 2b wide sheet strip is assimilated to a column plate (refer to V1-2).
V1-3 6.2-CRITICAL STRESS
The critical inter-rivet buckling stress is given by:

ir
=
5

2
2
12
. E e
Kp
c

Eq . 1-3.6.2.1
panel
A.A
e
s
e
p
p
stiffener base
b b
A
A
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Inter-rivet buckling - Page V1-36/2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
with:
E
c
: the compression modulus of the material of the item involved

5
: plasticity correction factor (column plate)
5
=
E
E
t
c
(refer to paragraph V1-2.2.2)
K: end fixity coefficient, depending on the type of fastener used
p: inter-rivet pitch
e: thickness of the item involved (skin or flange)
Tests have shown that the boundary conditions at the ends of the column depend on the type of
fasteners used. The ultimate conditions that will be encountered will be located between the
dual-hinged conditions (K = 1) and the dual-fixed conditions (K = 0.5).
Countersunk head bolt (or rivet) K = 0.66:

ir
= 1.89 .
5
. E
c
e
p

2
Eq . 1-3.6.2.2
Tack welding or flat head bolt K = 0.54:

ir
= 2.82 .
5
. E
c
e
p

2
Eq . 1-3.6.2.3
with:
E
c
: compression modulus of the material of the item involved
p: inter-rivet pitch
e: panel or stiffener skin side flange thickness

5
: plasticity correction factor
5
=
E
E
t
c
(refer to paragraph V1-2.2.2)
During the design phase, work shall be organised to have
ir

c0.2
so as to use only
c0.2
as
the allowable compression value.
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
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L
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Inter-rivet buckling - Page V1-36/3 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 6.3-EXAMPLE
Skin inter-rivet buckling:
The stiffener skin side flange and the panel are j oined by countersunk head bolts, pitch 25 mm.
e
p
= 3 mm
countersunk head bolt = > K = 0.66
p = 25 mm
E
cp
= 70300 MPa
n
p
= 7.05
Critical stress:
Eq . 3.3.6.2
irp
= 1.89 .
5
. E
cp

e
p
p

irp
=
5
. 1.89 . 70300
3
25
2


irp
=
5
. 1911 MPa
Plasticity correction:

5
=
E
E
t
cp
with E
t
=
1
1
0 002
0 2 0 2
1)
E
n
cp
p
c
irp
c
np
+


. .
.
. .
(

giving:

irp
=
1911
1
0 002
0 2 0 2
1)
+


. . .
.
. .
(
E n
cp p
c
irp
c
np

or:

irp
=
1911
1
0 002 70300 7 05
270 270
6 05
+

. . . .
.
.

irp
after numerical resolution, the following is obtained for the panel
irp
= 289 MPa
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Inter-rivet buckling - Page V1-36/4 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Stiffener inter-rivet buckling:
e
r
= 3 mm
countersunk head bolt = > K = 0.66
p = 25 mm
E
cr
= 73800 Mpa
n
r
= 13.83
Critical stress:
Eq . 1.3.6.2
irr
= 1.89 .
5
. E
cr

e
p
r

irr
=
5
. 1.89 . 73800
3
25
2


irr
=
5
. 2008 MPa
Plasticity correction:

5
=
E
E
t
cr
with E
t
=
1
1 0 002
0 2 0 2
1)
E
n
cr
r
c
irr
c
nr
+


. .
.
. .
(

giving:

irr
=
2008
1
0 002
0 2 0 2
1)
+


. . .
.
. .
(
E n
cr r
c
irr
c
nr

or even:

irr
=
2008
1
0 002 73800 13 83
420 270
12 83
+

. . . .
.
.

irr
after numerical resolution, the following is obtained for the panel
irr
= 412 MPa
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Crippling - Page V1-37/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 7-CRIPPLING
Under a compression load, a stiffener may buckle locally (e.g.: local buckling of the flange).
However, after local buckling, this stiffener may still support an increase in the load before
failure occurs. The overload is supported by the stiffer areas not yet subj ected to buckling.
Crippling is the failure of the stiffener under a compression load.
The crippling load is the sum of the load-carrying capacity of the elements comprising the
angle section.
The cross section area of the stiffener is divided into single elements:
The critical crippling stress shall be calculated as follows:

crip
=

S
S
i cri
i

Eq. 1.3.7
with:

cri
: critical crippling stress of item i
S
i
: area of the section of item i
1
3
2
S
1
,
cri1
S
2
,
cri2
S
3
,
cri3
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Crippling - Page V1-37/2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Warping - Page V1-34/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 4-WARPING
V1-3 4.1-ASSUMPTIONS
Here the problem involved is the general buckling of the stiffener cap supported by an elastic
foundation: the web. In fact, if the flange subj ected to compression load buckles, it may buckle
the entire stiffener. Therefore, the case will be considered as being between two stiffener
cleats to isolate the flange as a beam, supported at its ends and elastically retained by the web
over its entire length.
The assumption taken is that the stiffener flange behaves like a beam with two hinges at the
cleats. The cleats are considered as being rigid supports as defined in Chapter V-1-9 " Cleats" .
Fig. 1.3.4.1
e
a
h
a
X
Y
Z
b
t
CdG
flange
L
e
t
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Warping - Page V1-34/2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 4.2-STIFFNESS OF THE EQUIVALENT ELASTIC MEDIUM
Fig. 1.3.4.2.1
Let "" designate the elastic constant of eq uivalent discrete supports and " a" the eq ual distance
separating two supports. The stiffness of the eq uivalent elastic medium is expressed by the
q uantity:
=

a
Where " " called the " foundation modulus" has the dimensions of a force divided by the
sq uare of a length. It represents the intensity of the foundation reaction.
In this case, the bending rigidity around axis " x" of the web characterises the elastic
foundation and is expressed as follows:
F = * f ;
=
3
3
. .
.
E I
h
c X web
a
I
X.web
=
a e
a
.
3
12
(refer to Figs. 1.3.4.1 & 1.3.4.2.1)
Fig. 1.3.4.2.2
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Warping - Page V1-34/3 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
The stiffness of the eq uivalent elastic medium is:
=
E e
h
c a
a
4
3
.

Eq . 1.3.4.2
with:
E
c
: stiffener elasticity modulus
e
a
: web thickness
h
a
: web height (refer to Fig. 1.3.4.1)
V1-3 4.3-WARPING STRESS (linear elasticity)
The energy method is used to determine the critical buckling load (Ref. 1, paragraph 2.10)
considering the deflection of the elastic line as a sinusoidal series with a wave node at each
end of the line, i.e. at the stiffener cleats.
By minimising this deformation energy, the lowest critical buckling load is obtained, which is:
critical warping stress (linear elasticity):
~

dr
=

2
2
2
4
2 4
. .
.
.
. . .
E I
S L
m
L
m E I
c zt
t c zt
+

Eq . 1.3.4.3
with:
E
c
: stiffener elasticity modulus
I
Zt
: flange minimum inertia (*)
S
t
: area of the flange section (*)
L: length of the beam modelling the flange between the cleats (refer to
Fig. 1.3.4.1)
m: number of wave half lengths
: elastic foundation modulus (refer to Eq . 1.3.4.2)
" m" (number of half wave lengths) shall be an integer and greater than or eq ual to 1 as the
cleats are located at the wave nodes, in the assumptions. This number of wave half lengths " m"
in which the bar is sub-divided during buckling is determined by the condition that the
eq uation 1.3.4.3 is minimal.
(*) I
Zt
is the minimum inertia of the flange in relation to the Z axis, therefore passing through
the centre of gravity of the flange section, which is expressed as follows:
case of a flange without a flanged edge:
I
zt
=
e b
t t
.
3
12
(refer to Fig. 1.3.4.1)
case of a flange with a flanged edge:
I
zt
= I
(Gt; Zt)
(main inertia)
Z
t
G
t
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Warping - Page V1-34/4 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 4.4-DETERMINATION OF m
0
MINIMISING
~

dr
To minimise
~

dr
it is necessary to determine " m" such that:
d
dm
dr
~

= 0
Determination of m giving the lowest values of
~

dr
m
L
E I
c zt
0
4 =

.
Eq . 1.3.4.4
with:
E
c
: elasticity modulus of the stiffener in compression
I
Zt
: inertia of the flange in relation to the Z axis (refer to Fig. 1.3.4.1)
L: length of the beam modelling the flange between cleats (refer to Fig. 1.3.4.1)
m
0
: number of wave half lengths
: elastic foundation modulus (refer to Eq . 1.3.4.1)
There is little chance of the value of m
0
, determined with Eq uation 1.3.4.4, being an integer
and we have already established that it is necessary to have an integer value of m to have a
wave node at the cleats. Therefore, the calculation of
~

dr
will be carried out for the two closest
integers bracketing the calculated m and the integer value of m giving the minimum
~

dr
will
be used.
~

dr
calculated with m0 is the warping stress when the cleats are infinitely spaced apart
~

dr
(m
0
) =
E
S
I
e
h
c
t
zt
a
a

3
If
~

dr
(E(m
0
)) >
~

dr
(E(m
0
+ 1)) then it is necessary to take m = E(m
0
+ 1)
otherwise m = E(m
0
)
with E(m
0
) = integer part of m
0
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Warping - Page V1-34/5 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 4.5-CALCULATION OF
~

dr
Finally, putting down:
~

dr
(m
0
) =
2
1
0
4
1 0 2 0
S
E I m
L
E I
m E m and m E m
t
c zt
c zt

, , ( ) ( ) = = = +
then:
~

dr
(m
i
) =
~
( )
dr i
i
m m
m
m
m
0
0
2
0
2
2

And the critical stress is calculated as follows:


~

dr
= min
[ ]
~
( ),
~
( )
dr dr
m m
1 2
Eq . 1.3.4.5
V1-3 4.6-PLASTICITY CORRECTION
Putting down
~

dr
, the critical stress calculated with = 1, if:
~

dr
0.5 .
c0.2
then the critical
stress after plasticity correction shall be:

dr
=
5
~

dr
Eq . 1.3.4.6
This calculation is iterative as
5
= (E
T
, ) = g(
dr
). It converges when:

dr
5

~

dr

5
is the plasticity correction factor:

5
=
E
E
T
c
with E
T
= tangent modulus
E
c
= Young' s modulus in compression of the stiffener
In the design phase, we shall work in such a manner that
cr, (cor)

c0.2
is obtained, so that
only
c0.2
is used as an allowable compression value.
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Warping - Page V1-34/6 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Warping - Page V1-34/7 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-34.7-BLOCK DIAGRAM - SUMMARY
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
WARPING
CALCULATION OF I
Zt
CALCULATION OF S
t
Calculation of
=
E e
h
c a
a
4
3
.

Calculation of m
0
m
0
=
L
E I
c zt

4
Calculation of
~

dr
(m
0
)
~

dr
(m
0
) =
2
S
E I
t
c zt

PLASTICITY CORRECTION
Calculation of
~

dr
with: m
1
= E(m
0
)
m
2
= E(m
0
+ 1)
~

dr
(m
i
) =

~
( ) dr
i
i
m m
m
m
m
0
0
2
0
2
2

then:
~

dr
= min
[ ]
~
( ),
~
( )
dr dr
m m
1 2
~

dr
0.5 .
c0.2
?
no yes

dr
=
5
~

dr
with:
5
=
E
E
T
c
End
Eq . 1.3.4.6
Eq . 1.3.4.5
Eq . 1.3.4.5
Eq . 1.3.4.3
Eq . 1.3.4.2
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Warping - Page V1-34/8 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 4.8-EXAMPLE
Using the stiffener studied in this chapter:
The characteristics are: (refer to paragraph V.1.3.1)
Material: 7075 T7351
r
= 495 Mpa E
c
= 73800 MPa

c0.2
= 420 Mpa n = 13.83
flange thickness: e
t
= 4 mm
flange width: b
t
= 16 mm
web thickness: e
a
= 2 mm
web height: h
a
= 26,5 mm
Inter-frame distance: L = 530 mm
V1-3 4.8.1-Calculation of S
t
and of I
Zt
S
t
= et . bt S
t
= 4 . 16 S
t
= 64 mm
I
zt
=
e b
t t
.
3
12
I
zt
=
4 16
12
3
.
I
zt
= 1365,3 mm
4
V1-3 4.8.2-Foundation stiffness
=
E e
h
ca a
a
4
3
.

being therefore =
73800
4
2
26 5
3
.
.

giving = 7.93 MPa


V1-3 4.8.3-Calculation of m
0
m
0
=
L
E I
ct zt

.
4 giving m
0
=
530 7 93
73800 1365 33
4

.
. .
and therefore m
0
= 2.83
16
4
2
30
2
35
25
3
3
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Warping - Page V1-34/9 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-3 4.8.4-Critical stress (linear elasticity)

~

dr
(m
0
) =
2
S
E I
t
c zt

dr
(m
0
) =
2
64
73800 1365 3 7 93 . . . .
~

dr
(m
0
) = 883 MPa
m
1
= E(m0) m
1
= 2
m
2
= E(m0 + 1) m
2
= 3

~

dr
(m
i
) =
~
( )
dr i
i
m m
m
m
m
0
0
2
0
2
2

dr
(m
1
) =
883
2
2
2 83
2 83
2
2 2
.
.

= 1104.5 MPa
~

dr
(m
2
) =
883
2
3
2 83
2 83
3
2 2
.
.

= 889 MPa
As
~

dr
(m
2
) <
~

dr
(m
1
) then
~

dr
=
~

dr
(m
2
= 3) let:
~

dr
= 889 MPa
V1-3 4.8.5-Plasticity correction
~

dr
=
5
.
dr
with
5
=
E
E
T
ct
and if
cr

c0 2
2
.
then E
T
= E
c
otherwise E
T
=
1
1 0 002
0 2 0 2
1
E
n
c c
cr cor
c
n
+


. .
.
,
.

In this case:
~

dr
= 889 MPa >

c0 2
2
.
To determine the corrected critical stresses, it is necessary to solve the following eq uations
numerically.

dr
=
~
. .
. .

dr
c
c
dr
c
n
n E
1
0 002
0 2 0 2
1
+


application:
dr
=
889
1
0 002 13 83 73800
420 420
12 83
+

. . . .
.

dr
after numerical resolution, the following is obtained
dr
= 380 MPa
Static stressing manual V1-3 STIFFENERS
Warping - Page V1-34/10 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Technical Manual
MTS 004 Iss. C
External distribution authorised: YES NO
Document
Manager
Dept code: BTE/CC/CM Validation Name: JF. IMBERT
Name: J. HUET Function : Deputy Department
Group Leader
Dept code: BTE/CC/A
Date: 11/99
Signature
This document is the property of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS; no part of it shall be reproduced or transmitted
without authorization of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS and its contents shall not be disclosed.
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999
3page 1
X
Static stress manual,
metallic materials
Volume 1
Purpose Methods for calculating static failure loads and stresses for
aircraft metallic structural details.
Scope All programmes, static justification of metallic structures.
EDP tool
supporting this Manual
Not applicable.
Contents
V1 - 1 Stiffened panels
V1 - 2 Buclking of plates and thin shells
V1 - 3 Stiffeners
V1 - 4 Thin web beams
V1 - 5 Stable web beams
V1 - 6 Bolted or rivetted junctions
V1 - 7 Lugs
V1 - 8 Hole reinforcements
V1 - 9 Stabilisers
1
4
5
4
5
2
1
2
Structural
Design Manuals
Title - Annex
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C 3Ann. page
Reference documents C BE 019: Drawing up of the Structural Justification Dossier
Documents to be consulted See bibliography at the beginning of each chapter.
Abbreviations See Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR
See "General" paragraph of each chapter
Definitions List of words the definitions of which are integrated into the
Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR:
Highlights
Issue Date Pages modified Justification of the changes made
A 02/98 V1 - 1 V1 - 3
V1 - 7 V1 - 9
New document.
B 05/99 V1 - 7
V1 - 4
Changes as per table page V1-7.i.
New chapter.
C 11/99 V1 - 1 Changes as per table page V1-1.i.
Created paragraph V1-1-8.
V1 - 5 New chapter.
Static stress manual, metallic materials - Management information
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C page IG1
NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION
List of approval
Dept. code Function Name / First name Signature
BTE/CC/CM Chef de Dpartement CAZET G.
Key words Calcul
Bibliography Nant
Distribution list
Dept. code Function Name / First name (if necessary)
BQP/TE Archives Diderot SIBADE Alain
BQP/TE Bibliothque BQP/TE SIBADE Alain
BTE/SM/MG Bibliothque Technique BTE BOUTET Fernand
Distribution list managed in real time by BIO/D (Didocost application)
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Contents page V1-4i
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
CONTENTS
issue date revision
V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
V1-4 1 GENERAL
V1-4 2 PREPARATION OF BASIC DATA
V1-4 3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR DIAGONAL
TENSION
V1-4 4 WEB FOLDING STRESS
V1-4 5 STUDY OF UPRIGHTS IN STANDARD ZONE
V1-4 6 STUDY OF FLANGES
V1-4 7 END SPANS AND SPANS WITH OPENINGS
V1-4 8 STUDY OF WEB
V1-4 9 STUDY OF FASTENERS
V1-4 10 EXAMPLE
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
01/1999
01/1999
01/1999
01/1999
01/1999
01/1999
01/1999
01/1999
01/1999
01/1999
01/1999
Original issue
Original issue
Original issue
Original issue
Original issue
Original issue
Original issue
Original issue
Original issue
Original issue
Original issue
V1-4 1 GENERAL 11
V1-4 1.1 DEFINITIONS 11
V1-4 1.1.1 Thin web beams 11
V1-4 1.1.2 Pocket and super-stiffener 12
V1-4 1.2 BEHAVIOUR OF A THIN WEB BEAM 13
V1-4 1.3 FAILURE MODES 14
V1-4 1.4 SCOPE, LIMITS 16
V1-4 2 PREPARATION OF BASIC DATA 21
V1-4 2.1 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS 21
V1-4 2.2 SECTION OF A SUPER-UPRIGHT IN STANDARD ZONE 21
V1-4 2.3 END SUPER-UPRIGHT SECTIONS 23
V1-4 2.4 POCKET DIMENSIONS, BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 24
V1-4 3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR DIAGONAL
TENSION 31
V1-4 3.1 INCOMPLETE DIAGONAL TENSION THEORY 31
V1-4 3.2 LOADING RATIO, DIAGONAL TENSION FACTOR OF A
POCKET 31
V1-4 3.3 LOAD-CARRYING WIDTH 32
V1-4 4 WEB FOLDING STRESS 41
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-4ii Contents Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 5 STUDY OF UPRIGHTS IN STANDARD ZONE 51
V1-4 5.1 GENERAL 51
V1-4 5.2 LOAD-CARRYING WIDTHS AND SECTIONS 52
V1-4 5.3 STRESSES IN UPRIGHTS 53
V1-4 5.3.1 General method 53
V1-4 5.3.2 Fold angle 54
V1-4 5.3.3 Simplified approaches 54
V1-4 5.4 ALLOWABLE STRESSES IN UPRIGHTS 55
V1-4 5.4.1 column buckling (refer to V1-1.5.9.3) 55
V1-4 5.4.2 forced crippling 55
V1-4 5.4.3 natural local buckling 55
V1-4 6 STUDY OF FLANGES 61
V1-4 6.1 LOADS AND STRESSES IN FLANGES 61
V1-4 6.1.1 beam geometrical characteristics 61
V1-4 6.1.2 loads and stresses due to primary bending of beam 62
V1-4 6.1.3 additional loads and stresses due to the action of the tension field,
mean strain 62
V1-4 6.1.4 total normal loads and mean stresses in flanges 63
V1-4 6.1.5 secondary bending moment in flanges 63
V1-4 6.1.6 stresses due to secondary bending moment in flanges 64
V1-4 6.1.7 overall stresses in flanges 64
V1-4 6.1.8 allowable stresses and margins 65
V1-4 6.2 EXAMPLE 66
V1-4 6.3 CONCLUSION 610
V1-4 7 END SPANS AND SPANS WITH OPENINGS 71
V1-4 7.1 GENERAL 71
V1-4 7.2 EDGE ELEMENTS 71
V1-4 7.3 EXAMPLE 72
V1-4 7.4 ADDITIONAL STUDIES FOR OPENINGS IN A THIN WEB
BEAM 74
V1-4 8 STUDY OF WEB 81
V1-4 8.1 STRESSES IN WEB 81
V1-4 8.1.1 In pocket thicknesses 81
V1-4 8.1.2 At uprights 81
V1-4 8.2 WEB FAILURE 81
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Contents page V1-4iii
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 9 STUDY OF FASTENERS 91
V1-4 9.1 WEB-FLANGE AND WEB-END UPRIGHT
CONNECTIONS 91
V1-4 9.2 STANDARD DISSYMMETRICAL WEB-UPRIGHT
CONNECTIONS (SINGLE ANGLE) 92
V1-4 9.3 UPRIGHT-WEB CONNECTIONS 92
V1-4 10 EXAMPLE 101
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-4iv Contents Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
SYMBOLS
a: Distance between end rows of web-flange
fasteners.
b,b
i
: Distances between end rows of web-upright
fasteners.
b
c
: Width of free flange of an angle.
A: Distance between flanges.
B,B
i
: Distances between uprights.
UL: Ultimate loads.
LL: Limit loads.
CS: Single shear.
Cfs: Attenuation factor.
d: CG (centre of gravity) offset.
d
a
: Offset between web CG and total section CG.
d
m
: Offset of upright CG and total section CG.
D: Fastener diameter.
e, e
i
: Web thickness on either side of an upright.
e
s
: Member flange thickness.
e
si
: Lower flange thickness.
e
ss
: Upper flange thickness.
e
t
: Land thickness.
e : Eq uivalent thickness.
E: Young' s modulus (indexes " a" : web, " m" : upright).
E
s
: Secant modulus.
E
t
: Tangent modulus.
f
b
: Linear load inducing bending in edge elements.
f
r
: Load per length unit acting on the rivets.
f
max
: Max shear flow.
F
1
: Mean axial load in a flange due to shear.
F
2
: Mean axial load in a flange due to pure diagonal
tension.
F
c
: Compression load induced by shear load under
action of the tension field.
F
sim
: Mean axial load in lower flange.
F
ssm
: Mean axial load in upper flange.
F
sit
: Mean total axial load in lower flange.
F
sst
: Mean total axial load in upper flange.
g: Distance between web centre plane and upright
CG.
G: Shear modulus (Coulomb).
G
s
: Secant shear modulus.
h: Beam height.
h
1
: Beam height between fastener rows.
h
2
: Beam height between flange CGs.
h
m
: Upright height between centre of rivets attaching
upright to flanges.
I: Inertia (index 0: initial inertia before folding).
I
s
: Flange inertia.
I
ss
: Upper flange inertia.
I
si
: Lower flange inertia.
I
aa
: Beam inertia with web.
I
sa
: Beam inertia without web.
I
XXa
: Inertia of web around an XX axis.
I
XXm
: Inertia of upright around an XX axis.
k,k
i
: Diagonal tension factors.
K
s
: Shear buckling coefficient.
l: Distance between load introduction point and
section studied.
L
e
: Reduced effective length.
Lt,Lt
i
: Load-carrying widths.
Lt
0
: Initial load-carrying width (before folding).
Lt
TD
: Load-carrying width after folding.
M
f
: Bending moment.
M
f1
: Bending moment concerning beam resisting
shear.
M
f2
: Bending moment concerning beam resisting
pure diagonal tension.
M
fs
: Secondary bending moment.
M
y
: Bending moment around y-axis.
n: Work hardening coefficient (Ramberg and
Osgood).
N: Normal load (index x or y = > along x or y).
p: Rivet pitch.
P
m
: Load transferred from base to upright.
q : Length of an opening.
R
i
: Reactions at flanges.
R
s
: Loading ratio in single shear.
S: Section (index 0: initial section before folding).
S
a
: Web section.
S
s
: Flange section.
S
ss
: Upper flange section.
S
si
: Lower flange section.
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Contents page V1-4v
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
S
aa
: Section of beam with web.
S
sa
: Section of beam without web.
S
m
: Section of upright alone.
S
eq ui
: Eq uivalent section.
T: Shear load.
T
cis
: Shear load acting in form of pure shear.
T
TD
: Shear load acting in form of pure diagonal
tension.
TD: Diagonal tension.
TDI: Incomplete diagonal tension.
v
i
: Dimensions between neutral fibre of a flange
and its extreme fibres.
W: Static moment (index 0: static moment before
folding).
W
d
: Parameter= 0.7 * b *
( )
2 si ss
h * I I

+
W
sem
: Static moment around neutral fibre of flange.
W
ame
: Static moment of web portion above neutral
fibre.
W
XXa
: Static moment of web around XX axis.
W
XXm
: Static moment of upright around XX axis.
y
i
: Dimensions between neutral fibre of beam
(with or without web) and extreme fibres of
flanges (upper or lower).
: Fold angle in pockets.
: Strain (index x or y = > along x or y).

TD
: Diagonal tension strain.

y
: Transverse flow.
: Plasticity correction coefficient.
: Slenderness ratio.
e: Poisson ratio elastic.
p: Poisson ratio plastic.
: Poisson ratio elasto-plastic.
: Radius of gyration of a section.
: Normal stress (index x or y = > along x or y).

0
: Allowable compression stress with zero
slenderness ratio.

0.2
: Conventional yield strength (indices " a" : web,
" m" : upright).

R
: Breaking tensile stress (indices " a" : web, " m" :
upright).
TD
x
: Mean stress along a flange.
TD
min x
:Minimum stress along a flange.
TD
y
: Mean stress along an upright.
TD
min y
:Minimum stress along an upright.

a
: Normal stress in web.

xa
: Normal stress along x-axis in web.

ya
: Normal stress along y-axis in web.

flf
: Allowable forced crippling stress.

f
ss
: Primary bending stress at extreme fibre of
upper flange.

f
si
: Primary bending stress at extreme fibre of
lower flange.

ssm
: Mean stress in upper flange due to primary
bending.

sim
: Mean stress in lower flange due to primary
bending.

ssc
: Compression stress in upper flange due to
tension field.

sic
: Compression stress in lower flange due to
tension field.

sst
: Total upper flange mean stresses.

sit
: Total lower flange mean stresses.

fsi
: Secondary bending stresses in extreme fibres
(upper or lower) of flanges (upper or lower).

ssTi
: Overall stress in lower fibre of upper flange.

ssTs
: Overall stress in upper fibre of upper flange.

siTi
: Overall stress in lower fibre of lower flange.

siTs
: Overall stress in upper fibre of lower flange.
,
i
: Shear stresses.

cr
: Critical stress.

cr,a: Critical stress in web.


MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-4vi General Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1- KUHN & PETERSON & LEVIN
METHOD OF ANALYSIS : PLANE - WEB SYSTEMS.
NACA T.N 2661 , MAI 1952.
2- BRUHN
ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 General page V1-411
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 1 GENERAL
The aeronautical structure designer is constantly searching for types of structure or calculation methods enabling a gain
in weight whilst meeting manufacturing and cost constraints. A good example is that of thin beams where the buckling
of the web is accepted, the shear loads being balanced by the web diagonal tensile stresses.
The rules for calculating these beams are derived from the principles established for the stiffened panels in chapter
V1-1.
V1-4 1.1 DEFINITIONS
V1-4 1.1.1 Thin web beams
We call " thin web beams" beams where the webs are subj ected to diagonal tension (*). In general, they are
distinguished by:
- concentrated longitudinal members called flanges which, practically alone, transmit all normal (tensile or
compression) and bending loads,
- a thin web the only practical role of which is to ensure the transmission of the shear load by diagonal tension
and shear which induces a compression overload in the flanges and uprights,
- transverse members called uprights the function of which is to provide supports, more or less regularly spaced
and more or less rigid, for the flanges and the web. The uprights balance the diagonal tension.
This definition establishing the respective roles of the web and the flanges concerning load transmission in reality
comprises only an " ideal limit" . Indeed, we know, from chapter V1-1, that all thin webs participate in the transmission
of the normal loads until its stability limit is reached. We also know that beyond this limit a thin web still participates
but to a lower extent evidenced by the " load-carrying" width notion.
Also, after folding, and whilst continuing to transmit the shear load, the thin web is subj ected to strains higher than
those defined by the linear elasticity theory. Indeed, the efficient transverse modulus of elasticity G
TDI
, representing the
rigidity of the skin to shear in the presence of diagonal tension, decreases as the load increases (refer to V1-1.5.10).
Thin web beams are significantly more flexible than stable web beams. This marks the limit of their applications.
We learnt, in chapter V1-1, how to evaluate the " additional loads" consecutive to the instability of stiffened panels.
These theories apply generally to all the beams studied below for which we admit the buckling of the web.
The interest of these thin web beams lies in their lightness and flexibility. The stiffer beams where the buckling of the
web is not tolerated are covered by chapter V1-5.
(*): The diagonal tension theory is described in chapter V1-1.5
Uprights
Web
Flange
Flange
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-412 General Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 1.1.2 Pocket and super-stiffener
(Refer to V1-1.1.1 )
The definition of the thin web beams implies that the beam is criss-crossed by longitudinal and transverse members.
These are attached to the web either because they are " sewn" by means of screws, rivets or tack welding (" added
flanges or uprights" ), or because the assembly is machined from a plate (" integrated flanges or uprights" ).
We call:
- " pockets" : the web q uadrilaterals delimited by the members.
- " super-stiffener" : the association of an upright or a flange with an associated web portion (half-pockets on
either side).
Members
Pocket thickness
Land
B B
Uprights
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 General page V1-413
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 1.2 BEHAVIOUR OF A THIN WEB BEAM
The external loads which can be applied to a thin web beam are:
T: Shear load
Mf: Bending moment
Induced effects:
These loads mainly generate in the beam normal internal loads in the flanges and the uprights and a shear and diagonal
tension flow in the web of the beam.
Below, we show a section of the thin web beam at an upright, representing it associated with a load-carrying web
portion. The internal loads applied to this section are:
Nx: Normal load in the upright and its load-carrying web portion, induced by diagonal tension.
y: The normal transverse flow due to diagonal tension in the web.
The stresses resulting from these loads are:
Normal (x) in the upright. Normal (x), transverse (y) and tangential (xy) in the web.
Remark: In certain specific cases, secondary induced loads are added to the loads applied above (e.g.: transfer of
neutral fibre to an upright runout induces a bending moment My in the upright).
y y
z Nx
G
x
y Web
Upright Section a-a
T
y
Mf
x
a a
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-414 General Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
The calculating difficulties come from the fact that the behaviour of the beam depends on the loading intensity.
Tension, the static strength limit at ultimate load is given by the characteristics of the material.
Shear, the same applies even though the folds occur beyond the critical shear of the pockets. These folds are obliq ue
to the edges. For this reason, the term " diagonal tension" is used even though inappropriate.
This property of dependence is further emphasised in the case of compression. It is related to the instability of the
thin web.
V1-4 1.3 FAILURE MODES
There are several types of instability and failure.
Web instability:
Thin sheets fold under relatively low compression and/or shear loads.
On the compressed flange side, the web is saturated when its buckling stress is reached. At greater values, the excess
load is picked up by the flange and the load-carrying portion of the web.
In shear cases, after the appearance of the folds, the web transfers the excess load partly in the form of shear stresses
and the remainder as diagonal tension. The tangential flows at pocket edges are the same at constant loads with or
without the folds. However, the diagonal tension induces flows normal to these edges which causes overloads,
especially in the flanges and uprights.
The instability of the web does not lead to the failure of the beam and is therefore not a cause for limiting the
ultimate load.
Instability of super-stiffeners
If the longitudinal or transverse members, spaced respectively at a pitch of A or B, are sufficiently rigid, the super-
stiffeners (upright or flange + load-carrying web) behave as columns of length A or B on single supports.
Unstable failure may occur in the most critical super-stiffener under:
- local buckling,
- column buckling,
- forced crippling of the flanges of the members (inter-rivet buckling does not exist when the web is subj ect to
diagonal tension).
Failure of the skin
Generally, the web is thicker at the members (uprights, flanges) than in the pockets. Failure can then occur, either in
the pocket-land blend-in radii or in the web-members fastener rows.
It must be checked that the maximum shear in the web does not exceed half the material tensile breaking stress
(TRESCA criterion).
Failure of fasteners
Under the combined effect of shear and diagonal tension in the web.
Also, the secondary effects must be taken into account:
- Bending of the flanges due to diagonal tension,
- Secondary bending of the dissymmetrical uprights.
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 General page V1-415
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
Eq uilibrium:
TD
upright x
TD
web x
N N + = 0
d
upright f
TD
upright x
M N + = 0
Section c-c
A
Bent flange (1)
Section a-a Section b-b
Row of fasteners (4)
Upright run-out (3) Opening in web (2)
e
(4)
Fasteners
(1)
Secondary bending of
the flanges due to
diagonal tension.
M1
M2
M1
(3)
Secondary bending of the
dissymmetrical uprights
Section b-b
F1 due to the shear flux in the web.
F2 due to the transverse stress in the web
generated by resulting diagonal tension
R.
F1
F2
R
flange
web
TD
upright
N
TD
upright
N
Web stresses
d
N
- Nd
Secondary bending of the uprights
d
- N
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-416 General Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
(1): Bent flange
Each flange is forced towards the inside of the web by a load due to the diagonal tension. The web behaves as a
beam clamped at each end at the uprights.
(2): Calculating holes and openings
The presence in a thin web beam of flanged holes or openings of any sort creates overstresses in the sheet around
the holes whereas secondary bending loads appear in the flanges.
(3): Upright run-out
The run-out of an upright overloads the upright by a secondary moment due to the transfer of the neutral fibre
between the web and the centre of gravity of the upright.
(4): Fasteners
After folding, the web pulls on its edges, hence additional loads perpendicular to the alignment of the fasteners are
to be taken into account.
(5): Web
The bending of the flanges leads to a variation in the tension field in the pockets. Their loads are increased in the
vicinity of the flange and upright intersections.
V1-4 1.4 SCOPE, LIMITS
SCOPE
In addition to the thin web beam calculation, this chapter deals with certain specific cases relevant to stiffened panels
which were not studied in chapter V1-1:
- bending of flanges due to diagonal tension or bending of a stiffener bordering on an opening in a stiffened
panel,
- influence of holes in the web or in the skin of a stiffened panel,
- effect induced by a stiffener run-out (secondary bending),
- calculation of the fasteners attaching the web to the flanges or attaching the stiffened panels together,
- sizing of the fasteners attaching the web to the uprights or attaching the stiffeners and the skin of a stiffened
panel.
LIMITS
e
e
s
0.6 (the flange of the members on the skin side must not be too thin)
0.2
A
B
1; 120
e
A
1500 (the proportions of the pockets must be within these ranges)
2.5
D
p
10 (riveting)
Caution: risk of non-conservative predictions with thick pockets (outside range).
The uprights are more or less eq ually spaced and thicknesses of adj acent pockets are similar.
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Preparation Of Basic Data page V1-421
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 2 PREPARATION OF BASIC DATA
V1-4 2.1 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
STABILITY CALCULATIONS:
The elasto-plastic behaviour of the materials must be taken into account in these calculations. To this end, the Ramberg
and Osgood model (refer to V2-2 " Material behaviour" ) is used:
n
2 . 0
002 . 0
E

=
E
s
=

E
n 1
E
n
E
1
s t

+ =
Therefore, for each material used, the following is req uired:
Young' s modulus of compression, E,
Compression yield strength,
0.2
R.&.O. coefficient, n.
V1-4 2.2 SECTION OF A SUPER-UPRIGHT IN STANDARD ZONE
SECTION (INTEGRATED UPRIGHT)
Initial section: Lt
i
= B
i
/2
CHARACTERISTICS:
Cross section area: S
Moment of intertia/GX: I
C.G. offset: d
Load-carrying width: Lt
1
, Lt
2
Pocket thicknesses: e
1
, e
2
e
2
X
d
Lt
2
Lt
1
Z
e
t
e
1
G
B
1
B
2
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-422 Preparation Of Basic Data Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
SECTION (ADDED UPRIGHT):
Initial section: Lt
i
= b
i
/2
b
1
and b
2
are the distances between outer fastener rows.
WEB CHARACTERISTICS MEMBER CHARACTERISTICS (beam upright)
Cross section area: S
a
S
m
Moment of inertia/XX: I
XXa
I
XXm
Static moment/XX: W
XXa
W
XXm
Load-carrying width: Lt
1
, Lt
2
Pocket thicknesses: e
1
, e
2
C.G. offset: d
a
=
a
XXa
S
W
d
a
=
m
XXm
S
W
Remark: W
XXa
is negative whereas W
XXm
is positive.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUPER-STIFFENER MADE SYMMETRICAL:
If a super-stiffener is not symmetrical in relation to the (G, Y, Z) plane, an eq uivalent symmetrical super-stiffener must
be constructed.
e =
2
e e
2 1
; Lt
0
=
2 1
0 . 2 2 0 . 1 1
e e
Lt e Lt e
+
+
: =
2 1
2 2 1 1
e e
e e
+
+
Diagonal tension factor: k =
2
k k
2 1
+
; Loading ratio: R
s
=
3 . 2
k 1
k 1

+
Z
X X
Lt
1
Lt
2
e
2
d
m
d
a
G
d e
1
b
1
b
2
Index 0 is relevant to the initial section.
Z
X X
Lt
1.
Lt
2.
e
2
d
m
d
a
G
d e
1
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Preparation Of Basic Data page V1-423
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 2.3 END SUPER-UPRIGHT SECTIONS
SECTION (INTEGRATED UPRIGHT)
Initial section: Lt = B/2
CHARACTERISTICS:
Cross section area: S
Moment of inertia/GX: I
C.G. offset: d
Load-carrying width: Lt
Pocket thickness: e
SECTION (ADDED UPRIGHT):
Initial section: Lt = b/2
b: is the distance between outer fastener rows.
WEB CHARACTERISTICS MEMBER CHARACTERISTICS (beam upright)
Cross section area: S
a
S
m
Moment of inertia/XX: I
XXa
I
XXm
Static moment/XX: W
XXa
W
XXm
Load-carrying width: Lt
Pocket thickness: e
C.G. offset: d
a
=
a
XXa
S
W
d
m
=
m
XXm
S
W
Remark: W
XXa
is negative whereas W
XXm
is positive.
Z
X
G
e
d
Lt
B
End stiffener
G
Z
X
e d
Lt
B
e
t
X
d
m
d
a
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-424 Preparation Of Basic Data Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 2.4 POCKET DIMENSIONS, BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Use the conditions given in V1-1.3 (pocket folding stresses in stiffened panels):
If the members have opened profiles, the edge conditions to be chosen for the pocket thickness buckling stress
calculation are: four hinged edges.
Width of pocket " b" is:
b = B for integrated stiffeners.
b = b for added stiffeners.
b = b for all types, if e
t
3e
Height of pocket " a" is:
a = A, a , a (same principle as above)
b'
(distance between fasteners)
e
b"
B
e
t
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 General Principles For Diagonal Tension page V1-431
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR DIAGONAL TENSION
V1-4 3.1 INCOMPLETE DIAGONAL TENSION THEORY
This theory is detailed in V 1-1.5.1
Let us recall the main principle:
In a normal thin web beam, the stress condition in the web is between the pure shear stress condition and the pure
diagonal tension condition. This theory is based on the assumption that the total shear load in the web can be broken
down into two parts: T = T
cis
+ T
TD
- a pure shear part T
cis
= (1 - k)T (where k is the diagonal tension factor)
- a pure diagonal tension part T
TD
= kT.
V1-4 3.2 LOADING RATIO, DIAGONAL TENSION FACTOR OF A POCKET
The loading ratio R
s
and the diagonal tension factor k are defined by:
R
s
=
a , cr

(
cr,a
: critical shear in web)
k = 0 if R
s
< 1
k =
1 R
1 R
4343 . 0
s
4343 . 0
s
+

if R
s
> 1
Dissymmetrical pockets: refer to V1-4.2.2
Web not buckled: pure shear
y
x
Web subj ected to pure diagonal tension
In base (x,y) Facette along theoretical plies
TDI
TD

+
CS
45

2 sin
k 2
- (1 - k)
(1 - k)
TDI or

=
tan
k
x
y = k tan

12 = (1 - k) cos2
2 = - (1 - k) sin2
+

= 2 sin ) k 1 (
sin
k 2
1
TDI

MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS


page V1-432 General Principles For Diagonal Tension Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 3.3 LOAD-CARRYING WIDTH
UPRIGHT ORIENTATION
Lt
TD
= 1 k ( )
Lt
0
2
Index 0 is relevant to the initial section (before folding)
Lt
0
=
b
2
FLANGE ORIENTATION
Lt
TD
= 1 k ( )
Lt
0
2
Index 0 is relevant to the initial section (before folding)
Lt
0
=
a
2






Lt
0
Lt
TD
Lt
TD
Lt
0

ya
e

x
a
Lt
0
Lt
TD
e
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Web Folding Stress page V1-441
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 4 WEB FOLDING STRESS
The folding stress of the web between two uprights is calculated according to the rules given in chapter V1-2
(Buckling of plates and thin shells):

cr,a
=
{ }
2
s 2
e
2
b , a min
e
E k
) 1 ( 12

(Refer to V1.2.2)
k
s
: theoretical buckling coefficient for a panel the edges of which simply supported.
b: width of sheet between upright-web fastener rows.
a: height of web between flange-web fastener rows.
e: web thickness.
: plasticity correction coefficient (Refer to V1-2.1.3 and V1-2.2.2)
Hinged edges:
k
s
= 3.8
2
a
b
;
b
a
min

+ 5.35
=
E
E
1
1
G
G
s e s

+
+
=
The dimensions of the pockets a, b and the boundary conditions to be taken into account are defined in V1-4.2.4.
T
a
e
b
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-442 Web Folding Stress Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
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MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Study Of Uprights In Standard Zone page V1-451
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 5 STUDY OF UPRIGHTS IN STANDARD ZONE
V1-4 5.1 GENERAL
Two types of uprights can be identified on thin web beams:
symmetrical uprights formed of two identical sections on either side of the web (section a-a),
single upright on one side of the web (section b-b).
Calculation of standard uprights is almost identical to that of the stiffeners of flat stiffened panels subj ected to shear
(Refer to V1-1.5 ).
T
A
e
a a b b
B
Web
Symmetrical
upright
Web
Section a-a Section b-b
Dissymmetrical
upright
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-452 Study Of Uprights In Standard Zone Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 5.2 LOAD-CARRYING WIDTHS AND SECTIONS
After the section of an upright has been made symmetrical in relation to the Z-axis (if necessary) as described in
.V1-4.2.2, the widths, sections and other load-carrying geometrical characteristics are given by the following
formulas:
Index 0 is relevant to the initial section, that is before folding.
Load-carrying width Lt
TD
= (1 - k)
2
Lt
0
Load-carrying section let S
0
be the initial total section and S
TD
the non load-carrying portion of the web (not
shaded)
S
TD
= 2 (Lt
0
- Lt
TD
) e = (1 + k) Lt
0
e
S
TD
= S
0
- S
TD
INTEGRATED UPRIGHT
W
TD
=


2
e
d
0
S
TD
W
TD
= W
0
- W
TD
d
TD
= d
0
+
TD
TD
S
W
I
TD
=


12
e
2
e
d
2
2
0
S
TD
I
TD
= I
0
- I
TD
- (d
0
- d
TD
)
2
S
TD
ADDED UPRIGHT
CHARACTERISTICS OF BEAM WEB
TD
t 0 XXa
TD
XXa
S
2
e
e W W

+ =
TD
2
2
t 0 XXa
TD
XXa
S
12
e
2
e
e I I

=
CHARACTERISTICS OF CORRECTED SECTION (DIFFERENT MATERIALS)
E =
m TD
m
a TD
TD
a
E
S
S
E
S
S
+
XXm
m TD
XXa
a TD
XX
W
E
E
W
E
E
W + =
d
TD
=
TD
TD
XX
S
W
XXm
m TD
XXa
a TD
XX
I
E
E
I
E
E
I + =
I
TD
=
2
TD TD TD
XX
d S I
Lt
0
Lt
TD
Lt
TD
Lt
0

ya
e
X
Z
X
Upright Upright Upright
Flange
Flange

y
x
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Study Of Uprights In Standard Zone page V1-453
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 5.3 STRESSES IN UPRIGHTS
V1-4 5.3.1 General method
The stress in an upright is not uniform:
- Single uprights, dissymmetrical in relation to the web mean plane are the seat of secondary bending (Refer to
1.3).
- The stresses vary along the upright from a minimum at the beam flanges to a maximum in the centre of the
upright (" gusset effect" ) (fig b ).
SECONDARY BENDING
Due to the secondary bending caused by loading outside of the neutral fibre, compression stress is maximum at beam
web (fig " a" ). The " mean" maximum compression stress (variation of along y is not taken into account here) is
determined as if it were a single compression by dividing the compression load by a " eq uivalent section" ,
TD
eq ui
S :
TD
eq ui
TD
y TD
y
S
N
= where:
TD
y
N = - 2 k Lt
0
e tan and
2
TD
TD
eq ui
g
1
S
S

+
=
Integrated upright: g = d
TD
-
2
e
Added upright: g = d
TD
+ e
t
-
2
e
=
TD
TD
S
I
is the fold angle (See next page)
Remark: If the upright is symmetrical, then g = 0 and
TD
eq ui
S = S
TD
GUSSET EFFECT
The maximum compression is given by the following eq uation:
1 ;
a
b
64 . 0 78 . 1 ) k 1 (
TD
y
TD
min y
TD
y
TD
min y

; take 1 if
TD
y
TD
min y

< 1
a: height of the upright between the centres of the rivets attaching the upright to the flanges.
Section a-a

y
figure " a" figure " b"
TD
y

Neutral axis
a a
Gusset effect

y
TD
min y

TD
y

TD
y

MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS


page V1-454 Study Of Uprights In Standard Zone Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 5.3.2 Fold angle
The rules for determining the ' s described in V1-1.5.6 (flat stiffened panels - stresses in the super-stiffener) are
applied as follows:
tan
2
=
TD
y TD
TD
x TD


The elongation of the web along the folds is eq ual to: ( ) ( )
a
TD
E
2 sin 1 k 1
2 sin
k 2

+ +

=
The mean compression strains induced by the diagonal tension in the upright (
TD
y
) and the flanges (
TD
x
):
y
TD
y TD
y
E

= Calculation of
TD
x
is described in 6 (Study of flanges).
V1-4 5.3.3 Simplified approaches
As the fold angle is around 45, we suppose that sin 2 is equal to 1.
Hence: ( ) ( ) [ ]
a
TD
E
k 1 k 1

+ + =
ASSUMPTION 1: If the stiffening ratio and the materials of the uprights are similar to those of the longitudinal
members (the flanges), we consider that the folds are 45 irrespective of k.
ASSUMPTION 2: If the longitudinal members (the flanges) can be considered as infinitely rigid, determine
TD
y
and using the graph below.
Remark: This assumption is not conservative for the upright as the folds tend to bend over onto the more rigid
members.
Place k on the x-axis and 1
eb
S
TD
eq ui
on the y-axis. If necessary, interpolate to obtain sought value.
TD
eq ui
S is the initial geometrical section (S
TD
= 0).
Analysis of diagonal tension: ( ) /
TD
y
versus k and ( ) be / be S
TD
eq ui

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
/ =
0.05 0.10
0.15 0.20
0.25 0.30
0.35 0.40
0.45 0.50
0.55 0.60
0.70 0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Study Of Uprights In Standard Zone page V1-455
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 5.4 ALLOWABLE STRESSES IN UPRIGHTS
3 types of failures can be encountered:
1. Column buckling.
2. Forced crippling.
3. Natural local buckling.
V1-4 5.4.1 column buckling (refer to V1-1.5.9.3)
Resistance to column buckling is checked, in principle, by comparing the mean stress at the centre of gravity of the
super-upright (
TD
y
) and the critical buckling stress.
When upright bending is initiated, the diagonal tension tends to oppose it. This interface action is taken into account
by use of the clamping coefficient below:
L
TD
= K
TD
A; K
TD
=

+
A
Lt
4 3 k 1
1
0 2
Then calculate
TD
crit y
from (S
TD
; I
TD
; L
TD
) using the rules given in V1-1.4
(the simplest method consists in using the J ohnson formula).
According to the slenderness ratio of the super-upright, the column may buckle under a two half-wave mode
(especially dissymmetrical uprights).
In addition, it must be checked that the maximum compression stress at the centre of gravity of the super-upright is
lower than the buckling stress calculated with a buckling length eq ual to
2
L
TD
:

2
TD
L
crit y
TD
y
y
min y

V1-4 5.4.2 forced crippling
Ripples in the web favour the buckling of the flange of the upright attached to the web especially if the flange of the
upright is thinner than the web.
The allowable stress is calculated by means of the rules established for the stiffeners (refer to V1-3.5):
3
1
ca a
cm sm 3
2
cm
m 2 . 0 c
m 2 . 0 c
flf
E e
E ' e
k
002 . 0
E
051 . 0

= (indexes = > c: compression; m: upright; a: web; s: flange)


e'
sm
is the eq uivalent thickness of the flange.
On account of the local nature of this failure, stress
TD
min y
(and not
TD
y
) must not exceed
flf
.
V1-4 5.4.3 natural local buckling
To avoid natural local buckling, the stresses in the upright must be lower than the local buckling stresses calculated by
means of the rules in chapter V1-3.
As added dissymmetrical uprights are the seat of secondary bending, they are practically limited only by the Forced
crippling.
The stresses to be compared with the allowable local buckling are those at the centre of the uprights (on account of the
gusset effect).
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-456 Study Of Uprights In Standard Zone Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
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MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Study Of Flanges page V1-461
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 6 STUDY OF FLANGES
V1-4 6.1 LOADS AND STRESSES IN FLANGES
The loads in the flanges are:
1) The normal loads due to the primary bending of the beam calculated by the elementary bending theory.
2) The additional loads induced by the tension field in the web.
3) The secondary bending loads generated by the tension field (figure " a" ).
V1-4 6.1.1 beam geometrical characteristics
figure " a"
T
Beam section (A-A) neglecting web
S
sa
= Beam section without web.
I
sa
= Beam inertia without web.
y
3
= distance between extreme fibre of
upper flange and neutral axis.
y
4
= distance between extreme fibre of
lower flange and neutral axis.
Beam section (A-A) with web
S
aa
= Beam section with web.
I
aa
= Beam inertia with web.
y
1
= distance between extreme fibre of
upper flange and neutral axis.
y
2
= distance between extreme fibre of
lower flange and neutral axis.
S
ss
= upper flange section.
S
si
= lower flange section.
I
ss
= upper flange inertia.
I
si
= lower flange inertia.
v
1
= distance between upper extreme fibre of
upper flange and neutral axis.
v
2
= distance between lower extreme fibre of
upper flange and neutral axis.
v
3
= distance between upper extreme fibre of
lower flange and neutral axis.
v
4
= distance between lower extreme fibre of
lower flange and neutral axis.
e
ss
= upper flange thickness.
e
si
= lower flange thickness.
h
A
A
l
b e
T
h
1
h
2
v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
e
ss
e
si
y
1
y
2
neutral axis
Y
3
Y
4
neutral axis
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-462 Study Of Flanges Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 6.1.2 loads and stresses due to primary bending of beam
1) Bending moment
Introducing a load T at the end of a thin web beam implies the existence of a bending moment changing along the
length of the beam. The architecture of each beam span must be taken into account to evaluate the exact location
where the effect of the bending moment on the flanges is the most significant. Thus, section A-A of the thin web
beam shown on the previous page is the section farthest from the load T introduction point before the end fittings
start to take the load off the flanges.
According to the incomplete diagonal tension theory, a part of the total shear load (and therefore of the bending
moment) acts in the form of pure shear, the other part in the form of pure diagonal tension.
Let M
f
be the total bending moment at the section under study: M
f
= T * l = M
f1
+ M
f2
M
f1
the bending moment concerning the beam stable in shear.
M
f2
the bending moment concerning the beam in the form of pure diagonal tension.
M
f1
= (1 - k) M
f
and M
f2
= k M
f
where k: diagonal tension factor
2) Bending stresses on extreme fibres
The bending stress on the extreme fibre of the upper flange is:
sa
3 2 f
aa
1 1 f
ss
f
I
y M
I
y M
= T > 0 implies that the upper flange is compressed and M
f
> 0
The bending stress on the extreme fibre of the lower flange is:
sa
4 2 f
aa
2 1 f
si
f
I
y M
I
y M
+ =
3) Normal loads in the flanges due to bending
Whilst the web is stable in shear, the normal load in a flange can be expressed by:
2
1 f
aa
sa
1
h
M
I
I
F

= (where h
2
is the distance between the centres of gravity of each flange)
In the pure diagonal tension state, the normal load in the flange can be expressed by:
2
2 f
2
h
M
F =
Total normal loads in the flanges:
Upper flange: F
ssm
= - F
1
- F
2
Lower flange: F
sim
= F
1
+ F
2
.
4) Mean stresses due to primary bending in flanges
Upper flange:
ss
ssm
ssm
S
F
= Lower flange:
si
sim
sim
S
F
=
V1-4 6.1.3 additional loads and stresses due to the action of the tension field, mean strain
The flanges are submitted to a compression load induced by the diagonal tension field:
F
c
= -
2
T
TD
* cot (F
c
< 0) where:
T
TD
= kT and is the diagonal tension angle measured in relation to the flanges.
The stresses generated are:
Upper flange:
ss
c
ssc
S
F
= Lower flange:
si
c
sic
S
F
=
The mean strain to be taken into account to calculate angle is:

=
si
sic
ss
ssc TD
x
E E 2
1
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Study Of Flanges page V1-463
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 6.1.4 total normal loads and mean stresses in flanges
Upper flange: total load F
sst
= F
ssm
+ F
c
mean stress
ssc ssm
ss
sst
sst
S
F
+ = =
Lower flange: total load F
sit
= F
sim
+ F
c
mean stress
ssc sim
si
sit
sit
S
F
+ = =
V1-4 6.1.5 secondary bending moment in flanges
As the web is subj ected to diagonal tension, it pulls on the elements comprising the flanges; in other terms, each flange
acts as a continuous beam with the uprights as supports. The transverse load on a flange is eq ual to the vertical flow in
the web due to the diagonal tension.
The maximum secondary bending moment in the flanges is: M
fs
=
12
1
k e b
2
C
fs
C
fs
: attenuation factor given on the curve below versus parameter:
( )
4
1
2 si ss
d
h I I
e
b 7 . 0 W

+
=
Remark 1: The secondary bending moment is maximum at the uprights.
If k C
fs
1, the moment in the centre between the bearing points is eq ual to half the maximum moment
with opposite sign.
Remark 2:
W
W
3
2
1
e I
W T
sem
ame sem

+ = in all cases.
W
sem
= static moment of the flange.
W
ame
= static moment of the efficient section of the web above the neutral fibre (for an upper flange).
e h
T
2
= Sufficient approximation when flange height is low compared with the height of the beam
and the flanges consist of thin sections.
for calculating I and W, efficient web thickness is taken as being equal to (1-k) e
An approximation of C
fs
versus W
d
is given by the following polynomial:
C
fs
= 0.0058
3
d
W - 0.0676
2
d
W + 0.1252W
d
+ 0.9366
C
fs
versus W
d
C
f
s
1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0 1 2 3 4
W
d
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-464 Study Of Flanges Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 6.1.6 stresses due to secondary bending moment in flanges
UPPER FLANGE
at uprights:
ss
2 fs
2 fs
I
v M
= stress in lower fibre of upper flange
ss
1 fs
1 fs
I
v M
= stress in upper fibre of upper flange
When the upper flange bends on the bearing point, the lower fibre is compressed and the upper fibre stretched.
in the centre between two uprights:
In this case, M
fs
is calculated in a conservative manner considering k = C
fs
= 1
ss
2 fs
2 fs
I * 2
v ' M
= stress in lower fibre of upper flange
ss
1 fs
1 fs
I * 2
v ' M
= stress in upper fibre of upper flange
LOWER FLANGE
at uprights:
si
4 fs
4 fs
I
v M
= stress in lower fibre of lower flange
si
3 fs
3 fs
I
v M
= stress in upper fibre of lower flange
When the lower flange bends on the bearing point, the lower fibre is stretched and the upper fibre compressed.
in the centre between two uprights: (same remark as made above for M
fs
)
si
4 fs
4 fs
I * 2
v ' M
= stress in lower fibre of lower flange
si
3 fs
3 fs
I * 2
v ' M
= stress in upper fibre of lower flange
V1-4 6.1.7 overall stresses in flanges
UPPER FLANGE

ssTi
=
ssm
+
ssc
+
fs2
overall stress, lower fibre of upper flange at uprights

ssTs
=
fss
+
ssc
+
fs1
overall stress, upper fibre of upper flange at uprights

ssTi
=
ssm
+
ssc
+ '
fs2
overall stress, upper flange lower fibre in centre between two uprights

ssTs
=
fss
+
ssc
+ '
fs1
overall stress, upper flange upper fibre in centre between two uprights
LOWER FLANGE

siTi
=
f
si
+
sic
+
fs4
overall stress, lower fibre of lower flange at uprights

siTs
=
sim
+
sic
+
fs3
overall stress, upper fibre of lower flange at uprights

siTi
=
f
si
+
sic
+ '
fs4
overall stress, lower flange lower fibre in centre between two uprights

siTs
=
sim
+
sic
+ '
fs3
overall stress, lower flange upper fibre in centre between two uprights
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Study Of Flanges page V1-465
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 6.1.8 allowable stresses and margins
The allowable stresses req uired to calculate the margins are as follows:
* Tensile: Strength of flanges at ultimate loads is given by the characteristics of the material.
* Compression: The instability of the flanges can be caused by:
1) under a low wavelength mode:
a) Local buckling (of the flange for example) of the flanges.
b) Forced crippling of the riveted section of the flanges.
2) under a medium wavelength mode: (this concerns the complete flange)
a) Lateral buckling
b) Column
c) Crippling
The details for calculating the allowable stresses are given in chapter V1-3.
The margins are calculated by applying the following rule:
The compression stresses calculated taking the secondary effects into account (secondary bending or gusset effect for
example) are compared with the allowable local buckling stresses (natural or forced).
The mean compression stresses in the flanges are compared with the allowable lateral buckling, column and crippling
stresses.
The tensile stresses are compared with tensile breaking stress of the material.
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-466 Study Of Flanges Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 6.2 EXAMPLE
Let us take the cantilever beam of 6.1.1 submitted at its free end to a load of 60000 N and with the following
geometrical characteristics:
l = 1270 mm b = 290 mm e = 0,6 mm h = 762 mm h
1
= 725,4 mm h
2
= 746,4 mm
The mechanical characteristics of the web of the 2024 PLT3 beam are:
E
a
= 70300 MPa;
R
a
= 440 MPa;
0,2
a
= 270 MPa
The mechanical characteristics of the members (flanges and uprights) of the 7075 T73510 beam are:
E
m
= 73800 MPa;
R
m
= 495 MPa;
0.2
m
= 420 MPa
The two materials have the same Poisson ratio:
e
= 0.33
LIMITATIONS
First of all, we must check if the beam is compatible with the limitations of 3.2

6 . 0
5 . 4
e
e
ss
= = 7.5 > 0.6 and
6 . 0
5 . 2
e
e
si
= = 4.2 > 0.6
0.2 <
762
290
h
b
= = 0.38 < 1 and 120 <
6 . 0
762
e
h
= = 1270 < 1500
762
A
A
1270
290 0,6
60 000 N
725,4 746,4
S
ss
= 430 mm
2
S
si
= 245 mm
2
I
ss
= 57 250 mm
4
I
si
= 14 780 mm
4
v
1
= 9,7 mm
v
2
= 30,3 mm
v
3
= 24,1 mm
v
4
= 5,9 mm
e
ss
= 4,5 mm
e
si
= 2,5 mm
v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
e
ss
e
si
Beam section (A-A) with web
S
aa
= 1121 mm
2
I
aa
= 110,1*10
6
mm
4
y
1
= 319,4 mm
y
2
= 442,6 mm
y
1
y
2
neutral axis
Beam section (A-A) web neglected
S
sa
= 671 mm
2
I
sa
= 86,1*10
6
mm
4
y
3
= 277,8 mm
y
4
= 484,2 mm
Y
3
Y
4
neutral axis
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Study Of Flanges page V1-467
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
CRITICAL SHEAR STRESS
According to 4, the critical shear stress is given by the following formula:

cr, a
=
( ) { }
2
1
a s 2
e
2
b , h min
e
E k
1 * 12

with k
s
= 3.8 *
2
1
1
h
b
;
b
h
min

+ 5.35

cr, a
=
( )
2 2
2
2
290
6 . 0
* 70300 * 35 . 5
4 . 725
290
* 8 . 3 *
33 . 0 1 * 12

= * 1.7 MPa
Obviously, there is no need to calculate the plasticity correction.

cr, a
= 1.7 MPa
LOADING RATIO AND DIAGONAL TENSION FACTOR
The loading ratio Rs and the diagonal tension factor k are defined in 3.3
R
s
=
a , cr

and k =
1 R
1 R
4343 . 0
s
4343 . 0
s
+

The flanges consist of tee sections the heights of which are low when compared with the beam.
Hence, according to 5.1.5:
MPa 134
6 . 0 * 4 . 746
60000
e h
T
2
= = =
74 . 0
1 79
1 79
= k and 79
7 . 1
134
R
4343 . 0
0.4343
cra
s
=
+

= =

=
BENDING MOMENTS
The maximum bending moment is located at section A-A (refer to 6.1.2).
M
f
= T * l = 60000 * 1270 = 76.2 * 10
6
mm.N
M
f
= M
f1
+ M
f2
M
f1
is the bending moment concerning the beam resisting shear.
M
f2
is the bending moment concerning the beam in the form of pure diagonal tension.
M
f1
= (1 - k) M
f
= (1 - 0.74) * 76.2 * 10
6
= 19.8*10
6
mm.N
M
f2
= k M
f
= 0.74 * 76.2*10
6
= 56.4*10
6
mm.N
BENDING STRESSES ON THE EXTREME FIBRES OF THE FLANGES
Upper flange
The direction of the load T implies that the upper flange is compressed:
MPa 239
10 * 1 . 86
8 . 277 * 10 * 4 . 56
10 * 1 . 110
4 . 319 * 10 * 8 . 19
I
y * M
I
y * M
6
6
6
6
sa
3 2 f
aa
1 1 f
ss
f
= = =
Lower flange
The lower flange is under tension:
MPa 397
10 * 1 . 86
2 . 484 * 10 * 4 . 56
10 * 1 . 110
6 . 442 * 10 * 8 . 19
I
y * M
I
y * M
6
6
6
6
sa
4 2 f
aa
2 1 f
si
f
= + + = + + =
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-468 Study Of Flanges Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
NORMAL MEAN STRESSES IN THE FLANGES DUE TO BENDING
Upper flange
F
ssm
= - F
1
- F
2
where:
2
1 f
aa
sa
1
h
M
*
I
I
F

= Normal load in a flange of a beam stable in shear.


2
2 f
2
h
M
F = Normal load in a flange of a beam in pure diagonal tension condition.
4 . 746
10 * 8 . 19
*
10 * 1 . 110
10 * 1 . 86
F
6
6
6
1

= = 20745 N and
4 . 746
10 * 4 . 56
F
6
2
= = 75563 N
The normal load in the upper flange is a compression load:
F
ssm
= - F
1
- F
2
= - 20745 - 75563 = - 96308 N
The mean stress in the upper flange is:
430
96308
S
F
ss
ssm
ssm

= = = - 224 MPa
Lower flange
The normal load in the lower flange is a tensile load:
F
sim
= F
1
+ F
2
= 20745 + 75563 = 96308 N
The mean stress in the lower flange is:
245
96308
S
F
si
sim
sim
= = = 393 MPa
STRESSES DUE TO ADDITIONAL LOADS GENERATED BY THE DIAGONAL TENSION
The upper and lower flanges are submitted to a compression load induced by the shear load under the action of the
tension field:
= cot *
2
T
F
TD
c
where T
TD
= kT
is the diagonal tension angle the calculation of which is detailed in chapter V1.1 and 5.3.2.
For this calculation, we will suppose that = 45
N 22200
2
60000 * 74 . 0
2
kT
F
c
= = =
Upper flange
MPa 52
430
22200
S
F
ss
c
ssc
=

= =
Lower flange
MPa 91
245
22200
S
F
si
c
sic
=

= =
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Study Of Flanges page V1-469
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
STRESSES DUE TO THE SECONDARY BENDING MOMENT IN THE FLANGES
Secondary bending moment in the flanges (refer to 6.1.5):
fs
2
fs
C b e k
12
1
M = where C
fs
is the attenuation factor given on the curve on page V1-4.6.3 versus W
d
( ) ( )
1 . 2
4 . 746 * 14780 57250
6 . 0
* 290 * 7 . 0
h I I
e
* b * 7 . 0 W
4
1
4
1
2 si ss
d
=

+
=

+
= C
fs
= 0.955
M
fs
=
12
1
* 0.74 * 134 * 0.6 * 290
2
* 0.955 = 398200 mm.N
Upper flange at uprights
MPa 211
57250
3 . 30 * 398200
I
v * M
ss
2 fs
2 fs
= = = compression stress in lower fibre.
MPa 67
57250
7 . 9 * 398200
I
v * M
ss
1 fs
1 fs
= = = tensile stress in upper fibre.
Upper flange in the centre between two uprights (k = C
fs
= 1 M
fs
= 563470 mm.N)
MPa 149
2 * 57250
3 . 30 * 563470
I * 2
v * M
ss
2
'
fs
2 fs
= = = tensile stress in lower fibre.
MPa 48 -
2 * 57250
7 . 9 * 563470
I * 2
v * M
ss
1
'
fs
1 fs
= = = compression stress in upper fibre.
Lower flange at uprights
MPa 159
14780
9 . 5 * 398200
I
v * M
si
4 fs
4 fs
= = = tensile stress in lower fibre.
MPa 649 -
14780
24.1 * 398200
I
v * M
si
3 fs
3 fs
= = = compression stress in upper fibre.
Lower flange in the centre between two uprights (k = C
fs
= 1 M
fs
= 563470 mm.N)
MPa 112
2 * 14780
9 . 5 * 563470
I * 2
v * M
si
4
'
fs
4 fs
= = = compression stress in lower fibre.
MPa 459
2 * 14780
24.1 * 563470
I * 2
v * M
si
3
'
fs
3 fs
= = = tensile stress in upper fibre.
OVERALL STRESSES IN FLANGES
Upper flange at uprights

ssTi
=
ssm
+
ssc
+
fs2
= - 224 - 52 - 211 = - 474 MPa overall stress in lower fibre.

ssTs
=
fss
+
ssc
+
fs1
= - 239 - 52 + 67 = - 224 MPa overall stress in upper fibre.
Upper flange in the centre between two uprights

ssTi
=
ssm
+
ssc
+ '
fs2
= - 224 - 52 + 149 = - 127 MPa overall stress in lower fibre.

ssTs
=
fss
+
ssc
+ '
fs1
= - 239 - 52 - 48 = - 339 MPa overall stress in upper fibre.
Lower flange at uprights

siTi
=
fsi
+
sic
+
fs4
= 397 - 91 + 159 = 465 MPa overall stress in lower fibre.

siTs
=
sim
+
sic
+
fs3
= 393 - 91 - 649 = - 347 MPa overall stress in upper fibre.
Lower flange in the centre between two uprights

siTi
=
fsi
+
sic
+ '
fs4
= 397 - 91 - 112 = 194 MPa overall stress in lower fibre.

siTs
=
sim
+
sic
+ '
fs3
= 393 - 91 + 459 = 761 MPa overall stress in upper fibre.
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-4610 Study Of Flanges Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
SUMMARY
Overall stresses without secondary bending in flanges (in MPa)
Flange Lower Upper
upper fibre 302 - 291
lower fibre 306 - 276
Overall stresses with secondary bending in flanges at uprights (in MPa)
Flange Lower Upper
upper fibre - 347 - 224
lower fibre 465 - 474
Overall stresses with secondary bending in flanges at centre between two uprights (in MPa)
Flange Lower Upper
upper fibre 761 - 339
lower fibre 194 - 127
V1-4 6.3 CONCLUSION
The calculation above shows that by taking secondary bending into account, the stresses in the flanges are significantly
modified. Thus, in the centre between two uprights, the lower fibre of the lower flange changes from a tensile stress of
302 MPa to a stress of 762 MPa greatly exceeding the breaking stress of the flange (
R
= 495 MPa). Whereas, at the
uprights, the lower fibre of the upper flange drops from - 276 MPa to - 474 MPa exceeding the yield strength of the
material of the flange (- 420 MPa).
A new flange design is therefore req uired. Modifications can be made without adding weight to the existing flange. For
instance, by extending the height of the vertical section of the flange and by adding a lip, which req uires a minute
reduction of the thicknesses to conserve same weight, we obtain a considerable gain for the flange q uadratic moment;
this being necessary to reduce the stresses due to the action of the secondary bending moment.
In the example dealt with the web was relatively thin; also, the value of 0.74 for the diagonal tension factor k means
that the folding of the web is fairly severe as 74% of the shear load is taken by the diagonal tension. For heavily loaded
and fairly low beams, such as wing spars and bulkheads submitted to high external loads, the webs are much thicker
and factor k much lower. Generally speaking, to avoid the forming of permanent folds, no folding of the web is
accepted before 60% of the limit loads have been applied (at present, the target is 80%).
Web weight saving, in relation to that which is req uired for a web which must not buckle, could exceed the additional
weight in the web flanges and stiffeners induced by the diagonal tension field. However, the calculations for the rivets
in the semi-tension field case poses more problems as the loads in the rivets are higher and more complex than in a
stable-web beam.
Flange studied in the example
Flange with same surface area but
with extended vertical section.
An added lip.
Slightly reduced thicknesses.
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 End Spans And Spans With Openings page V1-471
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 7 END SPANS AND SPANS WITH OPENINGS
V1-4 7.1 GENERAL
The " end spans" adj acent to the folded area and the edge elements of an opening comprise a specific case. The
diagonal tension pulls the end upright and the edges of an opening towards the interior; this induces secondary bending
the same as the one acting on the flanges in addition to the normal compression. Figures " a" and " b" above clearly
show this action. The end uprights and the edges of the opening must be much more rigid than the uprights in the
standard area or at least reinforced by additional elements to reduce the stresses induced by bending.
V1-4 7.2 EDGE ELEMENTS
The linear load component inducing bending in the edge elements is given by the following formulas:
f
by
= k e tg for edge elements parallel to the neutral fibre of the beam (flanges).
f
bx
= k e cot for edge elements perpendicular to the neutral fibre of the beam (uprights).
The greater the distance between the supports of an edge element submitted to a linear load f, the greater the bending
moment that it must support.
A combination of the three methods proposed below would be a good solution to relieve these elements:
Simply reinforce the element so that it can take all the loads submitted to it.
Increase the thickness of the web in the edge area either to prevent buckling or to reduce value k and thus the linear
load which introduces the bending into the edge element.
Add stiffening elements to support the edge element and thus reduce its bending moment induced by f
b
.
The calculation for the fold angle is detailed in 5.3.2.
Figure a Figure b
Load
applied
T
Flange
Tension exerted by
the tension field
End upright
Opening in
web
Flange Upright
Opening
framework
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-472 End Spans And Spans With Openings Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 7.3 EXAMPLE
Let us again take the cantilever beam example of 5.1.8 with same loads and same geometrical characteristics.
The linear load inducing bending in the end upright is:
f
bx
= k t e cot = 0.74 * 134 * 0,6 * 1 = 59.5 N/mm (We suppose that = 45)
Let us consider the adding of three eq ually-spaced horizontal stiffeners as method for reducing the influence of the
bending on the end upright and analyse the inner loads in the end span.
The figure above shows the end span reinforced by three stiffeners spaced 186,6 mm apart.
Two loads are applied to it:
The shear load at beam end: 60 000 N
The linear load component due to the tension field: f
b
= 59.5 N/mm.
Below, we will show what effect adding three stiffeners has on the local shear in the span.
The effect of each load applied will thus be studied then summed.
762
A
A
1270
290 0,6
60 000 N
725,4 746,4
f
b
End upright
746.4 762
60 000 N
End upright
290
f
b
186,6
End span
Added
stiffeners
low flange CG
upp. flange CG
186,6
186,6
186,6
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 End Spans And Spans With Openings page V1-473
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
1) Figure " a" shows the shear flows taken as constant in each of the end span pockets and due to the load applied
F = 60 000 N.
Eq uilibrium is shown directly on figure " a" above:
The reaction at each of the flanges is : N 312 23
746,4
290 * 000 60
R
1
= =
The shear flow inside each pocket is: N/mm 4 . 80
290
R
4 , 746
F
f
1
1
= = =
2) Figure " b" shows the mean shear flows in the centre of each of the pockets of the end span and due to the linear
load component generated by the tension field: f
b
= 59.5 N/mm.
The eq uilibrium is shown directly on figure " b" above:
The reaction at each flange is:
N 205 2 2
2
746,4 * 59.5
R
2
= =
In actual fact, the shear flow in the end span varies from 0 N/mm in
the centre of the beam up to a maximum at the centres of gravity of
the flanges:
N/mm 6 . 76
290 * 2
4 , 746 * 5 . 59
f
max
= =
3) Figure " c" shows the total shear flows obtained in the centre of each pocket of the end span and due to all loads.
CONCLUSION
We can see that the shear flows in the two upper pockets of the end span increase significantly above the nominal value
(80.4 N/mm).
This means that the effect of the diagonal tension in this area (the pocket is smaller) must be locally taken into account
for checking the upper flange (in our example), the end upright, the added stiffeners, the rivets and the web, etc.
As the thin web beam calculation principle supposes that the shear flow is identical in adj acent spans, the j ustification
of the upper stiffener by the method detailed in chapter V1.1 req uires the use of mean flux f and factor k values on
either side of the stiffener as explained in the characteristics of a super-stiffener made symmetrical on page V1-4.2-2
(ditto for LH upright).
76.6
57.4
19.1
0
19.1
57.4
76.6
upper
stiffener
centre
stiffener
lower
stiffener
Figure " a"
+
746,4
60 000 N
290
60 000 N
23312 N
23312 N
f = 80.4N/mm
Figure " b"
+
290
59.5 N/mm
22205 N
22205 N
f = 57.4N/mm
f = 19.1N/mm
f = 19.1N/mm
f = 57.4N/mm
Figure " c"
59.5 N/mm
45517 N
1107 N
f = 137.8N/mm
f = 99.5N/mm
f = 61.3N/mm
f = 23N/mm
60 000 N
60 000 N
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-474 End Spans And Spans With Openings Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 7.4 ADDITIONAL STUDIES FOR OPENINGS IN A THIN WEB BEAM
The presence of any openings in a thin web beam creates overstresses in the sheet around the holes whereas secondary
bending loads may appear in the flanges and uprights.
Let us consider a beam submitted to a shear load and a bending moment variable spanwise and including a rectangular
opening on its horizontal axis.
FLANGE CALCULATION
1) The primary bending causes the following stresses in the flanges at section AB:

f
1
=
) AB ( I
V * ) AB ( M
1 f
(Upper flange) and
f
1
=
) AB ( I
V * ) AB ( M
2 f
(Lower flange)

where M
f
(AB):

primary bending moment at section AB.
V
1,2
: offset between extreme fibre of the upper or lower flange and the neutral fibre of the beam at AB.
I(AB): inertia of beam section (section AB), opening (not necessarily rectangular) subtracted.
2) To pass along the opening, the shear load creates an additional bending moment in the flanges which is calculated
by comparing these with elementary beams of length q /2 clamped at one end and free at the other and submitted to
a load at end eq ual to the mean shear load in the opening area.
The breakdown of the moment induced by the mean shear load of the span (no load distributed between the uprights)
prorata the upper and lower flange inertias (I
ss
and I
si
) gives:
2
q
* T *
I I
I
M and
2
q
* T *
I I
I
M
si ss
si
si
f
si ss
ss
ss
f
+
=
+
= . The resulting stresses are:
( ) ( )
si ss
si
si
si
ssi
f
si
f
si ss
ss
ss
ss
ss
f
ss
f
I I * 2
v * q * T
I
v * M
and
I I * 2
v * q * T
I
v * M
+
= =
+
= =
v = dimension between the extreme fibre of the flange (upper or lower) and its neutral fibre.
For a variable-height beam, refer to chapter V2.4.
3) Sum total stresses at section AB:
upright
T
T/2
q
q/2
if no load
distributed between
the uprights
upright upright
T/2
A C
B D
vss
vsi
q
v2
v1
T
Mf
M
f
(AB)
Tmean
Mf (CD)
neutral fibre
Flange CG lines
N N
h2
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 End Spans And Spans With Openings page V1-475
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
upper flange side:
ss
=
f1
+
f
ss
lower flange side:
si
=
f2
+
f
si
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Study Of Web page V1-481
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 8 STUDY OF WEB
V1-4 8.1 STRESSES IN WEB
V1-4 8.1.1 In pocket thicknesses
Refer to V1-1.5.7.1.
The pocket thicknesses, assumed to be identical on either side of the upright are subj ected to plane stresses.
Tresca criterion:

+ =

1
4
= ;
2 tan
k
1
max
2
max
V1-4 8.1.2 At uprights
Refer to V1-1.5.7.2.
In shaded section at web - upright fastener row:
Tresca criterion:
2
t
max
k 1
k
1
e
e
3 , 1

+
+ =

V1-4 8.2 WEB FAILURE


Refer to V1-1.5.9.4.
Generally, the skin is thicker at the uprights than in the pockets. Failure can then occur either in the pocket-land blend-
in radii or at the web-stiffener fastener rows.
Failure in pocket thickness (TRESCA):
max adm
=
2
R

Failure at web - upright fasteners: '


max adm
=
2
R

TDP

k tan
e
t
e
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-482 Study Of Web Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
Page intentionally left blank
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Study Of Fasteners page V1-491
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 9 STUDY OF FASTENERS
V1-4 9.1 WEB-FLANGE AND WEB-END UPRIGHT CONNECTIONS
MINIMUM SHEAR STRENGTH
The stress is not constant along a pocket:
As the upright is compressed, a portion of the web 2 Lt long is submitted to compression.
The centre of the pocket is submitted to diagonal tension as shown above over length A-2Lt.
Thus:
* The flows acting on the fastener rows connecting the flange to the web are:
1
e
t
; cot
k + 1
k 2
e
n
y
x
=

These flows are supported by any line of fasteners parallel to the flanges.
For stiffened panels: j unction parallel to crossmembers.
* The flows acting on the rows of fasteners connecting the end upright to the web are:
1
e
t
; tan
k + 1
k 2
e
n
x
y
=

For stiffened panels: j unction parallel to stiffeners.


Lt
Lt
A-2Lt
A
Upright Upright Upright
Flange
Flange
x
y
p
s
p
m
End upright
Flange
t
y
n
x
n
y
t
x
Row of fasteners
y
x
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-492 Study Of Fasteners Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
TENSILE STRENGTH
The fasteners must also have a sufficient tensile strength to prevent the buckled sheet from separating from the flanges.
The required tensile strength for a fastener is given by the following criterion:
F(fastener failure) 0.15 *
R
* p * e
where:
R
: web tensile breaking stress
p: rivet pitch
e: web thickness
V1-4 9.2 STANDARD DISSYMMETRICAL WEB-UPRIGHT CONNECTIONS (SINGLE
ANGLE)
SHEAR STRENGTH
No criteria concerning the shear strength of the fasteners on a single angle has been established by NACA.
The continuity of the web on either side of the upright means that the standard fasteners are subj ected to no loads
(except in cases of separation between the web - upright elements). However, at the ends of the uprights, the fasteners
are submitted to loads.
The tensile strength criterion is probably sufficient to ensure a satisfactory design.
TENSILE STRENGTH
The required tensile strength for a fastener is given by the experimental criterion:
F(fastener failure) 0.22*
R
*p*e
(The tensile strength of a fastener is defined as being the tensile load which will cause any failure; if the sheet is thin,
the failure will consist of the fastener being pulled through the sheet).
Spacing between fasteners on single angles must be sufficiently low to prevent inter-rivet buckling (or buckling of the
flange of the angle if its thickness is lower than that of the web), at a compression stress level eq ual to
TD
min y
. This
spacing must also be lower than b/4 to j ustify the supported edge assumption made when determining the critical web
stress.
V1-4 9.3 UPRIGHT-WEB CONNECTIONS
These fasteners must take the load applied by the web and transferred to the upright.
The loads are as follows:
P
m
=
TD
y
* S
m
for a double angle.
P
m
=
2
m TD
y
g
+ 1
S
*

for a single angle.


MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Example page V1-4101
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-4 10 EXAMPLE
Let us again take the cantilever beam of 5.1.1 submitted at its free end to a load of 60000 N and with the following
geometrical characteristics:
l = 1270 mm b = 290 mm e = 0,6 mm h = 762 mm h
1
= 725,4 mm h
2
= 746,4 mm
The mechanical characteristics of the web of the 2024 PLT3 beam are:
E
a
= 70300 MPa;
R
a
= 440 MPa;
0.2
a
= 270 MPa
The mechanical characteristics of the members (flanges and uprights) of the 7075 T73510 beam are:
E
m
= 73800 MPa;
R
m
= 495 MPa;
0.2
m
= 420 MPa
The two materials have the same Poisson ratio:
e
= 0.33
REMINDER
The limitations, the critical shear stress, the loading ratio and the diagonal tension factor were checked in 5.1.8:
From among the limitations, we must check:
6 , 0
2 , 3
e
e
m
= = 5,3 > 0,6

cr,a
= 1.7 MPa
We recall that: = 134 MPa
R
s
= 79
k = 0.74
762 290 0,6
60 000N
725,4 746,4
Upper flange
S
ss
= 430 mm
2
I
ss
= 57 250 mm
4
e
ss
= 4,5 mm
v
1
= 9,7 mm
v
2
= 30,3 mm
v
1
v
2
e
ss
v
3
v
4
e
si
Lower flange
S
si
= 241 mm
2
I
si
= 14 780 mm
4
e
si
= 2,5 mm
v
3
= 24,1 mm
v
4
= 5,9 mm
Upright (single angle)
S
m
= 150 mm
2
I
m
= 8654 mm
4
e
m
= 3,2 mm
3,2
7,4
25
25
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-4102 Example Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
CALCULATING UPRIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
Load-carrying width: ( ) ( ) mm 19
4
290
74 , 0 1
2
Lt
k 1 Lt
0 TD
= = =
Load-carrying section:
TD
y
S = (1 + k) Lt
0
e = (1 + 0,74) *
2
290
* 0,6 = 151,2 mm
2
S
0
= S
m
+ 2Lt
0
e = 150 + 290 * 0,6 = 324 mm
2
TD
y
S = S
0
-
TD
y
S = 324 - 151,2 = 172,8 mm
2
Web characteristics:
S
a0
= b * e = 290 * 0,6 = 174 mm
2
I
XXa0
= 179 mm
4
W
XXa0
= - 174 mm
3
d
a0
= - 1 mm
TD
XXa
W = W
XXa0
+
2
e
TD
y
S = - 174 + 0,3 * 151,2 = - 128,6 mm
3
TD
XXa
I = I
XXa0
-
4
2 2
TD
y
2 2
mm 161 2 , 151 *
12
6 , 0
4
6 , 0
179 S
12
e
4
e
=

+ =

+
Characteristics of the load-carrying section of the upright after correction due to the various materials
E
y
= MPa 73338 73800 *
8 . 172
150
70300 *
8 . 172
8 . 22
E
S
S
E
S
S
m TD
y
m
a TD
y
TD
a
=

3
XXm
y
m TD
XXa
y
a TD
XX
mm 995 6 . 1111 *
73338
73800
6 . 128 *
73338
70300
W
E
E
W
E
E
W =

=
d
TD
=
8 . 172
995
S
W
TD
y
TD
XX
= = 5,76 mm
4
XXm
y
m TD
XXa
y
a TD
XX
mm 8863 8654 *
73338
73800
161 *
73338
70300
I
E
E
I
E
E
I =

=
I
TD
=
2
TD TD
y
TD
XX
d S I = 8863 - 172.8 * 5.76
2
= 3130 mm
4
Characteristics of the load-carrying section of the lower flange (less rigid) after correction due to the various
materials
2 1 TD
x
mm 189
4
6 , 0 * 4 , 725
* ) 74 . 0 1 (
4
e h
) k 1 ( S = + = + =
2 TD
X
1
si
TD
X
mm 6 , 269 189
2
6 , 0 * 4 , 725
241 S
2
e h
S S =

+ =

+ =
si
TD
X
TD
Xa
S S S = = 269,6 - 241 = 28,6 mm
2
E
x
= MPa 73429 73800 *
6 , 269
241
70300 *
6 , 269
6 , 28
E *
S
S
E *
S
S
m TD
X
si
a TD
X
TD
Xa
=

=
X X
Lt
TD
Lt
TD
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
Issue 0 Example page V1-4103
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
CALCULATING THE STRESSES IN THE UPRIGHT (WITH ASSOCIATED WEB)
Web orientation compression:
2
4 , 725
* 74 . 0
tan
e Lt k
N
0 TD
x
=

= * 0.6 * 134 * cot = - 21579 cot


=

= = cot 80
269,6
cot 21579
S
N
TD
x
TD
x TD
x
=

=

= cot %. 109 . 0
73429
cot 80
E
x
TD
x TD
x
Upright orientation compression:
TD
y
N = - k b e tan = - 0.74 * 290 * 0,6 * 134 * tan = - 17254 tan
=

= = tan 85 . 99
8 , 172
tan 17254
S
N
TD
y
TD
y TD
y
=

=

= tan % 136 . 0
73338
tan 85 . 99
E
y
TD
y TD
y
Diagonal tension:
As the fold angle is around 45, we assume sin 2 = 1
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] % 348 , 0
70300
134
74 , 0 1 33 , 0 74 , 0 1
E
k 1 k 1
a
e TD
= + + =

+ +
Diagonal tension angle:
(
0
= 45)

= = =
+
+
=


= 18 . 44 972 . 0 tan 944 . 0
136 . 0 348 . 0
109 . 0 348 . 0
tan
1 1 TD
y TD
TD
X TD
1
2
(
1
= 44.18)

= = =
+
+
=


= 39 . 44 979 . 0 tan 958 . 0
972 . 0 * 136 . 0 348 . 0
972 . 0 / 109 . 0 348 . 0
tan
2 2 TD
y TD
TD
X TD
2
2
(
2
= 44.39)

= = =
+
+
=


= 34 . 44 977 . 0 tan 955 . 0
979 . 0 * 136 . 0 348 . 0
979 . 0 / 109 . 0 348 . 0
tan
3 3 TD
y TD
TD
X TD
3
2
(
3
= 44.34)

= = =
+
+
=


= 35 . 44 978 . 0 tan 956 . 0
977 . 0 * 136 . 0 348 . 0
977 . 0 / 109 . 0 348 . 0
tan
4 4 TD
y TD
TD
X TD
4
2
finally: = 44.35; tan = 0.978
Mean and minimum compression stresses in the upright.
TD
y
= - 99.85 tan = - 99.85 * 0.978 = - 97.7 MPa
14 . 1 74 . 0
4 , 725
290
* 64 . 0 78 . 1 ) 74 . 0 1 ( k
h
b
* 64 . 0 78 . 1 ) k 1 (
m
TD
y
TD
min y
= +

= +

TD
min y
= 1.14 *
TD
y
= - 111.4 MPa
REMARKS:
The upright orientation and flange orientation stiffening coefficients are close to each other:
upright orientation coefficient:
324
6 , 0 * 290 324
= 0.46; flange orientation coefficient:
466
6 , 0 * 375 466
= 0.52
We were j ustified to use the following approximation (difference negligible in relation to the solution above).
( 45) (
TD
y
= - 99.9 MPa;
TD
min y
= 1.14 * - 99.85 = - 113.9 MPa)
MCS V1-4 THIN WEB BEAMS
page V1-4104 Example Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
STRESSES IN WEB ALONE AND IN UPRIGHT ALONE
Shear in web (refer to V3-1 5.7.1)
( 45) (
max
= = 134 MPa)
Shear in web at rivet row (refer to V3-1 5.7.2)
'
max
=
t
e
e

max
=
max
= = 134 MPa
Compression stress in upright orientation web
MPa 8 . 106
73338
70300
* 4 . 111
E
E
*
y
a TD
min y
TD
min ya
= = =
Compression stress in upright alone
MPa 3 . 98
73338
73800
* 7 . 97
E
E
*
y
m TD
y
TD
m
= = =
MPa 1 . 112
73338
73800
* 4 . 111
E
E
*
y
m TD
min y
TD
min m
= = =
ALLOWABLE STRESSES
The upright consists of a single angle; we will calculate below the allowable column buckling and Forced crippling
stresses.
Column buckling stress
No stress in the upright exceeds the elastic stress of the material: 420 MPa.
Calculation of allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio supposing, to limit calculations, that the limitation comes
from the web (refer to V3-1 4.6.4):

0a
= 270 MPa;
0
=
70300
270
+ 0.002 = 0.584%

0m
= 385.6 MPa because:
83 . 13
420
6 . 385
* 002 . 0
73800
6 . 385
100
584 . 0

+ =

0
= MPa 370 6 . 385 *
8 . 172
150
270 *
8 . 172
8 . 22
S
S
S
S
m 0
TD
y
m
a 0
TD
y
TD
a
=

The mean allowable stress at zero slenderness ratio is: 370 MPa.
5 . 0
73338
100
* 370
E
100
* ; 84
3 . 4 * 2
4 , 725
2
h
= mm; 3 , 4
8 , 172
3130
S
I
y
0
m
TD
y
TD
= = = =

= = =
According to the diagram on page V3-1.4/23:
MPa 105 370 * 284 . 0 28 . 0 : obtain we 5 . 0
E
100 *
and 84 = for
crit
0
crit
y
0
= = =

The critical column buckling stress is - 105 MPa.


The mean stress in the straight section of the upright is 97.7 MPa and does not exceed - 105 MPa.
Forced crippling stress
(e
s
= 3,2 mm; e
a
= 0,6 mm;
0.2m
= 420 MPa; E
m
= 73800 MPa; E
a
= 70300 MP; k = 0.74)
MPa 8 . 354
70300
73800
0,6
3.2
74 . 0
002 . 0
73800
420
420
051 . 0
E
E
e
e
k
002 . 0
E
051 . 0
3
1
3
2
3
1
a
m
a
s 3
2
m
m 2 . 0
m 2 . 0
flf
=

+
=

=
The stress
TD
min m
= - 112.1 MPa does not exceed the stress of 354.8 MPa.
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Contents page V1-5i
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
CONTENTS
issue date change
V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
V1-5 1 GENERAL
V1-5 2 STUDY OF FLANGES
V1-5 3 STABLE WEBS
V1-5 4 STUDY OF UPRIGHTS
V1-5 5 J UNCTIONS
V1-5 6 EXAMPLE
V1-5 7 STABLE WEB BEAMS WITH ROUND LIGHTENING HOLES.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4/1999
4/1999
4/1999
4/1999
4/1999
4/1999
4/1999
4/1999
V1-5 1 GENERAL 11
V1-5 1.1 DEFINITIONS 11
V1-5 1.2 BEHAVIOUR OF A STABLE WEB BEAM 12
V1-5 1.3 FAILURE MODES 13
V1-5 2 STUDY OF FLANGES 21
V1-5 2.1 ALLOWABLE STRESSES 21
V1-5 3 STABLE WEBS 31
V1-5 3.1 CRITICAL STRESSES IN WEBS 32
V1-5 4 STUDY OF UPRIGHTS 41
V1-5 5 JUNCTIONS 51
V1-5 5.1 GENERAL FORMULAS 51
V1-5 5.2 JUNCTIONS BETWEEN REINFORCING PLATES AND
FLANGES 52
V1-5 5.3 WEB SPLICES 53
V1-5 5.4 EXAMPLE 54
V1-5 6 EXAMPLE 61
V1-5 7 STABLE WEB BEAMS WITH ROUND
LIGHTENING HOLES 71
V1-5 7.1 GENERAL 71
V1-5 7.2 STANDARDISATION OF FLANGED HOLES 71
V1-5 7.3 ALLOWABLE SHEAR FLOW 72
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-5ii Contents Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 7.4 REMARKS 75
V1-5 7.5 EXAMPLE 75
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Contents page V1-5iii
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
SYMBOLS USED
a: Pocket length (between fastener rows)
b: Pocket width (between fastener rows)
B: Width of a flange
C: Distance between the edges of 2 holes
C : C-2B
d: Diameter of a rivet or of a hole
D: Diameter of a hole including the stamping
e: Thickness of the web
E: Young s modulus
E
c
: Young s modulus in compression
E
p
: Young s modulus - panel
f: Shear flow
f
adm
: Allowable shear flow
f
p
: Shear flow in a reinforcing plate
F
adm,cis
: Allowable shear force
F
Mf
: Force induced by the bending moment
F
R
: Resulting force
F
S
: Tensile force on a flange
F
T
: Force induced by shear force
g: Distance between hole centrelines
h
a
: Height of the web (between datum lines)
H: Height of the beam or of a flange
I: Bending rigidity constant (inertia)
I
m
: Inertia req uired for an upright
I
ss
: Upper flange inertia
I
si
: Lower flange inertia
I
A.N
: Inertia in relation to neutral fibre
I
0
: Inertia of an item in relation to its own
centreline
K
s
,k
s
: Buckling coefficients in shear
K
f
,k
f
: Buckling coefficients in bending
L: Spacing between uprights (between datum
lines)
L
t0
: Initial load-carrying width
L
t
: Load-carrying width
M: Moment
M
f
: Bending moment
M
f,ame
: Bending moment in web
M
max
: Max bending moment
n: Work hardening coefficient (Ramberg and
Osgood), or number of rivets
N: Normal tensile force
p: Rivet pitch
r: Distance between a rivet and the centre of
the group of rivets
R
f
: Loading ratio in single bending
R
s
: Loading ratio in single shear
S: Area
S
c
: Reduced shear section
S
p
: Area of reinforcing plates
S
s
: Total area of a flange
S
ss
: Upper flange area
S
si
: Lower flange area
T: Shear force
T
cr
: Critical shear force
v: Calculation dimension in relation to neutral
fibre
W: Static moment
W
Semelle
: Static moment flange section alone
y:Distance between the centreline or the
neutral fibre and the cg of the item
y : Offset between the centreline and the
neutral fibre
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-5iv Contents Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
: Strain (expansion)
: Plasticity correction coefficient

e
: Poisson ratio - elastic

mat
: Allowable bearing stress

0.2
: Conventional yield strength

R
: Breaking tensile stress

cr
: Critical stress

crip
: Critical crippling stress

cp
: Critical panel compression stress

f
: Bending stress

cf,0
: Critical bending stress alone
: Shear stress

R
: Breaking shear

cr
: Critical shear

cr,0
: Critical shear stress alone

h
,

c
: Collapsing stress in shear for a plate of
length h or c

max
: Max shear stress

net
: Net shear stress at a hole
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Contents page V1-5v
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1- BRUHN
ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-5vi Contents Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 General page V1-511
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 1 GENERAL
This chapter mainly deals with the means for lightening thin profile beams without buckling the webs. The
case where the web folds and becomes the seat of a diagonal tension field is studied in chapter V1-4.
The general beam theory is developed in volume 2 of MTS004.
The structural weights of stable web beams are not always optimal when compared with thin web beams.
They must however be preferred each time that the stiffness of the beam is a design criterion.
The first part of this chapter gives an exhaustive study of flat web beams eq uipped with uprights. The second
part of this chapter deals with beams with webs drilled with flanged holes. This type of beam can provide a gain
in weight when compared with the full web beam stiffened by relatively spaced uprights.
V1-5 1.1 DEFINITIONS
A beam is said to be a stable web beam if while supporting the loads it conserves its initial flatness (no
buckling of the web). The tangential stress remains lower than the critical buckling stress of the webs which are
considered as plates bearing on their members with rigidity sufficient to prevent all global buckling of the web.
We recall that the buckling stress of the web is not necessarily a failure stress. Thus, to be stable, a web is
not loaded to its maximum capacity. Its stiffeners or uprights which are used only to prevent local buckling must
also be stable to avoid any problems due to crushing.
To obtain a satisfactory strength/weight ratio, the flanges must be designed to make the radius of gyration of
the cross section of the beam as large as possible whilst themselves having a cross section resisting buckling.
Also, for long cantilever beams (the spars of a cantilever wing for instance) the flange sections must be tapered,
that is a reduction in the section from the root towards the tip.
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-512 General Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 1.2 BEHAVIOUR OF A STABLE WEB BEAM
Only one bending plane is considered.
The external forces which can be applied to a stable web beam are:
T: Shear force
Mf: Bending moment
The webs of thin web beams, which are unstable, take only the shear and the diagonal tension.
Here, the behaviour is in compliance with the plane bending theory. The shear force is contained in the plane
of the web and the flanges can be compared with plates in the planes almost perpendicular to that of the web.
Therefore, the web takes almost alone the shear force whereas the highest normal stresses are taken by the
flanges.
Schematically, the web is submitted to shear and bending stresses whereas the flanges are submitted to
normal tensile or compression forces. The presence of the uprights stabilises the web and limits the local strains
due to point loads.
Compared with a beam without uprights subj ected to the same forces, the thickness of the web can be
reduced thus leading to a significant gain in weight for very high beams.
The uprights are dimensioned to ensure at least correct web supporting conditions.
T
Mf
y
x
a a
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 General page V1-513
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 1.3 FAILURE MODES
The causes of failure in a stable web beam are:
Flange tensile failure.
Local buckling of flanges in compression.
Failure of the web in shear.
Tests are req uired to accurately determine the allowable stresses in the beams. However, in most cases, the
material curves (in tension and in compression) and the limitations given by the buckling calculations in
compression comprise a sufficient database to evaluate the allowable stresses.
It often happens that the stresses calculated at the extreme fibre of a section are above the yield strength of
the material which means that a portion of the section will buckle before the others and, as in certain cases,
several different materials are used in the same section, a general method for calculating the ultimate strength of
the section consists in using the stress-strain laws of the materials.
In a stable web beam, the following must be checked:
The stability of the web (plate submitted to the combined effects of compression, bending and
shear).
The stability of the compressed flange.
The rigidity of the uprights ensuring the stability of the web.
The non-failure condition of the tensioned flange.
The strength of the attachments.
The shear strength of the web.
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-514 General Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Study Of Flanges page V1-521
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 2 STUDY OF FLANGES
The flanges of a stable web beam are mainly submitted to normal forces generated by the general bending of
the beam.
The stability of the compressed flange and the non-failure of the tensioned flange must be ensured.
V1-5 2.1 ALLOWABLE STRESSES
COMPRESSED FLANGE
The allowable stresses in a flange submitted to compression are those guaranteeing good resistance to all
local buckling phenomena.
The calculation of these stresses was studied in chapter V1-3.
TENSIONED FLANGE
The allowable stress is the failure tensile stress.
Mf
Tensioned flange
Compressed flange
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-522 Study Of Flanges Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Stable Webs page V1-531
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 3 STABLE WEBS
The web, designed not to buckle under the action of the design loads is capable of supporting the plane
bending stresses in addition to the shear force.
In the elastic range, the stresses due to the bending moment and to the shear force are:

f
=
M
f
v
I
where I is the inertia of the complete cross section of the beam.
=
T
I e
y dS

(BREDT formula).
As integral y dS

is maximum at the neutral fibre = >


max
is located on the neutral fibre.
If the material is concentrated in the flanges, the shear stress in the web is almost constant and is around:
=
T
h.e
=
T
S
c
S
c
: Reduced shear section.
h =
I
W
.
W: Static moment of the 1/2 section.
Example:
Figure (a): Shear stress at G:

G
T
I
W
. e
T
84.8 5
T
424
= =

=
Figure (b): Shear stress at M:

M
T
I
W
. e
T
99.9 5
T
499.3
= =

=
=

M
G
0.85
G 100
5
G
M
Figure (a)
10
I
50
10
Figure (b)
50
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-532 Stable Webs Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 3.1 CRITICAL STRESSES IN WEBS
The critical stresses in the webs are calculated in the same way as described for a flat plate in chapter V1-2
" Buckling of plates and thin shells" .
The web of the beam is considered as simply supported on its edges (flanges and uprights). The uprights
must provide sufficient stiffness to prevent the buckling of the pocket and also so that they can be considered as a
support (see next paragraph).
Let: a = distance between uprights (between fastener rows);
b = height of beam (between fastener rows);
e = web thickness
SHEAR (see V1-2.2.3.1.2)

cr,0
=

2
k
s
E
12 1
e
2
( )
e
min a, b { }






2
R
S
=

cr, 0
BENDING (see V1-2.2.3.1.3 )

cf, 0
=

2
k
f
E
12 1
e
2
( )
e
b






2
R
f
=

cf , 0
SHEAR + BENDING (see V1-2.2.4.1)
R
s
2
+ R
f
2
=1 where R.F. =
1
R
s
2
+ R
f
2
1

f
=

2
2

1
Mf
a
b
Mf
T
e
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Study Of Uprights page V1-541
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 4 STUDY OF UPRIGHTS
The moment of inertia to be given to a cross section of an upright intended to prevent the buckling of the
web under shear is:
I
2.29 L
e
T h
33 E
m
cr a
4
3
=

I
m
: Moment of inertia req uired for the upright.
L: Spacing between uprights (between datum lines).
e: Web thickness.
T
cr
: Critical vertical shear force in section.
h
a
: Web height (between datum lines).
E: Young s modulus of elasticity.
As T
cr
=
cr
h
a
e and
cr
= K
s
E
e
min L, h
a
{ }






2
hence:

cr
: Web critical shear stress.
K
s
: Buckling coefficient in shear.
The curve below is used in the following cases:
All flat or curved panels.
The uprights are attached at both ends (flanges).
No participation of the effective skin must be included in the calculation of the moment of inertia.
The curve is only applicable to cases where buckling is elastic or where L = min L, h
a
{ }
The moment of inertia req uired for the upright can be written in another way:
I
2.29 L
e
e
33 E
2.29 L
e
E
e
L
h e
33 E
0.0217 L e
L
h K
m
cr a
2
4
3
s
2
a
2
4
3
3
a s
8
3
h
K

=


= >
I
L e
0.0217
L
h K
m
3
a s
8
3

=

When the upright is used as such and not as a means for transferring an outside load concentrated on the web
of the beam, the q uestion to be asked is what is the minimum number of rivets req uired to connect the upright to
the web? For stable webs, we suggest two criteria:
1. The upright must be attached to the flanges at both ends.
2. The spacing between the rivets must be at most eq ual to a q uarter of the spacing between the uprights or
a q uarter of the height of the web if this is smaller so as to j ustify the simply supported hypothesis on the
edges of the web panel.
L
h
a
e
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-542 Study Of Uprights Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
Curve for calculating the minimum inertia
required for the upright
0,1
1
10
100
l
m

/

(
L

*

e
3
)
0 0,04 0,08 0,12 0,16 0,2
L / (ha * Ks
0,5
)
1000
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Junctions page V1-551
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 5 JUNCTIONS
V1-5 5.1 GENERAL FORMULAS
In general, standard beams consist of separate web and flange elements assembled by rivets, bolts or other
means. We must know the loads that these fasteners will take to give them a suitable strength.
The figure above shows a beam portion eq ual in length to the riveting pitch " p" . The section at (AA ) is
submitted to a bending moment M, the section (CC ) is submitted to moment M+M. The distribution of the
bending stresses in the beam sections is given by the triangular profiles assuming that the web takes no bending
stresses.
Let F
s
be the total tensile force on the sections comprising the upper flange AB due to the bending stresses
induced by M in section AA . Also, the total tensile force on the sections comprising the flange CD due to the
bending moment M+M is eq ual to F
s
+ F
s
. Under the action of these two forces, the sections comprising the
upper flange must move towards the left; this movement is prevented by the rivet which attaches these angles to
the web. Therefore, the force on the rivet is eq ual to F
s
(same reasoning for the lower flange).
F
s
= dS
Semelle sup

where: =
M
I
x
F
s
=
M
I
x dS
Semellesup

=
M
I
W
s
where: F
s
: force normal to upper flange.
Also:
F
i
=
M
I
x dS
Semelle inf

=
M
I
W
i
where: F
i
: force normal to lower flange.
We deduce:
F
s
=
M
I
W
s
and F
i
=
M
I
W
i
Now:
M= Tp
= F
T. W
I
p
s
s
. and F
T. W
I
p
i
i
. =
Fs and Fi represent the horizontal shear flow caused by the flanges over a length p.
C
neutral
fibre
p
C A
B D
A
B D
rivet
rivet
F
s
Fi
M+ M
F
s
+ F
s
F
i
+ F
i
T
T
f
xy
d
G
Complete section
G
Flange
Q
M
f
yx
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-552 Junctions Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
The fasteners ensuring the cohesion of the beam must be capable of transferring the shear flows given by
formula: f =
T.W
I
.
The fasteners attaching the web to the flange are submitted to shear flow f
xy
, passing from the web into the
flange.
At point Q, the shear flows eq ual:
f
xy
= f
yx
=
T
I
W
semelle
.
where: I = Moment of inertia of complete beam section.
W
semelle
= Static moment of flange section alone.
W
semelle
= y dS

= S
semelle
d
We can deduce the force per fastener:
F
T. W
I
p
semelle
=
Specific case: If the two flanges are identical and the section of the web is low: 1 = 2 x S
semelle
x d
2
f =
T
2d
Approximation: By taking 2d = H the height of the beam, we obtain results close to the general expression.
f =
T
H
V1-5 5.2 JUNCTIONS BETWEEN REINFORCING PLATES AND FLANGES
The figure below shows typical beam flanges consisting of a main (T-shaped) element reinforced by plates
(a) and (b) for the upper flange and (c) and (d) for the lower flange. The aim of the fasteners is to prevent the
reinforcement plates from sliding along the main (T-shaped) element of the flange by the bending action of the
beam. This horizontal force which tends to make the reinforcing plates slide, this being prevented by the shear of
the rivets, is given by the fundamental shear flow eq uation:
f =
T
I
y dS

Upper flange (LH portion):


Flow passing through shear plane: f
T. W
I
a1
a1
=
Where: W
a1
= S
a1
h
a
Shear flow
f
a1
f
a2
T
h
a
G
Complete section
Upper flange
a
b
Lower flange
G
Complete section
h
c
1
st
shear plane
2
nd
shear plane
c
d
H
d
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Junctions page V1-553
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
Lower flange (LH portion):
Flow passing through 1
st
shear plane: f
c1d1
=
T.W
c1d1
I
Where: W
c1d1
= S
c1
. h
c
+ S
d1
. h
d
Flow passing through 2
nd
shear plane: f
d1
=
T.W
d1
I
Where: W
d1
= S
d1
. h
d
The reasoning is the same for the RH portions of the plates.
Where: index 1: LH portion of the plate.
index 2: RH portion of the plate.
V1-5 5.3 WEB SPLICES
Splices are often used in the design of a beam with thin sheet sections either to increase the thickness of the
web or to ensure a j unction between two beams. The case shown on figure (a) below uses splices to avoid the
j oggling of a relatively heavy web as case on figure (b).
Calculation of normal flow: f
y
=
y
. e
Calculation of tangential flow: f
x
=
T.W
x ( )
I
Where: W
x ( )
= x dS
x1
x2

W
(x)
static moment of the section above x
Remark: If we consider f
x
as constant (conservative):
Max. shear flux: f
x
=
T.W
I
where W= 1/2-section static moment.
Overlap
junction
Figure (a)
Figure (b)
r
a
a
Splices
x
1
f
y
f
x
x
y
x
2
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-554 Junctions Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 5.4 EXAMPLE
Let us check the riveting of the beam below supposing that the vertical shear force on this section is eq ual to
15000 N.
ITEM AREA (S) Y Sy Sy
2
I
0
I = I
0
+ S y 2
mm
2
mm mm
3
mm
4
mm
4
mm
4
Upper flange 116 83,7 9709 812660 4040 816700
Upper reinforcement
plate
70 89,8 6286 564483 negligible 564483
Web 228 0 0 0 580600 580600
Lower flange 116 - 83,7 - 9709 812660 4040 816700
Lower flange rivet
hole
- 14 - 78 1092 - 85176 negligible - 85176
Total 516 7378 2693307
I
0
: moment of inertia of an element in relation to its own axis.
y: distance between the centreline and the centre of gravity of the element.
The offset between the centreline and the neutral fibre is given by: y =
Sy

=
7378
516
= 14, 3 mm
The moment of inertia in relation to the neutral fibre is:
I
A. N
= I S

( )y
2
= 2 693 307 - 516*14, 3
2
= 2 587 790 mm
4
CHECKING WEB-FLANGE RIVETING
The shear flow is given by formula: f =
T
I
A. N
y dS

The beam bending load is supposed to be such that the upper flange is compressed.
The first step consists in determining the moment of inertia of the cross section in relation to the neutral fibre
as shown in the calculation details of the table above, by calculating the moment of inertia at the centreline of the
section then transferring it to the neutral fibre.
The force passing through the rivets attaching the upper flange angles to the web:
F = f *p ( p = rivet pitch = 30 mm)
30
38 1,6
44
178
1,3
8
Centreline
Neutral fibre
14,3
Web height
175 mm
Tensioned flange
All rivets
ASN-A 2051
diameter 3.2 mm
Detail of flange
sections
19
19
1,6
Surface area = 58 mm
2

Inertia = 2020 mm
4
5,3
8
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Junctions page V1-555
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
The static moment of the flange in relation to the neutral fibre is:
ydS = 2 *58*(89 14, 3 5, 3) = 8050 mm
3

The static moment of the reinforcing plate in relation to the neutral fibre is:
ydS = 44 *1, 6*(89 14, 3+ 0,8) = 5315 mm
3

The total static moment of the web - upper flange j unction in relation to the neutral fibre is: 13365 mm
3
The force in the rivet is then:
F = f *p =
T
I
A. N
ydS







*p =
15 000
2 587 790
*13 365* 30 = 2324 N
The shear flow calculated by the simplified eq uation can be written:
f =
T
H
where H is the height of the beam.
The force in the rivet is then: F f * p
T
H
* p
15 000
179.6
* 30 2506 N = = = =
This result is correct if compared with the 2324 N obtained by the exact theory.
The web is attached to the two sections of the flange by 3.2 mm diameter aluminium alloy ASN-A 2051
rivets with single shear strength of 180 MPa.
The allowable double shear force in a web-flange j unction rivet:
F
adm,cis
= 2*
R
*
d
2
4





= 2 *180 *
3, 2
2
4





= 2895 N
The allowable bearing force of the web (1,3 mm thick 2024-T3 element,
mat
= 905 MPa) is:
F
adm,mat
=
mat
*e * d = 905*1, 3* 3, 2 = 3765 N
The allowable double shear force is therefore more critical; the Reserve Factor is then:
R.F =
F
adm,cis
F
=
2895
2324
=1, 24
CHECKING RIVETING OF REINFORCEMENT PLATE.
Two rows of rivets with a rivet pitch of 38 mm.
The load on two rivets is:
F = f *p =
T
I
A.N
ydS







*p =
15 000
2 587 790
* 5 315*38 = 1170 N i.e. 585 N per rivet
Using the simplified formula, the load on the two rivets is:
F f * p
T
H
S
S
* p
15 000
179.6
*
70.4
186.4
* 38 = 1198 N
p
s s
= = =

i.e. 599 N per rivet


The rivets are stressed in single shear:
F
adm,cis
=
R
*
d
2
4





= 180*
3, 2
2
4





=1447 N
The Reserve Factor is: R. F
1447
585
2.47 = =
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-556 Junctions Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Example page V1-561
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 6 EXAMPLE
Let us take an assembled beam with an I-section, bearing simply at 2 points and loaded by three forces
concentrated as shown and which comprise the design loads for the beam.
pocket 28
630
630
630
630
11 000 N
12 250 N
11 000 N
90
Span 4
e
ame
= 1,5
Span 3
e
ame
= 1,8
Span 2
e
ame
= 1,8
Span 1
e
ame
= 1,5
3,2 mm diameter
rivets in flange,
pitch 25 mm
Uprights made of sections:
Dimensions :13,5*13,5*1
200
pocket 22
pocket 21
pocket 15
pocket 14
pocket 8
pocket 7
pocket 6
pocket 5
pocket 4
pocket 3
pocket 2
pocket 1
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-562 Example Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
The characteristics of the materials: 2024 PLT 351 Skin, Sheet and Web; 7075 T73510 flanges
Skin, Sheet and Web:
R 0,2 c
440 MPa ; 270 MPa ; E 70300 MPa ; n = 7.05 = = =
Flanges:
R 0,2 c
495 MPa ; 420 MPa ; E 73800 MPa ; n = 13.83 = = =
ELEMENTS
S
mm
2
Y
mm
Sy
mm
3
Sy
2
mm
4
I
0
mm
4
I
0
+ Sy
2
mm
4
upper flange 170 94,4 16048 1514931 5712 1520643
upper skin 22,8 100,3 2287 229370 negligible 229370
web (th= 1,5 mm) 295,2 0 0 0 952764 952764
web (th= 1,8 mm) 354,24 0 0 0 1143317 1143317
lower flange 116 - 94,7 - 10985 1040298 4040 1044338
lower skin 50 - 100,25 - 5013 502503 negligible 502503
flange-skin rivet holes - 13,44 - 99,45 1337 - 132926 negligible - 132926
flange-web rivet holes - 15,04 - 89 1339 - 119132 negligible - 119132
flange-web rivet holes - 16 - 89 1424 - 126736 negligible - 126736
TOTAL (1,5 mm web) 625,5 5012 3997561
TOTAL (1,8 mm web) 683,6 5098 4180509
Section with 1,5 mm web
y
S
5012
625,5
8 mm
sy
= = =

I
A.N.
= ( I
0
+ Sy
2
) - (S)
2
y = 3997561 - 625,5 * 8
2
= 3957529 mm
4
Section with 1,8 mm web: (with same position of neutral fibre)
I
A.N.
= ( I
0
+ Sy
2
) - (S)
2
y = 4180509 - 683,6 * 8
2
= 4136758 mm
4
neutral fibre
central line
100
200
19 19
0,6 (sheet)
1,5
11
100
0,5 (skin)
3,2 (rivet hole)
web height
196,8
19
19
2,4
19
19
1.6
upper flange
5,6
neutral fibre
S
ss
= 85 mm
2
5.3
lower flange
neutral fibre
S
si
= 58 mm
2
I
ss
= 2856 mm
4
I
si
= 2020 mm
4
8
10,5
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Example page V1-563
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
CHECKING BEAM BENDING STRENGTH
With the beam simply supported at both ends, with symmetrical loading and with a constant cross section
along complete length.
The maximum bending moment is found in the centre of the beam as shown by the eq uilibrium of the part
and the bending moment diagram above.
M
max
=17125*1260 11000 *630 =14 647 500 mm.N
The beam is riveted to a skin panel as beam section shows on previous page. We will associate a certain
efficient sheet width to the upper flange which under the loading considered is in compression. This will depend
on the stress in the flange of the beam.
On tensioned flange side, the complete skin is load-carrying which corresponds to the half-distance to the
first skin stiffener on each side (distance between 2 stiffeners: 100 mm).
Details of the cross section in the centre of the beam are shown on the previous page with three rivet holes
on the tensioned flange. The table on the same page gives the geometrical characteristics of the section in relation
to the neutral fibre.
The bending stress at the centre of gravity of the horizontal portion of the compressed flange is:

f
f
M * v
I
14 647 500 * 90.8
4 136 758
321.5 MPa = = =
The critical stress in the 1 mm thick and 78 mm wide sheet (between fastener rows) is:

cp
c
2
p
2
2
2
2
2
k E
12(1
e
b
4 70300
2(1 0.33
0,6
78
15.4 MPa
1 )
=

)
7
Load-carrying width on a leg of the compressed flange: L
t
L 39
15.4
321.5
8,5 mm
t0
cp
f
= = =

The total width of each of the leg is 8,5 + 10,5 = 19 mm which is exactly the value taken for the calculation
of the geometrical characteristics of the section of the beam.
11000 12250 11000
17125 17125
630 630 630 630
630 1260 1890 2520
x
2000000
0
4000000
6000000
8000000
10000000
12000000
14000000
14647500
16000000
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-564 Example Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
CALCULATING ALLOWABLE COMPRESSION STRESS IN UPPER FLANGE
The upper flange consists of two right angle extrusions with two eq ual legs attached both to the skin and to
the web. The allowable stress of such a beam is the critical crippling stress which is eq ual to the critical buckling
stress of one of the two eq ual legs of the section:
As per V1-3.7: legs. two the of one of
S
S
cr
i
cri i
crip
=

cr c
c
K
E
12(1 )
e
b
0.43
* 73800 *
12(1 0.33 )
2.4
1.8
* 532.5 MPa
2
e
2
2
2
2
2
=

After plasticity correction


cr
417 MPa =
The Reserve Factor: R.F
417
321.5
1.3 = =
CHECKING LOWER FLANGE IN TENSION
The bending stress at the centre of gravity of the skin is:

f
f
M * v
I
14 647 500 *108.25
4 136 758
383.3 MPa = = =
The Reserve Factor (Skin): R. F
440
383.5
1.15 = =
The Reserve Factor (Lower flange): R. F
495
383.5
1.29 = =
The Reserve Factor will be improved if we use the method based on the stress-strain diagram as explained in
2.1.1 and which consists in calculating the ultimate bending moment.
CHECKING BUCKLING STRESS IN WEB
The maximum shear force is found at the bearing points and is eq ual to: 17125 N.
The thickness of the web at the bearing points is 1,5 mm.
The height of the web is the distance between the rows of fasteners connecting the web to the flanges:
178 mm.
The spacing between the uprights is 90 mm.
The maximum shear stress in the web can be calculated:
by the simplified eq uation: = = =
T
he
17125
178 *1,5
64.1 MPa .
by the exact eq uation:
[ ]
=

= + + =
T
Ie
ydS
17125
3957529 *1,5
170 * 86.4 22.8 * 92.3 1,5 * 90.4 * 45.2 66.1 MPa .
The bending moment is negligible near to the bearing points; therefore, we can consider the panels as being
loaded with pure shear with the edges simply supported at the uprights and the fastener rows.
a = h = 178 mm. b = 90 mm.
b
a
= 0, 5 k
s
= 3, 8*
90
178






2
+5, 35 = 6, 3 see V1-2.2.3.1.2
( )


cr,0
2
e
2
2
2
2
2
k
s
E
12 1
e
b
6,3 * * 70300
12 * (1 0,33 )
1,5
90
*113.5 MPa = 107 MPa (h = 0.943). =

The Reserve Factor is: R.F.


107
66,1
1.62 = =
This value is fairly correct as the real boundary condition for the web is certainly more stabilising than the
one taken, that is simple supported.
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Example page V1-565
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
CHECKING END SPANS WITH A WEB THICKNESS OF 1,5 MM.
The most critical webs are those of pockets 7 and 22. They are submitted to a shear load of 17125 N
superimposed on a bending moment in the centre of the pocket eq uivalent to: 17125 * 585 = 10 018 125 mm.N.
As the web is clamped between the sections of the upper flange and those of the lower flange, the buckling
of the web will occur near to the lower edge of the upper flange sections, that is, at a distance of 73 mm from the
neutral fibre.
The bending stress is:
f
f
M * v
I
10 018 125 * 73
3 957 529
184.8 MPa = = =
The critical buckling stress in bending:
cf, 0
=
k
f

2
E
12 1
e
2
( )
e
b






2
.
The height of the pocket h= b = 162 mm. The length of the pocket = spacing between uprights = a = 90 mm.
a
b
=
90
162
= 0, 55 k
f
= 41, 8 (see V1-2.2.3.1.3) pocket with two sides clamped and two others bearing.
( )

cf,0
2
2
2
* 41,8 * * 70300
12 * 1 0,33
1,5
162
* 232.5 MPa =

The plasticity correction factor for a plate with two clamped edges and two others hinged is given in
V1-2.2.2 : = =
4
0.856 hence
cf, 0
=199 MPa .
The shear stress at pocket 7 or 22 is the same as the one calculated at the bearing points, as the shear force is
the same.
Thus = = 66.1 MPa ; 107 MPa.
cr,0
The interaction eq uation for the combined bending - shear loads is: (see V1-2.2.4.1 )
R R 1 with R
184.8
199
0,93 and R
66.1
107
0.62
f
2
s
2
f
f
cf,0
s
cr,0
+ = = = = = = =


R. F.
1
R R
1
0.93 0.62
0,9
f
2
s
2 2 2
=
+
=
+
=
CHECKING SPANS IN CENTRE OF BEAM WITH A 1.8 MM WEB.
The bending moment at the centre of a pocket adj acent to the centre of the beam (pockets 14 and 15) is
eq ual to:
M
f
=17125*121511000 *585 = 14 371 875 mm.N.
The shear force on the same pocket is eq ual to: T= 1712511000 = 6125 N
The bending stress is:
f
f
M * v
I
14 371 875 * 73
4 136 758
253.6 MPa = = =
The shear stress is:
[ ]
=

= + + =
T
Ie
ydS
6125
4136758 * 1.8
170 * 86.4 22.8 * 92.3 1.8 * 4086 19.9 MPa
The critical buckling stress in bending:
( )

cf,0
2
2
2
* 41.8 * * 70300
12 * 1 0.33
1.8
162
* 334.8 MPa =

The plasticity correction factor for a plate with two clamped edges and two others hinged is calculated as per
V1-2.2.2 : = =
4
0.708 hence
cf, 0
= 237 MPa .
The critical shear stress:
( )


cr,0
s
2
e
2
2
2
2
2
k E
12 1
e
b
6,3 * * 70300
12 * (1 0.33 )
1.8
90
*163.5 MPa = 133.2 MPa ( = 0.815). =

SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS


page V1-566 Example Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
The interaction eq uation for the combined bending - shear loads is: (see V1-2.2.4.1 )
R R 1 where R
253.6
237
1,07 and R
19.9
133.2
0.15
f
2
s
2
f s
+ = = = = = = =

f
cf cr , , 0 0

R.F.
1
R R
1
1.07 0.15
0,93
f
2
s
2 2 2
=
+
=
+
=
CHECKING RIGIDITY OF UPRIGHTS.
The web is stiffened on a single side by the uprights: sections with legs of eq ual size (mm) 13,5*13,5*1.
The formula of 5 gives the moment of inertia req uired for an upright to prevent buckling.
I
m
=
2, 29 l
e
T
cr
h
a
33 E






4
3
=
2, 29*90
1, 5
17125*196, 8
33*70300






4
3
= 204 mm
4
The moment of inertia of the uprights is 460 mm
4
, therefore greater than the moment of inertia req uired.
Such uprights are therefore satisfactory.
The moment of inertia req uired will also be checked by using the curve on page V1-5.5.2:
The parameter on the X-axis is:
l
h * K
s
0 ,5
=
l
h *

2
* k
s
1
e
2
( )*12








0, 5
=
90
178*

2
*6, 3
10, 33
2
( )*12








0 ,5
= 0.21
From the curve, we obtain
I
m
l e
3
1, 4 I
m
=1, 4*90 *1, 5
3
= 425 mm
4
.
The rigidity of the uprights is therefore satisfactory.
CHECKING RIVETS ATTACHING THE WEB TO THE FLANGES, END SPANS.
In the end spans
The shear load T = 17125 daN
Web thickness e = 1,5 mm
The shear flow is:
by approximate formula: f =
T
H
=
17125
200
= 85.6 N/mm
by exact formula: f =
T
I
ydS =
17125
3957529

(85 * 2 * 86.4 + 19 * 2 * 92.3) = 78.7 N/mm


All rivets are made of aluminium alloy 2117-T3, diameter 3,2 mm with a pitch of 25 mm and a shear
strength of 180 MPa.
The allowable single shear force is then: F
adm cis
= 180*
* d
2
4





=1448 daN
As the web-flange j unction rivets are submitted to double shear: F
adm cis
= 2896 daN
The maximum force in a rivet is: f * pitch = 85.6 * 25 = 2140 daN, which gives R.F = 1.35.
The rivets attaching the skin to the upper flange must have a pitch so as to prevent all buckling of the skin
between the rivets as we retained a certain efficiency of the skin in the beam moment of inertia calculation.
However, the rivets attaching the skin to the lower flange need not be checked for buckling between rivets, as the
skin is tensioned, but simply for shear loading.
The uprights can be checked at the external load application points and at the beam bearing points as they
transfer the concentrated loads to the web of the beam.
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Stable Web Beams With Round Lightening Holes page V1-571
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 7 STABLE WEB BEAMS WITH ROUND LIGHTENING HOLES
V1-5 7.1 GENERAL
The type of web analysed in the previous paragraphs includes many elements (uprights) to obtain the
req uired lightness. To reduce manufacturing costs, the number of parts can be reduced. A trade-off must be found
between the manufacturing costs and excess weight. This trade-off often depends on the type of aircraft under
calculation. Thus, reducing the number of elements enables extensive savings in manufacturing costs and can thus
be more economical.
To reduce the number of uprights, we freq uently use a web drilled with round flanged lightening holes with
varied spacing.
However, there is a general limitation to this as we must place an upright at locations where high loads are
applied to the beam.
Webs with holes provide many accesses for hydraulic and electrical conduits.
V1-5 7.2 STANDARDISATION OF FLANGED HOLES
Design standards at Arospatiale define the geometry of flanged holes according to the diameter of the hole
(Standard ASN 451.01). Thus, we will give below the values of: d, D, H (in mm).
e = 0,6 - 0,8 - 1 - 1,2 - 1,4 e = 1,6 - 1,8 - 2 - 2,5
d D H d D H
15 20 3 15 22,7 4
25 30 3 25 32,7 4
30 36 3 30 37,7 4
40 45,5 3 40 48,3 4
50 55,5 3 50 58,3 4
60 65,8 3,5 60 68,7 4,5
70 75,8 3,5 70 78,7 4,5
80 85,8 3,5 80 88,7 4,5
90 96,1 4 90 98,9 4,5
100 106,3 4 100 109 5
110 120 5 110 123 6
120 133,6 6 120 136,8 7
130 143,8 6 130 146,9 7
140 153,6 6 140 157 7
150 163,7 6 150 166,9 7
160 173,6 6 160 177 7
e
B
C
C
d
g
H
Section A-A
A
A
Upright under concentrated load Flange
b
Load
D
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-572 Stable Web Beams With Round Lightening Holes Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 7.3 ALLOWABLE SHEAR FLOW
The rule-of-thumb formula giving the allowable shear flow (in relation to failure) for webs with these types
of holes is:
f
adm
= k e
h
1 (d / b)
2
( )+
c
d
b





C
g
k 0.85 0.0006 (b / e) =

h c
or = shear stress producing the collapse of a long plate with width h or C and thickness e
(obtained for instance by using the curves on the following page).
g = distance between the centrelines of two adj acent holes.
b = height of the web between the lower and upper fastener rows (web - flange fastener).
B
D d
2
and C = g - d =

C = C - 2B = C + d - D = g - D
In general, we find, with the rule-of-thumb formula, that the largest holes (diameter around 0.8 h) with a
fairly large spacing g give lighter but less rigid webs.
In addition to the calculation above (collapse), it must also be checked at the holes that the web under
ultimate load f b does not give net shear stresses above the breaking shear
R
.
Calculation graphs can be plotted from the rule-of-thumb formula (see example on page V1-5.7-4).
S
S
M


V
1
-
5



S
T
A
B
L
E


W
E
B


B
E
A
M
S
I
s
s
u
e

1
S
t
a
b
l
e

W
e
b

B
e
a
m
s

W
i
t
h

R
o
u
n
d

L
i
g
h
t
e
n
i
n
g

H
o
l
e
s
p
a
g
e

V
1
-
5


A
E
R
O
S
P
A
T
I
A
L
E

-

1
9
9
9
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
140
154
168
182
196
210
224
238
252
266
280
Zh, Zc en MPa
0
14
28
42
56
70
84
98
112
126
140
Zh, Zc en MPa
(e) mm
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,6
1,3
CONTRAINTES DE CISAILLEMENT DE RUINE, Z
h
ou Z
c1
POUR LES AMES
EN ALLIAGE D'ALUMINIUM 2024
NACA A.R.R. DEC., 1942
S
S
M


V
1
-
5



S
T
A
B
L
E


W
E
B


B
E
A
M
S
p
a
g
e

V
1
-
5

4
S
t
a
b
l
e

W
e
b

B
e
a
m
s

W
i
t
h

R
o
u
n
d

L
i
g
h
t
e
n
i
n
g

H
o
l
e
s
I
s
s
u
e

1


A
E
R
O
S
P
A
T
I
A
L
E

-

1
9
9
9
paisseur de l'me (mm)
FLUX DE CISAILLEMENT ADMISSIBLE (EFFONDREMENT) POUR DES AMES EN 2024 AVEC TROUS
D'ALLEGEMENT CIRCULAIRES PRESENTANT DES BORDS TOMBES A 45
0
0,5
17.5
35
52.5
70
87.5
105
122.5
Flux de cisaillement admissible (N/mm)
140
157.5
1,0 1,5 0,5 1,0 1,5 0,5 1,0 1,5
NACA A.R.R. DEC., 1942
d/h = .50
d/h = .80
250
175
250
175
h = 100
g = 3.0 d
g = 2.25 d
g = 1.5 d
h = 100
h = 100
250
250
175
175
h = 100
250
250
175
175
h = 100
h = 100
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
Issue 1 Stable Web Beams With Round Lightening Holes page V1-575
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V1-5 7.4 REMARKS
3 options are possible:
1. No uprights: Stable web (plates of infinite length).
E.g.: Extrusions.
2. Uprights: Stable and thin iso-loaded web (plates of finite length).
The uprights must be correctly sized.
3. Flanged holes: Lightening - stabilisation trade-off.
For safety reasons, we place the uprights at the concentrated loads and in areas
with high distributed loads to avoid crushing.
V1-5 7.5 EXAMPLE
Let us consider the beam shown below (same geometry and design loads as the one of example 5)
Let us dimension the webs drilled with round lightening holes.
Using the simplified formula, we can find the shear flux in spans A and B:
f
T
H
17125
200
85.6 N / mm and f
T
H
17125 11000
200
= 30.6 N / mm
A B
= = = = =

Thus span " B" will be lighter than span " A" . The introduction of an 11000 N load means that at this location
a load upright must make the j unction between spans " A" and " B" .
As large-diameter holes (and with lower spacings) are more efficient for a gain in weight, let us consider two
holes of diameter d 0.8 h in each span (of 630 mm) spaced 315 mm apart.
We thus obtain the following values:
h = 178 mm d = 140 mm D = 153, 6 mm and
H = 6 mm
(table page V1 - 5.7.1)
g = 315 mm C = g - d = 315 -140 = 175 mm and C' = g - D= 315 -153, 6 = 161, 4 mm
Span " A" Span " B" Span " B" Span " A"
630 630 630 630
h = 178
11000
11000
12250
17125 17125
SSM V1-5 STABLE WEB BEAMS
page V1-576 Stable Web Beams With Round Lightening Holes Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
Span " A"
Assuming a web thickness of 2 mm.
h
e
=
178
2
= 89 k = 0, 85- 0, 0006 *(
h
e
) = 0, 85 - 0, 0006*89 = 0, 8
From the curves on page V1-5.7.3 for
h
e
=
178
2
= 89 and
C
e
=
175
2
= 87, 5 we obtain:

h c
92.5 MPa et 94.5 MPa = =
The allowable shear flow is then:
f
adm
= k *e *
h
1
d
h






2
+
c
d
h












*
C'
g
= 0, 8* 2* 92, 5* 1
140
178






2






+ 94, 5*
140
178






*
161, 4
315
= 97, 6 N/mm
The Reserve Factor for collapse is: R.F =
f
f
97.6
85.6
1.14
adm
A
= =
Let us check the pure shear stresses in a section at a hole:

net
=
T
h d
( )
*e
=
17125
178 140
( )
*2
= 225 MPa
The breaking shear for 2 mm thick material 2024 PL T351 is 270 MPa.
The pure shear Reserve Factor is: R.F =
270
225
1.2
R
net

= =
Span " B"
Assuming a web thickness of 1,3 mm.
h
e
=
178
1, 3
= 137 k = 0, 85- 0, 0006 *(h/e) = 0, 85 - 0, 0006*137 = 0, 77
From the curves on page V1-5.7.3 for
h
e
=
178
1, 3
= 137 and
C
e
=
175
1, 3
=135 we obtain:

h c
59.5 MPa and 60.5 MPa = =
The allowable shear flow is then:
f k * e * 1
d
h
c
d
h
*
C'
g
0.77 *1,3* 59.5 * 1
140
178
2
60.5 *
140
178
*
161.4
315
39.2 MPa
adm h
2
= + = + =


The Reserve Factor for collapse is: R. F =
f
f
39.2
30.6
1.28
adm
B
= =
Let us check the pure shear stresses for a section at a hole:

net
=
T
h d
( )
*e
=
6125
178 140
( )
*1,3
=124 MPa
The pure shear Reserve Factor is: R.F =
270
124
2.18
R
net

= =
Remarks
a) The stressman can use the procedure above for smaller holes and lower thicknesses to find an
arrangement making the web lighter.
b) We can see that the examples above, for calculating the allowable flows, are confirmed by the curves on
page V1-5.7.4. (the curve for the 2 mm thick web req uires an extrapolation).
c) The beam eq uipped with vertical uprights studied in example of 5 is much heavier than the beam
studied above.
Technical Manual
MTS 004 Iss. C
External distribution authorised: YES NO
Document
Manager
Dept code: BTE/CC/CM Validation Name: JF. IMBERT
Name: J. HUET Function : Deputy Department
Group Leader
Dept code: BTE/CC/A
Date: 11/99
Signature
This document is the property of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS; no part of it shall be reproduced or transmitted
without authorization of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS and its contents shall not be disclosed.
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999
3page 1
X
Static stress manual,
metallic materials
Volume 1
Purpose Methods for calculating static failure loads and stresses for
aircraft metallic structural details.
Scope All programmes, static justification of metallic structures.
EDP tool
supporting this Manual
Not applicable.
Contents
V1 - 1 Stiffened panels
V1 - 2 Buclking of plates and thin shells
V1 - 3 Stiffeners
V1 - 4 Thin web beams
V1 - 5 Stable web beams
V1 - 6 Bolted or rivetted junctions
V1 - 7 Lugs
V1 - 8 Hole reinforcements
V1 - 9 Stabilisers
1
4
5
4
5
2
1
2
Structural
Design Manuals
Title - Annex
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C 3Ann. page
Reference documents C BE 019: Drawing up of the Structural Justification Dossier
Documents to be consulted See bibliography at the beginning of each chapter.
Abbreviations See Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR
See "General" paragraph of each chapter
Definitions List of words the definitions of which are integrated into the
Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR:
Highlights
Issue Date Pages modified Justification of the changes made
A 02/98 V1 - 1 V1 - 3
V1 - 7 V1 - 9
New document.
B 05/99 V1 - 7
V1 - 4
Changes as per table page V1-7.i.
New chapter.
C 11/99 V1 - 1 Changes as per table page V1-1.i.
Created paragraph V1-1-8.
V1 - 5 New chapter.
Static stress manual, metallic materials - Management information
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C page IG1
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SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 General page V1-7i
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
CONTENTS
issue date revision
V1-7
V1-71
V1-72
V1-73
V1-74
V1-75
V1-76
V1-77
V1-78
LUGS
GENERAL
DATA PREPARATION
ALLOWABLE AXIAL FORCE
ALLOWABLE TRANSVERSE FORCE
STRENGTH UNDER AN OBLIQUE FORCE
ALLOWABLE BEARING IN BUSH
PIN STRESSING
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
4/1999
4/1999
4/1999
4/1999
4/1999
1/1998
4/1999
4/1999
4/1999
V1-7 1 GENERAL 1-1
V1-7 1.1 INTRODUCTION - GENERAL PRESENTATION 1-1
V1-7 1.2 PRINCIPAL DIRECTIONS 1-2
V1-7 1.3 FAILURE MODES 1-3
V1-7 1.3.1 Failure under axial load 1-3
V1-7 1.3.2 Failure under a transverse load 1-4
V1-7 1.3.3 General information on pin stressing 1-5
V1-7 2 DATA PREPARATION 2-1
V1-7 2.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES 2-1
V1-7 2.2 GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES 2-1
V1-7 3 ALLOWABLE AXIAL LOAD 3-1
V1-7 3.1 ALLOWABLE TENSION LOAD 3-1
V1-7 3.1.1 Determination of the elastic over-stress factor 3-1
V1-7 3.1.2 Neuber rule 3-1
V1-7 3.1.3 Application of the Neuber rule to the allowable tension load calculation 3-2
V1-7 3.1.4 Calculation of s 3-3
V1-7 3.2 ALLOWABLE SHEAR/BEARING LOAD 3-5
V1-7 3.3 SPECIAL CASE CONCERNING EYE ENDS 3-7
V1-7 3.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM 3-11
V1-7 3.4.1 Solid lugs 3-11
V1-7 3.4.2 Eye ends 3-12
V1-7 4 ALLOWABLE TRANSVERSE LOAD 4-1
V1-7 5 STRENGTH UNDER AN OBLIQUE LOAD 5-1
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-7ii General Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 6 ALLOWABLE BEARING 6-1
V1-7 7 PIN STRESSING 7-1
V1-7 7.1 PIN SHEAR 7-1
V1-7 7.2 PIN BENDING 7-1
V1-7 7.2.1 Calculation of the lever arm " b" 7-1
V1-7 7.2.2 Calculation of the bending modulus 7-3
V1-7 7.2.3 Allowable bending load 7-12
V1-7 8 INTERACTIVE CALCULATION 8-1
V1-7 8.1 PRINCIPLE 8-1
V1-7 8.2 EFFECT ON ALLOWABLE AXIAL LOAD 8-2
V1-7 8.3 EFFECT ON ALLOWABLE TRANSVERSE LOAD 8-3
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 General page V1-7iii
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
SYMBOLS USED
Abbreviation Meaning
CG centre of gravity
UL ultimate load
LL limit load
RF reserve factor
Notation Unit Description
a (mm) distance from centre of hole to edge of lug in axial direction
A (mm) cross section area of eye end ring
A
av
(mm) weighted surface area for calculation of lug subj ected to transverse force
A
br
(mm) proj ected bearing surface area
A
brb
(mm) minimum bearing surface area at the pin/bush/bore interface
A
s
(mm) sheared surface area
A
t
(mm) critical tensile cross section area
A
1
(mm) cross section area of lug subj ected to transverse force in a plane 45 to pin hole axis
A
2
(mm) 1) (axial strength of eye ends) cross section area of ring at point y
2) (transverse strength, all lugs) cross section area of lug subjected to transverse
force at pin hole
A
3
(mm) 1) (axial strength of eye ends) cross section area of ring at point z
2) (transverse strength, all lugs) minimum radial cross section area
A
4
(mm) cross section area of lug, taken opposite force in transverse direction in a plane 45
to pin hole
b (mm) lever arm
C (mm) curved abscissa (eye ends)
d (mm) pin diameter
d
i
(mm) pin inside diameter
D (mm) hole diameter
e % minimum elongation at break
E (daN/mm) lug modulus of elasticity
E
a
(daN/mm) pin modulus of elasticity
F (daN) force applied at ultimate load
F
a
(daN) proj ection of F (U.L.) or F/1.5 (L.L.) in axial direction
F
bru
(daN/mm) bearing stress ultimate strength (e/D = 2)
F
bry
(daN/mm) conventional bearing yield strength (e/D = 2)
F
tr
(daN) proj ection of F (U.L.) or F/1.5 (L.L.) in transverse direction
F
tux
(daN/mm) allowable tensile limit at ultimate load
F
tyx
(daN/mm) allowable tensile limit at ultimate load
g (mm) clearance between male and female parts
I (mm
4
) moment of inertia of a section in relation to its own centre of gravity
I
2
/I
3
(mm
4
) moment " I" at points y and z for eye ends in tension
k section geometrical factor
K dimensionless factor used for eye end calculations
K
br
shear/bearing factor at ultimate load
K
brv
shear/bearing factor at limit load
K
te
elastic tensile overstress factor
K
tru
transverse factor at ultimate load
K
trv
transverse factor at limit load
Kt AEROSPATIALE FATIGUE MANUAL overstress factor
K

real strain concentration factor


K

real overstress factor


L (mm) distance from centre of hole to edge of lug in a direction parallel to axis of
symmetry of external profile
M
f
(daN.mm) pin bending moment
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-7iv General Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
M
3
(daN.mm) bending moment at point z for eye ends in tension
N
2
/N
3
(daN) normal force at points y and z for eye ends in tension
P
adm
(daN) allowable obliq ue force on lug
P
bru
(daN) allowable shear/bearing force at ultimate load
P
brv
(daN) allowable shear/bearing force at limit load
P'
brv
(daN) allowable bush bearing force
P
fu
(daN) allowable bending force at ultimate load
P
fv
(daN) allowable bending force at limit load
P
su
(daN) allowable pin shear force at ultimate load
P
tru
(daN) allowable transverse force at ultimate load
P
trv
(daN) allowable transverse force at limit load
P
tu
(daN) allowable tensile force at ultimate load
P
tv
(daN) allowable tensile force at limit load
P
tu2
(daN) allowable tensile force at ultimate load conditioned by static strength at point y (eye
ends)
P
tv2
(daN) allowable tensile force at limit load conditioned by static strength at point y (eye
ends)
P
tu31
(daN) allowable tensile force at ultimate load conditioned by static strength under normal
stress at point z (eye ends)
P
tv3
(daN) allowable tensile force at limit load conditioned by static strength at point z (eye
ends)
P
tu32
(daN) allowable tensile force at ultimate load conditioned by static strength under
tangential stress at point z (eye ends)
P
u
(daN) allowable axial force at ultimate load
P
v
(daN) allowable axial force at limit load
r (mm) 1) neutral fibre radius of an eye end ring
2) (peaking) dimensionless q uantity used for calculating
R (mm) lug nose radius
R
3
ratio of F
a
over P
u
(U.L.) or F
a
over P
v
(L.L.)
R
tr
ratio of F
tr
over P
tru
(U.L.) or F
tr
over P
try
(L.L.)
t (mm) thicknesses of lug parts
t'
1
/t'
2
(mm) reduced active thicknesses of lug
T
3
(daN) shear force at point z for eye ends in tension
v (mm) distance between CG and extreme fibre of a section
v
3
(mm) dimension v at point z for eye ends in tension
W (mm) lug width
, , () angles used in calculating eye ends subj ected to axial force
peaking coefficient

MAX
maximum strain corresponding to
MAX

eMAX
maximum allowable elastic strain

pMAX
maximum allowable plastic strain

max
maximum strain corresponding to
max

nom
strain corresponding to
nom

s
strain corresponding to start of striction

0.2
strain corresponding to
0,2
() angle between axial direction and direction of application of F

app
(daN/mm) bending stress in pin at extreme fibre

b
(daN/mm) bending modulus

brg
(daN/mm) bearing stress in lug

bru
(daN/mm) allowable bearing stress

brv
(daN/mm) 0.2% bearing yield strength

e max
(daN/mm) maximum elastic tensile stress

max
(daN/mm) maximum real tensile stress in lug

MAX
or
M
(daN/mm) maximum bending stress in pin (at neutral fibre)

nom
(daN/mm) nominal tensile elastic stress in the critical section of lug
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 General page V1-7v
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998

R
(daN/mm) ultimate strength

0
(daN/mm) Cozzone' s fictitious stress at neutral fibre in pin

0,2
(daN/mm) conventional tensile yield strength
c
0,2
(daN/mm) conventional compression yield strength

2
/
3
(daN/mm) normal stress at points y and z for eye ends in tension

(daN/mm) shear stress

adm
(daN/mm) allowable pure shear stress

3
(daN/mm) tangential stress at point z for eye ends in tension
Index Meaning
1 characteristic index of female part of assembly
2 characteristic index of male part of assembly (except eye ends)
SSM V1-7 LUGS
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Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
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SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 General page V1-7vii
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
REFERENCES
1 - AIRFRAME STRUCTURAL DESIGN, Nyu, Michael C. Y.
2 - MANUEL FATIGUE AEROSPATIALE MTS 005
3 - LUGS AND SHEAR PINS, Melcon, M. A. & Hoblit, F. M. in Product Engineering, J une 1953
4 - FORMULAS FOR STRESS, STRAIN AND STRUCTURAL MATRICES, Pilkey, Walter D.
5 - ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES, Brhn, E. F.
6 - STRESS MEMO No. 1e, Lockheed-California Company.
7 - SUPERSEDES SECT. 7.7, Canadair.
SSM V1-7 LUGS
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SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 General page V1-71-1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 1 GENERAL
V1-7 1.1 INTRODUCTION - GENERAL PRESENTATION
Traditionally, lug j unctions are used in a certain number of cases:
- attachment of engine pylons under the wing
- rods inside wing boxes
- inter-rail floor beams
- floating floor j unctions with adj acent zones
- door fittings
- galley upper attachments
- etc.
Generally, a lug-type j unction comprises:
- a male part
- a female part
- a pin
More rarely, a j unction consisting of two male parts is found.
The bores in the male and female parts may be fitted with bushes to avoid direct contact with the pin.
Figure V1-7 .1.1-1: Example of a lug assembly
As these junctions often transfer single forces, special care must be paid to sizing, especially by taking into
account the fitting factor, imposed by certification texts. Most often, the following is recommended:
- take either a fitting factor of 1.15 which increases the force applied:
- or a margin of at least 20%.
Female part of the lug j unction
Pin
Male part of the lug j unction
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-71-2 General Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Note that these special precautions apply to all items for which mechanical strength is not guaranteed by tests.
This may concern the male and female parts as well as the pin.
A calculation at ultimate load and a calculation at limit load are made. The limit load calculation is especially
important when the removability of the junction must be conserved for maintenance operations.
V1-7 1.2 PRINCIPAL DIRECTIONS
Before calculating this type of j unction, it is essential to define two main force directions.
In the simple case where the hole is centred on the bisector of the external profile of the lug (refer to figure V1-
7 .1.2-1):
- the axial direction is defined as being this bisector,
- the transverse direction is defined as being perpendicular to the axial direction.
Figure V1-7 .1.2-1: Lug with centred hole
In certain cases, the hole is not located on the bisector. Depending on the distance between the centre of the bore
and the edge of the part, the axial direction may be plotted either in a direction parallel to the bisector or in the
minimum material direction (refer to Figure V1-7 .1.2.2).
Figure V1-7 .1.2-2: Lugs with asymmetrical holes
Bisector
Axial direction
Bisector
Axial direction
R
L
Bisector
Axial
direction
L
R
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 General page V1-71-3
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Example for determining axial direction:
adapter beam end lug
Figure V1-7 .1.2-3: Example for determining axial direction
In the example of Figure V1-7.1.2-3, the hole is located on the bisector. Therefore, the axial direction coincides
with this bisector. The transverse direction is perpendicular to the axial direction, orientated in the orthogonal
proj ection direction of the applied force, downwards or upwards.
V1-7 1.3 FAILURE MODES
V1-7 1.3.1 Failure under axial force
The following may occur under an axial force:
- tensile failure: the concentration of stresses at the edge of the hole cause failure in a section
approximately perpendicular to the axial direction and located on either side of the hole (Figure V1-
7.1.3.1-1).
Figure V1-7 .1.3.1-1: Tensile failure under axial force
- failure by a combination of bearing and shear: the bearing and shear stresses combine to cause
failure in planes located at

40 to the axial direction (Figure V1-7.1.3.1.2).
Figure V1-7 .1.3.1-2: Bearing/shear failure
Axial
direction
Tangent to the
outer profile
Outer
profile
Bisector
F
40
40
F
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-71-4 General Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
In the specific case of eye ends, failure under axial load occurs generally at the j unction between the lug ring and
the remainder of the part (refer to Figure V1-7.1.3.1-3). Essentially, this is a failure caused by annular tensile
stresses.
Figure V1-7 .1.3.1-3: Axial failure of an eye end
V1-7 1.3.2 Failure under transverse force
The failure mode is more complex under a transverse force. Failure is the combination of several modes,
including:
- material shear between the hole and the outer edge of the lug, where the force is applied,
- local bending of the same segment of material,
- circumferential tension in the annular ring of material between the hole and the outer edge of the lug.
Furthermore, a weakness in one of these modes is compensated for by all the others. Locally the load paths may
vary. The generic term "transverse failure" is used to designate this combination.
Figure V1-7 .1.3.2-1: Examples of transverse failures
Generally, the force is not purely axial or purely transverse. Therefore, it is called an "oblique force"
comprising both an axial component and a transverse component.
The calculation procedures given here make it possible initially to determine the allowable axial and
transverse forces, with the possibility of combining them to calculate a margin for an oblique force.
Then, we calculate the strength of the lug pin.
F
F
Shear at load
F
Bending + tensile failure due to
annular stress
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 General page V1-71-5
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 1.3.3 General information on pin stressing
The pin is substantiated in shear and bending.
The calculation of the real lever arm for pin bending takes the " peaking" phenomenon into account: bending
strain causes a concentration of contact pressures close to the outer faces of the male part and the inner faces of
the female part.
Fig. V1-7 .1.3.3-1: Distribution of contact pressures in the lug
The bending calculation also takes into account the plasticization of the extreme fibres of the pin using the
Cozzone method.
F
F
F/2 F/2 F/2 F/2
Female part
Male part
UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION
OF CONTACT PRESSURES
Inactive sections
on thicknesses
CONCENTRATION OF CONTACT
PRESSURES (PEAKING)
SSM V1-7 LUGS
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SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Data preparation page V1-72-1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 2 DATA PREPARATION
V1-7 2.1 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
The following information on the male and female parts of the lug j unction is req uired:
- the ultimate tensile strength:
R
- the ultimate bearing strength (e/D = 2): F
bru
- the conventional bearing yield strength (e/D = 2): F
bry
- the conventional tensile yield strength:
0.2
- the conventional compression yield strength:
c0.2
- the modulus of elasticity in tension: E
- minimum elongation at break c(%)
As far as possible, the following shall be obtained:
- the factor " n" of the Ramberg & Osgood eq uation (tensile curve)
For an eye end:
- the allowable pure shear stress:
R
- the ultimate tensile strength:
R
- the conventional tensile yield strength:
0.2
If the assembly includes a bush, record:
- the conventional compression yield stress:
c0.2
The following information is req uired for the pin:
- the ultimate strength:
R
- the conventional yield stress:
0.2
- the conventional compression yield strength:
c0.2
- the allowable pure shear stress:
adm
- the modulus of elasticity in tension: E
a
- the factor " n" of the Ramberg & Osgood eq uation (tensile curve)
V1-7 2.2 GEOMETRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
In addition to the thickness, the dimensions to be recorded for the lug calculations are shown on Figures
V1-7 2.2-1 to -4.
Fig. V1-7 .2.2-1: Lug with parallel edges
Axial direction
R
L = a
W
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-72-2 Data preparation Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Fig. V1-7 .2.2-2: Lug with converging edges
Fig. V1-7 .2.2-3: Lug with hole off-centred in relation to the outer profile and large edge distance (L> R)
Fig. V1-7 .2.2-4: Lug with hole off-centred in relation to the outer profile and small edge distance (L< R)
The following notations are used:
- R: lug nose radius
- W: lug width (see previous figures for details)
- : outer profile angle of lug
- L: distance from centre of hole to edge of lug, parallel to axis of symmetry of external profile
- a: distance from centre of hole to edge of lug, in axial direction
- D: hole diameter
- t: lug thickness

R
W/2
W/2
L = a
Axial direction
R
W/2
L = a
Axial direction
R
W/2
L
Axial
direction
a
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Data preparation page V1-72-3
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
The following indices will be associated with all specific quantities either for the male part or for the
female part:
- "1" for the male part,
- "2" for the female part.
For a " male-male" assembly, index 2 concerns the second male part.
Two characteristic sections will be used for the lug calculations:
- the proj ected bearing section: A
br
= D.t
- the net section: A
t
= (W D)t =
br
.A 1
D
W


Another surface called A
av
is used for calculations on lugs subj ected to transverse forces; as it is complex to
determine, all the necessary details are given in V1-7 .4.
If the assembly includes a bush, also use the bearing surface area in the bush, called A
brb
, defined as follows:
A
brb
= d.t
For pin calculations, the following are req uired:
- the diameter of the pin: d
- the maximum clearance between the male and female parts: g
For a hollow pin, the inside diameter will be called d
i
.
SSM V1-7 LUGS
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SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Allowable axial load page V1-73-1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 3 ALLOWABLE AXIAL FORCE
The allowable axial force at U.L. is called P
u
; this is the minimum value between the allowable tensile force (P
tu
)
and the allowable shear/bearing force (P
bru
): P
u
= min{P
tu
; P
bru
}
The allowable axial force at L.L., P
y
is determined globally from P
u
.
P
y
= K
y
.
tux
tyx
F
F
.P
u
F
tyx
= 0.593.F
bry
F
tux
=
9 . 1
F
bru
Si
tux br
u
F . A
P
1.05: K
y
= 1.3625 - 0.25.
tux br
u
F . A
P
Si
tux br
u
F . A
P
1.05: K
y
= 1.1
V1-7 3.1 BREAKING FORCE IN TENSION
Axial forces create a concentration of the stresses at hole edge. This concentration can be sufficiently high to
plasticize the metal. Therefore, to calculate the real amplified stress, the elastic overstress factor must be
weighted with a plasticity correction.
The procedure to be followed to calculate the allowable tensile force is given below.
V1-7 3.1.1 Determining elastic overstress factor
The elastic overstress factor, called K
te
, is used to calculate the overstress at hole edge on the basis of a purely
elastic behaviour of the material.
Thus:
e max
= K
te
.
nom
where
nom
is the nominal reference stress calculated considering net section A
t
= (W-D).t.
Refer to the fatigue manual (MTS 005 ch.III.3.8) for determining K
t
: Kt = Kt
ET
.G
The reference section used in the fatigue manual is the gross section, that is A
brut
= W.t
Thus:
K
te
= Kt .
A
A
brut
t
where K
t
is the elastic overstress factor directly obtained from the fatigue manual graphs.
K
te
= Kt .
W
D W
V1-7 3.1.2 Neuber rule
The Neuber rule is used to calculate a real overstress in the plastic range using the reference stress status, the
elastic overstress factor and the stress - strain curve of the material.
Normally, a given force is used to calculate the real stress and possibly calculate a margin in relation to the
ultimate strength of the material.
Let:
-
nom
be the uniform stress used as reference:
nom
=
F
A
t
- and
nom
the corresponding strain.
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-73-2 Allowable axial load Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
The eq uation of a hyperbola is defined assuming that the product of the real stress concentration factor K

and the
real strain concentration factor K

is eq ual to the sq uare of the theoretical stress concentration factor (elastic) K


te
,
let:
K

. K

= K
te
2
where: K

max
nom
K

max
nom
K
te
=

e
nom
max

e max
is a fictious amplified stress as it is calculated on the basis of a purely linear elastic behaviour of the
material.
Thus, we obtain:
max
.
max
= K
te
2
.
nom
.
nom
Knowing K
te
,
nom
and
nom
, the previous eq uality can be written:
max
.
max
= C
te
This eq uality enables us to define an eq uation hyperbola: =
C
te

. By plotting this hyperbola in the same plane


as the material curve, we determine
max
and
max
as being the coordinates of the intersection point between the
two curves (refer to Figure V1-7 .3.1.2.-1).
Fig. V1-7 .3.1.2-1: Graphic interpretation of the Neuber rule
Neuber hyperbola
Material curve

e max

max

nom

nom

max
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Allowable axial load page V1-73-3
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 3.1.3 Applying Neuber rule to allowable tensile force calculation
Generally, for lug calculations, we try to express the capability of the lugs in terms of allowable forces which
supposes an approach opposite to the one described above.
The Neuber hyperbola passing via the coordinate point (
s;

R
) cuts the straight line of slope E at coordinate point
(
e max;

e
E
max
).
Therefore,
R
.
s
=
e max
.

e
E
max
Now
e max
= K
te
.
nom adm
The elastic-plastic overstress factor K is defined as: K

max
nom
That is here: K

R
nomadm

nom adm
=

R
K
K

= K
te
.

R
s
E.
The value of K

only has a meaning if K

1. Otherwise, we consider that K

= 1.
Finally, the force bringing the real stress to the maximum allowable value (
max
=
R
) is:
P
tu
=
A
K
t R
.

V1-7 3.1.4 Calculating


s

s
is the strain corresponding to the start the striction, i.e. the unstable state where strain continues at a point
without it being necessary to increase the total force F. We then obtain =
R
.

s
is not conventional material data. Nonetheless, it is possible to calculate
s
from " n" , the Ramberg & Osgood
eq uation factor:

s

n
1
e (%) minimum elongation at break for the material
If " n" is not material data, solve the following eq uation:
n = 500 .

0 2 .
R
n

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Issue 1 Allowable axial load page V1-73-5
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 3.2 SHEAR/BEARING BREAKING STRESS
The allowable shear/bearing force at ultimate load is:
P
bru
= K
br
. A
br
. F
tux
where F
tux
=
9 . 1
F
bru
The factor K
br
depends on ratios a/D and D/t. It is determined using the graph on Figure V1-7.3.2-1.
Figure V1-7 .3.2-1: Determining factor K
br
On the Figure V1-7 .3.2-1
- curve A is the upper limit to be taken into account for all forged aluminium alloy parts when the long
transverse direction coincides with direction " C" on the drawing of the lug,
- curve B is the upper limit to be taken into account for all aluminium alloy forgings, bars and sheets when
the short transverse direction coincides with direction " C" on the drawing of the lug and for die forged
parts when the lug contains the j ointing plane in a direction approximately perpendicular to direction " C" .
In addition to the limits of curves A and B, the value of K
br
will be limited to 2.0 for all aluminium alloy
forgings, bars and sheets of a thickness equal to or greater than 12.7 mm.
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-73-6 Allowable axial force Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Page Intentionally Left Blank
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Allowable axial force page V1-73-7
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 3.3 SPECIAL CASE CONCERNING EYE ENDS
Considering their specific geometry, eye ends are mainly subj ect to normal circumferential stresses. On Figure
V1-7 .3.3-1:
- point y is the RH point from which the load transmitted in the ring is pure tension (normal force),
- point z is the point where the ring is clamped in the remainder of the part.
Figure V1-7 .3.3-1: Eye end
Experience proves that the critical section of eye ends is located at y or at z. The first step consists in
determining the position of y, knowing the position of z and according to a certain number of geometrical
parameters of the ring. This calculation req uires the use of the graph on Figure V1-7 .3.3-2. The expression of
factor K req uired to read the graph is:
K =
C I
A r
.
.
3
where: C: circular distance (refer to Figure V1-7 .3.3-1) C =
. . ( ) r 90
180
+

I: moment of inertia of the section at x in relation to its own centre of gravity


A: area of the section at x
r: radius of the neutral fibre of the ring
y
z
x
C
F
r

SSM V1-7 LUGS


page V1-73-8 Allowable axial force Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure V1-7 .3.3-2: Determining angle
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Allowable axial force page V1-73-9
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
By writing the static eq uilibrium of the ring, the normal load at y is therefore:
N
2
=
F
2. cos
By calling A
2
the section area at y, the corresponding normal stress is:

2
=
N
A
F
A
2
2 2
2
=
. cos
At ultimate load, we will obtain:

2
=
R
Let P
tu2
be the allowable tensile force at ultimate load conditioned by the static strength at point y. We then
obtain from the previous eq uality:

R
=
P
A
tu2
2
2 . cos
Hence finally:
P
tu2
= 2A
2
. cos .
R
And at limit load:
P
ty2
= 2A
2
. cos .
0.2
The internal load matrix at z is deduced from the value calculated at y:
- normal force: N
3
= N
2
. cos
- shear force: T
3
= N
2
. sin
- bending moment: M
3
= N
2
. r . (1 - cos )
The maximum normal stress at z is then:

3
=
N
A
M v
I
N
A
N r v
I
3
3
3 3
3
2
3
2 3
3
1
+ = +
. . cos . . ( cos ) .

3
=
F
A
r v
I 2
1
3
3
3
cos
.
cos . ( cos ) .

where: A
3
: section area at z
v
3
: distance between centre of gravity of section at z and extreme fibre
I
3
: moment of inertia of section at z in relation to its own centre of gravity
As at y, at ultimate load, we obtain:

3
=
R
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-73-10 Allowable axial force Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Let P
tu31
be the allowable tensile force at ultimate load conditioned by the static strength under normal stress at
point z. We then obtain from the previous eq uality:

R
=
P
A
r v
I
tu31
3
3
3
2
1
cos
.
cos . ( cos ) .

Hence finally:
P
tu31
=
2
1
3
3
3


R
A
r v
I
. cos
cos . ( cos ) .
+

Remark: The calculation of allowable force P


tu31
does not take into account the plasticization of the
extreme fibres of the section which would "increase" the apparent bending limit. Thus, P
tu31
, calculated on
the basis of
R
, is underestimated and therefore conservative.
Also at limit load:
P
ty3
=
2
1
0 2
3
3
3


.
. cos
cos . ( cos ) .
A
r v
I
+

The shear stress at z at ultimate load is written:

3
=
T
A
N
A
F
A
3
3
2
3 3
2
= =
. sin . sin
. cos

At ultimate load, we obtain:

3
=
adm
Let P
tu32
be the allowable tensile force at ultimate load conditioned by the static strength under tangential stress at
point z. We then obtain from the previous eq uality:

adm
= P
tu32
Hence finally:
P
tu32
=
2
3
A
adm
. . cos
sin

Finally, the overall allowable tensile force at ultimate load is:


P
tu
= min(P
tu2;
P
tu31;
P
tu32
)
At limit load:
P
ty
= min(P
ty2;
P
ty3
)
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Allowable axial force page V1-73-11
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 3.4 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
V1-7 3.4.1 Solid lugs
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
AXIAL LOADING
n known?
Allowable shear - bearing force at
ultimate load:
P
bru
= K
br
. A
br
. F
tux
F
tux
=
9 . 1
) 2 D / e ( F
bru
=
+ graph on Figure V1-7 .3.2-1
Solve:
n = 500 .

0 2 .
R
n

Striction strain:
s
=
1
n
e(%)
Determine Kt from graphs in
FATIGUE MANUAL MTS 005
K
te
=
W
D W
. Kt
K

= K
te
.

R
s
E.
K

1 ?
K

= 1
P
tu
=
A
K
t R
.

yes no
yes no
yes no
Allowable axial force at ultimate load:
P
u
= min (P
tu;
P
bru
)
tux br
u
F . A
P
1,.5
K
y
= 1.3625 0.25
tux br
u
F A
P
K
y
= 1.1
F
tyx
= 0.593.F
bry
(e / D = 2)
Allowable axial force at limit load:
P
y
= K
y
.
tux
tyx
F
F
. P
u
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-73-12 Allowable axial force Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 3.4.2 Eye ends
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
AXIAL LOADING
Evaluation of position of point z (angle )
Circular distance: C =
. . ( ) r 90
180
+

Determining angle from K =


C I
A r
.
.
3
and graph on Figure V1-7 .3.3-2
Allowable tensile force at U.L. conditioned
by the static strength at point y:
P
tu2
= 2A
2
. cos .
R
Allowable tensile force at L.L. conditioned
by the static strength at point y:
P
ty2
= 2A
2
. cos .
0.2
Allowable tensile force at ultimate load
conditioned by the static strength under
normal stress at point z:
P
tu31
=
2
1
3
3
3


R
A
r v
I
. cos
cos . ( cos ) .
+

Allowable tensile force at limit load


conditioned by the static strength at point z:
P
ty3
=
2
1
0 2
3
3
3


.
. cos
cos .( cos ).
A
r v
I
+

Allowable tensile force at ultimate load


conditioned by the static strength under
tangential stress at point z:
P
tu32
=
2
3
A
adm
. . cos
sin

Allowable tensile force at ultimate load:


P
tu
= min (P
tu2
; P
tu31
; P
tu32
)
Allowable tensile force at limit load:
P
ty
= min (P
ty2;
P
ty3
)
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Allowable transverse force page V1-74-1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 4 ALLOWABLE TRANSVERSE FORCE
In spite of the combination of several distinct failure modes, the transverse capability of the lug is expressed by a
single allowable force.
The allowable transverse force at ultimate load is:
P
tru
= K
tru
. A
br
.
R
The allowable transverse force at limit load is:
P
try
= K
try
. A
br
.
0.2
Factors K
tru
and K
try
are obtained from the graph, Figures V1-7 .4-2 to V1-7 .4-11. However, before using these
graphs you must calculate an eq uivalent section A
av
, which takes the various failure modes in the transverse
direction into account. The definition is given in Figure V1-7 .4-1.
Figure V1-7 .4-1: Definition of the eq uivalent cross section A
av
We can write: A
av
=
6
3 1 1 1
1 2 3 4
A A A A
+ + +
- A
2
is measured at the hole in the transverse force direction
- with a conventional lug: A
1
and A
4
are measured parallel to the transverse direction along lines offset by
45 (refer to Figure V1-7 .4-1).
- with an eye end: A
1
and A
4
are measured perpendicularly to the circular neutral line of the lug (refer to
Figure V1-7 .4-1).
- A
3
is the smallest radial cross section around the hole.
To read the graph and therefore determine K
tru
and K
try
, parameter
A
A
av
br
is used which represents the shape of
lug. Note that unlike K
tru
, K
try
does not depend on the material concerned.
R
A
3
A
4
A
1
A
2
45
45
45
45
A
4
A
1
CONVENTIONAL LUG EYE END
Transverse direction
= Direction of force
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-74-2 Allowable transverse force Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure V1-7 .4-2: Determining factors K
tru
and K
try
Interpretation of the curves above makes reference to Table V1-7 .4-3. Note that these curves only apply if the
short transverse direction is not in the plane of the lug.
Curve Material concerned
1 steel 25CD4S and 25CD45 86 daN/mm
2 steel 25CD4S and 25CD45 103 daN/mm
3 K
try
for all materials
4 steel 25CD4S and 25CD45 124 daN/mm
5 2024-T3 and -T4 plates, thickness 12.7 mm
6 2014-T6 and 7075-T6 plates, thickness 12.7 mm
7 2024-T3 and -T4 plates, thickness > 12.7 mm, 2024-T4 bar
8 cast 356-T6
9 2024-T6 and 7075-T6 plates, thickness > 12.7 mm, 25.4 mm
7075-T6 extrusions
2014-T6 forgings, cross section 23224 mm
2014-T6 and 7075-T6 die forged parts
10 2024-T6 plates
2024-T4 and 2024-T42 extrusions
11 2014-T6 and 7075-T6 plates, thickness > 25.4 mm
7075-T6 forgings, cross section 10322 mm
12 7075-T6 forgings, cross section > 10322 mm
2014-T6 forgings, cross section > 23224 mm
Table V1-7 .4-3: References for curve .V1-7.4-2
K
tru
or K
try
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Allowable transverse force page V1-74-3
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure V1-7 .4-4: Determining factors K
tru
and K
try
Interpretation of the curves above makes reference to table V1-7 .4-5.
Curve Material concerned
1 steel < 87 daN/mm
2 steel 105 daN/mm
3 K
try
for all materials
4 steel 126 daN/mm
5 steel 140 daN/mm
6 steel 182 daN/mm
Table V1-7 .4-5: References for curve V1-7 .4-4
br
ay
A
A
K
tru
or K
try
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.6
0.1
6
5
4
3
2
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.4 1.3 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
1
A
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-74-4 Allowable transverse force Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
br
ay
A
A
Figure V1-7 .4-6: Determining factors K
tru
Interpretation of the curves above makes reference to table V1-7 .4-7.
Curve Material concerned
1 Ti-6A1-4V die forged annealed (LT), thickness 127 mm
Ti-6A1-4V forged annealed (LT), cross section 10323 mm
Ti-6A1-4V forged (L, LT), thickness 51 mm
2 Ti-6A1-4V forged annealed (LT), cross section > 10323 mm
Ti-6A1-4V die forged (L), thickness 127 mm
Ti-6A1-4V die forged (LT), thickness 25 mm
Ti-6A1-4V forged (LT), thickness > 51 mm, 76 mm
3 Ti-6A1-4V die forged (LT), thickness > 25 mm, 76 mm
4 Ti-6A1-6V-2Sn plate annealed (LT), thickness 51 mm
Ti-6A1-6V-2Sn die forged annealed (ST), thickness 51 mm
Ti-6A1-6V-2Sn forged annealed (LT), thickness 51 mm
5 Ti-6A1-6V-2Sn plate annealed (LT), thickness > 51 mm, 101 mm
Ti-6A1-6V-2Sn die forged annealed (ST), thickness > 51 mm, 101 mm
Ti-6A1-6V-2Sn forged annealed (LT), thickness > 51 mm, 101 mm
6 Ti-6A1-6V-2Sn die forged (L)
Ti-6A1-6V-2Sn forged (L, LT), thickness 101 mm
7 Ti-6A1-6V-2Sn die forged (LT)
Ti-6A1-6V-2Sn forged (LT), thickness > 101 mm
Table V1-7 .4-7: References for curve V1-7 .4-6
1.0
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
0 .2 .4 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 .6
K
tru
1
A
2
4
3
5
6
7
A
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Allowable transverse force page V1-74-5
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
br
ay
A
A
Figure V1-7 .4-8: Determining factors K
tru
Interpretation of the curves above makes reference to table V1-7 .4-9.
Curve Material concerned
1 steel 300M with e% 6
2 low alloy steels with F
tu
210 daN/mm (except 300M)
3 low alloy steels with 3 e% 6
Table V1-7 .4-9: References for curve V1-7 .4-8
1.2
1.0
.8
.4
.2
0
0 .2 .4 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 .6
K
tru
A
2
1
.6
3
A
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-74-6 Allowable transverse force Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
br
av
A
A
Figure V1-7 .4-10: Determining factors K
tru
and K
try
Interpretation of the curves above makes reference to table V1-7 .4-11.
Curve Material concerned
1 steel 15-5PH H1150 with F
tu
= 95 daN/mm and e% = 11 (T)
2 steel 15-5PH H1100 with F
tu
= 98 daN/mm and e% = 10 (T)
3 Inconel steel 718 B&F Sta with F
tu
= 126 daN/mm and e% = 10 (LT)
4 steel 15-5PH H1025 with F
tu
= 109 daN/mm and e% = 8 (T)
5 Inconel steel 718 B&F Sta with F
tu
= 126 daN/mm and e% = 6 (T)
Table V1-7 .4-11: References for curve V1-7 .4-10
K
tru
1.2
1.0
.8
.4
.2
0
0
.6
.1
.3
.5
.7
.9
1.1
1.3
1.4
.2 .4 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 .6 .1 .3 .5 .7 .9 1.1 1.3
A
3
4
5
1
2
A
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Allowable transverse force page V1-74-7
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
If the material is not in the list given in Tables V1-7 .4-3, V1-7 .4-5, V1-7 .4-7, V1-7 .4-9 or V1-7 .4-11, an
analogy may be made based on:
- the same type of finished product (plate, extrusion, bar, forging, etc.),
- a similar ductility (in particular, expressed by the elongation at break),
- a similar
R
/
0.2
ratio.
If no analogy can be found, a finite element analysis may be used in compliance with the following rules:
- take into account any possible anisotropy due to the manufacturing process and correct orientation of the
model in relation to the longitudinal, long transverse and short transverse directions (the results of the study
above prove that this parameter has an affect on the transverse strength). If the direction of these fibres is
not known, the long transverse direction may be placed unfavourably parallel to the transverse
direction. Remember that the plane of the lug must not contain the short transverse direction,
- nonlinear calculation in the plastic domain at ultimate load.
Globally, if the dimensions of the hole are small compared with the lug, this being q uantified by the ratio A
av
/A
br
,
the local transverse failure phenomena become negligible in relation to the overall bending strength of the lug.
This transition is approximately indicated by curve A on graphs V1-7 .4-2 to V1-7 .4-11.
If K
tru
is below this curve, it is advisable to carry out a fixed end beam calculation using a cross section as shown
on Figure V1-7 .4-12. Only take the lower section of the lug into account.
Depending on the shape and the material of the lug, K
tru
may be very conservative. P
tru
is in no case lower than
the ultimate bending load of the ligament under the transverse load.
Figure V1-7 .4-12: Approximate portion of the lug acting as a fixed end beam
The approach consists in calculating the inertia and bending moment in the most critical cross section, moving
away from the hole (force application point - refer to Figure V1-7 .4-13).
Figure V1-7 .4-13: Calculation of bending moment in lug flange
For a critical cross section " i" , the maximum bending stress is:

i
=
M v
I
F j v
I
f i i
i
i i
i
.
. .
=
F
F
j
i
n i 2 1
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-74-8 Allowable transverse force Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
where:
M
fi
: bending moment due to F in cross section " i"
v
i
: distance between the centre of gravity and the extreme fibre of cross section " i"
j
i
: lever arm of M
fi
I
i
: moment of inertia of cross section " i" in relation to its own centre of gravity
Taking as condition
iMAX
=
R
, the allowable force at U.L. is therefore:
P
tru
=
R
. min
I
j v
i
i i
i n
.
..

=1
And at L.L.
P
try
=
0.2
. min
I
j v
i
i i
i n
.
..

=1
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Allowable transverse force page V1-74-9
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
TRANSVERSE
LOADING
Material referenced?
Analogy?
Determine A
1
, A
2
, A
3
and A
4
, then A
av
where A
av

6
3 1 1 1
1 2 3 4
A A A A
+ + +
Interpretation of graphs:
V1-7 .4-2 to V1-7 .4-11
Fixed end beam?
Allowable force at U.L. P
tru
=
R
. min
I
j v
i
i i
i n
.
..

=1
Allowable force at L.L. P
try
=
0.2
. min
I
j v
i
i i
i n
.
..

=1
Allowable force at U.L. P
tru
= K
tru
. A
br
.
R
Allowable force at L.L. P
try
= K
try
. A
br
.
0.2
Determination of K
tru
and K
try
yes no
no yes
no yes
Finite element analysis
F
n i 2 1
J i
R
A3
A4
A1 A2
45
45
45
45
A4
A1
CONVENTIONAL LUG EYE END
Transverse direction
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-74-10 Allowable transverse force Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Page intentionally left blank
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Strength under an oblique load page V1-75-1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 5 STRENGTH UNDER AN OBLIQUE FORCE
In order to check the strength of the lug under an obliq ue force, the force must be proj ected in the transverse and
axial directions as shown on Figure V1-7 .5-1.
Figure V1-7 .5-1: Lug under an obliq ue force
Notation:
F
a
= F . cos the axial component of the force (at U.L.)
F
tr
= F . sin the transverse component of the force (at U.L.)
We consider that the force at limit load is obtained by dividing the force at U.L. by 1.5: thus, we obtain:
F
a
=
F
15 .
. cos the axial component of the force (at L.L.)
F
tr
=
F
15 .
. sin the transverse component of the force (at L.L.)
In all cases, the interaction eq uation between the axial and transverse loads is:
R
a
1 6 .
+ R
tr
1 6 .
= 1 (document reference (5) D.1.8)
where:
R
a
=
F
P
a
u
(at ultimate load) R
a
=
F
P
a
bry
(at limit load)
R
tr
=
F
P
tr
tru
(at ultimate load) R
tr
=
F
P
tr
try
(at limit load)
We can therefore calculate a " reserve factor" for this combined loading using the interaction eq uation. Finally, we
obtain:
R.F. =
( )
1
1 6 1 6
0 625
R R
a tr
. .
.
+
Transverse
direction
Axial direction
F
tr
F
a
F

E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-75-2 Strength under an oblique load Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
OBLIQUE LOADING
Ultimate load calculation Limit load calculation
Axial and transverse proj ection of F:
F
a
= F . cos
F
tr
= F . sin
Axial and transverse proj ection of F:
F
a
= F/1.5 . cos
F
tr
= F/1.5 . sin
Comparative ratios:
R
a
=
F
P
a
u
R
tr
=
F
P
tr
tru
Comparative ratios:
R
a
=
F
P
a
bry
R
tr
=
F
P
tr
try
Calculation of " reserve factor"
R.F. =
( )
1
1 6 1 6
0 625
R R
a tr
. .
.
+
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Allowable bearing page V1-76-1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 6 ALLOWABLE BEARING IN BUSH
V1-7 6.1 ALLOWABLE BEARING IN LUGS
The bearing cross section involved (A
brb
) will be the minimum area between:
- the bearing area between the pin and the bush,
- the bearing area between the bush and the lug.
The latter may be smaller if, for example, the bush includes an outside chamfer.
The allowable limit force for this type of damage is:
P'
bry
= 1.85 .
c0.2
. A
brb
with:

c0.2
: 0.2% compression yield strength for the bush material
P'
bry
will be directly compared with the oblique force at limit load.
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-76-2 Allowable bearing Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Page intentionally left blank
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Pin stressing page V1-77 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 7 PIN STRESSING
V1-7 7.1 PIN SHEAR
The shear stress in the pin can be written:
s
A
F
=
where
s
A
: sheared surface area of the pin, such that
4
d
A
2
s

= .
d: pin diameter.
The calculation of the corresponding allowable forces is given below.
Where:
adm
: allowable pure shear stress.
Remark: Shear is only calculated at ultimate load.
V1-7 7.2 PIN BENDING
The bending of the lug pins must be studied both at the limit load and at the ultimate load. Indeed, permanent
sets are unacceptable at limit load as they hinder or even prevent the disassembly of the j unction. The allowable
bending forces at ultimate load and at limit load are called
fu
P and
fy
P respectively.
The maximum bending stress will be located at the extreme fibre of the lug pin. By calling
app
the stress applied
(due to bending), we obtain:
I 4
d F b
I 2
d M
I
v M
f f
app

=

=
V1-7 7.2.1 Calculation of lever arm "b"
Conservatively, the calculation of the lever arm to determine the bending moment is often based on the assumption
that the contact pressure between the pin and the bores is constant over the length of the pin.
In actual fact, due to bending strain, the resisting force exerted by the male portion of the lug is concentrated close
to the outer faces and the resisting force exerted by the female portion near to the inner faces (see figure
V1-7 .7.2.1-1). This phenomenon, called " peaking" , reduces the lever arm which reduces the bending moment in the
pin.
Moreover, we have demonstrated by tests (document ref. (3)) that the " peaking" does not reduce the strength of the
lugs.
For a male / female part assembly:
4
d
2 P
2
adm su

=
(double shear)
That is,
2
d
P
adm
2
su

=
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-77 2 Pin stressing Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure V1-7 .7.2.1-1: Distribution of the contact pressure between the pin and the bores
In the first case shown on figure V1-7 .7.2.1-1, the lever arm is:
g
4
t
2
t
b
2 1
+ + =
where:
t
1
: thickness of one of the sides of the female portion of the lug
t
2
: thickness of the male portion of the lug
g: clearance between the male and female parts
Taking " peaking" into account gives a new expression for the lever arm:
g
4
t
2
t
b
2 1
+

+ =
For a " male - male" assembly, the lever arm can be written: g
2
t
2
t
b
2 1
+ + =
Determining factor :
First of all, the q uantity .
t
2
D
a
r
2


= must be determined. "a" is then measured in the direction of the
applied force whether the load is purely axial, purely transverse or oblique.
It is also necessary to evaluate the ratio
tux br
adm
F A
P

called x.
adm
P is defined as being the allowable force by writing, in the general case of an obliq ue force:
( )
625 , 0
6 , 1
tr
6 , 1
a
adm
R R
F
P
+
=
We then obtain from the graph on figure V1-7 .7.2.1-2 or from the following eq uations:

+
=

+

x 1 , 1
r
1
55 , 0
r
1 1 x
55 , 0
r
1 1
2
x
55 , 0
r
1 1 x
55 , 0
r
1 1 x
F F
F/2 F/2 F/2 F/2
Female part
Male part
UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION OVER ALL
THICKNESSES
DISTRIBUTION TAKING PEAKING INTO ACCOUNT
Inactive portions of
the thicknesses
b b
g
t1
t2
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Pin stressing page V1-77 3
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure V1-7 .7.2.1-2: Determining peaking factor
V1-7 7.2.2 Calculating bending modulus
We can see that an item subj ected to bending is capable of supporting a load greater than the calculated load
assuming a linear distribution of the stresses over the height of the section. This is due to the fact that the extreme
fibres plasticize which modifies the normal stress profile. Therefore, the real stress in these fibres is lower than that
obtained by a simple linear calculation (refer to Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-1).
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-1: Bending stress
On the figure above,
MAX
is the stress applied to the extreme fibre. The Cozzone method is based on an
approximation of the real stress profile. The real stress profile shown on Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-1 is replaced by a
trapezoidal profile as shown on Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-2.
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-2: Cozzone' s eq uivalent stress profile
z
y
x
z
x

MAX

MAX

MAX

MAX
z
x
REAL STRESS STRESS CALCULATED BY
LINEAR METHOD
Eq uivalent profile
Material curve

MAX

MAX

MAX

MAX
z
x
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-77 4 Pin stressing Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Stress
0
is a fictitious stress that is supposed to exist at the neutral fibre of the pin or at null strain which is the
same thing here. We determine
0
by stating that
0
does not theoretically depend on the shape of the section.
The Cozzone method enables a fictitious allowable bending stress called " bending modulus" to be calculated. This
stress can be compared with the maximum stress calculated by a linear method.
The general expression of the bending modulus is:
b
=
MAX
+
0
. (k - 1)
Remarks:
x The calculation of the bending modulus is based on the real desired maximum stress level, that is generally
R MAX
= the ultimate strength for a calculation at ultimate load. At limit load, the stress level must
remain lower than the yield strength.
b
=
MAX
+
0
. (k - 1)
y The bending modulus also depends on the geometrical characteristics of the section by means of the term
" k" . " k" is determined from figure V1-7 .7.2.2-3 or from the following eq uation.
b
=
MAX
+
0
. (k - 1)
4
i
3
i
d
d
1
d
d
1
3
16
k

=
Where:
d : pin outside diameter.
i
d : pin inside diameter.
1.85
1.75
1.65
1.55
1.45
1.35
1.25
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
k
di/d
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-3: Determining " k"
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Pin stressing page V1-77 5
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
The stress
0
is determined from the various graphs shown on figures V1-7 .7.2.2-5 to -19.
If none of the curves corresponds to the material used,
0
must be calculated knowing that this stress does not
theoretically depend on the shape of the section. That which is valid for a rectangular section is also valid for all
other sections.
We have checked that the method given below to calculate the bending modulus
0
gives the same results as
the graphs shown on figures V1-7 .7.2.2-5 to -19.
0
corresponding to
R
is calculated; this stress level is obtained on the extreme fibre of the pin. Considering this
as pure bending and that the material curve is perfectly symmetrical in tension-compression, we assume that stress
is null at the neutral fibre of the pin. Conseq uently, a second x-axis can be plotted corresponding to the dimension
between the neutral fibre and a fibre given on the material curve (refer to figure V1-7 .7.2.2-4).
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-4: Real stress profile
Thus, the bending moment can be written:

=
2 / h
0
dz ) z ( z b 2 M
Where:

=
d
2
h
dz
2
h
z
M
M
Plane bending: the straight sections remain plane. is linear with z.
Also, can be written:
n
2 , 0
002 , 0
E

=
Where:
n
R
2 , 0
500 n

(z)
z
b
z

0
0
z z
max
= d/2

s
z
Z
max
= h/2
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-77 6 Pin stressing Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
We deduce the expressions of and
max
:
p e
n
R
n
1
E
+ =

=
MAX MAX
p e
n
R
MAX MAX
max
n
1
E
+ =

=
However M
h b
6
I
v M
2
b

=
Also:
( )

=
+ =
2
3
I
W h
k
1 k
MAX 0 b

1 2
MAX
b
MAX
0
After resolution, we obtain:
( )

+
+

1
2 n
1 n 2
1 n 2
1 n 2
MAX
MAX MAX
p
e
2
MAX
p
MAX
0
This expression can also be written:

MAX
p
MAX
p
MAX
0 MAX MAX
1 n 2
1 n
1
2 n
1 n
2
Where:
MAX
maximum allowable stress
MAX
p
=
n
R
MAX
n
1

maximum allowable plastic strain


MAX
=
MAX
p
MAX
E
+

maximum allowable strain


n =
n
R
2 , 0
500

(numerical resolution)
Specific cases:
x ( )
n
1
E
;
n
1
R
MAX p R MAX
MAX
+

= = =
y ( ) % 2 , 0
E
; % 2 , 0
2 , 0
MAX p 2 , 0 MAX
MAX
+

= = =
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Pin stressing page V1-77 7
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-5: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - 2024-T3 clad sheet (0.25 mm < thickness < 1.6 mm)
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-6: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - 2024-T6 clad sheet (thickness < 1.6 mm)
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-7: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - 2024-T4 clad sheet (6.3 mm < thickness < 12.7 mm)
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-77-8 Pin stressing Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-8: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - 2024-T81 clad sheet (thickness < 1.6 mm)
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-9: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - 2024-T3 plate and sheet (thickness 6.35 mm)
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-10: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - 2024-T3 & -T4 plate and sheet (thickness 12.7 mm)
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-11: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - 7075-T6 clad sheet (thickness < 9.9 mm)
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Pin stressing page V1-77-9
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-12: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - 7075-T6 sheet (thickness < 1 mm)
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-13: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - 7075-T6 extrusion (thickness < 6.35 mm)
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-14: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - 7075-T6 forged part (thickness < 10322 mm)
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-15: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - AZ61A forged magnesium alloy part (direction L)
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-77-10 Pin stressing Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-16: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - T-A6V
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-17: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - T-M4A4
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-18: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - Z6 CNU 17.04 bar and forged part
Figure V1-7 .7.2.2-19: Curves
MAX
= f() and
0
= f() - 7079-T6 die forged part (L direction)
(thickness 152.4 mm)
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Pin stressing page V1-77-11
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 7.2.3 Allowable bending force
o calculate
fy fu
P and P , we make the linear bending stress expression eq ual to the Cozzone expression. Thus,
generally:
) 1 k (
4
d b F
0 MAX
+ =


At ultimate load, we obtain:
R MAX
=
Hence:
( ) ( ) [ ] 1 k
d b
4
P 1 k
4
d b P
0 R fu 0 R
fu
+

= + =


Where:
I: Pin moment of inertia
b: bending moment lever arm (refer to V1-7 .7.2.1)
d: pin diameter

R
: ultimate strength

o
: Cozzone fictitious stress at neutral fibre (refer to V1-7 7.2 2)
k:
0
factor (refer to V1-7 .7.2.2).
At limit load, the stress levels must remain within the elastic range which means that
0
= 0 and
b
=
MAX
=
2 , 0
. Therefore, the allowable force at limit load will be simply:
d b
4
P
2 , 0
fy


=
Where:
2 , 0
: 0.2% tensile yield strength.
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-77-12 Pin stressing Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
PIN BENDING
Determine the dimensionless q uantity
2
t
2
D
a
r


= and ratios:
R br
adm
A
P

(ultimate load) and

2 , 0 br
adm
A
P

(limit load) where
( )
625 , 0
6 , 1
tr
6 , 1
a
adm
R R
F
P
+
=
Determine at U.L. and L.L. with the graph on figure V1-7 .7.2.1-2
Calculate the lever arm at U.L. and L.L.: g
4
t
2
t
b
2 1
+

+ = (" male / female" assembly)


g
2
t
2
t
b
2 1
+ + = (" male / male" assembly)
Calculation at limit load Calculation at ultimate load
Material
known?
yes no
n
known?
yes no
Solve:
n
R
2 , 0
500 n

=
Calculation of stress at neutral fibre:

MAX
p
MAX
p
MAX
0 MAX MAX
1 n 2
1 n
1
2 n
1 n
2
where:
MAX
p
=
n
R
MAX
n
1

;
MAX
=
MAX
p
MAX
E
+

Determine
0
from the graphs
on figures V1-7 .7.2.2-5 to V1-7
.7.2.2-19
Allowable bending force at U.L.:
( ) [ ] 1 k
d b
4
P
0 R fu
+

=
Allowable bending force at L.L.:
d b
4
P
2 , 0
fy


=
Calculate:
( )
( )

=
3
16
D
d
1
D
d
1
k
4
3
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Numerical Example page V1-78-1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1- 8 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
V1-7 8.1 BASIC DATA
Figure V1-7.9.1-1: Example
The male and female parts are taken from a thick 2024 T351 plate. The characteristics taken into account are:
E
1
= E
2
= 7380 daN/mm
R
= 44 daN/mm
0.2
= 30.5 daN/mm.
Fbru (e/D= 2) = 82 daN/mm Fbry (e/D= 2) = 62.5 daN/mm n = 9 e(%) = 6
The pin is made of TA6V; we consider that the pin diameter is 18 mm.
The characteristics taken into account are:
E
a
= 11030 daN/mm
R
= 90 daN/mm n = 40

0.2
= 87 daN/mm
adm
= 52 daN/mm
According to the geometrical information above, we have:
W= 40 mm
L = a = 20 mm
R = 20 mm
D = 18 mm
d 18 mm
t
1
= 10 mm
t
2
= 18 mm
g = 0.6 mm
The critical surface areas considered are:
( ) ( ) 10 18 40 t D W A
1 1 t
= =
2
1 t
mm 220 A =
10 18 t D A
1 1 br
= =
2
1 br
mm 180 A =
( ) ( ) 18 18 40 t D W A
2 2 t
= =
2
2 t
mm 396 A =
18 18 t D A
2 2 br
= =
2
2 br
mm 324 A =
Force applied:
The components of the obliq ue force to be transferred at ultimate load are:
F
a
= 7000 daN
F
t
= 3000 daN
We consider that these forces already take a fitting factor into account (1.15 for instance).
g = 0.6 mm
t
1
= 10 mm
t
2
= 18 mm
R 20 mm
D = 18 mm
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-78-2 Numerical Example Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-7 8.2 LUG STRESSING
Calculating the allowable axial forces
Calculating the allowable tensile forces
We determine the breaking strain:
( ) ( ) % 6 % e % e 11 , 0
9
1
n
1
s
= = > = =
The elastic overstress factors are determined using the graphs in the AEROSPATIALE FATIGUE MANUAL.
Considering the lug geometry and using the notations in the FATIGUE MANUAL, we obtain:
Kt
ET
= 5.25
Male part: G 1.1
Female part: G 1.2
Therefore:
Male part: 78 , 5 1 , 1 25 , 5 G Kt Kt
ET
= = =
Female part: 3 , 6 2 , 1 25 , 5 G Kt Kt
ET
= = =
The reference section used in the FATIGUE MANUAL is the gross section whereas it is the net section which is
taken into account in the S.S.M. Therefore, the overstress factors to be considered below are as follows:
Male part: 18 , 3 78 , 5
40
18 40
Kt
W
D W
K
te
=

=
Female part: 47 , 3 3 , 6
40
18 40
Kt
W
D W
K
te
=

=
The overstress factors K

are then:
Male part: 1
06 , 0 7380
44
18 , 3
E
K K
s
R
te

Female part: 09 , 1
06 , 0 7380
44
47 , 3
E
K K
s
R
te

Thus, the allowable tensile forces at ultimate load are:


Male part:
daN 17420 P
1
44 396
K
A
P
tu
R 2 t
tu
=

=

=

Female part:
daN 17760 P
09 , 1
44 220
2
K
A
2 P
tu
R 1 t
tu
=

=

=

SSM V1-7 LUGS


Issue 1 Numerical Example page V1-78-3
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Calculating allowable shear / bearing forces:
For the male and female parts, we obtain: 11 , 1
D
a
=
According to the graphs on figures V1-7 .3.2-1 and V1-7 .3.2-2,
Male part: 98 , 0 K
1
t
D
11 , 1
D
a
br
2

=
=
Female part: 98 , 0 K
8 , 1
t
D
11 , 1
D
a
br
1

=
=
Thus, the allowable forces at ultimate load are:
Male part:
daN 13700 P
9 , 1
82
324 98 , 0 F A K P
bru
tux 2 br br bru
=
= =
Female part:
daN 15220 P
9 , 1
82
180 98 , 0 2 F A K 2 P
bru
tux 1 br br bru
=
= =
Summary of allowable axial forces at ultimate load:
Male part: P
u
= min (P
tu
; P
bru
) = min (17420 ; 13700)
P
u
= 13700 daN
Female part: P
u
= min (P
tu
; P
bru
) = min (17760 ; 15220)
P
u
= 15220 daN
mm / daN 1 , 37 5 , 62 593 , 0 F 593 , 0 F
bry tyx
= = =
Male part:
1 , 1 K
05 , 1 98 , 0
9 , 1
82
324
13700
F A
P
y
tux 2 br
u
=
< =

Female part:
1 , 1 K
05 , 1 98 , 0
9 , 1
82
180 2
15220
F A 2
P
y
tux 1 br
u
=
< =

=

Summary of allowable axial forces at limit load:
Male part: P
y
= =
u
tux
tyx
y
P
F
F
K 12940 daN
Female part: P
y
= =
u
tux
tyx
y
P
F
F
K 14380 daN
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-78-4 Numerical Example Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Calculating allowable transverse forces
The geometry of the lugs gives:
Male part:
2
4 3 2 1
av
mm 3 , 227 18
64 , 13
1
11
1
11
1
64 , 13
3
6
A
1
A
1
A
1
A
3
6
A =
+ + +
=
+ + +
=
Female part:
2
4 3 2 1
av
mm 3 , 126 10
64 , 13
1
11
1
11
1
64 , 13
3
6
A
1
A
1
A
1
A
3
6
A =
+ + +
=
+ + +
=
According to the graph of figure V1-7 .4-2 (curves 3 and 7), we obtain the following results for both the male and
female part:
8 , 0 K and 54 , 0 K 7 , 0
A
A
A
A
try tru
1 br
av
2 br
av
= = =
Thus, the allowable forces at ultimate load are:
Male part:
daN 7700 P
44 324 54 , 0 A K P
tru
R 2 br tru tru
=
= =
Female part:
daN 8550 P
44 180 54 , 0 2 A K 2 P
tru
R 1 br tru tru
=
= =
The allowable forces at limit load are:
Male part:
daN 7900 P
5 , 30 324 8 , 0 A K P
try
2 , 0 2 br try try
=
= =
Female part:
daN 8780 P
5 , 30 180 8 , 0 2 A K 2 P
try
2 , 0 1 br try try
=
= =
Calculating the breaking load as if only the ligament subj ected to the load was supporting
the transverse force would be more conservative still.
For this, we retain:
try tru
P P = .
Summary of allowable transverse forces:
At ultimate load:
Male part: P
tru
= 7900 daN
Female part: P
tru
= 8780 daN
At limit load:
Male part: P
try
= 7900 daN
Female part: P
try
= 8780 daN
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Numerical Example page V1-78-5
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Calculation of the lug reserve factors
The reserve factors at ultimate load are:
Male part:
[ ]
45 , 1
7900
3000
13700
7000
1
P
F
P
F
1
R R
1
. F . R
625 , 0
6 , 1 6 , 1
625 , 0
6 , 1
tru
tr
6 , 1
u
a
625 , 0
6 , 1
tr
6 , 1
a
=

=
+
=
Female part:
[ ]
61 , 1
8780
3000
15220
7000
1
P
F
P
F
1
R R
1
. F . R
625 , 0
6 , 1 6 , 1
625 , 0
6 , 1
tru
tr
6 , 1
u
a
625 , 0
6 , 1
tr
6 , 1
a
=

=
+
=
Let us consider that the limit loads are eq ual to the ultimate loads divided by 1.5. We then obtain:
F
a
= 4667 daN
F
t
= 2000 daN
The reserve factors at limit load are:
Male part:
[ ]
09 , 2
7900
2000
12940
4667
1
P
F
P
F
1
R R
1
. F . R
625 , 0
6 , 1 6 , 1
625 , 0
6 , 1
try
tr
6 , 1
bry
a
625 , 0
6 , 1
tr
6 , 1
a
=

=
+
=
Female part:
[ ]
33 , 2
8780
2000
14380
4667
1
P
F
P
F
1
R R
1
. F . R
625 , 0
6 , 1 6 , 1
625 , 0
6 , 1
try
tr
6 , 1
bry
a
625 , 0
6 , 1
tr
6 , 1
a
=

=
+
=
V1.7 8.3 PIN STRESSING
Pin shear:
Here, the pin is subj ected to double shear; the allowable force is therefore eq ual to:
daN 26465
2
52 18
2
d
P
2
adm
2
su
=

=

=
The force applied to the pin is:
daN 7616 3000 7000 F F F
2 2 2
tr
2
a
= + = + =
Hence the R.F. of the pin subj ected to shear is:
47 , 3 . F . R
7616
26465
F
P
. F . R
su
= = =
SSM V1-7 LUGS
page V1-78-6 Numerical Example Issue 1
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Pin bending
At ultimate load:
The allowable obliq ue force at ultimate load P
adm
is:
[ ]
daN 11017
7900
3000
13700
7000
7616
R R
F
P
625 , 0
6 , 1 6 , 1
625 , 0
6 , 1
tr
6 , 1
a
adm
=

=
+
=
The peaking parameter is defined from the graph on figure V1-7 .7.2.1-2
38 , 0
77 , 0
44 324
11017
A
P
61 , 0
18
2
18
20
t
2
D
a
r
R br
adm
2
=

=

=


=
The lever arm to be considered at ultimate load is therefore:
mm 21 , 4 6 , 0
4
18
2
10
38 , 0 g
4
t
2
t
b
2 1
= +

+ = +

+ =
For a solid circular pin, the Cozzone calculation gives:
7 , 1
3
16
k

=
We would like that at ultimate load the stress at the extreme fibre of the pin does not exceed the ultimate strength,
that is:
2
R M
mm / daN 90 = =
We deduce the bending modulus
0
:

MAX
p
MAX
p
MAX
0 MAX MAX
1 n 2
1 n
1
2 n
1 n
2
Where:
n
1
MAX
p
= and 033 , 0
40
1
11030
90
n
1
E
R
MAX
= + = +

=
=
0
80.3 daN / mm
The allowable force at ultimate bending load is therefore:
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] 1 7 , 1 3 , 80 90
18 21 , 4
64
18
4
1 k
d b
4
P
4
0 R fu
+


= +

=
P
fu
= 39769 daN
The corresponding bending R.F. is therefore:
22 , 5 . F . R
7616
39769
F
P
. F . R
fu
= = =
SSM V1-7 LUGS
Issue 1 Numerical Example page V1-78-7
Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
At limit load:
The allowable obliq ue force at limit load P
adm
is:
[ ]
daN 10630
7900
2000
12940
4667
5 , 1 / 7616
R R
F
P
625 , 0
6 , 1 6 , 1
625 , 0
6 , 1
tr
6 , 1
a
adm
=

=
+
=
The peaking parameter is defined from the graph on figure V1-7 .7.2.1-2
53 , 0
08 , 1
5 , 30 324
10630
A
P
61 , 0
18
2
18
20
t
2
D
a
r
R br
adm
2
=

=

=


=
The lever arm to be considered at ultimate load is therefore:
mm 64 , 5 6 , 0
4
18
2
10
53 , 0 g
4
t
2
t
b
2 1
= +

+ = +

+ =
The allowable force at ultimate bending load is therefore:
18 64 , 5
87
64
18
4
d b
4
P
4
2 , 0
fy


=
P
fy
= 17664 daN
The corresponding bending R.F. is therefore:
48 , 3 . F . R
5 , 1 / 7616
17664
F
P
. F . R
fy
= = =
Technical Manual
MTS 004 Iss. C
External distribution authorised: YES NO
Document
Manager
Dept code: BTE/CC/CM Validation Name: JF. IMBERT
Name: J. HUET Function : Deputy Department
Group Leader
Dept code: BTE/CC/A
Date: 11/99
Signature
This document is the property of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS; no part of it shall be reproduced or transmitted
without authorization of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS and its contents shall not be disclosed.
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999
3page 1
X
Static stress manual,
metallic materials
Volume 1
Purpose Methods for calculating static failure loads and stresses for
aircraft metallic structural details.
Scope All programmes, static justification of metallic structures.
EDP tool
supporting this Manual
Not applicable.
Contents
V1 - 1 Stiffened panels
V1 - 2 Buclking of plates and thin shells
V1 - 3 Stiffeners
V1 - 4 Thin web beams
V1 - 5 Stable web beams
V1 - 6 Bolted or rivetted junctions
V1 - 7 Lugs
V1 - 8 Hole reinforcements
V1 - 9 Stabilisers
1
4
5
4
5
2
1
2
Structural
Design Manuals
Title - Annex
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C 3Ann. page
Reference documents C BE 019: Drawing up of the Structural Justification Dossier
Documents to be consulted See bibliography at the beginning of each chapter.
Abbreviations See Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR
See "General" paragraph of each chapter
Definitions List of words the definitions of which are integrated into the
Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR:
Highlights
Issue Date Pages modified Justification of the changes made
A 02/98 V1 - 1 V1 - 3
V1 - 7 V1 - 9
New document.
B 05/99 V1 - 7
V1 - 4
Changes as per table page V1-7.i.
New chapter.
C 11/99 V1 - 1 Changes as per table page V1-1.i.
Created paragraph V1-1-8.
V1 - 5 New chapter.
Static stress manual, metallic materials - Management information
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C page IG1
NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION
List of approval
Dept. code Function Name / First name Signature
BTE/CC/CM Chef de Dpartement CAZET G.
Key words Calcul
Bibliography Nant
Distribution list
Dept. code Function Name / First name (if necessary)
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BQP/TE Bibliothque BQP/TE SIBADE Alain
BTE/SM/MG Bibliothque Technique BTE BOUTET Fernand
Distribution list managed in real time by BIO/D (Didocost application)
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Page V1-8 / 1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
A - CONTENTS
Chapters Titles Issues Dates
V1-8 1 General 1 04/1997 Original issue
V1-8 2 Data preparation 1 04/1997 Original issue
V1-8 3 General method 1 04/1997 Original issue
V1-8 4 Load in the fasteners of a fastened reinforcement 2 01/1998 Modification
V1-8 5 Block diagram 1 04/1997 Original issue
V1-8 6 Examples 1 04/1997 Original issue
Pages
V1-8. HOLE REINFORCEMENT V1.8 / 1
A - CONTENTS V1.8 / 1
B - SYMBOLS V1.8 / 2
C - REFERENCES V1.8 / 3
V1-8 1. GENERAL V1.8.1/1
V1-8 1.1. DEFINITIONS V1.8.1/1
V1-8 1.2. BEHAVIOUR AND FAILURE MODE V1.8.1/2
V1-8 1.3. PRESENTATION OF THE METHOD V1.8.1/2
V1-8 2. DATA PREPARATION V1.8.2/1
V1-8 2.1. MATERIAL DATA V1.8.2/1
V1-8 2.2. GEOMETRICAL DATA V1.8.2/1
V1-8 3. GENERAL METHOD V1.8.3/1
V1-8 3.1. CALCULATION OF OVER-STRESS COEFFICIENT K
t
V1.8.3/1
V1-8 3.1.1. Calculation of for a compact reinforcement V1.8.3/2
V1-8 3.1.2. Calculation of for a flanged edge V1.8.3/2
V1-8 3.1.3. Calculation of for a wide reinforcement V1.8.3/3
V1-8 3.1.4. Taking infinite stress state into account V1.8.3/4
V1-8 3.1.5. Conclusion V1.8.3/5
V1-8 3.2. CALCULATION OF EQUIVALENT STRESS
eq ui
V1.8.3/6
V1-8 3.3. TAKING BLEND RADII INTO ACCOUNT V1.8.3/7
V1-8 3.4. LOAD IN THE FASTENERS OF A FASTENED REINFORCEMENT V1.8.3/8
V1-8 3.4.1. Circular hole V1.8.3/8
V1-8 3.4.2. Elliptical hole V1.8.3/10
V1-8 3.4.3. Rectangular hole V1.8.3/11
V1-8 4. BASIC DATA V1.8.4/1
V1-8 4.1. CALCULATION OF V1.8.4/1
V1-8 4.2. CALCULATION OF K
t
V1.8.4/8
V1-8 4.2.1. Wide reinforcement: circular hole V1.8.4/9
V1-8 4.2.2. Narrow reinforcement: elliptical and circular hole V1.8.4/15
V1-8 4.2.3. Narrow reinforcement: sq uare hole V1.8.4/18
V1-8 4.2.4. Narrow reinforcement: triangular hole V1.8.4/21
V1-8 4.2.5. Narrow reinforcement: circular hole close to an edge V1.8.4/30
V1-8 5. BLOCK DIAGRAM V1.8.5/1
V1-8 6. EXAMPLES V1.8.6/1
V1-8 6.1. CIRCULAR HOLE WITH A WIDE SYMMETRICAL REINFORCEMENT V1.8.6/1
V1-8 6.2. ELLIPTICAL HOLE WITH A COMPACT NON-SYMMETRICAL NARROW
REINFORCEMENT V1.8.6/3
V1-8 6.3. BUSH INSERTED AS A REINFORCEMENT INSIDE A CIRCULAR HOLEV1.8.6/4
V1-8 6.4. REINFORCEMENT FOR A TRIANGULAR HOLE V1.8.6/5
V1-8 6.5. EVOLUTIVE THICKNESS REINFORCEMENT V1.8.6/7
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Page V1-8 / 2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
B - SYMBOLS
K
t max
: allowable theoretical coefficient
d: circular hole diameter
D: circular reinforcement diameter
t
r
: reinforcement width
h
r
: reinforcement height
t: plate thickness
b
r
, a
r
: dimensions defining elliptical, sq uare, triangular holes
r
a
: corner radius for triangular holes
r
r
: corner radius for sq uare holes
c: edge-distance of a hole
K
t
: over-stress coefficient

max
: maximum eq uivalent stress

eq ui
: gross eq uivalent stress (Von Mises)
A : eq uivalent section
A
r
: radial section of the reinforcement
A
p
: radial section of the plate under the reinforcement
: geometrical efficiency coefficient of the reinforcement
I

: inertia of the reinforcement in relation to a centreline passing through its centre of


gravity and parallel to the neutral line of the plate
I
xx
: inertia of the reinforcement in relation to the neutral line of the plate
E
p
: Young' s modulus of the plate
E
r
: Young' s modulus of the reinforcement

x
,
y
, : stress condition around the hole

1
,
2
: main stresses
K
tr
: over-stress coefficient at the j oint of the reinforcement and the plate for a circular
hole
K
tb
: over-stress coefficient at the hole edge for a circular hole
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Page V1-8 / 3 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
C - REFERENCES
REF. 1: Elastic stress concentration factors. Single reinforced and unreinforced holes in
infinite plate of isotropic materials
ESDU DATA ITEM 80027
REF. 2: Stress concentration factors
R.E. PETERSON
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Page V1-8 / 4 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General - Page V1-81/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 1.GENERAL
This document proposes a method to calculate the maximum stress around a reinforced hole in
an infinite plate or close to a free edge. The plate is assumed stable.
V1-8 1.1.DEFINITIONS
Holes are freq uently used in aircraft structures. They are used to lighten the structures, route
cables or ducts or even to give access to certain other areas of the structure.
Generally, these holes are reinforced by extra thickness, a fastened reinforcement or an
internal bush:
- the extra thickness is machined in the plate with the hole,
- the fastened reinforcement is a ring secured around the hole by bolts, rivets or tack welds
fastened,
- the bush in the hole is made of a material different from the plate. The advantage of this
techniq ue is to reinforce the hole without using an extra thickness (more compact).
An extra thickness or a fastened reinforcement may (or may not) be symmetrical in relation to
the neutral line of the plate.
V1-8 1.2.BEHAVIOUR AND FAILURE MODE
A hole in a structure locally modifies the mechanical behaviour of the structure. In particular,
the presence of a hole creates an over-stress state around it. This over-stress may exceed the
allowable limit of the material and cause local failure in the structure.
Use of a hole reinforcement is recommended in this case.
The stress state around the reinforced hole is taken into account using the Mises-Hencky
criterion. The method is used to calculate the maximum eq uivalent stress that can be compared
with the selected allowable limit.
Note: In regular structural areas, a theoretical over-stress coefficient is accepted (in relation to
the gross stress):
K
t max
= 2.4
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General - Page V1-81/2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 1.3. PRESENTATION OF THE METHOD
To cover as many cases as possible, this study will take different geometries of holes and of
reinforcements under different stress states into account.
The various hole geometries are:
- circular holes
- elliptical holes
- rectangular holes (with rounded corners)
- triangular holes (with rounded corners)
The different types of hole reinforcements are:
- extra thickness
- fastened reinforcement (for example riveted)
- bush inside the hole (bush and plate materials different)
They are defined using two geometrical criteria:
- D/d: the ratio between the hole diameter and the diameter of the reinforcement,
- h
r
/t
r
: the ratio between the reinforcement height and its width.
If D/d > 1.05: the reinforcement is considered to be sufficiently " wide" to take the variation in
the stress along a radial cross section of the reinforcement into account. In this case, the K
t max
at the edge of the hole and at the j oint between the reinforcement and the plate is calculated.
If D/d < 1.05: the reinforcement is considered " narrow" . This means that the stress is assumed
to be uniform along a radial cross section. The reinforcement will be represented by its surface
area and the interface with the plate by a line. This line will be defined by the outer radius of
the reinforcement. The K
t max
will be calculated at some point of this line.
In this case, two sub-types of narrow reinforcements are differentiated:
If h
r
/t
r
< 3: the reinforcement is considered as being compact.
If h
r
/t
r
> 3: the reinforcement is considered as being a flanged edge.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF REINFORCEMENTS
WIDE
D/d > 1.05
NARROW
D/d < 1.05
COMPACT: h
r
/t
r
< 3 FLANGED EDGE: h
r
/t
r
> 3
t

d
D
h

D
d
h
r
t
r
D
d
h
r
t
r
D
d
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General - Page V1-81/3 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
In general, a hole reinforcement is a local over-thickness around the hole. For reasons of
overall dimensions another reinforcement principle may be used. This principle consists in
inserting a bush, made of a material different from the plate, in the hole. The method described
in this chapter covers this type of reinforcement as it takes the differences in Young' s modulus
and Poisson ratio between the plate and the reinforcement into account.
Also, the fastened reinforcement case (for example riveted) is handled as an extrapolation of
the general method discussed in this chapter.
The different load cases are taken into account by means of the Mises-Hencky
criterion. The method is used to calculate the maximum eq uivalent stress that can be
compared with the selected allowable limit.
The elementary loads studied here are:
- uniaxial tension,
- biaxial tension,
- shear.
The calculated stress for a combined load will be (by interpolation) a linear combination of
stresses defined for each basic case.
Remarks:
In the case of a circular hole, it if preferable to use the case of the main stresses in
biaxial tension (refer to paragraph V1-8.3.1.4).
The real stress is always less than or eq ual to this calculated stress. In fact, the place
where the maximum stress is located is not the same for each load case. The
combination of these maximum stresses is therefore greater than the real stress.
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General - Page V1-81/4 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Data preparation - Page V1-82/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 2.DATA PREPARATION
V1-8 2.2.MATERIAL DATA
The Young' s modulus: E must be known for each of the materials used (plate and
reinforcement).
V1-8 2.2.GEOMETRICAL DATA
The geometrical data req uired for the study is specific to each type of reinforcement and hole
discussed in this chapter.
For a wide reinforcement and a circular hole, the following must be known:
For a narrow reinforcement and an elliptical or circular hole, the following must be
known:
t
t+ t
r
d D
h
r
t
r
t
b
r
a
r
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Data preparation - Page V1-82/2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
For a narrow reinforcement and a sq uare hole, the following must be known:
For a narrow reinforcement and a rectangular hole, the following must be known:
For a narrow reinforcement and a circular hole close to an edge, the following must be
known:
h
r
t
r
t
2b
r
r
r
h
r
t
r
t
r
a
b
r
h
r
t
r
t
a
r
c
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General method - Page V1-83/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 3.GENERAL METHOD
A hole in an infinite plate. As this hole is reinforced (over-thickness, bush, added ring) the
goal is to calculate the maximum stress in the hole reinforcement area knowing the stress field
in the plate close to the hole.
To this end, the over-stress coefficient K
t
and Mises-Hencky criterion are used to calculate the
eq uivalent stresses.
The maximum eq uivalent stress due to the presence of the reinforced hole is:

max
= K
t

eq ui
with:

max
: maximum eq uivalent stress (to be compared with the limit stress)
K
t
: over-stress coefficient

eq ui
: gross eq uivalent stress (Von Mises) around the reinforcement area (function
of the stress state in the plate)
Therefore, it is necessary to calculate the over-stress coefficient K
t
and the eq uivalent stress

eq ui
as a function of the geometry and the stress state in the plate.
V1-8 3.1.CALCULATION OF OVER-STRESS COEFFICIENT K
t
This coefficient depends on the geometry of the hole, the type of reinforcement and the stress
state in the plate around the hole.
To characterize the geometry of the hole and the type of reinforcement, the eq uivalent section
of the reinforcement is defined. To solve the real case, this parameter, noted A, makes it
possible to use the results obtained in basic cases.
The formulation of this eq uivalent section is:
A = A
p
+ A
r
with:
A
p
: cross section area of the plate under the reinforcement
A
r
: reinforcement cross section area
: geometrical efficiency coefficient of the reinforcement
The calculation of differs according to the type of reinforcement. This coefficient takes both
the neutral fibre offset (if the reinforcement is not symmetrical in relation to the plate) and the
differences in the materials of the plate and the reinforcement (if this is the case) into account.
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General method - Page V1-83/2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 3.1.1.Calculation of for a compact reinforcement
The formulation of for a compact reinforcement (D/d< 1.05 and h
r
/t
r
< 3) is:
=
I
I
E
E
xx
r
p
00
with:
I
00
: inertia of the reinforcement in relation to an axis parallel to the neutral line
of the plate and passing through its centre of gravity
I
xx
: inertia of the reinforcement in relation to the neutral line of the plate
E
p
: Young' s modulus of the plate
E
r
: Young' s modulus of the reinforcement
Example: a non-symmetrical rectangular cross section reinforcement:
In this case there is:
I
00
=
t h
r r
3
12
and I
xx
= I
00
+ A
r
h t
t h
t h
h t
r p
r r
r r
r p
+

= +
+

2 12 2
2
3
2
being: =
1
1 3 1
2
+ +

t
h
E
E
p
r
r
p
If in addition the thickness of this plate in relation to that of the reinforcement is not taken into
account, then = 1/4
V1-8 3.1.2.Calculation of for a flanged edge
The charts in chapter V1-8.4.1 give the values of for symmetrical and non-symmetrical
flanged edges in biaxial tension.
The thin plate theory has been used to plot these curves and the regions in which this theory is
not truly applicable are shown in dotted lines.
These values may be used to calculate non-circular holes with any stress state. The
generated errors are low if the point where the maximum stress is located is on a rounded
contour and if the hole is practically circular.
d/2
D/2
t
r
h
r
t
p
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General method - Page V1-83/3 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Remark:
The cross section area of the plate under the reinforcement, A
p
, participates in the
reinforcement. If the Young' s modulus of the reinforcement and that on the plate are different,
then this has to be taken into account in the calculation of . To this end, it is necessary to
multiply the value read on the chart by the ratio: E
r
/E
p
.
If the plate and the reinforcement are made of different materials, then:

true
=
chart
E
E
r
p
with:
E
p
: Young' s modulus of the plate
E
r
: Young' s modulus of the reinforcement
The cases shown in the charts in Chapter 1.8.4.1 are:
- symmetrical flanged edge,
- non-symmetrical flanged edge for h
r
/t
r
values between 3 and 10.
V1-8 3.1.3.Calculation of for a wide reinforcement
The results obtained on the large reinforcements proposed in this chapter, do not make it
possible to take a non-symmetrical reinforcement or a difference in material between the plate
and the reinforcement into account. In the case of a large non-symmetrical reinforcement or if
the material is different from that of the plate, two approximations are possible:
- the reinforcement may be considered as being narrow. The advantage is to be able to
take into account the non-symmetry and the difference in material by calculating (refer
to paragraph V1-8.3.1.1). The disadvantage is having to calculate the stress at j oint
between the reinforcement and the plate assuming it to be constant throughout the
reinforcement.
- the reinforcement may be considered as being wide, symmetrical and of the same
material as the plate (refer to the example, paragraph V1-8.6.5). The advantage is that it
takes the development of the stress in the reinforcement into account by calculating it at
the edge of the hole and at the j oint of the reinforcement and the plate. The disadvantage
is that the neutral fibre offset or the difference in material cannot be taken into account.
These approximations are also necessary for a non-circular wide reinforcement. In fact, only
the case of a wide circular reinforcement is discussed in this chapter.
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General method - Page V1-83/4 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 3.1.4.Taking infinite stress state into account
For the calculation of K
t
, using the charts in Chapter 1.8.4.2, in addition to the calculation of
the eq uivalent cross section area A, it is also necessary to take into account the gross stress
state around the reinforcement.
For wide reinforcements (D/d>1.05), it is necessary to calculate the main gross stresses (in
the plate, without a hole and without reinforcement):
There is:

1
=
1
2
(
x
+
y
) +
( )
[ ]
1
4
2
2

x y
+

2
=
1
2
(
x
+
y
) -
( )
[ ]
1
4
2
2

x y
+ +
It is then necessary to obtain the linear combination which makes it possible to calculate these
main stresses using the processed basic cases.
Example:
For the case of a circular hole reinforced by a wide ring (D/d> 1.05), five basic cases are
proposed:

1

2
case 1 1 1
case 2 1 0.5
case 3 1 0
case 4 1 -0.5
case 5 1 -1
If for the case to be processed, there is:

2
1
1
4
=
then: K
K K
t
t cas t cas

2
1
3 2
1
4
2 =

=
+
( ) (
)
with the K
t(cas i)
obtained from the charts.

x

x


Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General method - Page V1-83/5 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
For narrow reinforcements (D/d<1.05), unlike wide reinforcements, it is not necessary to
calculate the main stresses. All that is necessary is to obtain the linear combination of the basic
cases making it possible to calculate the real case.
V1-8 3.1.5.Conclusion
Knowing the eq uivalent cross section area A, and the linear combination between the basic
cases, making it possible to obtain the real stress status, it is possible to use the charts in
Chapter 1.8.4.3.2 to determine K
t max
.
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General method - Page V1-83/6 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 3.2.CALCULATION OF EQUIVALENT STRESS
equi
Let us assume any stress state around the hole.
Then:
the formulation of the eq uivalent stress: (Mises-Hencky criterion) is:

eq ui
=
x x y y
2 2 2
3 + +
This eq uivalent stress multiplied by the coefficient K
t
makes it possible to calculate the
maximum stress at the edge of the hole or around the reinforcement. This maximum value can
be directly compared to the fixed limit value.
The basic data req uired to calculate K
t
is given in the following chapter.

x

x


Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General method - Page V1-83/7 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 3.3.TAKING BLEND RADII INTO ACCOUNT
With machined reinforcements, the presence of blend radii reduces the over-stress at the j oint
between the reinforcement and the plate.
The following rule may be used to assess this effect.
1 - Calculation of K
t0
at the reinforcement/plate j oint, in the case of a reinforcement
without a blend radius, using the methods and charts given in this chapter.
2 - Taking the effect of the radius on K
t
into account, using the following formula:
K
t
= K
t0
with:
- K
t0
: over-stress coefficient calculated at the j oint between the reinforcement with the
plate without taking the presence of the radius into account.
- : correction coefficient depending on the geometry of the blend radius. This
coefficient is calculated using the following chart:
r
t
1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2


r
t
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General method - Page V1-83/8 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 3.4.LOAD IN THE FASTENERS OF A FASTENED REINFORCE-
MENT
The determination of the loads transferred by the fasteners of a fastened reinforcement is a
relatively complex problem. Numerous parameters are to be taken into account such as the
geometry of the hole, the type of reinforcement, the q uantity, the location and the type of
fasteners, the state of stress around the reinforcement.
The method proposed here is an approximate method. It is simple but conservative. This
means that it may induce very significant loads in fasteners. It is therefore preferable to use a
local finite element model to get closer to reality.
Assumptions:
A hole reinforced in an infinite plate. The stress state around this reinforcement is any value.
The different hole geometries are those proposed in this chapter (circular, elliptical,
rectangular).
Method:
The main difficulty is to take shear stresses into account. An adapted method is proposed for
each type of geometry. These methods make it possible to take each type of stress (normal or
shear) into account separately.
V1-8 3.4.1.Circular hole
The method is as follows:
1 - Calculation of main stresses as a function of infinite gross stresses:

1
=
1
2
(
x
+
y
) +
( )
[ ]
1
4
2
2

x y
+

2
=
1
2
(
x
+
y
) -
( )
[ ]
1
4
2
2

x y
+
t
t
r
d D

1
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General method - Page V1-83/9 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
2 - Calculation of the total gross load transferred at the reinforcement in the main
directions:
F
tot1
=
1
(D . t)
F
tot2
=
2
(D . t)
3 - Calculation of the loads transferred into the reinforcement in proportion to the
thicknesses:
F
renf1
= F
tot1

t
t t
r
r
+

F
renf2
= F
tot2

t
t t
r
r
+

4 - Distribution of each of these loads in each fastener. Distribution will occur at the same
bearing and same shear as indicated in Chapter V1-6 " Splices" in this manual. For each
main direction, a loading area and an unloading area will be considered.
In this manner, two loads per fastener F
/fix1
and F
/fix2
are obtained which then simply have to
be combined to obtain the total load per fastener:
F
/fix
= F F
fix fix / / 1
2
2
2
+
Fasteners subj ected to F
renf 1
Fasteners subj ected to F
renf 2

x

x

x

x

1
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General method - Page V1-83/10 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 3.4.2.Elliptical hole
The main stresses cannot be used for an elliptical hole.
The normal stresses (
x
,
y
), are taken into account in the same manner as in the case of a
circular hole with main stresses (refer to paragraph V1-8.3.4.1).
The shear stresses () are taken into account using the following method:
1 - Calculation of the total gross load related to the shear at the reinforcement:
F

= (L . t)
2 - Distribution of this load between the plate and reinforcement in proportion to the
thicknesses:
F
renf
= F

h
t h
r
r
+

3 - Distribution of F
renf
(force transferred into the reinforcement). On each fastener,
distribution will occur at the same bearing and the same shear as indicated in Chapter
V1-6 " Splices" in this manual.
A loading area and an unloading area will be considered. The unloading area will be
distributed to the following fasteners:

x

x
b
r
a
r

t
r
h
r
t
fastener subj ected to F
renf

L
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General method - Page V1-83/11 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 3.4.3.Rectangular hole
Main stresses cannot be used for a rectangular hole.
Normal stresses (
x
,
y
) are taken into account using the following method:
1 - Calculation of the total gross load transferred at the reinforcement in
x
and
y
directions.
F
totx
=
x
(2a
r
. t)
F
toty
=
y
(2b
r
. t)
2 - Calculation of the loads transferred into the reinforcement in proportion to the
thicknesses:
F
renfx
= F
tot1

h
t h
r
r
+

F
renfy
= F
tot2

h
t h
r
r
+

3 - Distribution of each of these loads. Distribution will occur at the same bearing and the
same shear as indicated in Chapter V1-6 " Splices" in this manual.
For each main direction, a loading area and an unloading area will be taken into
account:
Note: Unlike the other fasteners, corner fasteners are subj ected to both F
renfx
and F
renfy
.

x
2b
r
2a
r

t
r
h
r
t
fasteners subj ected to F
renfy
fasteners subj ected to F
renfx

x

x

y
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
General method - Page V1-83/12 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Shear stresses () are taken into account using the following method:
1 - Calculation of gross loads related to shear at the reinforcement on each side:
F
a
= (2a
r
. t)
F
b
= (2b
r
. t)
2 - Distribution of these loads between the plate and the reinforcement in proportion of the
thicknesses:
F
renf a
= F
a

h
t h
r
r
+

F
renf b
= F
b

h
t h
r
r
+

3 - Distribution of F
renf a
and F
renf b
(forces transferred to the reinforcement) on each
fastener.
This distribution will occur at the same bearing and the same shear as indicated in
Chapter V1-6 " Splices" in this manual.
The loads are assumed to be distributed on the following fasteners:
Load combinations: Finally, for each fastener, it is necessary to combine the loads due to the
various stresses (
x
,
y
, ).
2b
r
2a
r

2b
r
2a
r

fasteners subj ected to F


renf a
fasteners subj ected to -F
renf a
fasteners subj ected to F
renf b
fasteners subj ected to -F
renf b
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/1 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 4.BASIC DATA
V1-8 4.1.CALCULATION OF
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/2 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.1.1 Symmetrical flanged edge
h
r
h
r
t
r
r
r
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/3 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.1.2 Non-symmetrical flanged edge
h
t
r
r
= 3
h
r
t
r
r
r
t
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/4 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.1.3 Non-symmetrical flanged edge
h
t
r
r
= 4
h
r
t
r
r
r
t
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/5 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.1.4 Non-symmetrical flanged edge
h
t
r
r
= 5
h
r
t
r
r
r
t
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/6 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.1.5 Non-symmetrical flanged edge
h
t
r
r
= 7
h
r
t
r
r
r
t
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/7 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.1.6 Non-symmetrical flanged edge
h
t
r
r
= 10
h
r
t
r
r
r
t
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/8 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 4.2.CALCULATION OF K
t
The cases dealt with here enable calculation of K
t
in all other load or geometry cases by
applying the method described in the previous chapter (paragraph 1.8.3).
These basic cases are as follows:
TYPE OF
REINFOR-
CEMENT
TYPE OF HOLE TYPE OF LOADING
CHART
NUMBERS
W
I
D
E
D
/
d

>

1
.
0
5
CIRCULAR
1 2
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
1-8.4.2.1.1
1-8.4.2.1.2
1-8.4.2.1.3
1-8.4.2.1.4
1-8.4.2.1.5
ELLIPTICAL
x y
1
1
1
0
0
1
0.5
0
0
0
0
1
1-8.4.2.2.1
1-8.4.2.2.1
1-8.4.2.2.2
1-8.4.2.2.2
SQUARE
(rounded
corners)
x y
1
1
1
0
0
1
0.5
0
0
0
0
1
1-8.4.2.3.1
1-8.4.2.3.1
1-8.4.2.3.2
1-8.4.2.3.2
TRIANGULAR
(equilateral
rounded
corners)
x y
1
0
1
1
0.5
0
0
1
1
0.5
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1-8.4.2.4.2
1-8.4.2.4.3
1-8.4.2.4.4
1-8.4.2.4.5
1-8.4.2.4.6
1-8.4.2.4.7
N
A
R
R
O
W
D
/
d

<

1
.
0
5
CIRCULAR
(close to an
edge)
x only 1-8.4.2.5.1

x
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/9 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 4.2.1.Wide reinforcement: circular hole
a) Necessary geometrical data:
b) Use of the charts:
The following charts enable the calculation of the over-stress coefficient at the edge of a hole
(K
tA
) and at the j oint of the reinforcement and the plate (K
tB
). These coefficients are given as a
function of the following ratios:
t
t
r
and
D
d
Remarks:
- if
D
d
< 1.05 then refer to paragraph V1-8.4.2.2
- if the reinforcement is not symmetrical, refer to paragraph V1-8.4.2.2 or consider that
the radial cross section of the reinforcement is uniformly distributed on either side of the
reinforcement by calculating an eq uivalent thickness t
r
(refer to the example in
paragraph V1-8.6.5).
- if the hole is elliptical, refer to paragraph V1-8.4.2.2 or consider an eq uivalent circular
hole with an average radius d (refer to the example in paragraph V1-8.6.5).
c) Single loads:
The charts in this paragraph correspond to the following single load cases.
TYPE OF LOADING CHART NUMBERS

1

2
1 1 1-8.4.2.1.1
1 0.5 1-8.4.2.1.2
1 0 1-8.4.2.1.3
1 -0.5 1-8.4.2.1.4
1 -1 1-8.4.2.1.5
For any other type of load, it is possible to calculate the maximum stress by combining these
basic cases (conservative calculation). This method is used in the example in paragraph V1-
8.6.1.

x

x

1
t
t+ t
r
d D
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/10 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.1.1

x

x

1
t
t+ t
r
d D

A
B
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/11 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.1.2

x

x

1
t
t+ t
r
d
D

A
B
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/12 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.1.3

1
t
t+ t
r
d
D
A
B

1
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/13 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.1.4

x

x

1
t
t+ t
r
d D

A
B
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/14 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.1.5

x

x

1
t
t+ t
r
d D

A
B
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/15 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 4.2.2.Narrow reinforcement: elliptical and circular hole
a) Necessary geometrical data:
b) Use of the charts:
The following charts are used to calculate the over-stress coefficient at the j oint between the
reinforcement and the plate (K
t
). These coefficients are given as a function of the following
ratios:
( )
A
a b t
r r
+
and
a
b
r
r
Remarks:
- A is the eq uivalent section of the reinforcement, which takes the non-symmetry of the
reinforcement or a difference in material between the reinforcement and the plate into
account where applicable.
c) Single load case:
The charts in this paragraph correspond to the following single load cases.
TYPE OF LOADING CHART NUMBERS

x

y

1 0 0 1-8.4.2.2.1
1 1 0 1-8.4.2.2.1
1 0.5 0 1-8.4.2.2.2
0 0 1 1-8.4.2.2.2
For any other type of loading, it is possible to calculate the maximum stress by combining
these basic cases (conservative calculation). This method is used in the example in paragraph
V1-8.6.1.

a
r
b
r
h
r
t
r
t
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/16 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.2.1

y
= 0
= 0
a
r
b
r

y
x
= 1
= 0
a
r
b
r

y
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/17 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.2.2

y
x
=
1
2
= 0
a
r
b
r

x
= 0

y
= 0
a
r
b
r

Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT


Basic data - Page V1-84/18 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 4.2.3.Narrow reinforcement: square hole
a) Necessary geometrical data:
b) Use of the charts:
The following charts are used to calculate the over-stress coefficient at the j oint between the
reinforcement and the plate (K
t
). These coefficients are given as a function of the following
ratios:
A
b t
r
and
r
b
r
r
Remarks:
- A is the eq uivalent section of the reinforcement, which takes the non-symmetry of the
reinforcement or a difference in material between the reinforcement and the plate into
account where applicable.
c) Single load case:
The charts in this paragraph correspond to the following single load cases.
TYPE OF LOADING CHART NUMBERS

x

y

1 0 0 1-8.4.2.3.1
1 1 0 1-8.4.2.3.1
1 0.5 0 1-8.4.2.3.2
0 0 1 1-8.4.2.3.2
For any other type of loading, it is possible to calculate the maximum stress by combining
these basic cases (conservative calculation). This method is used in the example in paragraph
V1-8.6.1.

h
r
t
r
t
2
br
r
r
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/19 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.3.1

y
= 0
= 0

x

x
2b
r
r
r

y
x
= 1
= 0

x

x
2b
r
r
r

y
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/20 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.3.2

y
x
=
1
2
= 0

x

x
2b
r
r
r

x
= 0

y
= 0

2b
r
r
r

Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT


Basic data - Page V1-84/21 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 4.2.4.Narrow reinforcement: triangular hole
a) Necessary geometrical data:
b) Use of the charts:
The following charts are used to calculate the over-stress coefficient at the j oint between the
reinforcement and the plate (K
t
).
Initially, using the ratio
r
b
a
r
, it is necessary to determine the theoretical ratio
r
b
t
r
using the chart
in Figure 1-8.4.2.4.1.
Then the over-stress coefficients are given as a function of the ratios:
A
b t
r
and
r
b
t
r
.
Remarks:
- A is the eq uivalent section of the reinforcement, which takes the non-symmetry of the
reinforcement or a difference in material between the reinforcement and the plate into
account where applicable.
c) Single load case:
The charts in this paragraph correspond to the following single load cases.
TYPE OF LOADING CHART NUMBERS
No.
x

y

1 1 0 0 1-8-4.2.4.2
2 0 1 0 1-8.4.2.4.3
3 1 1 0 1-8.4.2.4.4
4 1 0.5 0 1-8.4.2.4.5
5 0.5 1 0 1-8.4.2.4.6
6 0 0 1 1-8.4.2.4.7
For any other type of loading, it is possible to calculate the maximum stress by combining
these basic cases (conservative calculation). This method is used in the example in paragraph
V1-8.6.1.

h
r
t
r
t

x
r
a
b
r
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/22 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
d) Location of the over-stress:
The position of the over-stress and the j oint of the reinforcement and the plate depends on the
stress status around the reinforcement.
For cases 1, 3 and 4, the over-stress is at corners B.
For case 5, the over-stress is at corner A.
For cases 2 and 6, this position depends on the geometrical ratios of the triangle:
r
b
a
r
,
r
b
t
r
and
A
b t
r
. To locate this over-stress, regions have been defined on the corresponding charts: Figure
1-8.4.2.4.3 and Figure 1-8.4.2.4.7. Region 1 corresponds to an over-stress at corners B and
region 2 corresponds to an over-stress at corner A.
TYPE OF LOADING LOCATION
No.
x

y

1 1 0 0 B
2 0 1 0 B (if region 1)
A (if region 2)
3 1 1 0 B
4 1 0.5 0 B
5 0.5 1 0 A
6 0 0 1 B (if region 1)
A (if region 2)
y
x
B
B
A
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/23 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.4.1
real shape
theoretical shape
b
r
r
a
b
r
r
t
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/24 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.4.2

x

x
r
a
b
r

y
= 0
= 0
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/25 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.4.3

x
= 0
= 0

y
r
a
b
r

y
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/26 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.4.4

x
=
y
= 0

y
r
a
b
r

x
x
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/27 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.4.5

y
x
1
2
= 0

y
r
a
b
r

x
x
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/28 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.4.6

x
y
=
1
2
= 0

y
r
a
b
r

x
x
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/29 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.4.7

r
a
b
r

x
= 0

y
= 0

Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT


Basic data - Page V1-84/30 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 4.2.5.Narrow reinforcement: circular hole close to an edge
a) Necessary geometrical data:
b) Use of the charts:
Depending on the ratios:
A
a t
r
2
and
c
a
r
, the following chart is used to calculate the over-stress
coefficient at the j oint of the reinforcement and the plate (K
tr
) and at the edge of the plate
(K
tb
).
Remarks:
- A is the eq uivalent section of the reinforcement, which takes the non-symmetry
reinforcement or a difference in material between the reinforcement and the plate into
account where applicable.
c) Single load case:
The chart in this paragraph corresponds to the unidirectional load case.
TYPE OF LOADING CHART NUMBERS

x

y

1 0 0 1-8.4.2.5.1
h
r
t
r
t
a
r
c
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/31 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure 1-8.4.2.5.1
a
r
c

x
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Basic data - Page V1-84/32 revision 2 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Block diagram - Page V1-85/1 revision 1
V1-8 5.BLOCK DIAGRAM
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
CALCULATION OF MAXIMUM STRESS AT
THE EDGE OF THE REINFORCED HOLE
CALCULATION OF K
t maxi CALCULATION OF
eq ui
Calculation of
yes no
yes no

real
=
chart

E
E
r
p

=
I
I
E
E
xx
r
p
00
Calculation of the eq uivalent cross
section area A:
A = A
p
+ A
r
Calculation of
1
and
2

1
=
1
2
(
x
+
y
) +
[ ]
1
4
2 2
( )
x y
+

2
=
1
2
(
x
+
y
) -
[ ]
1
4
2 2
( )
x y
+
Kt(real) = combination (Kt(basic case))
Kt(basic case) using the charts

eq ui
=
x x y y
2 2 2
3 + +

max
= K
t

eq ui
h
r
/t
r
> 3
D/d > 1.05

x

x



1
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Block diagram - Page V1-85/2 revision 1
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Examples - Page V1-86/1 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 6.EXAMPLES
V1-8 6.1.CIRCULAR HOLE WITH A WIDE SYMMETRICAL
REINFORCEMENT
Let us assume a 100 mm diameter hole in a 5 mm infinite plate. This hole is reinforced by a
200 mm diameter, 10 mm thick symmetrical over-thickness.
The stress state around the hole is as follows:

x
= 185 Mpa

y
= 65 Mpa
= 45 Mpa
There is:
D
d
=
200
100
= 2 > 1.05, therefore it is a wide reinforcement.
In this case, it is necessary to consider a development of the stress according to the
reinforcement width (between A and B).
To determine the over-stress at the edge of the hole (at A) and at the reinforcement/plate j oint
(at B), the charts in Chapter V1-8.4.2.1 will be used after calculating the main stresses around
the hole.

10 mm
10 mm
5 mm
100 mm
B A
200 mm
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Examples - Page V1-86/2 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Calculation of main stresses and equivalent stress:
[ ]
[ ]


1
2
2
2
1
2
1
4
1
2
1
4
= + + +
= + +
( )
( )
x y x y
x y x y
being
[ ]
[ ]

1
2
2
2
1
2
185 65
1
4
185 65 45
1
2
185 65
1
4
185 65 45
= + + +
= + +
( )
( )
Giving:

1
2
200
50
=
=
MPa
MPa
Similarly, the eq uivalent stress is:

eq ui
=
1
2
1 2 2
2 2 2
200 200 50 50 + = + . giving:
eq ui
= 180 MPa
Determination of the linear combination:
There is:

1
2
200
50
=
=
MPa
MPa
being:

2
1
1
4
=
This load case does not correspond to one of the charts on wide reinforcements. Therefore, the
linear combination of basic cases has to be found to obtain

2
1
1
4
=
The basic cases processed are:

1

2
case 1 1 1
case 2 1 0.5
case 3 1 0
case 4 1 -0.5
case 5 1 -1
Then, the linear combination is: K
K K
t
t cas t cas

2
1
3 2
1
4
2 =

=
+
( ) ( )
with the K
t(cas
i
)
found in the
charts.
Calculation of the over-stress coefficient:
Using the charts in Chapter V1-8.3.2.1, the following is obtained (with
t
t
r
p
=
2 10
5
.
= 4 and
D
d
= 2):
- At the edge of the hole (pt B):
- At the edge of the reinforcement (pt A):

K
K
K
K
t B(cas2)
t B(cas3)
t A(cas2)
t A(cas3)
=
=
=
=
106
122
128
163
.
.
.
.

=
+
=
=
+
=
K
K
t B
t A
106 122
2
114
128 163
2
1
. .
.
. .
.45
K
K
t B
t A
Calculation of the maximum stresses at the edge of the hole and at the edge of the
reinforcement:
Using the eq uivalent stress and over-stress coefficients, the maximum stress values at the edge
of the hole and at the edge of the reinforcement can be deduced:
- At the edge of the hole (pt B):
max B
= K
t B
.
eq ui
= 1.14 . 180
max B
= 205 Mpa
- At the edge of the reinforcement (pt A):
max A
= K
t A
.
eq ui
= 1.45 . 180
max A
= 261 Mpa
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Examples - Page V1-86/3 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 6.2.ELLIPTICAL HOLE WITH A COMPACT NON-SYMMETRICAL
NARROW REINFORCEMENT
with: = 70 MPa
In this case there is:
and
D
d
h
t
r
r
= = <
= = <
83
80
1037 105
6
3
2 3
. .
conseq uently, this is a compact narrow reinforcement
As this reinforcement is not symmetrical, it is necessary to take its geometrical effectiveness
coefficient into account when calculating it.
Calculation of coefficient :
Inertia of the reinforcement in relation to the axis passing through its centre of gravity
and parallel to the neutral line of the plate: I
00
=
t h
r r
3 3
12
3 6
12
=
.
I
00
= 54 mm
4
Inertia of the reinforcement in relation to the neutral line of the plate:
I
xx
= I
00
+ Sr . d
x
2
= 54 + 18 . 4.5 I
xx
= 418.5 mm
4
with: S
r
: reinforcement surface area
d
x
: distance of the reinforcement centre of gravity to the neutral line of the plate
Geometrical effectiveness of the reinforcement:
3
3
9

160
80
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Examples - Page V1-86/4 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
=
I
I
xx
00
54
418 5
=
.
= 0.13
Calculation of equivalent cross section area A:
A = A
p
+ A
r
= (3 . 3) + 0.13 . (3 . 6) A = 11.34
being:
A
a b t
r r p
( )
.
( ) . +
=
+
1134
160 80 3
= 0.015
This ratio makes it possible to use the chart in Chapter V1-8.4.2.2 concerning the calculation
of the K
t
coefficient at the edge of the reinforcement of an elliptical hole in the pure shear
case.
There is:
K
t
= 2.2
Let us assume an over-stress at the j oint between the reinforcement and the plate eq ual to:

max
= K
t

eq ui
= 2.2 . (70 3 )
max
= 266 MPa
V1-8 6.3.BUSH INSERTED AS A REINFORCEMENT INSIDE A CIRCU-
LAR HOLE
with:
D = 160 mm
d = 150 mm
t = 5 mm

x
= 120 Mpa
The plate and the bush are made of different materials:
Plate made of 7175 T7351: E
p
= 71000 Mpa
Bush made of 2024 T3511: E
b
= 74500 Mpa

x

x
D
d
t
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Examples - Page V1-86/5 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
In this case there is:
D
d
=
160
150
= 1.06 > 1.05. Conseq uently, this is a wide reinforcement.
Now, to take the difference in material between the plate and the bush into account, the
reinforcement is considered as being narrow. The geometrical effectiveness coefficient is
calculated and the charts in paragraph V1-8.4.2.2 are used to calculate K
t
.
Calculation of the geometry effectiveness coefficient :
There is =
I
I
E
E
E
E
xx
r
p
r
p
00
= as in this case: I
00
= I
xx
.
Giving: =
74500
71000
= 1.05
Calculation of the equivalent cross section area A:
A = A
p
+ . A
r
= 0 + 1.05 . (10 * 5) A = 52.5
being:
A
a b t
r r p
( ).
.
( ) . +
=
+
52 5
80 80 5
= 0.065
This ratio makes it possible to use the charts in Chapter V1-8.4.2.2 concerning the calculation
of coefficient K
t
at the edge of a narrow reinforcement in the case of a unidirectional stress
state.
There is:
K
t
= 2.2 (instead of 3 without reinforcement)
Being an over-stress at the edge of a hole eq ual to:

max
= K
t

eq ui
= 2.2 . 120
max
= 264 MPa
V1-8 6.4.REINFORCEMENT FOR A TRIANGULAR HOLE
9
3
3

80
30
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Examples - Page V1-86/6 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
As this reinforcement is not symmetrical, it is necessary to take its geometrical effectiveness
coefficient into account when calculating it.
Calculation of the coefficient :
Inertia of the reinforcement in relation to the axis passing through its centre of gravity
and parallel to the neutral line of the plate: I
00
=
t h
r r
3 3
12
3 6
12
=
.
I
00
= 54 mm
4
Inertia of the reinforcement in relation to the neutral line of the plate:
I
xx
= I
00
+ S
r
. d
x
2
= 54 + 18 . 4.5 I
xx
= 418.5 mm
4
with S
r
: surface area of the reinforcement
d
x
: distance of the reinforcement centre of gravity to the neutral line of the plate
Geometrical effectiveness of the reinforcement:
=
I
I
xx
00
54
418 5
=
.
= 0.13
Calculation of the equivalent section A:
A = A
p
+ A
r
= (3 . 3) + 0.13 . (3 . 6) A = 11.34
Calculation of the equivalent triangle:
There is:
r
a
= 15 mm
b
r
= 15 mm therefore:
r
b
a
r
=
30
80
= 0.375
With this ratio and the chart in paragraph V1-8.4.2.4, the following is found:
r
b
t
r
= 0.2.
Calculation of the over-stress at the edge of the reinforcement:
To calculate K
t
, the chart in paragraph V1-8.4.2.4 concerning the pure shear case is used,
with:

A
b t
r
=
1134
80 3
.
.
= 0.05

r
b
t
r
= 0.2
There is: K
t
= 3 (instead of 4, without reinforcement)
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Examples - Page V1-86/7 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-8 6.5.EVOLUTIVE THICKNESS REINFORCEMENT
There is:
- D = 143 + 25 = 168 mm
- d = 143 mm
therefore:
D
d
=
168
143
= 1.17 > 1.05, this is a wide reinforcement. However, it is not
symmetrical and therefore the problem is handled with a narrow reinforcement to take the
offset of the neutral fibre between the plate and the reinforcement into account.
Calculation of coefficient :
Inertia of the reinforcement in relation to the axis passing through its centre of gravity and
parallel to the neutral line of the plate:
I mm S mm
I mm S mm
001
3
4
1
002
3
4
2
8 8
12
34133 64
17 4
12
90 66 68
= = =
= = =
.
. ;
.
. ;
I
00
= (341.33 + 64 . 1) + (90.66 + 68 . 1) = 563.9 mm
4
8 17
3 7 11
143
SECTION AA

160
143
A
A
1
2
8 17
3 7 11
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Examples - Page V1-86/8 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Inertia of the reinforcement in relation to the neutral line of the plate:
I
xx
= I
00
+ S
r
. d
x
2
= 563.9 + 132 . 4.47 I
xx
= 3201 mm
4
with S
r
: reinforcement surface area
d
x
: distance of the reinforcement centre of gravity to the neutral line of the plate
Geometrical effectiveness of the reinforcement:
=
I
I
xx
00
563 9
3201
=
.
= 0.176
Calculation of the equivalent cross section area A:
A = A
p
+ . A
r
= (3 . 25) + 0.176 . (64 + 68) A = 98.2 mm
being:
A
a b t
r r p
( ).
.
( ) . +
=
+
98 2
185 168 3
= 0.0927
This ratio makes it possible to use the chart in Chapter V1-8.4.2.2 concerning the calculation
of coefficient K
t
and the edge of a narrow reinforcement in the pure shear case.
There is:
K
t
= 1.41 (instead of 2.2, without reinforcement)
Being an over-stress at the edge of the hole eq ual to:

max
= K
t

eq ui
= 1.41 . (70 3 )
max
= 171 MPa
Considering that the reinforcement is narrow, only an over-stress on the j oint between the
reinforcement and the plate is obtained, and it is assumed that this stress is constant along the
reinforcement width to the edge of the hole.
To take a change to this stress into account, it is necessary to use the method described in the
case of wide reinforcements. However, this method only applies to circular holes with
symmetrical reinforcements. This is not the case here, so it is assumed that the surface area of
the reinforcement is evenly distributed each side of the plate and that the elliptical hole is
replaced by an eq uivalent round hole.
eq uivalent to
8 17
3 7 11
143
SECTION AA

160
143
A
A
r'

? ? ?
A
A
17
t
t'
SECTION AA
Static stressing manual V1-8 HOLE REINFORCEMENT
Examples - Page V1-86/9 revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
with:
- t' so that the radial cross section area of the reinforcement is maintained:
(2 . t' + 3) . 25 = 207 mm
t' =
1
2
207
25
3

t' = 2.64 mm
- r' such that: r' =
a b
r r
+
=
+
2
160 143
2
= 151.5 mm
Then there is
2 2 2 64
3
. ' . . t
t
= = 1.76 and
D
d
=
+ 2 1515 25
2 1515
. ( . )
. ( . )
= 1.16
Using these ratios and the chart in paragraph V1-8.4.2.1.5 on wide reinforcements in pure
shear, the following is found:
- at the edge of the reinforcement at the j oint with the plate: K
t
= 1.46being
max
= 177 Mpa
- at the edge of the hole: K
t
= 1.63being
max
= 198 Mpa
Remark: When the reinforcement is considered as being narrow and non-symmetrical, an
over-stress is found at the edge of the reinforcement eq uivalent to that obtained, assuming that
the reinforcement is wide and symmetrical.
However, the wide reinforcement assumption makes it possible to take into account a change
to the stress of the radial section of the reinforcement. Here, this phenomenon is not negligible
as the stress at the edge of the hole is 10% greater than the stress at the edge of the
reinforcement.
Technical Manual
MTS 004 Iss. C
External distribution authorised: YES NO
Document
Manager
Dept code: BTE/CC/CM Validation Name: JF. IMBERT
Name: J. HUET Function : Deputy Department
Group Leader
Dept code: BTE/CC/A
Date: 11/99
Signature
This document is the property of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS; no part of it shall be reproduced or transmitted
without authorization of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS and its contents shall not be disclosed.
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999
3page 1
X
Static stress manual,
metallic materials
Volume 1
Purpose Methods for calculating static failure loads and stresses for
aircraft metallic structural details.
Scope All programmes, static justification of metallic structures.
EDP tool
supporting this Manual
Not applicable.
Contents
V1 - 1 Stiffened panels
V1 - 2 Buclking of plates and thin shells
V1 - 3 Stiffeners
V1 - 4 Thin web beams
V1 - 5 Stable web beams
V1 - 6 Bolted or rivetted junctions
V1 - 7 Lugs
V1 - 8 Hole reinforcements
V1 - 9 Stabilisers
1
4
5
4
5
2
1
2
Structural
Design Manuals
Title - Annex
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C 3Ann. page
Reference documents C BE 019: Drawing up of the Structural Justification Dossier
Documents to be consulted See bibliography at the beginning of each chapter.
Abbreviations See Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR
See "General" paragraph of each chapter
Definitions List of words the definitions of which are integrated into the
Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR:
Highlights
Issue Date Pages modified Justification of the changes made
A 02/98 V1 - 1 V1 - 3
V1 - 7 V1 - 9
New document.
B 05/99 V1 - 7
V1 - 4
Changes as per table page V1-7.i.
New chapter.
C 11/99 V1 - 1 Changes as per table page V1-1.i.
Created paragraph V1-1-8.
V1 - 5 New chapter.
Static stress manual, metallic materials - Management information
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. C page IG1
NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION
List of approval
Dept. code Function Name / First name Signature
BTE/CC/CM Chef de Dpartement CAZET G.
Key words Calcul
Bibliography Nant
Distribution list
Dept. code Function Name / First name (if necessary)
BQP/TE Archives Diderot SIBADE Alain
BQP/TE Bibliothque BQP/TE SIBADE Alain
BTE/SM/MG Bibliothque Technique BTE BOUTET Fernand
Distribution list managed in real time by BIO/D (Didocost application)
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Page V1-9/1 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
CONTENTS
Chapter Title Issue Date
V1-9 CLEATS 1 05 / 1997 Original issue
V1-9.1 GENERAL 1 05 / 1997 Original issue
V1-9.2 DATA PREPARATION 1 05 / 1997 Original issue
V1-9.3 CLEAT STIFFNESS 1 05 / 1997 Original issue
V1-9.4 CLEAT EFFECTIVENESS 1 05 / 1997 Original issue
V1-9.5 CHECKING PROCEDURE 1 05 / 1997 Original issue
V1-9.6 CALCULATION EXAMPLE 1 05 / 1997 Original issue
V1-9.7 Appendix 1: Determination of stiffness criterion 1 05 / 1997 Original issue
V1-9.8 Appendix 2: Discussion on stiffness (...) 1 05 / 1997 Original issue
Pages
V1-9 .1 GENERAL ............................................................................................... V1-91/1
V1-9 .2 DATA PREPARATION.......................................................................... V1-92/1
V1-9 .2.1 MATERIAL DATA................................................................................................ V1-92/1
V1-9 .2.2 GEOMETRICAL DATA....................................................................................... V1-92/1
V1-9 3-CLEAT STIFFNESS................................................................................... V1-93/1
V1-9 .3.1 ASSUMPTIONS ..................................................................................................... V1-93/1
V1-9 .3.2 DISPLACEMENT AND STIFFNESS.................................................................. V1-93/1
V1-9 .3.2.1 Cleat bending: Dl
bending/Mz
................................................................................. V1-93/2
V1-9 .3.2.2 Cleat rotation: l
rotation/z
.................................................................................... V1-93/4
V1-9 .3.2.3 Cleat translation: l
translation/x
............................................................................. V1/93/5
V1-9 .3.2.4 Bending of the flange bearing on the frame: l
bending
....................................... V1-93/5
V1-9 .3.2.5 General eq uation of cleat stiffness: K.............................................................. V1-93/7
V1-9 .3.2.6 Calculation example......................................................................................... V1-93/8
V1-9 .4 CLEAT EFFECTIVENESS.................................................................... V1-94/1
V1-9 .4.1 STIFFNESS CRITERION..................................................................................... V1-94/1
V1-9 .4.2 NON-RIGID CLEATS........................................................................................... V1-94/4
V1-9 .5 CHECKING PROCEDURE................................................................... V1-95/1
V1-9 .6 CALCULATION EXAMPLE................................................................. V1-96/1
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Page V1-9/2 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Page V1-9/3 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
SYMBOLS USED
Notation Unit Description
cdg centre of gravity
x, y, z local axes associated with the cleat
F (N) load applied to the cleat at the end fastener on the member
l
l
(mm) distance between the end fastener in the frame and the fasteners in the
stringer
L (mm) distance between each frame (" inter-frame pitch" )
W (mm) distance between each stringer (" inter-stringer pitch" )
l (mm) total deflection at the end of the cleat
l
bending/z
(mm) deflection due to cleat bending
l
rotation/z
(mm) deflection due to cleat rotation
l
translation/x
(mm) deflection due to cleat translation
l
bending
(mm) deflection due to cleat flange bending
l
2
(mm) width of the cleat flange in contact with the frame
l
3
(mm) height of the cleat web (generally evolutive)
E
s
(MPa) elasticity modulus of the cleat material
I
sz
(mm
4
) moment of inertia of the cleat around z in relation to the centre of
gravity of its cross section
M
f
(M
fz
(y)) (N.mm) bending moment (at abscissa " y" around z)

y
(MPa) normal stress in the cleat
v / v(y) (mm) x dimension between the centre of gravity of the cleat cross section
and the end fibre

0
(MPa) x constant normal stress in the case of a beam of eq ual strength
y normal stress in the cleat at j oint with the stringer
n x number of segments to discretize the cleat in the bending calculation
y number of elastic supports on the frame flange between two rigid
supports
e (mm) cleat thickness
y (mm) length of a discretization segment
M
f0
(N.mm) bending moment around z in the cleat at the root (y = 0)
I
0
(mm
4
) moment of inertia of the cleat around z in relation to the centre of
gravity of its cross section at the root (y = 0)
v
0
(mm) x dimension between the centre of gravity of the cleat cross section
and the end fibre at the root (y = 0)
E
l
(MPa) elasticity modulus of the stringer material
I
lz
(mm
4
) moment of inertia of the stringer around z in relation to the centre of
gravity of its cross section
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Page V1-9/4 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Notation Unit Description
S
l
(mm) stringer cross section

(slope) angle of rotation


l
4
(mm) length of an eq uivalent beam for cleat flange bending calculation
l
5
(mm) width of an eq uivalent beam for cleat flange bending calculation
I
bending
(mm
4
) moment of inertia of the cleat flange for bending calculation
G centre of gravity of a cleat cross section
G
0
centre of gravity of the cleat cross section at the root (y = 0)
m x index from 1 to n for elastic support identification between two
rigid supports
y number of spans between two supports
P (N) axial compression load in the frame inner flange
R
m
(N) reaction at intermediate support " m"

dimensionless parameter used for the calculation of the stiffness


criterion
E
cc
(MPa) elasticity modulus in compression of the frame material
I
ty
(mm
4
) moment of inertia of the flange around y in relation to the centre of
gravity of its cross section
I'
ty
(mm
4
) moment of inertia of the inner flange around y in relation to the centre
of gravity of its cross section, taking the elastic foundation into
account
X
m
(mm) displacement of the member inner flange at an elastic support " m"
k parameter used in the stiffness criterion calculation
k
cr
critical value of k for P = P
cr
r integer
P
cr
(N) critical buckling load for the member inner flange
K (N/mm) cleat stiffness
K
mini
(N/mm) minimum stiffness of the cleat for it to be considered as a rigid support
in relation to member warping

member inner flange end fixity factor


Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Page V1-9/5 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
REFERENCES
1. Michael C.Y. Niu: Airframe Structural Design
2. Roark' s: Formulas for Stress & Strain
3. Timoshenko: Thorie de la stabilit lastiq ue (Elastic Stability Theory)
4. Bruhn: Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structure
5. Vallat: Rsistance des matriaux appliq ue l' aviation (Material Strength Applied to the
Aircraft Industry)
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Page V1-9/6 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
General information Page V1-91/1 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-9 .1 GENERAL INFORMATION
Cleats are elements of stiffened panels (refer to paragraph V1-1) with the following functions:
- to j oin stiffeners and transverse members,
- to prevent premature warping of members (refer to paragraph V1-3).
With fuselage panels, cleats may also provide frame-skin j oints.
In the example below (floating frame fuselage panel) the cleats are in the form of angle
sections, one of the flanges of which (evolutive section) is fastened to the stringer and the
other to the frame. These j oints are secured by several fasteners (see Figure V1-9 .1-1).
Generally, these fasteners are rivets (stringer side) and bolts (frame side).
Figure V1-9 .1-1: Typical stringer/floating frame/cleat assembly
The purpose of this chapter is to describe a cleat stiffness calculation and verification
procedure to determine whether or not they can be assimilated to rigid supports with regard to
member warping. This chapter is closely associated with the complete warping study
discussed in Chapter V3-3.
The definition of the cleat can be validated when the minimum stiffness criterion is satisfied.
Before reaching this result, a series of iterations is necessary. The problem of not meeting the
Stringer
Frame Cleat
z
y
x
L
W
W
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
General information Page V1-91/2 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
stiffness criterion can be satisfactorily solved in two different and possibly complementary
manners:
1) Redimension a stiffer cleat.
2) Accept that a cleat is flexible and recalculate the critical warping stress of members
using a longer beam segment.
However, these two solutions must not be used inconsiderably:
- in the first case, it may be difficult to obtain the req uired stiffness, especially as stiffness
does not depend on cleats alone,
- in the second case, there is the risk of lowering the critical warping stress of the frame
flange too much.
Then, it may be possible to envisage reinforcing the inner flange of the members.
The static strength of fuselage panel cleats is checked using the pressurization loads
transferred from the fuselage to the frame. This is discussed in a separate chapter.
The following mechanism must be fully understood with regards to mechanical loads
originating from cleats:
If cleats are very rigid, they perfectly fulfill their role by imposing the wave nodes of the
deformed section of a warped stiffener inner flange. But then, the displacement of the
flange at the cleat is nil. Conseq uently, the cleat is not the seat of any stress due to stiffener
warping.
If they are too flexible, they do not impose the wave nodes described above. In this case,
stiffener warping would load the cleats.
In one case like in the other, warping is prohibited. Therefore, cleats are parts which are
not loaded, which does not mean that they are useless. It was thus checked in flight that
the keel beam stabilization rod of the A300/310 was not the seat of any stress. However, the
absence of this rod would make the keel beam incapable of bearing ultimate loads.
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Data preparation Page V1-92/1 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-9 .2 DATA PREPARATION
In the remainder of this document the study is limited to a typical fuselage panel and frame
warping. Transposing the method to other cases should not cause any problem.
V1-9 .2.1 MATERIAL DATA
The calculations carried out in this chapter only call for the following material values:
- the elasticity modulus,
- the elasticity modulus in compression.
During the cleat checking process it may be necessary to recalculate frame warping. The
material data simply needed for this calculation are not given here. Refer to Chapter V3-3
which specifically deals with this phenomenon.
V1-9 .2.2 GEOMETRICAL DATA
The main dimensions of the frame/stringer bays are known, being:
- the inter-frame pitch: L
- the inter-stringer pitch: W
Figure V1-9 .2.2-1: Main dimensions of a bay (2 frames + 2 stringers)
The dimensions of the cleats are given in Figure V1-9 .2.2-2.
Frame
Stringer
Cleats
L
W
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Data preparation Page V1-92/2 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Figure V1-9 .2.2-2: Dimensions req uired for the cleat calculation
Remarks:
- In Figure V1-9 .2.2-2, the dotted areas correspond to areas of cleats used to j oin the frame
and the fuselage skin, to transfer pressurization loads, for example. The entire study in this
chapter only concerns the stabilization role of the parts in bold lines. In this document, these
parts are called " cleats" and will be considered as separate parts.
- Dimension l
1
is measured between the last fastener on the frame web and the fasteners of the
cleat on the stringer.
- l
5
is defined by drawing two lines at 45 from the last fastener of the frame web and
measuring the distance between the two intersection points of these lines and the edge of the
cleat web (refer to Figure V1-9 .2.2-3).
Figure V1-9 .2.2-3: Definition of distance l
5
Cleats
Stringer
Frame i
Frame i + 1
l
3min
l
5
e
l
3max
l
2
l
1
L
l
4
l
4
l
5
45
45
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Data preparation Page V1-92/3 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
- The cleat calculated here comprises:
1) a flanged edge bearing on the frame web the width of which is constant (l
2
).
2) a web with height " l
3
" linearly evolutive between two values " l
3min
" and " l
3max
"
3) a constant thickness " e" .
Also, it is necessary to know the cross section area and the moment of inertia of the stringer
around z in relation to the centre of gravity of its cross section.
The specific dimensions of the frame inner flange are given in paragraph V1-3 .4.3.
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Data preparation Page V1-92/4 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat stiffness Page V1-93/1 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-9 .3 CLEAT STIFFNESS
V1-9 .3.1 ASSUMPTIONS
Frame cleats are fastened to the stringers. Therefore, the stringer is considered as participating
in cleat stiffness.
The portion of the cleat used for the frame - skin j oint is not considered.
The connection of the cleat to the frame is by means of several fasteners. Only the end fastener
is taken into account by assuming that it is on the compression load-carrying part of the frame
web (refer to Figure V1-9 .3.2-1). Also, bending of the stringer around y due to the offset of
this load will be neglected.
Stringers and frames are considered as straight beams the lengths of which are long in
comparison with the size of their inner flanges and their webs.
V1-9 .3.2 DISPLACEMENT AND STIFFNESS
Cleat stiffness can be estimated considering the displacement of the point of application of
load F on the last fastener. This displacement is the sum of the displacements due to:
- cleat bending (l
bending/Mz
)
- cleat rotation (l
rotation/z
)
- cleat translation (l
translation/x
)
- cleat flange in contact with the frame bending (l
bending
)
Figure V1-9 .3.2.-1: Mechanical model of the cleat/frame/stringer assembly
Stringer
Frame
Cleat
z
y
x
L
W
x
y
x
y
L L
L L
l
l
F
F
l
l
Frame
Cleat
Cleat
Stringer
Stringer
F
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat stiffness Page V1-93/2 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Displacement of the point of application of load F: l
l = l
flexion/Mz
+ l
rotation/z
+ l
translation/x
+ l
bending
Eq . 1.9.3.2.1
The stiffness of the cleat is given, by definition, by the relationship:
Stiffness: K K =
F
l
Eq . 1.9.3.2.2
V1-9 .3.2.1 Cleat bending: l
bending/Mz
Figure V1-9 .3.2.1-1: Cleat bending
Load F induces bending of the cleat around z. The cleat is assimilated to a beam clamped at
the stringer. In compliance with the sign conventions given in Figure V1-9 .3.2.1-1, the
bending moment at position y along the cleat is:
M
fz
(y) = F . (l
l
- y) Eq . 1.9.3.2.1.1
The normal stress due to M
fz
is:

y
=
M y v y
I y
fz
Sz
( ) . ( )
( )
Eq . 1.9.3.2.1.2
with:
v(y): x distance from the cross section CG to the fibre at position y
I
Sz
(y): moment of inertia of the cleat around z in relation to the centre of gravity of the
cross section, at position y.
A A
F
L L
y
x
l
2
l
3
y
x
l
1
F
l
bending/Mz
Section AA
Stringer
l
1
Cleat
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat stiffness Page V1-93/3 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
On Figure V1-9 .3.2.1-1 above, the dimension " l
2
" is the width of the flanged edge, whereas
" l
3
" is the web height. Generally, l
3
linearly change from one end of the cleat to the other:
l
3
= f (y).
To calculate the deflection at the end of this evolutive cross section beam, an approximation
can be made with a beam of eq ual strength. Remember that a beam of eq ual strength is a beam
for which the value
0
=
M
I
v
fz
Sz

, i.e. the normal stress due to bending, is constant over its


entire length (in particular refer to document ref. (6) Chapter X, paragraph 4.7).
Here the bending moment linearly decreases with y, whereas the increasing ratio
I
v
Sz

follows a polynomial law. In our case, the result is that the stress is not constant along the cleat
but decreases towards its free end (refer to Figure V1-9 .3.2.1-2).
Figure V1-9 .3.2.1-2: Evolution of normal stress due to bending in the cleat.
The applied stress decreases towards the end where F is applied. The deflection calculated
using an assumption of a beam of eq ual strength will therefore be greater than the real
deflection.
The procedure consists in discretizing the beam into n segments of eq ual length y along
which the bending moment and the dimension v(y) are considered as being constant (refer to
Figure V1-9 .3.2.1-3). Reference document (6) gives the eq uation of the deflection, in
particular as a function of the stress calculated at the clamped end (y = 0).
l
bending/Mz
=

0
E
M y
F v y
y
s
fz i
i
i l
n
.
( )
. ( )
.
=

Eq . 1.9.3.2.1.3
(refer to Figure V1-9 .3.2.1-3)
Beam of eq ual strength
Cleat
y
l
l

Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS


Cleat stiffness Page V1-93/4 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
with:

0
= (y = 0) =
M
I
v
f 0
0
0

Eq . 1.9.3.2.1.4
(stress at the fixed end)
M
f0
: bending moment at y = 0, being M
f0
= F . l
l
I
0
: moment of inertia around z in relation to the cross section CG at y = 0
v
0
: x distance from the centre of gravity of the cross section to the end fibre at y = 0
E
s
: elasticity modulus of the cleat material
M
fz
(y
i
): bending moment at y = y
i
, being M
f
(y
i
) = F . (l
l
- y
i
)
v(y
i
): x distance from the centre of gravity of the cross section to the end fibre at y = y
i
y: length of a cleat segment, being y =
l
n
l
Figure V1-9 .3.2.1-3: Cleat
Therefore, the deflection as a function of the applied load F is formulated as follows:
l
bending/Mz
=
F l v
E I n
l y
v y
l
s
l i
i
i l
n . .
.
. .
( )
( )
2
0
0
1
=

Eq . 1.9.3.2.1.5
A study on the deviations obtained for different values of " n" shows that in a special case
where there is no flanged edge, i.e. when the cross section reduces to a variable height
rectangle, the maximum deviation in relation to an infinite number of segments is obtained for
n = 1. It is then only around 10%.
V1-9 .3.2.2 Cleat rotation: l
rotation/z
Figure V1-9 .3.2.2-1: Super-stringer bending
1 2 3 i n n-1
y
F
l
l
y
y
i
0
Clamped end
(on the stringer)
Cleat

M
f0
L L
M
f0
/ 2
L
M
f0
/ 2
L
+ =
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat stiffness Page V1-93/5 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
The clamping moment of the cleat on the stringer is: M
f0
= f.l
l
;
Application of this moment bends the super-stiffener and therefore entails a rotation of the
cleat assembly. Here the term " super-stringer" includes the stringer plus part of the skin. This
is a super-stiffener as defined in Chapter V3-1.
The induced rotation is: =
M L
E I
f
l lz
0
6
.
. .
with:
- L: inter-frame distance (refer to Figure V1-9 .1-1)
- E
l
: elasticity modulus of the stringer
- I
lz
: moment of inertia around z in relation to the super-stringer cross section CG.
The displacement of the point of application of
load F is therefore:
l
rotation/z
= l
l
.sin
Being:
l
rotation/z
= l
l
.sin
F l L
E I
l
l lz
. .
. . 6

If angle remains small,


sin
Figure V1-9 .3.2.2-2: Cleat rotation
Therefore:
l
rotation/z

F l L
E I
l
l lz
. .
. .
2
6
Eq . 1.9.3.2.2.1
V1-9 .3.2.3 Cleat translation: l
translation/x
The transverse load at the clamped end of the cleat on the stringer is F.
Application of this load causes tension/compression of the super-stringer and therefore leads
to translation of the whole cleat.
Translation of the stringer and therefore
of the cleat is:
l
translation/x
=
F L
S E
l l
.
. . 2
Eq . 1.9.3.2.3.1
where S
l
is the cross section of the stringer + Figure V1-9 .3.2.3-1: Cleat translation
the associated fuselage skin
F
l
rotation/z

l
l
y
x
L L
-F/2
l
translation/x
L
-F/2
y
x
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat stiffness Page V1-93/6 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-9 .3.2.4 Bending of the cleat flange in contact with the frame: l
bending
Load F induces bending around y of the cleat flange in contact with the frame.
Figure V1-9 .3.2.4-1: Bending of the flanged edge
This flange is assimilated to a beam clamped at one of its ends (fastener side: refer to Figure
V1-9 .3.2.4-2).
Figure V1-9 .3.2.4-2: Model of the eq uivalent beam for flange bending
The maximum deflection of the beam is:
l
bending
=
F l
E I
s bending
.
. .
4
3
3
Eq . 1.9.3.2.4.1
where I
bending
is the moment of inertia around y of section BB of the cleat.
Remark: Remember that the cross section for bending calculation BB can be found by plotting
two straight lines at 45 from the point of application of the load. Giving l
5
= 2.l
4
.
The compliance of the flange of a cleat, made of folded sheet (the thickness of which is
limited) is relatively high and appreciably reduces the stiffness of the cleat.
Section BB
l
5
F
l
4
y
z
x
Real structure
Beam model
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat stiffness Page V1-93/7 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-9 .3.2.5 General equation of cleat stiffness: K
By carrying forward the eq uations 1.9.3.2.1.5, 1.9.3.2.2.1, 1.9.3.2.3.1 and 1.9.3.2.4.1 into the
eq uation 1.9.3.2.1, the following is found:
l =
F l v
n E I
l y
v y
F l L
E I
F L
S E
F l
E I
l
s
l i
i
l
l lz l l s bending
i
n . .
. .
.
( )
( )
. .
. .
.
. .
.
. .
2
0
0
2
4
3
1
6 2 3

+ + +
=

Eq . 1.9.3.2.5.1
By carrying forward this eq uation to Eq . 1.9.3.2.2, the compliance is:
1
6 2 3
2
0
0
2
4
3
1
K
l v
n E I
l y
v y
l L
E I
L
S E
l
E I
l
s
l i
i
l
l lz l l s bending
i
n
=

+ + +
=

.
. .
.
( )
( )
.
. . . . . .
Eq . 1.9.3.2.5.2
with:
E
l
: elasticity modulus of the stringer
I
lz
: moment of inertia around z in relation to the super-stringer cross section CG
E
s
: modulus of elasticity of the cleat
L: inter-frame pitch
I
bending
: moment of inertia around y of the cleat cross section BB (refer to paragraph
V1-9 .3.2.4)
l
l
: distance between the end fastener on the frame and the row of fasteners on the
stringer
M
f0
: bending moment at y = 0, being M
f0
= F . l
l
I
0
: moment of inertia around z in relation to the cross section CG at y = 0
v
0
: y distance from the centre of gravity of the cross section to the end fibre at y = 0
E
s
: elasticity modulus of the cleat material
v
(yi)
: y distance of the centre of gravity of the cross section to the end fibre at y = y
i
y: length of a cleat segment
e: cleat thickness
Cleats
Stringer
Frame i
Frame i + 1
l
3min
l
5
l
3
l
2
l
1
L
l
4
v0
z
x
G
0
y
Figure V1-9 .3.2.5-1: Dimensions req uired to calculate the cleat
Note: G
0
is the cross section CG at clamped end (y = 0)
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat stiffness Page V1-93/8 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-9 .3.2.6 Calculation example
Frame i
Frame i + 1
l
5
l
3
l
2
l
1
L
l
4
v
0
z
x
G
0
y
Figure V1-9 .3.2.6-1: Reminder of the dimensions req uired for the cleat stiffness calculation
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat stiffness Page V1-93/9 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Cleat characteristics:
F
N
L
mm
l
l
mm
l
2
mm
l
3 min
mm
l
3 max
mm
l
4
mm
l
5
mm
e
mm
y
mm
-1000 530 80 20 20 30 12 24 2 20
n E
s
MPa
I
0
mm
4
v
0
mm
I
Sz
mm
4
4
69000 8920 20.25 16
i
y
i
mm
l
3i
mm
v
i
mm
1
2
3
4
10
30
50
70
28.75
26.25
23.75
21.25
19.525
18.057
16.564
15.039
Stringer characteristics:
E
l
MPa
I
lz
mm
4
S
l
mm
73800 26540 177
Displacements:
l
bending/z
= -0,46 mm
l
rotation/z
= -0,29 mm
l
translation/x
= -0,02 mm
l
bending
= -0,52 mm
Refer to Eq . 3.9.3.2.1.5
Refer to Eq . 3.9.3.2.2.1
Refer to Eq . 3.9.3.2.3.1
Refer to Eq . 3.9.3.2.4.1
l = -1,30 mm Stiffness: K = 772 N/mm
Refer to Eq . 3.9.3.2.1
or Eq . 3.9.3.2.5.1
Refer to Eq . 3.9.3.2.2
or Eq . 3.9.3.2.5.2
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat stiffness Page V1-93/1 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat effectiveness Page V1-94/1 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-9 .4 CLEAT EFFECTIVENESS
V1-9 .4.1 STIFFNESS CRITERION
To determine the minimum stiffness that cleats must have, it is necessary to take the problem
of frame stability into account. This problem is studied in detail in Chapter V1-3.
The inner flange of the frame is considered as a continuous beam with a constant cross section
supported by an elastic foundation, rigid supports at its ends, and " n" intermediate elastic
supports of the same stiffness K, also eq ually spaced (all these supports represent the cleats).
The cross section of the beam defined in this manner comprises the frame inner flange (refer
to paragraph V1-3 .4). I
ty
is the moment of inertia of the cross section.
The elastic foundation represents the stiffness of the frame web. It is q uantified by parameter
, given in paragraph V1-3 .4. This stiffness is assimilated to additional inertia provided to the
basic beam. It is thus possible to define an eq uivalent beam without elastic foundation the
inertia of which is I'
ty
.
Figure V1-9 .4.1-1: Model of a beam under compression on elastic supports
The first goal can be summarized as being that the intermediate supports (cleats) must not
move if the beam buckles (frame warping). They will then be considered as being absolutely
stiff supports.
Let be K, the stiffness of the intermediate supports. It is proven that the supports can be
considered as being absolutely stiff if K satisfies the eq uation:
K > K
mini
=
P
W
cr
.
(refer to V1-9 .7)
where: - P
cr
is the critical Euler load for a beam section of length W
- is a parameter depending on the number of cleats n
(refer to document ref. (3), paragraph 2.6)
P P
R1 R2 Rn-1 Rn
W W W W
l
x
z
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat effectiveness Page V1-94/2 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 20
0.5000 0.3333 0.2929 0.2764 0.2679 0.2630 0.2599 0.2578 0.2563 0.2552 0.2543 0.2537 0.2532 0.2528 0.2524 0.2529 0.2519 0.2517 0.2514
Figure V1-9 .4.1-2: Evolution of parameter as a function of the number of cleats
If there are not many cleats (n< 5), it may be useful to take the values of indicated in the
table. Otherwise, the asymptotic value of the curve = 0.25 has to be used (this is the case for
fuselage frames). The minimum allowable stiffness of the cleat is thus maximized.
It can be noted that the greater the number of cleats, the higher their stiffness has to be to
oppose the same buckling force. This can be explained by the fact that on the beam of length l,
as n increases then W decreases and therefore this is a short beam case. Under these
conditions, as n increases, P
cr
will increase and thus the resisting load to be provided during
buckling in the event of support displacement, which directly depends on stiffener K, has to be
high.
The new inertia I'
ty
is defined by formulating the eq uation of the critical Euler load for the
beam of length W in two forms:
Critical Euler load for a continuous beam on an elastic foundation:
P
cr
=

2
2
2
4
2 4
. .
.
.
. . .
E I
W
p
W
p E I
cc ty
cc ty
+

Eq . 1.9.4.1.1
with:
W: length of a span between two supports
E
cc
: elasticity modulus in compression of the frame material
I
ty
: minimum moment of inertia of the frame inner flange (refer to paragraph
V1-3 .4)
: elastic foundation modulus (refer to paragraph V1-3 .4)
p: number of half waves over length W
Critical Euler load for a continuous beam on two supports:
P
cr
=

2
2
. . ' E I
W
cc ty
Eq . 1.9.4.1.2
0.5000
0.4500
0.3500
0.3000
0.2500
0.2000
0.4000

= (n)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
n
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat effectiveness Page V1-94/3 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Concerning the beam of length W, the two eq uations of P
cr
given below may be eq ualized.
The inertia of the eq uivalent beam which comprises the frame inner flange plus the effect of
the elastic foundation is therefore:
I'
ty
= I
ty
. p
W
p E I
cc ty
2
4
2 4
+

.
. . .
Eq . 1.9.4.1.3
Conseq uently, the stiffness criterion if = 0.25 becomes:
K > K
mini
=
4P
W
cr
With:
P
cr
=

2
3
. . ' E I
W
cc ty
Therefore the stiffness criterion may also be formulated as follows:
K >
4
2
3
. . ' E I
W
cc ty
Eq . 1.9.4.1.4
Remark: Cleat and frame inner flange sizing satisfying the stiffness criterion may be linked by
the eq uation:
E
cc
.I'
ty
=
K. W
3
2
4
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat effectiveness Page V1-94/4 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-9 .4.2 NON-RIGID CLEATS
If the stiffness criterion is not satisfied and the cleat is not resized, it is possible to accept that a
cleat is " flexible" in relation to the frame inner flange. The problem then becomes one of the
buckling of a beam on elastic supports, studied in particular in reference document (3),
paragraph 2.6.
The general formulation of the critical Euler load for the stiffener involved on elastic supports
is:
P
cr
=
c E I
W
cc ty
. . . '
2
2
with:
E
cc
: elasticity modulus in compression of the frame material
I'
ty
: minimum inertia moment of the frame inner flange around y in relation to
its centre of gravity, taking the elastic foundation into account
W: beam length (inter-stringer pitch)
c . : dimensionless factor determined using the chart and partly depending on
the stiffness of the intermediate elastic supports (refer to below).
To calculate c . , a chart has be used with the entry on the abscissa line being a noted
dimensionless q uantity (refer to Figure V1-9 .4.2-2).
K W
E I
cc ty
.
. '
3
for a beam of length " W" where K is the stiffness of an intermediate elastic
support.
The coefficient " c" for a beam of length " W" is obtained from the charts given in Figure
V1-9 .4.2-2. This chart is valid for a number of supports tending towards the infinite but it can
be accepted that it remains valid in all cases.
Figure V1-9 .4.2-1: Determination of coefficient c
10
5
c
0
0 20 40 60
K W
E I
cc ty
.
. '
3
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat effectiveness Page V1-94/5 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
For
K W
E I
cc ty
.
. '
3
> 40, the following may be taken into account c 1 and c.
This curve may be approximated by a polynomial interpolation. Putting down:
X =
K W
E I
cc ty
.
. '
3
For X < 40, there is then; :
c = 0.53591 + 1.1737 . X - 9.1984.10
-2
. X
2
+ 4.2197.10
-3
. X
3
- 9.5732.10
-5
. X
4
+ 8.2719.10
-7
. X
5
The maximum deviation between the values read on the chart and those obtained by this
eq uation is 18.8% for X 1.25. It must be remembered that this error overlays the
interpretation error made when reading the curve.
Putting down =
1
c
, the end fixity factor, the new critical Euler load is then:
P
cr
=

2
2
. . '
( . )
E I
W
cc ty
Thus, if the cleats are not rigid with regard to a beam of length W, they become rigid for a
beam of length W.
Once the new value of the critical load P
cr
has been determined, the allowable warping stress
(
~

dr
, refer to Chapter V1-3) must be recalculated and checked to make sure that it is still
greater than the applied stress.
Using the notations developed above, the allowable warping stress is:
~

dr
=
P
S
cr
t
<
~

dr initial
Eq . 1.9.4.2.5
with:
S
t
: cross section area of the frame inner flange
Calculation details, especially a possible plasticity correction, are given in Chapter V1-3.
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Cleat effectiveness Page V1-94/6 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Checking procedure Page V1-95/1 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-9 .5 CHECKING PROCEDURE
E
S
S
E
N
T
I
A
L
BEGINNING
10
5
c
0
0 20 40 60
K W
E I
cc ty
.
. '
3
Calculation of cleat flexibility:
1
6 2 3
2
0
0
2
4
3
1
K
l v
n E I
l y
v y
l L
E I
L
S E
l
E I
l
s
l i
i
l
l lz l l s bending
i
n
=

+ + +
=

.
. .
.
( )
( )
.
. . . . . .
Eq . 1.9.3.2.5.2
Calculation of corrected inertia: I'
ty
= I
ty
. p
W
p E I
cc ty
2
4
2 4
+

.
. . .
Eq . 1.9.4.1.2
Calculation of the req uired minimum stiffness: K
min
=
4
2
3
. . ' E I
W
cc ty
Eq . 1.9.4.2.3
K > K
mini
Resize the
cleat?
Determine c. from
K W
E I
cc ty
.
. '
3
Eq . 1.9.4.2.1
+ Fig. V1-9 .4.2-1:
Calculation of the new critical load: P
cr
=
c E I
W
cc ty
. . . '
2
2
Eq . 1.9.4.2.2
Calculation of the new
~

dr
: refer to paragraph V3-3 for the initial calculation, or
~

dr
=
P
S
cr
t
Eq . 1.9.4.2.3
War ping?
Resize the
frame?
END
yes no
no yes
yes no
no yes
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Checking procedure Page V1-95/2 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
The calculation of the stiffness specific to cleats is discussed in paragraph V1-9 .3.
The calculation of the stiffness criterion is given in paragraph V1-9 .4.
If the allowable stress becomes insufficient, it may simply be preferable to resize the frame
inner flange. This avoids defining excessive cleat geometries as indicated in paragraph
V1-9 .1.
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Calculation example Page V1-96/1 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
V1-9 6-CALCULATION EXAMPLE
The example of the frame discussed below first of all comprises the calculation of the initial
warping stress as indicated in paragraph V1-3 .4.8. Here, part of the same notations are partly
reused, here being:
Figure V1-9 .6-1: Dimensions req uired to calculate frame warping
- Frame material: 7075 T7351
- Ultimate tension allowable stress:
r
= 495 Mpa
- Elasticity modulus in compression: E
cc
= 73800 Mpa
- Compression yield stress:
c0.2
= 420 Mpa
- Inner flange thickness: e
t
= 4 mm
- Inner flange width: b
t
= 16 mm
- Web thickness: e
a
= 2 mm
- Web height: h
a
= 110 mm
The inter-frame pitch L in example V1-3 .4.8 is replaced by the inter-stringer pitch.
- Inter-stringer pitch: W = 176 mm
b
t
Z
CdG
flange
e
t
h
a
Y
X
W
e
a
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Calculation example Page V1-96/2 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
Inner flange section:
S
t
= e
t
. b
t
= 4 x 16 = 64 mm
Moment of inertia of the inner flange at its cross section CG and its principal axes:
(refer to V3-3 .4.3)
I
ty
=
e b x
t t
.
3 3
12
4 16
12
= = 1365,3 mm
4
Stiffness of the elastic foundation:
=
E e
h
cc a
a
4
73800
4
2
110
3
3
. .

= 0.111 MPa
Calculation of p
0
(critical number of half waves):
p
0
=
W
E I x
cc ty

.
.
.
.
,
4 4
176 0111
73800 1365 3
= = 0.323
Giving:
p
1
= 0
p
2
= 1
Calculation of the initial critical stress:
~

dr
(p
0
) =
2 2
64
73800 1365 3 0111
S
E I x x x
t
cc ty
. . . , . = = 105 MPa
As the number of half waves is necessarily eq ual to or greater than 1, the following cannot
exist p = 0.
Conseq uently, p = 1 and:
( )
~
~
( )
. ( )
.
( . )

dr
initial
dr
p
p
p x =

0
0
2
0
2
2
2
2
1 105
2
1
0 323
0 323 = 509 MPa
The inertia corrected as a function of the elastic foundation is:
I'
ty
= I
ty
. p
W
p E I
x
x
x x x
cc ty
2
4
2 4
2
4
2 4
1365 3 1
0111 176
1 73800 1365 3
+

= +


.
. . .
,
.
,
= 1380 mm
4
Therefore, the critical compression load is:
P
cr
=


2
2
2
2
73800 1380
176
. . ' E I
W
x x
cc ty
= = 32450 N
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Calculation example Page V1-96/3 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
The minimum inertia req uired for the cleat to be considered as being rigid is finally:
K
min
=
4 4 32450
176
P
W
x
cr
= 737 N/mm
According to the cleat stiffness calculation discussed in paragraph V1-9 .3.2.6, there is
K = 772 N/mm.
Therefore, K > K
min
, the cleat may be considered as a rigid support.
Now assume that K = 600 N/mm. Therefore there is K < K
min
and the cleat is not rigid.
The cleat is not resized.
It is necessary to determine the coefficient " c. " :
K W
E I
x
x
cc ty
.
. '
3 3
600 176
73800 1380
= = 32 c . 9.54
The critical compression load therefore becomes:
P
cr
=
c E I
W
x x
cc ty
. . . '
.

2
2 2
9 5 73800 1380
176
= = 31234 N
Now the critical warping stress has to be recalculated:
~

dr
=
P
S
cr
t
=
31234
64
= 488 MPa (to be compared to the 509 Mpa initially obtained)
Note that a plasticity correction is req uired to obtain the real warping stress. This aspect of the
calculation is outside the framework of this chapter and therefore not discussed here (refer to
Chapter V1-3).
Static stressing manual V1-9 CLEATS
Calculation example Page V1-96/4 Revision 1 Copyright AEROSPATIALE 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Technical Manual
MTS 004 Iss. B
External distribution authorised: YES NO
Document
Manager
Dept code: BTE/CC/CM Validation Name: JF. IMBERT
Name: J. HUET Function: Deputy Department
Group Leader
Dept code: BTE/CC/A
Date: 11/99
Signature
This document is the property of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS, no part of it shall be reproduced or transmitted
without authorisation of AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS and its contents shall not be disclosed.
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999
4page 1
X
Static stress manual,
metallic materials
Volume 2
Purpose Strength of metallic materials
Scope All programmes.
IT tool
supporting this Manual
Not applicable.
Contents
V2 - 1 Characteristics of sections
V2 - 2 Behaviour of materials
V2 - 3 Strain measurement
V2 - 4 Bending of beams
V2 - 5 Columns
V2 - 6 Beams-columns
1
4
5
4
5
2
1
2
Structural Design
Manuals
Static stress manual, metallic materials
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Ind. B 4page 2
1.
Static stress manual, metallic materials - Annex
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. B 4Ann. page
Reference documents C BE 019: Drawing up of the Structural Justification Dossier
Documents to be consulted See bibliography at the beginning of each chapter.
Abbreviations See Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR
See "General" paragraph of each chapter
Definitions List of words the definitions of which are integrated into the
Lexique Aerospatiale Airbus/ATR:
Highlights
Issue Date Pages modified Justification of the changes made
A 02/98 V2 - 4 New document.
B 11/99 V2 - 4
V2 - 5
V2 - 6
Changes as per table page V2-4.i
New chapter.
New chapter.
Static stress manual, metallic materials - Management information
AEROSPATIALE MATRA AIRBUS - 1999 MTS 004 Iss. B page IG1
NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION
List of approval
Dept. code Function Name / First name Signature
BTE/CC/CM Chef de Dpartement CAZET G.
Key words Calcul
Bibliography Nant
Distribution list
Dept. code Function Name / First name (if necessary)
BQP/TE Archives Diderot SIBADE Alain
BQP/TE Bibliothque BQP/TE SIBADE Alain
BTE/SM/MG Bibliothque Technique BTE BOUTET Fernand
Distribution list managed in real time by BIO/D (Didocost application)
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 1 Contents page i
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
CONTENTS
issue date revision
V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
V2-4 1 INTRODUCTION
V2-4 2 STRAIGHT BEAMS
V2-4 3 BEAMS WITH HIGH CURVATURES
V2-4 4 BEAMS WITH VARIABLE HEIGHTS
V2-4 5 CALCULATING STRESSES IN STRAIGHT BEAMS
V2-4 6 CALCULATING STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
5/1999
6/1997
9/1999
6/1997
6/1997
5/1999
5/1999
New 5 and 6
Creation
Correction p.2-8
Creation
Creation
Creation
Creation
V2-4 1 INTRODUCTION 1-1
V2-4 2 STRAIGHT BEAMS 2-1
V2-4 2.1 PLANE BENDING FORMULA 2-1
V2-4 2.1.1 Conditions for use 2-1
V2-4 2.1.2 Notations and Conventions 2-2
V2-4 2.1.3 Form 2-3
V2-4 2.2 EXAMPLES 2-17
V2-4 3 BEAMS WITH HIGH CURVATURES 3-1
V2-4 3.1 GENERAL 3-1
V2-4 3.2 THEORETICAL BASIS 3-1
V2-4 3.3 PRACTICAL FORMULAS 3-2
V2-4 4 BEAMS WITH VARIABLE HEIGHTS 4-1
V2-4 4.1 CORRECTION DUE TO "M" 4-1
V2-4 4.2 CORRECTION DUE TO "N" 4-1
V2-4 4.3 PRACTICAL FORMULAS AND COMMENTS 4-2
V2-4 5 CALCULATING STRESSES IN STRAIGHT BEAMS 5-1
V2-4 5.1 LINEAR ELASTICITY 5-1
V2-4 5.1.1 Plane bending 5-1
V2-4 5.1.2 Deviated bending 5-1
V2-4 5.1.3 Composite beams 5-4
V2-4 5.2 PLASTICITY 5-6
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page ii Contents Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V2-4 5.2.1 Plane bending 5-6
V2-4 5.2.2 Deviated bending 5-16
V2-4 6 CALCULATING STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS 6-1
V2-4 6.1 SYMMETRICAL SECTIONS 6-1
V2-4 6.1.1 Introduction 6-1
V2-4 6.1.2 Plane elastic bending of solid sections 6-1
V2-4 6.1.3 Plane elastic bending of thin profile sections 6-2
V2-4 6.2 ASYMMETRICAL THIN PROFILE SECTIONS 6-8
V2-4 6.2.2 Introduction 6-8
V2-4 6.2.2 Calculating load-carrying section 6-8
V2-4 6.2.3 Example 6-9
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Introduction page V2-41-1
AEROSPATIALE - 1997
V2-4 1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of Chapter V2-4 is two-fold:
- determine internal loads and related distortion values,
- find stress values.
Internal loads
Tables provide algebraic solutions for internal loads and distortion in different cases of straight beams
carrying loads in the elastic range. This concerns simple cases based on the plane bending theory which, when
used with the principle of superposition makes it possible to solve most problems or to obtain a satisfactory
estimate in the most complex cases (refer to the assumptions used in "straight beams" ). Stresses are then
determined using conventional formulas associated with the plane bending theory. These simple formulas are
given here.
Stresses
The stress calculation is detailed for beams with a geometry and/or a loading mode, especially the direction
or the point of load application, prohibiting the use of partial or complete results obtained from the plane bending
theory.
For example, this is the case of beams with a non-negligible radius of curvature ("curved beams" ) or beams
with variable heights.
In these particular cases, stress determination may involve an internal load distribution that is very different
from the one obtained with the plane bending theory.
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-41-2 Introduction Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1997
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 1 Straight beams page V2-42-1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V2-4 2 STRAIGHT BEAMS
V2-4 2.1 PLANE BENDING FORMULA
For various loading cases, the following tables give the expressions to be used to obtain, at all points along
the span of a beam, the value of the resulting loads M (bending moment) and T (shear force) and the
characteristics of the deflected beam (slope) and y (deflection). The value of the reactions and the value of the
distortion at each end are called " end values" . Specific values, determined using specific geometrical or loading
data are called " remarkable values" (for example: minimum and/or maximum values of M).
Each table covers a loading type case in two steps: the header of the table gives the general expressions,
then the end values and the remarkable values are given for each of type of boundary conditions. The last two
cases concern the imposed point displacement and rotation cases.
V2-4 2.1.1 Conditions for use
The restrictions given below are directly related to the conditions req uired to q ualify the load-carrying mode
of an plane bending beam, these conditions being:
- strain of the beam in a plane common to the loading plane. This plane defines the bending plane,
- no warping and maintaining of the cross sections after strain in a plane normal to the neutral fibre,
- no rotation of sections around a longitudinal axis guaranteeing a pure bending state, i.e. without torsion;
Restrictive conditions:
1) the beam is long (length relatively long in relation to transverse dimensions);
2) the beam may have a solid or thin section but must be stable;
3) the forces applied act in the same longitudinal plane;
4) this plane includes the shear centre of the cross sections (the shear centre is in the longitudinal plane of
symmetry, if there is one. It is comparable with the centre of gravity for solid sections and for thin closed
sections;
5) the cross sections are constant or vary little along the beam;
6) the beam is straight or slightly curved (high radius of curvature in relation to transverse dimensions);
7) the material is homogeneous, isotropic with a linear elastic range and is stressed in this range;
8) the small displacement assumption is used.
Observance of these conditions makes it possible to take into account the deflection at any point due to the
bending moment M (complementary deflection due to T is not taken into account), disregard neutral fibre
elongation and therefore variations in the beam length and makes the stress normal to a point proportional to the
distance separating it from the neutral fibre.
On the contrary, examine the beam taking the following phenomena into account given respectively for the
conditions above when not fulfilled:
1) the interdependency of the phenomena in the three directions as described by the elasticity theory and which
is disregarded in plane bending, may be high when the beam slenderness is low (Poisson effect);
2) general instability due to the longitudinal components of the applied forces (refer to Chapters 5 and 6);
3) the neutral fibres of the various sections are not included in a single plane. This phenomenon generates torsion
(for the normal stress calculation it is acceptable however to break loading down into two bending planes);
4) essentially for thin open sections: lateral buckling, in particular causing an increase in deflections and
contributing to the torsion thus induced in the normal stress calculation.
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-42-2 Straight beams Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
5) Correction of the shear load in the case of variable height beams;
6) Nonlinear distribution of stresses for a given section and complementary deflection due to non-negligible T in
the case of high initial curvature;
7) Behaviour specific to composite materials or to the plastic range;
8) In general, the problem req uires processing by the finite element method.
V2-4 2.1.2 Notations and Conventions
F: applied point load, expressed in N.
p: applied load per unit length, expressed in N/mm.
Mo: applied point moment, expressed in mmN.
o: imposed rotation, expressed in rd.
o: imposed deflection, expressed in mm.
The terms F, p, Mo, o, o designate algebraic values.
All forces, moments and displacements
applied are positive and oriented as shown in the
tables.
Remark: the minimum and maximum algebraic values given in the tables are positive values, i.e., as drawn. For
negative values, the expressions marked MAX and MIN respectively indicate the minimum algebraic and
maximum algebraic value.
R
A
(R
B
): reaction at bearing point A (B), expressed in N, positive upwards.
M
A
(M
B
): end moment A (B), expressed in mmN, positive when it compresses the top fibres.
M: bending moment, expressed in mmN, positive when it compresses the top fibres.
T: shear force, expressed in N, positive upwards when it concerns the left end of a portion of a beam.
: slope, expressed in rd, positive direction given by the axis-system.
y: deflection, expressed in mm, positive direction given by the axis-system.
All values positive
This convention implies:
F
LEFT
= T ; F
RIGHT
= - T ; M
T
(F
LEFT
) = M ; M
T
(F
RIGHT
) = M ;
in particular: R
A
= T (x = 0) ; R
B
= - T (x = l) ; M
A
= M (x = 0) ; M
B
= M (x = l)
The stresses obtained are given in MPa in the unit system above.
The formulas given at the top of each table show the binary function x - a
o
.
It is used alone or combined with ordinary algebraic functions and is defined as follows:
Let x be the abscissa of a cross section, the location parameter of a load component:
if x < , then x -
o
= 0 ;
if x > , then x -
o
= 1 ;
at x=, the function x -
o
may be undefined as, for example, the
shear force T at position where a point load is applied:
by extension, x -
n
is interpreted as the product (x - )
n
x -
o
.
!
y
z

M T
T+T
M+M

y
x
y
F
x
x

SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS


Issue 1 Straight beams page V2-42-3
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V2-4 2.1.3 Form
The form is divided into five tables, each representing a type of load:
1_ concentrated load,
2_ distributed load,
3_ point moment,
4_ imposed deflection,
5_ imposed rotation.
The formulas used to calculate, at any point along the span, the shear force and the bending moment values
as regards to the resulting forces, and the slope and deflection values as regards to the distorted part, are called
"General Expressions" .
Each table is divided into six parts and each part represents a combination of beam boundary conditions:
a_ one free end, one clamped end,
b_ one end blocked in rotation, one clamped end,
c_ one end on a single bearing point, one clamped end,
d_ two clamped ends,
e_ two free ends,
f_ one end blocked in rotation, one end on a single bearing point.
The reactions and the slope and deflection values at ends are called "End Values" .
Some significant results are given (not exhaustively) under the title "Remarkable Values" .
A complete case is processed by combining the results of one line of the table with the results in the header.
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-42-4 Straight beams Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
1 - CONCENTRATED LOADS
General expressions
Shear force: T = R
A
- Fx - a
o
Bending moment: M = M
A
+ R
A
x - Fx - a
Slope: =
A
+
M x
EI
R x
2EI
F
2EI
A A
2
+ x - a
2
Deflection: y = y
A
+
A
x +
M x
2
2EI
R x
6EI
F
6EI
A A
3
+ x - a
3
If x < a then x - a
o
= 0 ; if x > a then x - a
o
= 1 = ; by extension, x - a
o
is interpreted as the product (x - a)
n
x - a
o
.
1-a End values
R
A
= 0 M
A
= 0
A
=
F
2EI
(1 - a)
2
y
A
=
- F
6EI
(2l
3
- 3l
2
a + a
3
)
R
B
= F M
B
= - F(l - a)
B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MIN
= M
B
; if a = 0, M
MIN
= - Fl
MAX
=
A
; if a = 0
MAX
=
Fl
2EI
2
y
MIN
= y
A
; if a = 0, y
MIN
=
- Fl
3EI
3
1-b End values
R
A
= 0 M
A
=
F
2
(l a)
l
2

A
= 0 y
A
=
- F
12EI
(l - a)
2
(l + 2a)
R
B
= F M
B
=
- F
2
(l a )
l
2 2

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
M M ; if a 0, M
Fl
2
M M ; if a 0, M
Fl
2
MAX A MAX
MIN B MIN
= = =
= = =

y
MIN
= y
A
; if a = 0, y
MIN
=
- Fl
12EI
3
1-c End values
R
A
=
F
2
(l a) (2l a)
l
2
3
+
M
A
= 0
A
=
F
4EI
a
l
(l - a)
2
y
A
= 0
R
B
=
F
2
a(3l a )
l
2 2
3

M
B
=
- F
2
a(l a )
l
2 2
2

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
M
F
2
a(l a) (2l a)
l
for x a ; if a 0.366 l, M 0.174 Fl
M M ; if a 0.5773 l, M 0.1924 Fl
MAX
2
3
MAX
MIN B MIN
=
+
= = =
= = =

y
if for
if for
if for
a l y
F
EI
a l a
a
l a
x l
a
l a
a l y
F
EI
a l a
l a
x
l l a
l a
a l y
Fl
EI
x a
MIN
MIN
MIN
> =

=
+

< =

=
+

= = =


0 414
6 2 2
0 414
3 3 3
0 414 9 8 10
2
1 2 1 2
2 2 3
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
3
3
. : ( )
. :
( )
( )
( )
. : .
/ /
x
free end
end on a single
bearing point
end blocked in
rotation
clamped end
a
F
A B
F
A
a
B
F
A
a
B

A
y
A
M
A
R
A
M
B
R
B

B
l
a
y
F
x
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 1 Straight beams page V2-42-5
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
1 - CONCENTRATED LOADS
1-d End values
R
A
= F
(1 a) (1 2a)
l
2
3
+
M
A
= - F
a(1 a)
l
2
2

A
= 0 y
A
= 0
R
B
= F
a (3l 2a)
l
2
3

M
B
= - F
a (1 a)
l
2
2

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
M 2F
a (l a)
l
for x a ; if a
l
2
, M
Fl
8
if a
l
2
: M M ; if a
l
3
, M 0.1481 Fl
MAX
2 2
3 MAX
MIN A MIN
=

= = =
< = = =

y
MIN

If a
l
2
: y
2Fa
3EI
(l a)
(l 2a)
for x
2al
1 2a
if a
l
2
: y
Fl
192 EI
for x a
MIN
3 2
2
MIN
3
< =

+
=
+
= =

=

1-e End values


R
A
= F
(1 a)
l

M
A
= 0
A
=
F
6EI
a(2l a) (l a)
l
y
A
= 0
R
B
= F
a
l
M
B
= 0
B
=
F
6EI
a(l a )
l
2 2

y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MAX
= F
a(l a)
l

for x = a ; if a =
l
2
, M
MAX
=
Fl
4
y
MIN

If a
l
2
: y
F
3EI
a
l
l a
3
for x l
l a
3
if a
l
2
: y
Fl
48EI
for x a
MIN
2 2
3/2
2 2
1/2
MIN
3
< =

= =

=

1-f End values


R
A
= 0 M
A
= F(l - a)
A
= 0 y
A
=
F
6EI
(l - a) (2l
2
+ 2al - a
2
)
R
B
= F M
B
= 0
B
=
F
2EI
(l
2
- a
2
) y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MAX
= M
A
for 0 x < a ; if a = 0, M
MAX
= Fl

MAX
=
B
; if a = 0,
MAX
=
Fl
2EI
2
y
MIN
= y
A
; if a = 0, y
MIN
=
Fl
3EI
3
A B
F
a
A B
F
a
A B
F
a
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-42-6 Straight beams Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
2 - DISTRIBUTED LOAD
General expressions
Shear force: T = R
A
- p
a
x - a -
p p
2(l a)
x a
l a
2


Bending moment: M = M
A
+ R
A
x -
p
2
x a
p p
6(l a)
x a
a
2
l a
3


Slope: =
A
+
M x
EI
R x
2EI
p
6EI
x a
p p
24EI(l a)
x a
A A
2
a
3
l a
4
+


Deflection: y = y
A
+
A
x +
M x
2EI
R x
6EI
p
24EI
x a
p p
120EI(l a)
x a
A
2
A
3
a
4
l a
5
+


If x < a then x - a
0
= 0 ; if x > a then x - a
0
= 1 ; by extension, x - a
n
is interpreted as the product (x - a)
n
x - a
0
.
2-a End values
R
A
= 0 M
A
= 0
A
=
3p p
24EI
a l
+
(l - a)
3
y
A
=
p
24EI
a
(l - a)
3
(3l + a) -
p p
120EI
l a

(l - a)
3
(4l + a)
R
B
=
p p
2
a l
+
(l - a) M
B
= -
2p p
6
a l
+
(l - a)
2

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
Case of an evenly distributed load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
a
= p
l
= p:
M
MIN
= M
B
=
pl
2
2

MAX
=
A
=
pl
6EI
3
y
MIN
= y
A
=
pl
8EI
4
Case of an evenly increasing load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
a
= 0:
M
MIN
= M
B
=
p l
6
l
2

MAX
=
A
=
p l
24EI
l
3
y
MIN
= y
A
=
p l
30EI
l
4
Case of an evenly decreasing load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
l
= 0:
M
MIN
= M
B
=
p l
3
a
2

MAX
=
A
=
p l
8EI
a
3
y
MIN
= y
A
=
11p l
120EI
a
4
2-b End values
R
A
= 0 M
A
=
3p p
24I
a l
+
(l - a)
3

A
=

0
y
A
=
p
24EI
a
(l - a)
3
(l + a) -
p p
240EI
l a

(l - a)
3
(3l + 2a)
B
= 0 y
B
= 0
R
B
=
p p
2
a l
+
(l - a) M
B
=
p
6l
a
(l - a)
2
(2l + a) -
p p
24I
l a

(l - a)
2
(3l + a)
Remarkable values
Case of an evenly distributed load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
a
= p
l
= p:
M
M M
pl
6
M M
pl
3
MAX A
2
MIN B
2
= =
= =

y
MIN
= y
A
=
pl
24EI
4
Case of an evenly increasing load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
a
= 0:
M
M M
p l
24
M M
p l
8
MAX A
l
2
MIN B
l
2
= =
= =

y
MIN
= y
A
=
p l
80EI
l
4
Case of an evenly decreasing load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
l
= 0:
M
M M
p l
8
M M
p l
24
MAX A
a
2
MIN B
a
2
= =
= =

5
y
MIN
= y
A
=
7 p l
240EI
a
4
y
a
l
R
A
R
B
M
B
M
A

B
y
A
p
a
p
l
x
A B
a
p
a
p
l
A B
a
p
a
p
l
free end
end on a single
bearing point
end blocked in
rotation
clamped end
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 1 Straight beams page V2-42-7
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
2 - DISTRIBUTED LOAD
2-c End values
R
A
=
p l a l a
l
p p l a l a
l
a l a
8
3
40
4
3
3
3
3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) +
+
+
M
A
= 0

A
=
+

+ p
EI
l a l a
l
p p
EI
l a l a
l
a l a
48
3
240
2 3
3 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
y
A
= 0
R
B
= - R
A
+
p p
a l
+
2
(l - a) M
B
= R
A
l -
2
6
p p
a l
+
(l - a)
2

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
Case of an evenly distributed load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
a
= p
l
= p:
R pl
R pl
A
B
=
=
3
8
5
8
M
M pl for x l
M M
pl
MAX
MIN B
= =
= =

9
128
3
8
8
2
2

MIN A
MIN
pl
EI
y
pl
EI
for x l
= =

= =

3
3
4
48
5 4 10 0 4215 . . x
Case of an evenly increasing load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
a
= 0:
R
p l
R
p l
A
l
A
l
=
=
10
2
5
M
M p l for x l
M M
p l
MAX l
MIN B
l
= =
= =

2 98 10 0 4472
15
2 2
2
. . x
MIN A
l
MIN
l
p l
EI
y
p l
EI
for x l
= =

= =

3
3
4
120
2 39 10 0 4472 . . x
Case of an evenly decreasing load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
l
= 0:
R p l
R p l
A a
B a
=
=
11
40
9
40
M
M p l for x l
M M p l
MAX a
MIN B a
= =
= =

4 22 10 0 329
7
120
2 2
2
. . x
MIN A
a
MIN
l
p l
EI
y
p l
EI
for x l
= =

= =

3
3
4
80
3 04 10 0 4025 . . x
2-d End values
R
A
=
p l a l a
l
p p l a l a
l
a l a
2 20
3 2
3
3
3
3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) +
+
+
M
A
=
+

+ p l a l a
l
p p l a l a
l
a l a
12
3
60
2 3
3
2
3
2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

A
= 0 y
A
= 0
R
B
= - R
A
+
p p
a l
+
2
(l - a) M
B
= R
A
l + M
A
-
2
6
p p
a l
+
(l - a)
2

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
Case of an evenly distributed load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
a
= p
l
= p:
M
M
pl
for x
l
M M M
pl
MAX
MIN A B
= =
= = =

2
2
12 2
12
y
MIN
=
pl
EI
4
384
for x =
l
2
Case of an evenly increasing load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
a
= 0:
R
A
=
3
20
p
l
l M
A
=
p l
l
2
30
R
B
=
7
20
p
l
l
M
M p l for x l
M M
p l
MAX l
MIN B
l
= =
= =

2 15 10 0 548
20
2 2
2
. . x
y
MIN
= 1.309 x 10
-3

p l
EI
l
4
for x = 0.525 l
A B
a
p
a
p
l
A B
a
p
a
p
l
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-42-8 Straight beams Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
2 - DISTRIBUTED LOAD
CONTINUED General expressions
Shear force: T = R
A
- p
a
x - a -
p p
l a
l a

2( )
x - a
2
Bending moment: M = M
A
+ R
A
x -
p
a
2
x - a
2
-
p p
l a
l a

6( )
x - a
3
Slope: =
A
+
M x
EI
R x
EI
p
EI
x a
p p
EI l a
x a
A A a l a
+


2
3 4
2 6 24 ( )
Deflection: y = y
A
+
A
x +
M x
EI
R x
EI
p
EI
x a
p p
EI l a
x a
A A a l a
2 3
4 5
2 6 24 120
+


( )
If x < a then x - a
0
= 0 ; if x > a then x - a
0
= 1 ; by extension, x - a
n
is interpreted as the product (x - a)
n
x - a
0
.
2-e End values
R
A
=
2
6
p p
a l
+
(l - a)
2
M
A
= 0 y
A
= 0

A
=
+

+ p
EI
l a l al a
l
p p
EI
l a l al a
l
a l a
24
2
360
7 6 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
R
B
=
+
+
+

2
6 2
2
p p
l a
p p
l a
a l a l
( ) ( ) M
B
= 0 y
B
= 0

B
=
p
EI
l a
l
p p
EI
l a l al a
l
a l a
24 360
8 9 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
+
+ +
Remarkable values
Case of an evenly distributed load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
a
= p
l
= p:
R
A
= R
B
=
pl
2
M
MAX
=
pl
2
8
for x =
l
2

MAX
=
B
=
pl
EI
3
24
y
MIN
=
5
384
4
pl
EI
for x =
l
2
Case of an evenly increasing load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
a
= 0:
R
A
=
p l
l
6
M
MAX
= 6.41 x 10
-2
p
l
l
2
for x = 0.5773 l
A
=
7
360
3
p l
EI
l
R
B
=
p l
l
3

B
=
p l
EI
l
3
45
y
MIN
= - 6.53 x 10
-3

p l
EI
l
4
for x = 0.5195l
2-f End values
R
A
= 0 M
A
=
2
6
p p
a l
+
(l - a)
2

A
= 0
y
A
=
p
EI
a
24
(l - a)
2
(5l
2
+ 2al - a
2
) -
p p
EI
l a

120
(l - a)
2
(9l
2
+ 2al - a
2
)
R
B
=
P p
a l
+
2
(l - a) M
B
= 0
B
=
p
EI
a
6
(l - a)
2
(2l + a) +
p p
EI
l a

24
(l - a)
2
(3l + a)
y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
Case of an evenly distributed load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
a
= p
l
= p:
M
MAX
= M
A
=
pl
2
2

MAX
=
B
=
pl
EI
3
3
y
MIN
= y
A
=
5
24
4
pl
EI
Case of an evenly increasing load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
a
= 0
M
MAX
= M
A
=
p l
l
2
6

MAX
=
B
=
p l
EI
l
3
8
y
MIN
= y
A
=
3
40
4
p l
EI
l
Case of an evenly decreasing load on l, i.e. a = 0 and p
l
= 0:
M
MAX
= M
A
=
p l
a
2
3

MAX
=
B
=
5
24
3
p l
EI
a
y
MIN
= y
A
=
2
15
4
p l
EI
a
y
a
l
R
A
R
B
M
B
M
A

B
y
A
p
a
p
l
x
free end
end on a single
bearing point
end blocked in
rotation
clamped end
A B
a
p
a
p
l
A B
a
p
a
p
l
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 1 Straight beams page V2-42-9
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
2 - DISTRIBUTED LOAD
COMPLEMENT: case of loading non contiguous to B
The case of a load not extended to point B may be processed by applying the principle of superposition.
End values
The end value eq uations are written as the sum of the eq uations giving the values in each case (1) and (2), i.e.:
R
Total A
= R
A
( ) 1
+ R
A
( ) 2
M
TA
= M
A
( ) 1
+ M
A
( ) 2

TA
=
A
( ) 1
+
A
( ) 2
y
TA
= y
A
( ) 1
+ y
A
( ) 2
R
TB
= R
B
( ) 1
+ R
B
( ) 2
M
TB
= M
B
( ) 1
+ M
B
( ) 2

TB
=
B
( ) 1
+
B
( ) 2
y
TB
= y
B
( ) 1
+ y
B
( ) 2
by writing: p
l
= p
a
+ (p
b
- p
a
)
l a
b a

General expressions
With the end values known, it is possible to calculate the T, M,
o
, and
o
values at any point along the span using the general
eq uations below:
T
Total
= R
TA
- p
a
x - a + p
b
x - b -
[ ]
p p
b a
x a x b
b a


2
2 2
( )
,
M
T
= M
TA
+ R
TA
x -
p
a
2
x - a
2
+
p
b
2
x - b
2
-
[ ]
p p
b a
x a x b
b a


6
3 3
( )
,

T
=
TA
+
[ ]
M x
EI
R x
EI
p
EI
x a
p
EI
x b
p p
EI b a
x a x b
TA TA a b b a
+ +


2
3 3 4 4
2 6 6 24 ( )
,
y
T
= y
TA
+
TA
x +
[ ]
M x
EI
R x
EI
p
EI
x a
p
EI
x b
p p
EI b a
x a x b
TA TA a b b a
2 3
4 4 5 5
2 6 24 24 120
+ +


( )
.
p
a
a
b
p
b
A B A B A B
p
a
a
p
l
p
a
b
p
l
p
b
(1) (2)
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-42-10 Straight beams Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
3 - LOADING MOMENT
General expressions
Shear force: T = R
A
Bending moment: M = M
A
+ R
A
x + M
o
x - a
0
Slope: =
A
+
M x
EI
R x
EI
M
EI
A A o
+ +
2
2
x - a
Deflection: y = y
A
+
A
x +
M x
EI
R x
EI
M
EI
A A o
2 3
2 6 2
+ + x - a
2
If x < a then x - a
0
= 0 ; if x > a then x - a
0
= 1 ; by extension, x - a
n
is interpreted as the product (x - a)
n
x - a
0
.
3-a End values
R
A
= 0 M
A
= 0
A
=
M
EI
o
(l - a) y
A
=
M
EI
o
2
(l
2
- a
2
)
R
B
= 0 M
B
= M
o

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MAX
= M
o

MAX
=
A
; if a = 0,
MAX
=
M l
EI
o
y
MAX
= y
A
; if a = 0, y
MAX
=
M l
EI
o
2
2
; x, y > 0
3-b End values
R
A
= 0 M
A
= - M
o

l a
l

A
= 0 y
A
=
M
EI
o
2
a(l - a)
R
B
= 0 M
B
= M
o

a
l

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MAX
= M
B
; if a = l, M
MAX
= M
o
M
MIN
= M
A
; if a = 0, M
MIN
= - M
o
y
MAX
= y
A
; if a =
l
2
, y
MAX
=
M l
EI
o
2
8
; x, y > 0
3-c End values
R
A
=
3
2
2 2
3
M l a
l
o
M
A
= 0
A
=
M
EI
l a l a
l
o
4
3 ( ) ( )
y
A
= 0
R
B
=
3
2
2 2
3
M l a
l
o

M
B
=
M l a
l
o
2
3
2 2
2

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
M
M l l a
l
x a a a l M M
M
a l M
M l a
l
x l a M
M
a l M
M a l a
l
x a a l M M
MAX
o
MAX o
MIN
MIN
o
MIN
o
MIN
o
MIN o
=
+
= + = = =
< =

= = =

> =

= = =

2
2 3 3
0
0 282
2
3
0
2
0 282
3
2
0 577 0 577
3 2 3
3
2 2
2
2 2
3
for if or
if for if
if for if

; ,
. : ; ,
. :
( )
; . , .
y
y
a
l
y
M
EI
l a a l
l a
x l
a l
l a
a l x l y
M l
EI
y
a l y
y
M
EI
l a x l x a l l a l a x
l
x
l
l a
MAX
o
MAX
o
MIN MIN
o
If the case does not exist.
y for if therefore
If the case does not exist.
for
MAX
>
=

+
=

+
= = =

<
=
+
=

3
0
6
3
3
3
3
0 721 0 475 2 57 10
0 577 0
4
2 3 2
3
1
1
2
1
3 2
2
2
2 2 3 3 2 2
3
3
2 2
( ) ( )
( )
( )
; . ( . ), .
.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
/
x

6 9
0
3 27
2 4
2
a
l
a
l
a x
l
y
M l
EI
MIN
o
;
), if = (therefore =
y
a
y
A

B
R
B
l
R
A
M
A
M
o
M
B
x
A B
a
M
o
A B
a
M
o
A B
a
M
o
free end
end on a single
bearing point
end blocked in
rotation
clamped end
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 1 Straight beams page V2-42-11
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
3 - POINT MOMENT
3-d End values
R
A
= - 6 M
o

a l a
l
( )
3
M
A
= - M
o

l al a
l
2 2
2
4 3 +

A
= 0 y
A
= 0
R
B
= - R
A
M
B
= - M
o

2 3
2
2
al a
l

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
M M
al a l a
l
x a a l M M
M M
l al a l a
l
x a a M M
MAX o MAX o
MIN o MIN o
=
+
= + = =
=
+
= = =

4 9 6
4 9 6
0
2 2 3
3
3 2 2 3
3
for if
for if

; ,
; ,
y
y
a
l
y
y
M
EI
l al a
a l a
x
l a l
a
a l x l y
M l
EI
y
If a
l
y
y
M
EI
al a
a l a
x
l
l a
a l x l y
MAX
MAX
o
MAX
o
MIN
MIN
o
MIN
If , the case does not exist.
for if therefore
, the case does not exist.
for if therefore
>
=
+

=

= = =

<
=

= = =

3
0
54
4 3 3
3
0 768 0 566 1615 10
2
3
0
54
2 3
3
0 232 0 434 1615 10
2 2 3
2 2
2
2
2 3
2 2
2
( )
( )
( )
. ( . ), .
( )
( ) ( )
; . ( . ), .
x
x

2
2
M l
EI
o
3-e End values
R
A
=
M
l
o
M
A
= 0
A
=
+ M
EI
l al a
l
o
6
2 6 3
2 2
y
A
= 0
R
B
= - R
A
M
B
= 0
B
=
M
EI
l a
l
o
6
3
2 2

y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
M M
l a
l
x a a M M
M M
a
l
x a a l M M
MAX o MAX o
MIN o MIN o
=

= + = =
= = = =

for if
for if

; ,
; ,
0
y
y
a l y
y
M
EI
l al a
l
x
l
al a if a l x l y
M l
EI
y
a l y
y
M
EI
l a
l
for x l
l
a a x l y
M l
EI
MAX
MAX
o
MAX
o
MIN
MIN
o
MIN
o
If , the case does not exist.
for therefore
If , the case does not exist.
if therefore
>
=
+
= + = = =

<
=

= = = =

0 423 0
9 3
2 6 3 2
3
2 0 577 6 42 10
0 577 0
9 3
3
3
0 0 423 6 42 10
2 2 3 2 2
2 2
2
2 2 3 2 2
2 2
2
.
( )
; ( . ), .
.
( )
; ( . ), .
/
/
x
x

3-f End values


R
A
= 0 M
A
= - M
o

A
= 0 y
A
=
M
EI
a l a
o
2
2 ( )
R
B
= 0 M
B
= 0
B
=
M a
EI
o
y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MAX
= M
o
for 0 x < a

MIN
=
B
; if a = l,
MIN
=
M l
EI
o
y
MAX
= y
A
; if a = l, y
MAX
=
M l
EI
o
2
2
; x, y > 0
A B
a
M
o
A B
a
M
o
A B
a
M
o
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-42-12 Straight beams Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
4 - IMPOSED DEFLECTION
General expressions
Shear force: T = R
A
-
o
EI x - a
0
Bending moment: M = M
A
+ R
A
x -
o
EI x - a
Slope: =
A
+
M x
EI
R x
EI
x a
A A o
+
2
2
2 2


Deflection: y = y
A
+
A
x +
M x
EI
R x
EI
x a
A A o
2 3
3
2 6 6
+

If x < a then x - a
0
= 0 ; if x > a then x - a
0
= 1 ; by extension, x - a
n
is interpreted as the product (x - a)
n
x - a
0
.
4-a =
3
3
( ) l a
End values
R
A
= 0 M
A
= 0
A
=
3
2

o
l a ( )
y
A
=
+

o
l l a a
l a 2
2 3
3 2 3
3
( )
R
B
= 3
o
EI
l a ( )
3
M
B
= 3
o
EI
l a ( )
2

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MIN
= M
B
; if a = 0, M
MIN
= 3
o
EI
l
2

MAX
=
A
; if a = 0,
MAX
=
3
2

o
l
y
MIN
= y
A
; if a = 0, y
MIN
= -
o
4-b =
12
2 3
2 2 2
l
l a l al a ( ) ( ) +
End values
R
A
= 0 M
A
= 6
o
EI
l
l al a
2 2
2 3 +

A
= 0 y
A
=
o

a l a
l al a
( ) +
+
2
2 3
2 2
R
B
=
12
2 3
2 2 2

o
EIl
l a l al a ( ) ( ) +
M
B
=

+
+

6
2 3
2 2

o
EI
l al a
l a
l a

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MAX
= M
A
; if a = 0, M
MAX
= 6
o
EI
l
2
M
MIN
= M
B
; if a = 0, M
MIN
= - 6
o
EI
l
2
y
MIN
= y
A
; if a = 0, y
MIN
= -
o
4-c =
12
3 2
3
2 2 2 2
l
a l a l al a ( ) ( )
End values
R
A
= 6
o
EI
2
3 2
2 2 2
l a
a l al a
+
( )
M
A
= 0
A
= - 3
o
l
a l al a
2
2 2
3 2 ( )
y
A
= 0
R
B
=
6 3
3 2
2 2
2 2 2

o
EI l a
a l a l al a
( )
( ) ( )


M
B
=


6
3 2
2 2
2 2 2

o
EIl l a
a l a l al a
( )
( ) ( )

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
M
EI
l al a
l a
a
x a a l M
EI
l
M a l M EIl
MAX o MAX o
B MIN o
=

+
= = =
= = =


6
3 2
2
0 366 18 1753
0 5773 25 6474
2 2 2
2

( )
; . , .
; . , .
for if
M if
MIN
y
if for
if = . : for
if for
a l y
l
a l al a
a
l a
x l
a
l a
a l y x a
a l y
l
a l al a
l a l a
l a
x l
l a
l a
MIN o
MIN o
MIN o
> =
+

=
+

= =
< =

+

=
+

0 414 2
3 2 2 2
0 414
0 414 4
3 2 3 3
3
2 2
1 2 1 2
3
2 2
3
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
. :
( ) ( )
. :
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
/ /

y
a
y
A

B
R
B
l
R
A
M
A
M
B
x

o
A B
a

o
A B
a

o
A B
a

o
free end
end on a single
bearing point
end blocked in
rotation
clamped end
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 1 Straight beams page V2-42-13
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
4 - IMPOSED DEFLECTION
4-d =
3
3
3 3
l
a l a ( )
End values
R
A
= 3
o
EI
l a
a l a
+

2
3
( )
M
A
= - 3oEI
l
a l a
2
( )

A
= 0 y
A
= 0
R
B
= 3
o
EI
3 2
3
l a
a l a

( )
M
B
= - 3
o
EI
l
a l a ( )
2

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
M
EI
a l a
x a a
l
M
EI
l
a
l
M M a
l
M
EI
l
MAX o MAX o
MIN A MIN o
=

= = =
< = = =

6
2
24
2 3
81
2
2
2

( )
; ,
: ; ,
for if
if if
y
MIN

if for
if for
a
l
y
l
l a l a
x
al
a
a
l
y x a
MIN o
MIN o
< =
+
=
+
= = =

2
2
2
2
1 2
2
3
2
:
( ) ( )
:

4-e =
3
2 2
l
a l a ( )
End values
R
A
= 3
o
EI
l
a l a
2
( )
M
A
= 0
A
= -
o

2
2
l a
a l a

( )
y
A
= 0
R
B
= 3
o
EI
l
a l a ( )
2
M
B
= 0
B
=
o

l a
a l a
+
2 ( )
y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MAX
= 3
o

EI
a l a ( )
for x = a ; if a =
l
2
, M
MAX
= 12
o
EI
l
2
y
MIN

if for
if for
a
l
y
a l a
l a
x l
l a
a
l
y x a
MIN
o
MIN o
< =

= = =

2 3 3
2
2
2 2
3 2
2 2
1 2
:
( )
:
/ /

4-f =
3
2
2
( ) ( ) l a l a +
End values
R
A
= 3
o
EI
1
2
a l a ( )
M
A
= 0
A
= -
o
2
2
l a
a l a

( )
y
A
= 0
R
B
= 3
o
EI
1
2
a l a ( )
M
B
= 0
B
=
o

l a
a l a
+
2 ( )
y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MAX
= M
A
for 0 x < a ; ifa = 0, M
MAX
= 3
o
EI
l
2

MAX
=
B
; ifa = 0,
MAX
=
3
2

o
l
y
MIN
= y
A
; if a = 0, y
MIN
= -
o
A B
a

o
A B
a

o
A B
a

o
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-42-14 Straight beams Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
5 - IMPOSED ROTATION
General expressions
Shear force: T = R
A
Bending moment: M = M
A
+ R
A
x +
o
EI x - a
0
Slope: =
A
+
M x
EI
R x
EI
A A
+
2
2
+
o
x - a
Deflection: y = y
A
+
A
x +
M x
EI
R x
EI
A A o
2 3
2 6 2
+ +

x - a
2
If x < a then x - a
0
= 0 ; if x > a then x - a
0
= 1 ; by extension, x - a
n
is interpreted as the product (x - a)
n
x - a
0
.
5-a =
1
l a
End values
R
A
= 0 M
A
= 0
A
= -
o
y
A
=
o
l a +
2
R
B
= 0 M
B
=
o
EI
l a

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MAX
=
o
EI
l a
for a < x l

MAX
=
o
for 0 x a
y
MAX
= y
A
; ifa = 0, y
MAX
=
o
l
2
; x, y > 0
5-b =
l
a l a ( )
End values
R
A
= 0 M
A
= -
o

EI
a

A
= 0 y
A
=
o
l
2
R
B
= 0 M
B
=
o
EI
l a

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MAX
= M
B
; ifa l, M
MAX
+
M
MIN
= M
A
; ifa 0, M
MIN
-
y
MAX
= y
A
; x, y > 0
y
a
y
A

B
R
B
l
R
A
M
A
M
B
x

o
A B
a

o
A B
a

o
free end
end on a single
bearing point
end blocked in
rotation
clamped end
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 1 Straight beams page V2-42-15
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
5 - IMPOSED ROTATION
5-c =
[ ]
4
4
3
3 3
l
l a l a a ( ) ( ) +
End values
R
A
= - 6
o
EI
1
1 4
3 3
+
+
a
a a ( )
M
A
= 0
A
= - o
l l a
l a a
2
3 3
3
4
( )
( )

+
y
A
= 0
R
B
= - R
A
M
B
=- 2
o
EI
[ ]
l l a
l a l a a
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
3 3
3
4

+

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
M
EI
l a
l al a
l a a
x a
EI
l
if a l M
M
a l M M a M
EI
l
a l M R a x a a l M
EI
l
MAX o o MAX
MIN
MIN B MIN o
MIN A MIN o
=

+
+
= + = = +
< = = =
> = = = =

2
2 3 3
4
0 4
0 282 0 2
0 282 0 577 6 468
3 2 3
3 3


( )
; a , M ,
. : ; ,
. : ; . , .
MAX
for if
if if
if for if
y
y
a
l
y
y
l
l a a
a l
l a
x l
a l
l a
a l x l y l
y
a l y
y
l a a
l a x
l
a
x a l l a x x
l
l
MAX
MAX o MAX o
MIN MIN
o
If the case does not exist.
for if therefore
If the case does not exist.
for
>
=
+

+
=

+
= = =

<
=

+
+

3
0
2
3 4
3
3
3
3
0 677 0 453 0 244
0 577 0
4
2
1
3
2
3
3
3 3
3 2
3 3
3
3
2 2
3
2

( )
( )
( ) ( )
; . ( . ), .
.
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
(
/
a
a
l
a
l
a l x l y l a x
l
y l
MIN o MIN o
2
2 4
1
1
2
1 6 9
0 219 0 4 0 253 0
3
4
27
)
;
. ( . ), . ; ( ),

= = = = = =

if therefore if therefore
5-d =
l
a l a l al a
3
2 2
3 3 ( ) ( ) +
End values
R
A
= - 6
o
EI
l al a
2 2
3 3 +
M
A
= -
o
EI
l l a
a l al a
( )
( )

+
3
3 3
2 2

A
= 0 y
A
= 0
R
B
= - R
A
M
B
= -
o
EI
l l a
l a l al a
( )
( ) ( )
2 3
3 3
2 2

+

B
= 0 y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
M
EI
a
al a l a
l a l al a
x a a l M
M
EI
a
l al a l a
l a l al a
x a a M
MAX o MAX
MIN o MIN
=
+
+
= + +
=
+
+
=



4 9 6
3 3
4 9 6
3 3
0
2 2 3
2 2
3 2 2 3
2 2
( ) ( )
; ,
( )
( ) ( )
; ,
for if
for if
y
y
a
l
y
y
l
a
l a
l al a
x
l a l
a
a l x l y l
y
If a
l
the case y does not exist
y
l
l a
a l
l al a
x
l
l a
a l x l y
MAX
MAX
o
MAX o
MIN
MIN
o
If the case does not exist.
for if therefore
for if therefore
>
=


+
=

= = =

<
=


+
=

= =
3
0
54
3
3 3
3
3
0 735 0 547 0 1963
2
3
0
54
3 2
3 3 3
0 265 0 453
3 3
2 2
3
3
2 2
2
,
( ) ( )
; . ( . ), .
, .
( )
( )
; . ( . ),

MIN o
l =

0 1963 .
A B
a

o
A B
a

o
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-42-16 Straight beams Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
5 - IMPOSED ROTATION
CONTINUED General eq uations
Shear force: T = R
A
Bending moment: M = M
A
+ R
A
x +
o
EI x - a
0
Slope: = A +
M x
EI
R x
EI
A A
+
2
2
+
o
x - a
Deflection: y = y
A
+
A
x +
M x
EI
R x
EI
A A o
2 3
2 6 2
+ +

x - a
2
If x < a then x - a
0
= 0 ; if x > a then x - a
0
= 1 ; by extension, x - a
n
is interpreted as the product (x - a)
n
x - a
0
.
5-e =
3
3 3
2 2
l
l al a +
End values
R
A
= - 3
o
EI
l al a
2 2
3 3 +
M
A
= 0
A
=
+
+

o
l al a
l al a 2
2 6 3
3 3
2 2
2 2
y
A
= 0
R
B
= - R
A
M
B
= 0
B
=

o
l a
l al a 2
3
3 3
2 2
2 2

+
y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
M EI
l a
l al a
x a a M
EI
l
M EI
a
l al a
x a a l M
EI
l
MAX o MAX o
MIN o MIN o
=

+
= + = =
=
+
= = =

3
3 3
0 3
3
3 3
3
2 2
2 2


for if
for if
; ,
; ,
y
y
a l y
y
l al a
l al a
x l al a a x l
y l a l x l y
l
y
a l y
y
l a
l al a
x l
MAX MAX
o
MAX o MAX
o
MIN MIN
o
If the case does not exist.
for if therefore
if therefore
If the case does not exist.
for
>
=
+
+
= + = =
= = = =

<
=

+
=
0 423 0
3 3
2 6 3
3 3
1
3
2 6 3 0 718 0 5
0 3257 0 577
3 3
0 577 0
3 3
3
3 3
2 2 3 2
2 2
2 2
2 2 3 2
2 2
. ,
( )
( ) ; . ( . ),
. ; ( . ),
. ,
( )
/
/


1
3
3 0 282 0 5 0 3257
0 0 423
3 3
2 2
( ) ; . ( . ), . ;
( . ),
l a a l x l y l
a x l y
l
MIN o
MIN
o
= = =
= = =

if therefore
if therefore

5-f =
1
a
End values
R
A
= 0 M
A
= -
o
EI
a

A
= 0 y
A
=

o
2
(2l - a)
R
B
= 0 M
B
= 0
B
= -
o
y
B
= 0
Remarkable values
M
MAX
=
o
EI
a
for 0 x a

MIN
=
o
for a x l
y
MAX
= y
A
; ifa = l, y
MAX
=
o
l
2
; x, y > 0
y
a
y
A

B
R
B
l
R
A
M
A
M
B
x

o
free end
end on a single
bearing point
end blocked in
rotation
clamped end
A B
a

o
A B
a

o
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 1 Straight beams page V2-42-17
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
V2-4 2.2 EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
EI = 84.10
8
Nmm
p
a
= 20 N/mm p
a
= 5 N/mm
l = 800 mm a = 210 mm b = 600 mm
CALCULATION OF END VALUES
Table 2-c gives the eq uations to be used in the case of loading contiguous to B (i.e. b=l):
R
A
=
p l a l a
l
p p l a l a
l
a l a
8
3
40
4
3
3
3
3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) +
+
+

A
=
+

+ p
EI
l a l a
l
p p
EI
l a l a
l
a l a
48
3
240
2 3
3 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
,
R
B
= - R
A
+
p p
a l
+
2
(l - a) M
B
= R
A
l -
2
6
p p
a l
+
(l - a)
2
;
and
y
A
= 0 M
A
= 0
B
= 0 y
B
= 0.
The application of the principle of superposition (refer to table 2-" complement" ) gives, by writing
p
l
= p
a
+ (p
b
- p
a
)
l a
b a

,
with, in case (1)
p
a
( ) 1
= p
a
= 20 N/mm, p
l
( ) 1
= p
l
=
1
3
N/mm,
and in case (2)
p
a
( ) 2
= - p
b
= - 5 N/mm, p
l
( ) 2
= - p
l
= -
1
3
N/mm,
at
R
Total A
= R
A
( ) 1
+ R
A
( ) 2
= 1944.85 + (- 7.84) R
TB
= R
B
( ) 1
+ R
B
( ) 2
= 4035.48 + (- 365.49)
= 1937 N = 3688 N

TA
=
A
( ) 1
+
A
( ) 2
= - 1.263 x 10
-2
+ 8.98 x 10
-5
M
TB
= M
B
( ) 1
+ M
B
( ) 2
= - 784.1 x 10
3
+ 27.5 x 10
3
= - 1.25 x 10
-2
rd (- 0.718) = - 756.6 x 10
3
mmN
R
TB
may also be calculated using the general eq uations in table 2-" complement" , i.e.:
R
TB
= - T
T
(x = l), {x = l}
{ }
x a x a x b x b
n n n n
= = ( ) ; ( )
R
TB
= - R
TA
+ p
a
(800 - a) - p
b
(800 - a) +
[ ]
p p
b a
a a
b a


2
800 800
2 2
( )
( ) ( )
= - 3688 N.
The sign convention of paragraph 2.1.2 indicates that R
TA
and R
TB
are directed upwards, M
TB
compresses the
fibres at y < 0 and that
TA
is oriented clockwise.
A B
a
b
l
y
p
a
p
b
x
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-42-18 Straight beams Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
CALCULATION OF M
TMAX
x is calculated such that T
T
= 0, i.e. T
T
= R
TA
- p
a
x - a + p
b
x - a -
[ ]
p p
b a
x a x b
b
a


2
2 2
( )
= 0:
- for x a ;
{ }
x a x b
n n
= = 0 ; 0
T
T
= ct
e
;
- for x b ;
{ }
x a x a x b x b
n n n n
= = ( ) ; ( )
dT
dx
T
= - p
a
+ p
b
-
p p
b a
b a

2( )
[2(x - a) - 2(x - b)] = 0 therefore T
T
= ct
e
;
- for a x b ;
{ }
x a x a x b
n n n
= = ( ) ; 0
T
T
= R
TA
- p
a
(x - a) -
p p
b a
b a

2( )
(x - a)
2
; {T
T
= 0} {x = 316,3 mm} ;
the eq uation of the bending moment being
M
T
= M
TA
+ R
TA
x -
p
a
2
x - a
2
+
p
b
2
x - b
2
-
[ ]
p p
b a
x a x b
b a


6
3 3
( )
,
the value sought is
M
TMAX
= M
T
(x = 316.3) = M
TA
+ 316.3 R
TA
-
p
a
2
(316.3 - a)
2
-
p p
b a
b a

2( )
(316.3 - a)
3
= 506.3 x 10
3
mmN ;
M
TMAX
compresses the fibres at y > 0.
CALCULATION FOR ANY VALUE OF x

T1
,
T2
,
T3
are calculated respectively for x = 100 mm, x = 400 mm and x = 700 mm.

T
=
TA
+
[ ]
M x
EI
R x
EI
p
EI
x a
p
EI
x b
p p
EI b a
x a x b
TA TA a b b a
+ +


2
3 3 4 4
2 6 6 24 ( )
For x = 100 ;
{ }
x a x b
n n
= = 0 ; 0 ,

T1
=
TA
+
M x
EI
R
EI
TA TA
+
100
2
2
= - 1.14 x 10
-2
rd (- 0.625) ;

T1
is oriented clockwise.
For x = 400 ;
{ }
x a x a x b
n n n
= = ( ) ; 0 ,

T2
=
TA
+
M x
EI
R
EI
p
EI
a
p p
EI b a
TA TA a b a
+

400
2 6
400
24
2
3
( )
( )
(400 - a)
4
= 0.34 x 10
-2
rd (0.195) ;

T2
is oriented counter clockwise.
For x = 700 ;
{ }
x a x a x b x b
n n n n
= = ( ) ; ( ) ,

T3
=
TA
+
[ ]
M x
EI
R
EI
p
EI
a
p
EI
a
p p
EI b a
a b
TA TA a b b a
+ +


700
2 6
700
6
700
24
700 700
2
3 3 4 4
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
= 0.68 x 10
-2
rd (0.390) ;

T3
is oriented counter clockwise.
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 1 Straight beams page V2-42-19
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION
1937 N
y
A B
20 N/mm
5 N/mm
3688 N
- 756.6 x 10
3
mmN
x
Equilibrium
x = 316.3
600
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
506.3
x (mm)
-756.6
x = b
x = a
M
T

(
1
0
3

m
m
N
)
Bending moment
M
T
= - 756.6 x 10
3
+ 1937x - 10x - a
2
+ 2.5x - b
2
+ 5.556 x 10
-3
[ ]
x a x b
3 3
0
Deflected shape
EI y
T
= - 105.34 x 10
6
x - 378.3 x 10
3
x
2
+ 322.8 x
3
- 0.833x - a
4
+ 0.208x - b
4
+ 2.778 x 10
-4
[ ]
x a x b
5 5
EI
T
= - 105.34 x 10
6
- 756.6 x 10
3
x + 1937 x
2
- 3.333 x - a
3
+ 0.833 x - b
3
+ 1.389 x 10
-3
[ ]
x a x b
4 4
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
x = 100
= -1.14 x 10
-2
rd
200 = -1.25 x 10
-2
300 400 500 600 700 800
x = a
x = b
x = 400 = 0.34 x 10
-2
rd
x = 700
= 0.68 x 10
-2
rd
x (mm)
y
T

(
m
m
)
0
1937
2000
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
x = a
x = b
-3688
x = 316.3
T
T

(
N
)
Shear force
T
T
= 1937 - 20x - a + 5x - b + 1.667 x 10
-2
[ ]
x a x b
2 2
0
x (mm)
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-42-20 Straight beams Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
EXAMPLE 2
EI = 84 x 10
8
Nmm
2
P = 5000 N C = - 1 x 10
6
mmN
d = 800 mm d
1
= 100 mm d
2
= 500 mm
CALCULATION OF REACTIONS
Transfer of force P from I to J and application of the principle of superposition as schematised.
giving for span [J, K] at:
R
J
= R R R
A A A
(1) (2) (3)
+ +
= 5000 + 1071.43 + 1443.15 = 7515 N
R
K
= R R R
B B B
(1) (2) (3)
+ +
= 0 - 1071.43 - 1443.15 = - 2515 N
M
K
= M M M
B B B
(1) (2) (3)
+ +
= 0 + 250 000 + 10 204 = 260.2 x 10
3
mmN
where
R
F l a l a
l
R
M l a
l
R
F a l a
l
R R
M
F a l a
l
M
M l a
l
A A
o
B B A
B B
o
(1) (2)(3)
(1) (2)(3) (2)(3)
(1) (2)(3)
=
+
=

=

=
=

=

2
2 3
2
2
3
2 2
3
2
3
2 2
3
2 2
3
2 2
2
2 2
2
( ) ( )
( )
( )
(table 1-c) (table 3-c)
CALCULATION OF THE DEFLECTED SHAPE AT POINT I
Considering spans [I, J] and [ J, K] mutually fixed at J by a continuation of the part, the deflection at I is the
algebraic sum of:
- the deflection due to P if the beam, reduced in span [I, J] was fixed at J,
- and the deflection caused by rotation of the section at J.
I J K
d
1
d
2
d
P
C
P
C
I J K
F = P
A B A B
M
o
= C
A B
a = 0 l = d - d
1
(1)
y
x x
y
M
o
= - d
1
P
a = 0 l = d - d
1
(2)
x
y
a = d
1
- d
2
l = d - d
1
(3)
y
I J
(4)
I J K
x
y
x

J
(5)
P
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 1 Straight beams page V2-42-21
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
Therefore, we obtain:
y
I
= y y
I I
(4) (5)
+ and
y
I
(4)
=
F
EI 6
(2l
3
- 3l
2
a + a
3
) ; table 1-a, where F = P, l = d
1
, a = 0 ;
= - 0,1984 mm
y
I
(5)
= x
I

J
= - d
1

J
.
The same calculations give, in the case of rotation at:

I
=
I I
(4) (5)
+ and

I
(4)
=
F
EI 2
(l - a)
2
; table 1-a, where F = P, l = d
1
, a = 0 ;
= 2.976 x 10
3
rd

I
(5)
=
J
.
The assumptions taken for the calculation of reactions (refer to previous page) entail for the determination of
J
at:

J
=
A A
(2) (3)
+ and

A
(2)(3)
=
M
EI
l a l a
l
o
4
3 ( ) ( )
; table 3-c, with case (2): M
o
= - d
1
F, l = d - d
1
, a = 0 ;
case (3): M
o
= C, l = d - d
1
, a = d
2
- d
1
;

J
= 10.417 x 10
-3
+ (- 6.378 x 10
-3
) = 4.039 x 10
-3
rd (0.231).
The deflected shape at I is finally characterised by:
y
I
= - 0.1984 + (- 100) x 4.039 x 10
-3
= - 0.602 mm and
I
= 2.976 x 10
-3
+ 4.039 x 10
-3
= 7.015 x 10
-3
rd (0.402).
GENERAL EXPRESSIONS
Whatever the type of load, the general expressions are similar. Each eq uation includes the components due to
boundary conditions at A (end at x = 0) and the component expressing the loading effect:
y due to concentrated load:
y due to applied moment:

+ + +

+

y x
M x
EI
R x
EI
F
EI
x a
M
EI
x a
A A
A A
o

2 3
3
2
2 6
6
2
boundary condition components/loading component
For example, writing the deflection eq uation boils down to summing the effects of the various components, i.e. in
this case, by assimilating the reaction at J to a supplementary loading:
By writing P
J
= - R
J
(due to sign convention, refer to paragraph V1-4 2.1.2) and P
I
= P.
Boundary condition components: y
I
0 ;
I
0 ; M
I
0 ; R
I
0.
Loading components:
P
I
=
P
EI
x
P x
EI
I I
6
0
6
3
3
; P
J

P
EI
x d
J
6
1
3
; C
C
EI
x d
2
2
2
.
P
J K
y
x
I J K I
x
y
P
I
P
J
C C
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-42-22 Straight beams Issue 1
AEROSPATIALE - 1999
The deflection expression for any x is then:
y = y
I
+
I
x -
P x
EI
P
EI
x d
C
EI
x d
I J
3
1
3
2
2
6 6 2
+ ,
or
y = y
I
+
I
x +
[ ]
C
EI
x d
EI
Px R x d
J
2
1
6
2
2
3
1
3
(1).
By successive derivations, we obtain:
=
I
+
[ ]
C
EI
x d
EI
Px R x d
J

2
2
1
2 1
2
(2),
M = Cx - d
2

0
- Px + R
J
x - d
1
(3),
T = - P + R
J
x - d
1

0
(4).
These expressions make up a system of four eq uations with three unknowns (y
I
,
I
and R
J
) which are
evaluated by solving the system {
(x = d)
= 0; y
(x = d)
= 0 ; y
(x = d
1
)
= 0} .
Once the specific values at I and the reaction at J have been established, these eq uations also make it
possible to calculate T, M, and y for any x. For example, for x = d
1
, the eq uation gives 4.039 x 10
-3
and
verifies the calculation in the previous paragraph.
The reactions at K are determined by M
(x = d)
= M
K
and T
(x = d)
= - R
K
(refer to sign convention, paragraph
V1-4 2.1.2).
GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIONS
Deflected shape
Bending moment and shear force
0,75
0,5
0,25
0
-0,25
-0,5
-0,75
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
x (mm)


(
1
0
-
3

r
d
)
y

(
m
m
)
7.5
5
2.5
800
0
-2.5
-5
-7.5
600
x (mm)
M

(
1
0
3

m
m
N
)
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
100 0 200 300 400 600 500 700 800
5000
3000
1000
-1000
-3000
-5000
T

(
N
)
SSM V2-4 BEAM BENDING
Revision 0 High curvature beams page V2-43-1
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V2-4 3 HIGH CURVATURE BEAMS
V2-4 3.1 GENERAL INFORMATION
The q ualification " curved beam" is adopted as soon as an initial curvature radius exists - radius included in the
bending plane. This geometrical characteristic entails:
- a bending mode which is always the composed bending mode (resulting T, M and N for a straight section),
- a specific distribution for normal stresses.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide practical calculation information to q uantify the effect of the initial
curvature on stress values.
In practice, this effect can only be assessed by evaluating the R/h ratio in which R is the initial curvature radius of
the average line and h the height of the section.
R
h
5: case of high curvatures, special formulas.
R
h
> 5: case of arcs, usual formulas for in-plane bending.
R
h
= 5: error of around 7%
(*)
.
R
h
= 10: error of around 3.5%
(*)
.
R
h
= 15: error of around 2%
(*)
.
(*) given for information purposes for a rectangular section.
V2-4 3.2 BASIC THEORY
The assumptions are those of in-plane bending, indicated in paragraph 2.1.1.
The main difference in relation to straight beams resides in the difference of the initial length of fibres in function
of the radius, entailing:
- a non-linear distribution of normal stresses - the stress remains proportional to the deformation but is not
proportional to the distance to the neutral axis,
- a neutral axis that does not pass by the centre of the section.
a) single bending
R
G
: initial curvature radius
r
N
: neutral fibre radius
r: radius of a calculation point
G: centre of the section
A.N.: neutral axis
A.N.

y
G
(S)
e
0
0'
M
G
M
0
A.N.

r
r
G
r
N
SSM V2-4 BEAM BENDING
page V2-43-2 High curvature beams Revision 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Hooke' s law, then section ( S) eq uilibrium, lead to a normal stress of the following form:
Hooke' s law
x
= E
x
= E
y
r y
N
+
,
eq uilibrium

x
x
(S)
dS N
ydS M
S
= =
=

0
( )

=
=


M
ESe
r
S
dS
r
N
S
,
.
( )
This stress obeys a hyperbolic distribution and increases very q uickly at internal fibres when R/h decreases.
The practical eq uation is:

x
=
M
Se
y
r y
N
+
.
b) normal load
In this case, the eq uilibrium in the section gives:

x
S
x
S
dS N
ydS M
=
= =

( )
( )
0

=
=

N
ES
r
N
,
. 0
Therefore there is no effect of initial curvature on the contribution of the normal load in the calculation of
x
.
c) combined bending
By superposition, the stress becomes:

x
=
N
S
M
S r r
y
r y
G N N
+
+ ( )
.
d) shear load
For curved beams under shear and bending, the negligible effect of curvature on longitudinal shear stress is
proven:

exact
= k x
(neglected curvature)
with 1 < k < 1.1.
Therefore, is calculated with straight beam formulas.
V2-4 3.3 PRACTICAL FORMULAS
The position of the neutral axis given by r
N
is the only unknown factor in the
x
eq uation. The following table
calculates the normal stress value for most cross sections encountered using four distinct formulas.
For tubular sections, the difference between r
N(total cross section)
and r
N(empty cross section)
must be determined.
For the case of any type of cross section it is therefore necessary to calculate the integral dS r /

(reducing dS to
the x dr form) or, if this proves to be difficult, to break down the cross section into simple elements to approach
the r
N
value (refer to composed cross sections below).
It is important to note that r
N
is independent from the width b of the cross section (refer to " rectangular cross
section" and " elliptic cross section" ); for combined sections, r
N
only depends on the width ratios between the
sections (refer to trapezoidal sections and combined sections). For example, this makes it possible to assimilate a
parallelogram, the base of which perpendicular to r, with a rectangle of the same height. This is only valid for
the calculation of r
N
, S has to be calculated with the characteristics of the real cross section.
SSM V2-4 BEAM BENDING
Revision 0 High curvature beams page V2-43-3
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
Normal bending stress:
M
S r r
y
r y
G N N
( ) +
Rectangular cross section
r
N
=
S
dS
r
bh
b
dr
r
r
h
r
r
S
r
r
N
e
i
i
e
( )
ln


= =
Sq uare cross section, side a
make h = a
Trapezoidal cross section
r
N
=
h b b
b r b r
h
r
r
b b
i e
i e e i e
i
i e
( )
( )
+

2 ln
where r
N
=
h
r r
h
r
r
e i e
i
( )
( )
1
2 ln 1
+

with =
b
b
e
i
Triangular cross section
make b
e
= 0 or b
i
= 0
Elliptical cross section
r
N
=
h
r r h
G G
2
2 2
4 4 2

Circular cross section


make h = diameter
Combined sections
r
N
=
h b
b
r
r
I I
I
eI
iI

ln
where r
N
=
h
r
r
I I
I
eI
iI

ln
with =
b
b
I
1
r
e
, r
i
: outer and inner radii
being for the I opposite:
r
N
=
h b h b h b
b
r
r
b
r
r
b
r
r
1 1 2 2 3 3
1
2
1
2
3
2
3
4
3
+ +
+ + ln ln ln
r
e
r
i
b
h
0' 0
h
b
i
0' 0
b
e
r
i
r
e
h
b
0' 0
G
h
r
G
h
b
1
0' 0
b
3
r
4
r
3
r
2
r
1
h
1
h
2
h
3
h
b
b
2
SSM V2-4 BEAM BENDING
page V2-43-4 High curvature beams Revision 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
SSM V2-4 BEAM BENDING
Revision 0 Variable height beams page V2-44-1
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
V2-4 4 VARIABLE HEIGHT BEAMS
A variable height beam is a beam for which a dimension measured parallel to the shear loads varies continuously
over its length. Therefore, this definition excludes beams with an abrupt cross-section variation.
This variation means that a correction has to be made to the longitudinal slide stress calculations, which concern
the shear load
(*)
effectively found in a cross section:
- bent straight beam: =
T W
I b
, with W: static moment, I: Moment of inertia, b: width.
- bent variable height beam: =
T W
I b
hv
with T
hv
T.
(*)
The normal load is not corrected owing to the smallness of the angles involved.
The general assumptions are those of in-plane bending given in paragraph 2.1.1. The sign convention selected is
as follows:
In practice, the following assumptions have to be added:
- the cross sections involved with the area (S), are close to cross sections perpendicular to neutral fibres,
- the stresses due to M and N converge at 0,
- the normal component, perpendicular to (S), of these stresses is given by: =
N
S
My
I
+ .
V2-4 4.1 CORRECTION DUE TO "M"
h: variable height
0: point of convergence of outer and inner fibres
: distance of the cross section involved to point 0
M: bending moment acting on section (S)
T: shear load acting on section (S)

(M)
: stress due to M
T': corrective shear load
Summing on (S) of the tangential component of the stresses due to M, gives:
T' = -
M
h
(tg
1
+ tg
2
),
value to be added algebraically to the shear load T acting on (S)
T
REDUCED
= T + T' = T -
M
h
tg considering
1
and
2
to be sufficiently low so that tg
1
+ tg
2
tg =
h

;
V2-4 4.2 CORRECTION DUE TO "N"
Generally, this correction is not necessary as with a bent beam the contribution of M is by far more preponderant
than that of N.

1
f
1
f
1
0
M
T'
(S)

(M)

(M)
h
T
M > 0 T > 0 N > 0
SSM V2-4 BEAM BENDING
page V2-44-2 Variable height beams Revision 0
AEROSPATIALE - 1998
This correction may be used when the centre of the cross section is highly offset in height in relation to point 0, a
case in which the studied section is no longer normal to the neutral axis.
h: variable height
0: point of convergence of external and internal fibres
: distance to point 0 of the cross section involved
N: nominal load acting on the section (S)

(N)
:stress due to N
T": corrective shear load
Summing on (S) of the tangential component of the stresses due to N gives:
T'' = N tg
o
,
value to be added algebraically to the shear load T acting on (S).
T
REDUCED
= T + T'' = T + N tg
o
.
V2-4 4.3 PRACTICAL FORMULAS AND COMMENTS
1 - Equivalent height: the eq uation of T' (correction due to M) gives parameter h which is the height of the cross
section involved.
h cannot be the geometrical height: we have seen that T' is the sum of the tangential component of
normal stresses at (S). However, for a shear bowed beam, the law of distribution of normal stresses on
(S) is no longer that of the longitudinal slip stresses . Therefore, from the shear standpoint, the beam
height is considered as an eq uivalent height defined by:
H
equivalent
=
I
W
MAX
with
I: moment of inertia of the section,
W : maximum static moment.
max

The shear load corrected of the M effect alone is then expressed as:
T
REDUCED
= T -
M
H
equivalent
tg , with tg =
H
equivalent

(if tg
1
+ tg
2
tg ).
For thin web beams with a high web height
(*)
, compared to that of the flanges, the height
H
equivalent
to be considered is the distance d separating the C.G.' s G
1
and G
2
of the flanges.
(*) In this study, this relative magnitude criterion is true if the following checks out:
I
(beam total cross section)
S
(flanges)
d
2
.
The general eq uation for the shear load corrected for the effect of M and N is:
T
REDUCED
= T -
M
H
equivalent
(tg
1
+ tg
2
) + N tg
o
.
2 - Relationship between T
REDUCED
and T: typically, h increases with M, T' is then in the opposite direction to T
and often less than it. The corrected shear load is then generally in the same direction as T and less than it, which
gives the name T
REDUCED
.
3 - Specific case: if the resultant of the vertical loads acting on the beam is applied at 0 then T' = -T.
N
h
y
o
G
(S)
mean line

(N)
O

2
f
2
T''
T
/2

!
G
1
G
2
d
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in straight beams page V2-45-1
AEROSPATIALE
V2-4 5 CALCULATING STRESSES IN STRAIGHT BEAMS
V2-4 5.1 LINEAR ELASTICITY
A straight, homogeneous and isotropic beam submitted to bending in the elastic range generates linear
strains and stresses.
The stress at a given point along the axis is proportional to the strain at this point and the distance of this
point from the neutral fibre.
V2-4 5.1.1 Plane bending
Elastic plane bending occurs when the bending moment applied to a section of the beam acts around a
single main axis of the section generating a maximum stress not exceeding the elastic limit. The neutral axis is
then parallel to the moment axis (see fig. 2-4.5.1.1-1).
The bending stress at a given point on the section is:
z
z
f
I
y x M
=

f
: bending stress (> 0 if tensile).
y: distance from neutral fibre along y-axis.
M
z
: bending moment.
I
z
: inertia of section around its neutral fibre.
Fig. 2-4.5.1.1-1 Distribution of stresses in a beam
submitted to elastic plane bending.
V2-4 5.1.2 Deviated bending
Elastic deviated bending occurs when the bending moment, applied to a section of the beam, acts around
an axis other than the main axis of inertia.
In this case, the neutral fibre is no longer parallel to the moment axis.
Deviated bending can be taken into account in complex section cases where the main axes are not known.
However, we know that for beams submitted to bending only, the neutral axis passes through the centre of gravity
of the section (see fig. 2-4.5.1.1-2).
The neutral axis and the bending moment are in the yz
plane.
Fig. 2-4.5.1.1-2 Distribution of stresses in a beam
submitted to elastic deviated bending.
Neutral axis
+ y
+ x
+ z
M
z
Neutral axis
+ y
+ z
M
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-45-2 Calculating stresses in straight beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
The stresses can be calculated by proj ecting the moment onto any perpendicular axis system passing through
the centre of gravity of the section under study.
M
y
= M.sin
M
z
= M.cos
M
y
, M
z
: components of moment applied along y and z
respectively.
: angle between the moment axis and the z-axis.
Fig. 2-4.5.1.1-3 Determining stresses in a section
submitted to elastic deviated bending.
The bending stress at a given point (y,z) of the section is:
2
yz z y
z y yz z
2
yz z y
y z yz y
f
I I . I
z . ) I . M I . M (
I I . I
y . ) I . M I . M (

+
=
Where: I
y
, I
z
: moments of inertia around y and z respectively.
I
yz
: inertia product.
y, z: coordinates of the point along the y- and z-axis.
Specific case: If the y- and z-axis are the main axes (this case occurs if one of the axes corresponds to a
symmetry axis of the section), the inertia product I
yz
is then null.
y
y
z
z
f
I
z . M
I
y . M
=
When a beam is submitted to several loading cases, it is good practice, before starting to calculate the
bending stresses, to locate the main axes, the moments of inertia and the components of the various loads on these
axes.
Below, we recall the analytical method and the Mohr s circle method to determine the main axes and the
corresponding moments of inertia.
Moments and inertia products along inclined axes
I
x
1
= I
xx
. cos - I
xy
. sin2 + I
yy
. sin
I
y
1
= I
xx
. cos - I
xy
. sin2 + I
yy
. sin
I
x
1
y
1
= I
xy
. cos +
2
I I
yy xx

. sin2
x
1
and y
1
are inclined axes.
is the angle between x and x
1
.
M
z
M
z
y
M
y

y
y
1
x
1

+
x
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in straight beams page V2-45-3
AEROSPATIALE
Main axes
These are the axes where I
xx
and I
yy
are minimum and
maximum and I
xy
is null. When I
xx
, I
yy
and I
xy
are
known, f, I
MAX
and I
MIN
are calculated as follows:
=
2
1
tan
-1

xx yy
xy
I I
I 2
I
MAX
=
2
yy xx 2
xy
yy xx
2
I I
I
2
I I


+ +
+
I
MIN
=
2
yy xx 2
xy
yy xx
2
I I
I
2
I I


+ +
+
Mohr s circle
Graphic construction from values I
xx
, I
xy
and I
yy
.
1 - determine the two coordinate points (I
yy
, + I
xy
)
and (I
xx
, -I
xy
).
2 - plot the circle passing through the two points
the centre of which is on the I
xx
, I
yy
axis.
3 - I
MIN
and I
MAX
are the intersection points of the
circle with the I
xx
, I
yy
axis.
2 is the angle shown on the figure.
Example: Calculating bending stresses at points A, B, C.
Thickness of section: 2,5 mm.
S = 237 mm
I
zz
= 89557 mm
4
I
yy
= 22389 mm
4
I
zy
= - 33398 mm
4
Caution: Mac Inertie gives I
zy
> 0.
y
V
U

+
x
I
xy
2
I
xx
, I
yy
I
MAX
I
MIN
(I
yy
, + I
xy
)
(I
xx
, -I
xy
)
-I
xy
2
I I
MIN MAX
+
A
B
25
y
C
M = 10
5
mm.N
Y
= 150

Z
z
25
50
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-45-4 Calculating stresses in straight beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
=

xx yy
xy 1
I I
I 2
tan
2
1
= 22.4
I
MAX
=
2
yy xx 2
xy
yy xx
2
I I
I
2
I I


+ +
+
= 103337 mm
4
I
MIN
=
2
yy xx 2
xy
yy xx
2
I I
I
2
I I


+ +
+
= 8609 mm
4
Let us proj ect moment M onto the axes (z,y)
M
z
= M . cos = 10
5
x cos 150 = - 86600 mm.daN
M
y
= M . sin = 10
5
x sin 150 = 50000 mm.daN
Coordinates in the z,y axis system.
Z
A
= - 23.75
Y
A
= 25
Z
B
= - 23.75
Y
B
= 22.5
Z
C
= 1,25
Y
C
= 25
Let us proj ect moment M onto the axes (Z,Y)
M
z
= M . cos ( - ) = - 61000 mm.daN
M
y
= M . sin ( - ) = 79230 mm.daN
Coordinates in the Z,Y axis system.
Z
A
= z
A
. cos + y
A
. sin = - 12.4
Y
A
= y
A
. cos - z
A
. sin = 32.2
Z
B
= z
B
. cos + y
B
. sin = - 13.4
Y
B
= y
B
. cos - z
B
. sin = 29.9
Z
C
= z
C
. cos + y
C
. sin = 10.7
Y
C
= y
C
. cos - z
C
. sin = 22.6
Calculating bending stresses at points A, B and C

f
=
2
yz zz yy
zz y yz z
2
yz zz yy
yy z yz y
I I . I
z . ) I . M I . M (
I I . I
y . ) I . M I . M (

f
= - 4.056 . y - 8.284 . z

f
A
= - 4.056 x 25 - 8.284 x (- 23.75) = 95.3 MPa

f
B
= - 4.056 x 22.5 - 8.284 x (- 23.75) = 105.5 MPa

f
C
= - 4.056 x 25 - 8.284 x 1.25 = - 111.8 Mpa
Calculating bending stresses at points A, B and C

f
=
y
y
z
z
I
Z . M
I
Y . M

f
= - 0.59 . Y - 9.203 . Z

f
A
= - 0.59 x 32.2 - 9.203 x (- 12.4) = 95.1 MPa

f
B
= - 0.59 x 29.9 - 9.203 x (- 13.4) = 105.7 MPa

f
C
= - 0.59 x 22.6 - 9.203 x 10.7 = - 111.8 MPa
V2-4 5.1.3 Composite beams
A beam is said to be composite if it consists of several materials with different moduli of elasticity.
The strain in the elastic range is assumed to be linear and proportional to the distance between the neutral
fibre and the calculation point. The elongation-stress relation is:
e =
E

E = modulus of elasticity of a beam comprising several materials; it is not a constant.


SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in straight beams page V2-45-5
AEROSPATIALE
Area: AE =

=
n
1 i
i i
E A
Centre of gravity:

=
=
=
n
1 i
i i
n
1 i
i i i
E A
E A y
y
Static moment: W
i
E =

=
c
1 i
i i
'
i
E A y
Moment of inertia: IE =

= = =
+
n
1 i
i i
2
n
1 i
i i o
n
1 i
i i
2
i
E A y E E E A y
where:
n = number of elements.
c = number of the element where CG is at y
i
.
I
oi
= inertia of element i itself.
As: y
i
=
'
i
y y +
Then: IE =

= =
+
n
1 i
i oi
n
1 i
i i
2 '
i
E I E A y
The stresses at any point i = j of the section are:
Bending:
f
j
=
EI
y . E . M
'
j j
M: bending moment
Normal:
n
j
=
AE
E . N
j
N: normal force
Shear:
j
=
IE . b
E . W . T
j
j j
T: shear force
b
j
: width of section at point j
y
i
G
+
A
i
E
i
'
i
y
y
z
y
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-45-6 Calculating stresses in straight beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
V2-4 5.2 PLASTICITY
V2-4 5.2.1 Plane bending
V1-5 5.2.1.1 Introduction
Plane plastic bending is nonlinear behaviour specific to ductile materials. Indeed, these materials
freq uently exceed the maximum bending force calculated in linear elasticity.
The characteristics of beams submitted to plastic bending show that the distribution of the strains remains
linear whereas the distribution of the stresses is nonlinear. The latter depends on the shape of the beam and the
stress-strain characteristics (figure V2-4 5.2.1.1-1).
Fig. 2-4.5.2.1.1-1 Distribution of stresses in a beam submitted to
plastic bending.
V1-5 5.2.1.2 Calculating bending module
On the figure below, MAX is the stress applied to the extreme fibre of a symmetrical section. The Cozzone
method is based on an approximation of the profile of the real stresses; the real profile is replaced by a
trapezoidal profile as shown on figure 2-4.5.2.1.2-1.
Fig. 2-4.5.2.1.2-1 Cozzone s eq uivalent stress profile
Stress
0
is a fictive stress supposed to exist at the neutral fibre of the axis.
Cozzone s method enables a fictive allowable bending stress called bending modulus to be calculated.
This stress can be compared with the maximum stress calculated linearly.
The general bending modulus expression is:
b
=
MAX
+
0
. (k - 1)
Neutral fibre
+ y
+ x
+ z
M
z
Real stress distribution

MAX

MAX
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in straight beams page V2-45-7
AEROSPATIALE
Remarks:
Q The bending modulus calculation is based on the real req uired maximum stress level, that
is, generally
MAX
=
R
at ultimate strength for a calculation at ultimate load. At limit load, the stress level must
remain below the elastic limit.
R The bending modulus also depends on the geometrical characteristics of the section by
means of term k . k is determined by the following eq uation:
K =
I
W . D
Where:
W= static moment of the 1/2 section.
I = moment of inertia of the complete section.
The values of k are given on the figure below for several symmetrical sections:
K 1.0 1.5 2.0 1.33
SECTION
D D
d
i
d
K =
4
i
3
i
d
d
1
d
d
1
.
. 3
16

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2


1.25
1.35
1.55
1.65
1.75
1.85
1.45
d/d
k
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-45-8 Calculating stresses in straight beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
K =
D / I
W
W=
2
2
1 2 2
e
2
h
2
e
2
) e h ( be

I/D =
( )
h 12
) e 2 h ( e ) e h ( 3 e be 2
3
2 1 2
2
2 2
+
K =
D / I
W
W=
8
e ) e b (
8
h e
2
2 1 1

+
I/D =
h 12
e ) e b (
12
h e
3
2 1 1

+
0.0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
1.50
1.60
1.70
e
1
/b
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

S
h
a
p
e

F
a
c
t
o
r
,

K
e
2
/h = .5
e
2
/h = .4
e
2
/h = .3
e
2
/h = .1
e
2
/h = .2
0.0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
e
2
/h
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

S
h
a
p
e

F
a
c
t
o
r
,

K
e
1
/b = .9
e
1
/b = .7
e
1
/b = .5
e
1
/b = .4
e
1
/b = .3
e
1
/b = .2
e
1
/b = .1
b b
h h
e
1
e
2
e
1
e
2
b
h
e
2
e
1
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in straight beams page V2-45-9
AEROSPATIALE
Let us now calculate
0
knowing that this stress does not theoretically depend on the shape of the section.
That which is valid for a rectangular section is also valid for all other sections.
We wish to find
0
corresponding to
R
; this stress level is obtained at the extreme fibre of the axis. By
considering pure bending and assuming that the material curve is perfectly symmetrical in tension-compression,
we suppose that the stress is null at the neutral fibre of the axis. Therefore, we can plot a second x-axis
corresponding to the dimension between the neutral fibre and a given fibre on the material curve (see figure
2-4.5.2.1.2-2).
Fig. 2-4.5.2.1.2-2 Real stress profile
Thus, the bending moment can be written:
M = 2b


2 / h
0
dz . ) z ( . z
Where: Plane bending: the cross sections remain plane. linear with z.
Also, can be written:
=
n
2 . 0
. 002 . 0
E

where: n = 500 .
n
R
2 . 0

We deduce the expressions of and MAX:


=
n
R
.
n
1
E

=
e
+
p

MAX
=
n
R
MAX MAX
n
1
E

=
e
MAX
+
p
MAX
But:
b
= M .
h . b
6
I
v . M
=
Moreover:

b
= (k - 1) .
0
+
MAX
K =
2
3
I
W . h
=
z
z
Z
MAX
= h/2
(z)
0
0

s
z Z
MAX
= h/2
z
z =
MAX
x
2
h

dz =

d
. 2
h
MAX

1
b
. 2
MAX MAX
0

SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS


page V2-45-10 Calculating stresses in straight beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
After resolution, we obtain:

+
+

1 .
2 n
1 n 2
. .
1 n 2
) 1 n ( 2
MAX
MAX MAX
P
e
2
MAX
P
MAX
0
This expression can also be written:

MAX
P
MAX
P
MAX
0 MAX MAX
.
1 n 2
1 n
1 . .
2 n
1 n
. 2
Where:

MAX
maximum allowable stress

P
MAX
=
n
R
MAX
.
n
1

maximum allowable plastic yielding

MAX
=
E
MAX

+
P
MAX
maximum allowable distorsion
n = 500 .
n
R
2 . 0

(numerical resolution)
Specific cases:
(
MAX
=
R
)
P
MAX
=
n
1
;
MAX
=
n
1
E
R
+

(
MAX
=
0.2
)
P
MAX
= 0.2%;
MAX
=
E
2 . 0

+ 0.2%
V1-5 5.2.1.3 Symmetrical sections
Example: Calculation of allowable moment
S = 825 mm
I
x
= 384444 mm
4
Material: 7075 T76510

R
= 525 MPa

0.2
= 460 MPa

0.2c
= 460 MPa
E = 71700 MPa
E
c
= 73800 MPa
n = 23
n
c
= 27
Y
X
e
1
= 6
e
2
= 6
h = 54.4
50
M
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in straight beams page V2-45-11
AEROSPATIALE
Step : Determine shape factor k

= = = = 110 . 0
4 . 54
6
h
e
; 12 . 0
50
6
b
e
2 1
K = 1.23
Step : Calculate maximum elongation
The beam section submitted to a bending moment, M, has a neutral fibre at 27,2 mm from the two extreme
fibres (symmetry).
The maximum elongation on tensioned side is:

MAX
= 051 . 0
23
1
71700
525
n
1
E
R
= + = +

We verify that
MAX
< e% 0.051 < 0.07
If
MAX
> e%, the limit is e%.
Plane bending hypothesis: the cross sections remain plane, is linear with z. The elongation at the extreme
fibre of the tensioned portion is 0.051. Therefore, on the extreme fibre of the compressed portion it will be:

MIN
= -
MAX
= - 0.051
Step : Calculate the maximum allowable stresses
MIN
on compressed side and
MAX
on tensioned side
Let us calculate
MIN
knowing that
MIN
= - 0.051.

MIN
=
c
n
c 2 . 0
MIN
c
MIN
002 . 0
E

- 0.051 =
27
MIN MIN
460
002 . 0
73800


MIN
= - 515 MPa
Let us check the allowable stresses of the local buckling phenomena:
Local buckling of free flange (or fixed flange):
flt
= 0.43
2
25
6
.
) 33 . 0 1 ( . 12
x 73800 x


1687 x MPa
=
c
s
2
e
E
E
.
1
1


; =
P
c
s
e
c
s
.
E
E
1 .
E
E

+ ; E
s
=
c
n
2 . 0 C
flt
2 . 0 C c
.
002 . 0
E
1
1

flt
= - 500 MPa
Local buckling of web:
fla
= 4 x
2
4 . 48
6
.
) 33 . 0 1 ( . 12
x 73800 x


4187 x MPa
After plasticity correction:

fla
= - 515 MPa
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-45-12 Calculating stresses in straight beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
We can therefore deduce the allowable stress in compression:

MIN
= - 500 MPa
The Cozzone method considers, for a symmetrical section, that
MAX
= -
MIN
, therefore:

MAX
= 500 MPa
Step : Calculate the bending modulus

b
=
MAX
+
0
. (k - 1)
The expression giving 0 is:

MAX
P
MAX
P
MAX
0 MAX MAX
.
1 n 2
1 n
1 . .
2 n
1 n
. 2
We take: (
MAX
= 500 MPa)
P
MAX
=
n
R
MAX
n
1

;
MAX =
E
MAX

+
P
MAX

0
= 405 MPa
b
= 597 MPa
Step : Calculate the allowable moment of the section
M
adm
=
b
x
MAX
x
Z
I
= 597 x
2 . 27
384444
= 8438 x 10
3
mm.N
V1-5 5.2.1.4 Asymmetrical sections
Example: Calculating allowable moment.
S = 1000 mm
I
XG
= I
xx
= 557500 mm
4
I
yG

= I
yy
= 95900 mm
4
Material: 7075 T76510

R
= 525 MPa

0.2
= 460 MPa

0.2c
= 460 MPa
E = 71700 MPa
E
c
= 73800 MPa
n = 23
n
c
= 27
Y
X
e
1
= 8
e
2
= 8
h = 50
25
M
X'
38.8
50
e
2
= 8
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in straight beams page V2-45-13
AEROSPATIALE
Step : Divide the section above at the main axis X X into 2 symmetrical sections
S = 892 mm S = 1107 mm
I
x
= 642400 mm
4
I
x
= 472600 mm
4
Step : Determine the shape factors k
Section a:

= = = = 103 . 0
6 . 77
8
h
e
; 32 . 0
25
8
b
e
2 1
K = 1.3
Section b:

= = = = 147 . 0
4 , 54
8
h
e
; 16 . 0
50
8
b
e
2 1
K = 1.24
Step : Calculate the maximum elongations.
The beam section submitted to a bending moment, M, has a neutral fibre at 38,8 mm from the tensioned
extreme fibre and at 27,2 mm from the compressed extreme fibre.
The highest stress is obtained on the tensioned side, that is on the lower side of the beam.
The maximum elongation on tensioned side is:

MAX
= 051 . 0
23
1
71700
525
n
1
E
R
= + = +

We verify that
MAX
< e% 0.051 < 0.07
If
MAX
> e%, the limit is e%.
Plane bending hypothesis: the cross sections remain plane, is linear with z. The elongation at the extreme
fibre of the tensioned portion is 0.051. Therefore, on the extreme fibre of the compressed portion it will be:

MIN
= -
MAX
x
8 . 38
2 . 27
= - 0.036
Section a
X
e
1
= 8
e
2
= 8
h = 77.6
25
38.8
Y
Y
X
e
1
= 8
e
2
= 8
h = 54.4
50
Section b
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-45-14 Calculating stresses in straight beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
Step : Calculate the maximum allowable stress
MIN
on compressed side
Let us calculate
MIN
knowing that
MIN
= - 0.036.

MIN
=
c
n
c 2 . 0
MIN
c
MIN
002 . 0
E

- 0.036 =
27
MIN MIN
460
002 . 0
73800


MIN
= - 508 MPa
Let us check the allowable stresses of the local buckling phenomena:
Local buckling of free flange:
flt
= 0.43
2
25
8
.
) 33 . 0 1 ( . 12
x 73800 x


3000 x MPa
=
c
s
2
e
E
E
.
1
1


; =
P
c
s
e
c
s
.
E
E
1 .
E
E

+ ; E
s
=
c
n
2 . 0 C
flt
2 . 0 C c
.
002 . 0
E
1
1

flt
= - 514 MPa
Local buckling of web:
fla
= 4 x
2
58
8
.
) 33 . 0 1 ( . 12
x 73800 x


5184 x MPa
After plasticity correction:

flt
= - 520 MPa
We can therefore deduce the allowable stress in compression:

MIN
= - 508 MPa
The allowable stress on the tensioned side must be limited to a value
MAX
=
R
.
Step : Calculate the bending moduli

b
=
MAX
+
0
. (k - 1)
The expression giving 0 is:

MAX
P
MAX
P
MAX
0 MAX MAX
.
1 n 2
1 n
1 . .
2 n
1 n
. 2
Section a: We take: (
MAX
= 525 MPa)
P
MAX
=
n
R
MAX
n
1

;
MAX =
E
MAX

+
P
MAX

0
= 474 MPa
b
= 667 MPa
Section b: We take:(
MAX
= 508 MPa)
P
MAX
=
n
R
MAX
n
1

;
MAX =
E
MAX

+
P
MAX

0
= 433 MPa
b
= 612 MPa
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in straight beams page V2-45-15
AEROSPATIALE
Step : Calculate the allowable moments for sections a and b
Section a: M
a
=
b
x
MAX
x
Z
I
= 667 x
8 . 38
642400
= 11043 x 10
3
mm.N
Section b: M
b
=
b
x
MAX
x
Z
I
= 612 x
2 . 27
472600
= 10634 x 10
3
mm.N
Step : Calculate the allowable moment of the real section
M
adm
=
2
M M
b a
+
= 10839 x 10
3
mm.N
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-45-16 Calculating stresses in straight beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
V2-4 5.2.2 Deviated bending
There are no accurate interaction eq uations concerning plastic deviated bending. The eq uation given below
is very conservative. It is given only as a rough tool to enable the user to avoid more complex analysis methods
especially when the load is not critical.
When the load is critical, we suggest use of an analysis method based on the finite difference techniq ue. We
will not develop this method here.
When an applied moment, M, acts around an axis other than one of the main axes, the allowable bending
moment can be determined as follows:
Components of the moment applied along each main axis:
M
u
= M . cos and M
y
= M . sin
Let us determine the allowable moments M
admu
and M
admv
around each main axis as if the section was
submitted to single bending around these axes.
We can then deduce the ratios of the moments around each axis:
R
u
=
admu
u
M
M
and R
v
=
admv
v
M
M
Finally, let us calculate the safety factor:
S.F. =
v u
R R
1
+
- 1
This eq uation can be written in different ways especially by expressing the safety factor as a function of the
components of the moment:
S.F. =

admv admu
M
sin
M
cos
. M
1
- 1
By writing, S.F. = 0, we can obtain the eq uation giving us the allowable bending moment:
M
adm
=

admv admu
M
sin
M
cos
1
Specific case: if components of M along u and v are eq ual, then:
M
adm
=
+
=
+ sin cos
M
sin cos
M
admv admu
M
u

v
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in straight beams page V2-45-17
AEROSPATIALE
Example:
Material: 7075 T76510

R
= 525 MPa

0.2
= 460 MPa

0.2c
= 460 MPa
E = 71700 MPa
E
c
= 73800 MPa
n = 23
n
c
= 27
Step : Determine the shape factor k
For a sq uare section k = 1.5.
Step : Calculate the bending modulus

b
=
MAX
+
0
. (k - 1)
The expression giving
0
is:

MAX
P
MAX
P
MAX
0 MAX MAX
.
1 n 2
1 n
1 . .
2 n
1 n
. 2
We take: (
MAX
=
R
= 525 MPa)
P
MAX
=
n
1
;
MAX =
E
R

+
P
MAX

0
= 474 MPa
b
= 762 MPa
Step : Calculate the allowable moments acting around the main axes as if the section was submitted to single
bending around these axes
M
admy
=
b
x
max
y
y
I
and M
admz
=
b
x
max
z
z
I
Sq uare section: y
Max
= z
MAX
and I
y
= I
z
Where: y
MAX
= z
MAX
= 10 mm
I
y
= I
z
=
12
20
4
= 13333 mm
4
M
admy
= M
admz
= 1016.10
3
mm.N
Step : Calculate the allowable moments really acting around the main axes
S.F. =
z y
R R
1
+
- 1 = 0
y
M
= 45
z b = 20
b = 20
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-45-18 Calculating stresses in straight beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
R
y
+ R
z
= 1
But, R
y
= R
z
R
y
= R
z
= 0.5
M
y
= M
z
= M
admy
x R
y
= M
admz
x R
z
= 1016 x 10
3
x 0.5 = 508 x 103 mm.N
Step : Calculate the allowable moment for the section
M
adm
=
2
z
2
y
M M + = 718 x 10
3
mm.N
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in curved beams page V2-46-1
AEROSPATIALE
V2-4 6 CALCULATING STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS
V2-4 6.1 SYMMETRICAL SECTIONS
V2-4 6.1.1 Introduction
Up until now, we have considered only beams with a straight longitudinal axis before deformation.
Beams where the longitudinal axes are not straight are called curved beams.
The formulas established previously do not strictly apply to these beams.
Below, we shall limit ourselves to giving the plane bending analysis methods for symmetrical curved beams
in the elastic range.
The method described in paragraph V2-4 6.1.2 disregards all distortion phenomena in the flanges. These
will be studied in paragraph V2-4 6.1.3.
As the method presented in paragraph V2-4 6.1.2 is simpler, the user must determine the level of accuracy
req uired for his application then choose one of the two methods.
V2-4 6.1.2 Plane elastic bending of solid sections
When a curved beam is submitted to elastic plane bending, the distributions of the stresses and the
circumferential strains are no longer linear as in straight beams but hyperbolic.
These stresses increase faster on the side nearer to the centre of curvature.
See figure V2-4 6.1.2.1 (where we have used arbitrary signs).
The stress is proportional to the strain but, due to the difference in the lengths of the internal and external
fibres of the beam, the stress and elongation are not proportional to the distance to the neutral fibre. For sections
submitted to bending only, the neutral fibre does not correspond with the main axis of inertia.
Figure V2-4 6.1.2.1
As the stress-strain distribution of a curved beam submitted to bending is not linear, formula

x
=
I
y . M
is no longer applicable.
The circumferential bending stress obtained at any point of the section is of following form:

x
=

+ y r
y
.
) r r ( . S
M
N N G
Main axis
Y
Z
M
Neutral fibre
y
0
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-46-2 Calculating stresses in curved beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
where:
M = Moment applied (positive when it decreases the radius of curvature, negative in the
opposite case).
S = Area of the section.
r
G
= Radius of curvature (distance from the centre of curvature to the CG of the section).
r
N
= Radius of the neutral fibres.
y = Distance of a given point from the neutral fibre (positive in direction opposite centre of
curvature).
The analytical expressions of variable r
N
are given on page V2-4 3-3.
For I- and T-sections and other shapes, refer to the method described in paragraph V2-4 6.1.3 before
calculating the circumferential bending stresses.
V2-4 6.1.3 Plane elastic bending of thin profile sections
The general analysis methods described in paragraph V2-4 6.1.2 may give erroneous results, especially for I- and
T-sections and other standard thin web sections due to the distortions which appear during bending.
When a symmetrical curved beam is submitted to bending, the free edges of the flanges move radially and cause
a reduction in the circumferential stress. This redistribution of the circumferential stresses is shown on figure V2-
4 6.1.3.1 (a).
Note that this reduction in stresses reduces the stiffness of curved beams when compared with straight
beams.
Radial stresses in web
Figure V2-4 6.1.3.1 Distribution of stresses in curved beams submitted to bending
To compensate for the nonuniformity of the stresses in the flanges, we determine a flange load-carrying
width called b:
b = . b
s
Where:
b
s
= Real flange width.
= Load-carrying width flange factor obtained from figure V2-4 6.1.3.2.
The method described in paragraph V2-4 6.1.2 can then be followed using b.
y
1
M
N
e
u
t
r
a
l

a
x
i
s

r
e
a
b
s
(a) (b)
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in curved beams page V2-46-3
AEROSPATIALE
The deflection of the flanges generates transverse bending stresses (see figure V2-4 6.1.3.1 (a)). The transverse
stress is maximum at the j unction between the flange and the web. This is called
1
:

1
= .
h
Where:
= Transverse bending stress factor obtained from figure V2-4 6.1.3.3.

h
= Circumferential bending stress at CG of the flange of the load-carrying section.
Figure V2-4 6.1.3.2 Transverse bending stress and flange efficiency factors

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0


0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
b
a
h
s
b
s
r
s
= Distance from centre of
curvature to flange CG
s s
s
h . r
) 2 / b (
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-46-4 Calculating stresses in curved beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
In addition to the transverse stresses studied previously, radial stresses appear in the web (see figure V2-4
6.1.3.1 (b)). These are introduced by the curvature of the beam.
The maximum radial stress is located at the j unction between the web and the flanges. We call it
r
:

r
=
s s
s h
b . r
S .
Where: b
a
= Web thickness.
S
s
= Load-carrying flange area.
R
i
= Distances from centre of curvature to CG of upper and lower flanges, called r
i
and r
s
respectively.
Example:

R
= 525 MPa
Determine:
The maximum circumferential bending stress.
The transverse bending stress in the flange.
The maximum radial stress induced in the web.
The combined stress at the intersection of the web and the flange.
The safety factors.
Step C: Determine the load-carrying section
The properties of the load-carrying section can be determined, for an I-section, as follows:
O Fixed flange:
s s
s
h . r
) 2 / b (
=
5 , 2 x ) 2 / 5 , 2 75 , 28 (
) 2 / 30 (
+
= 3
figure V2-4 6.1.3.2: = 0,42
b = . b
s
= 0,42 x 30 = 12,6 mm
O Free flange:
ht . r
) 2 / b (
t
t
=
5 , 2 x ) 2 / 5 , 2 40 75 , 28 (
) 2 / 30 (
+
= 1,33
figure V2-4 6.1.3.2: = 0,62
b = . b
s
= 0,62 x 30 = 18,6 mm
A
A
M = - 50.10
4
mm.N
30
2,5
2,5
2,5
40
Centre of curvature
28,75
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in curved beams page V2-46-5
AEROSPATIALE
O Load-carrying section:
S = 165,5 mm
I = 35920 mm
4
h
1
= 2,5 mm
h
2
= 35 mm
h
3
= 2,5 mm
r
1
= 28,75 mm
r
2
= 31,25 mm
r3 = 66,25 mm
r
4
= 68,75 mm
b
1
= 12,6 mm
b
2
= 2,5 mm
b
3
= 18,6 mm
Step C: Determine r
N
From page V2-4 3-3, expression for r
N
is:
r
N
=
3
4
3
2
3
2
1
2
1
3 3 2 2 1 1
r
r
. b
r
r
ln . b
r
r
ln . b
b . h b . h b . h
+ +
+ +
r
N
= 45,74 mm
Step C: Calculate the circumferential bending stress
The expression for this stress at any point located at a distance y from the main axis is:

x
=

+ y r
y
.
) r r ( . S
M
N N G
The maximum stress is located at r = 28,75 mm = y = r - r
N
= - 16,99 mm.

xMAX
=

99 , 16 74 . 45
99 , 16
.
) 74 . 45 45 . 50 ( . 5 , 165
10 . 50
4
= 379 MPa (tension).
Step : Calculate the transverse bending stress factor of the real section
O Fixed flange:
s s
s
h . r
) 2 / b (
=
5 , 2 x ) 2 / 5 , 2 75 , 28 (
) 2 / 30 (
+
= 3
figure V2-4 6.1.3.2: = 1.76
Step C: Calculate the circumferential bending stress at flange CG (r = 30 mm = y = - 15,74)

h
=

74 , 15 74 . 45
74 , 15
.
) 74 . 45 45 . 50 ( . 5 , 165
10 . 50
4
= 336 MPa (tension).
18,6
2,5
2,5
2,5
40
Centre of curvature
28,75
G
Neutral fibre
r
G
r
N
12,6
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-46-6 Calculating stresses in curved beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
Step : Calculate the max. transverse bending stress

1
= .
h
= 1.76 x 336 = 591 MPa
Step C: Calculate the max. radial stress
Here, this stress is located at the j unction between the flange and the web.
Data concerning the area of the load-carrying flange:
S
s
= 12,6 x 2,5 = 31,5 mm
The expression giving the radial stress is as follows:

r
=
a s
s h
b . r
S .
=
5 , 2 x ) 2 / 5 , 2 75 , 28 (
5 , 31 x 336
+
= 141 MPa
Step : Calculate the bending stress on the upper face of the flange
This stress is located at r = 31,25 mm = y = r - r
N
= - 14,49 mm

x
= 297 MPa
Step : Summary of stresses applied at web-flange j unction

x
= 141 MPa
z
= 141 MPa
Step 1: Determine the safety factors
O Web-flange j unction:
S.F. =
) ( ) ( ) (
. 2
x z z y y x
R
+ +

- 1 = S.F. = 0.32
y
x
z

x
= 141 MPa
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in curved beams page V2-46-7
AEROSPATIALE
O Extreme fibre (centre of flange lower face)
S.F. =
z x y x
R
. + +

- 1 = S.F. = 0.38
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-46-8 Calculating stresses in curved beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
V2-4 6.2 ASSYMMETRICAL THIN PROFILE SECTIONS
V2-4 6.2.1 Introduction
Asymmetrical curved beams such as the one shown on figure V2-4 6.2.1.1 are submitted, in addition to the
distortion of the flanges, to deflection of the web.
The method developed below is based on: Engineering Science Data Unit, Flange Efficiency Factors for
Curved Beams Under Bending in the Plane of Curvature , Chapter 71004.
V2-4 6.2.1.1 C-section submitted to bending
V2-4 6.2.2 Calculating load-carrying section
All references below are taken from ESDU 71004.
Step C: Evaluate web flexibility coefficients
For each flange, determine the flexibility coefficient of the web, , by means of eq uation 4 or 5 on
page 6. For certain standard sections, it will be easier to use the curves on figures 5 or 6 on pages 11 and
12.
Step C: Evaluate the flange efficiency factors
For each flange, determine the flange efficiency factor, ( in the manual), by means of eq uation 1 or 2
on page 6. For certain standard sections, it will be easier to use the curves on figures 1 to 4 on pages 9
and 10.
Step C: Determine the transverse stress ratios
For each flange, determine the transverse stress ratios
1
/
xt
and
1
/
xs
by means of eq uation 1 or
2 on page 6. For certain standard sections, it will be easier to use the curves of figures 1 to 4 on pages 9
and 10.
Step : Determine the load-carrying section
By means of the flange efficiency factors, determine the load-carrying widths of the flanges and lips.
Then, evaluate all the geometrical properties of this section such as: area, inertia, etc.

xt

xs

xt

xs
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in curved beams page V2-46-9
AEROSPATIALE
V2-4 6.2.3 Example
Determine the circumferential and transverse bending stresses of the section shown below and submitted to
a bending moment of 70000 mm.N.
S = 30,25 mm
I
x
= 6650 mm
4
Step C: Evaluate the web flexibility coefficients
O Fixed flange:
25 . 0 75 , 449
) 2 / ) 5 , 0 5 , 40 ((
r
h
S
a
+

= = 0.044
5 , 0
) 2 / ) 5 , 0 5 , 40 ((
h
h
S
a

= = 40
5 , 0
5 , 0
h
h
S
a
= = 1
From the curve on figure 5 on page 11 (ESDU), we obtain:

s
= 0.53 x (1)
3
x 40 = 3.352
O Free flange:
25 . 40 75 , 449
) 2 / ) 5 , 0 5 , 40 ((
r
h
t
a
+

= = 0.0408
5 , 0
) 2 / ) 5 , 0 5 , 40 ((
h
h
t
a

= = 40
5 , 0
5 , 0
h
h
t
a
= = 1
From the curve on figure 5 on page 11 (ESDU), we obtain:

t
= 0.52 x (1)
3
x 40 = 3.289
Centre of curvature
2,75
0,5
40,5
8,25
449,75
70000 mm.N
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-46-10 Calculating stresses in curved beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
Step C: Determine the flange efficiency factors
O Fixed flange:
5 , 0 x ) 2 / 5 , 0 75 , 449 (
2
5 , 0
25 , 8
h . r
2
b
b
2
s s
2
a
s
+


= 0,2844
5 , 0 .
2
5 , 0
25 , 8
5 , 0 . ) 25 . 0 75 , 2 (
h .
2
b
b
A
s
a
s
bt


= 0.3125
From the curves on figures 3 and 4 on page 10 (ESDU), we obtain:

s
= 0,540 and
xs
1

= 0.560
O Free flange:
5 , 0 x ) 2 / 5 , 0 75 , 449 (
2
5 , 0
25 , 8
h . r
2
b
b
2
t t
2
a
t
+


= 0,2612
5 , 0 .
2
5 , 0
25 , 8
5 , 0 . ) 25 . 0 75 , 2 (
h .
2
b
b
A
t
a
t
bt


= 0.3125
From the curves on figures 3 and 4 on page 10 (ESDU), we obtain:

t
= 0,560 and
xt
1

= 0.550
Step C: Calculate the properties of the load-carrying section
The area of the load-carrying section is calculated as follows:
O Fixed flange: As = s .

+
s
h .
2
a
b
s
b
bt
A = 0,540 x

+ 5 , 0 x
2
5 , 0
25 , 8 5 , 0 x 5 , 2 = 2,835 mm
O Lip on fixed flange side: A
bt
= 0,540 x (2,5 x 0,5) = 0,675 mm
O Free flange: A
t
=
t
.

+
t
h .
2
a
b
t
b
bt
A = 0,560 x

+ 5 , 0 x
2
5 , 0
25 , 8 5 , 0 x 5 , 2 = 2,94 mm
O Lip on free flange side: A
bt
= 0,560 x (2,5 x 0,5) = 0,7 mm
The load-carrying section can then be represented (see next page). Note that only the widths of the fixed
flange, the free flange and the lips are modified.
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
Issue 0 Calculating stresses in curved beams page V2-46-11
AEROSPATIALE
Step : Determine r
N
From page V2-4 3-3, expression for r
N
is:
r
N
=
ii
ei
i
i i
r
r
ln . b
b . h

r
N
= 469,68 mm
Step C: Calculate the circumferential bending stresses
The expression for this stress at any point located at a distance y from the main axis is:

x
=

+ y r
y
.
) r r ( . S
M
N N G
The max. stress is located at r = 449,75 mm = y = r - r
N
= - 19,93 mm.

xMAX
=

93 , 19 68 , 469
93 , 19
.
) 68 , 469 08 . 470 ( . 53 . 25
10 . 7
4
= 304 MPa (tension).
The min. stress is located at r = 490,25 mm = y = r - r
N
= - 20,57 mm.

xMIN
=

57 , 20 68 , 469
57 , 20
.
) 68 , 469 08 . 470 ( . 53 . 25
10 . 7
4
= 288 MPa (compression).
Step : Calculate the transverse bending stresses in fixed flange and free flange
O Fixed flange:
xs
1

= 0.560 =
1
= 0.560 x
xs

Centre of curvature
1,65
0,5
40,5
4,73
449,75
G
4,57
1,6
20,33
SSM V2-4 BENDING OF BEAMS
page V2-46-12 Calculating stresses in curved beams Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
Where:

xs
=

68 , 19 68 , 469
68 , 19
.
) 68 , 469 08 . 470 ( . 53 . 25
10 . 7
4
= 300 MPa
=
1
= 168 MPa
O Free flange:
xt
1

= 0.550 =
1
= 0.550 x
xt

Where:

xt
=

32 , 20 68 , 469
32 , 20
.
) 68 , 469 08 . 470 ( . 53 . 25
10 . 7
4
= - 284 MPa
=
1
= 156 MPa
MCS V2-5 COLUMNS
Issue 0 Contents page V2-5i
AEROSPATIALE
CONTENTS
issue date change
V2-5 COLUMNS
V2-5 1 INTRODUCTION
V2-5 2 ELASTIC ANALYSIS
V2-5 3 EFFECTIVE LENGTH
V2-5 4 PLASTIC ANALYSIS
V2-5 5 EXAMPLE
0
0
0
0
0
0
6/1999
6/1999
6/1999
6/1999
6/1999
6/1999
Creation
Creation
Creation
Creation
Creation
Creation
V2-5 1 INTRODUCTION 11
V2-5 1.1 CONDITIONS FOR USE 12
V2-5 1.2 NOTATIONS AND CONVENTIONS 12
V2-5 2 ELASTIC ANALYSIS 21
V2-5 3 EFFECTIVE LENGTH 31
V2-5 4 PLASTIC ANALYSIS 41
V2-5 5 EXAMPLE 51
MCS V2-5 COLUMNS
page V2-5ii Contents Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
MCS V2-5 COLUMNS
Issue 0 Introduction page V2-511
AEROSPATIALE
V2-5 1 INTRODUCTION
A beam is called a " column" when it is subj ected to the action of two eq ual forces acting in opposite directions,
directed towards the inside of the material, applied, along its axis, to the CGs of the end sections.
The critical stress is the stress corresponding to the buckling load:
S
F
cr
cr
=
The column remains stable up to this critical load, a branch characterised by a bending strain mode corresponds
to this critical load.
The strain and type of failure of the columns depend mainly on:
the length of the beam.
the shape characteristics of the straight sections of the column.
In this chapter, we will consider only straight columns with constant sections along their complete lengths and
without a tendency for local buckling: no thin web effect (solid sections).
Also, we shall take the Navier-Bernoulli hypothesis: flat cross sections before deformation, remain flat after
deformation.
MCS V2-5 COLUMNS
page V2-512 Introduction Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
V2-5 1.1 CONDITIONS FOR USE
The eq uations which follow are based on the flat bending theory. Also, they are applicable to solid section
columns irrespective of their slenderness ratio.
The clamping factor formula is applicable to all stability problems of a structural element comparable to a beam.
V2-5 1.2 NOTATIONS AND CONVENTIONS
The compression stresses and compression loads are taken to be positive.
P
cr
= critical buckling load expressed in daN.
P = compression load expressed in daN.
q = distributed linear compression load expressed in daN/mm.

cr
= critical buckling stress expressed in daN/mm
2
.
E
c
= modulus of elasticity in compression expressed in daN/mm
2
.
I = moment of inertia expressed in mm
4
.
S = area of the section expressed in mm
2
.
K = clamping factor (dimensionless).
L = column effective buckling length expressed in mm.
A = real column length expressed in mm.
Normal load
(+ compression)
Distributed linear compression load
(+ compression)
MCS V2-5 COLUMNS
Issue 0 Elastic Analysis page V2-521
AEROSPATIALE
V2-5 2 ELASTIC ANALYSIS
Let us consider a beam with hinged ends.
Let us calculate P
cr
:
Gz Gz
z
EI
y P
EI
M
dx
y d
= =
2
2
After resolution, we obtain:
2
2
L
I E
P
c
cr

=

The critical stress can therefore be expressed by the Euler eq uation:
2
2
L S
I E
c
cr

This stress can also be written:


S I
L
E
c
cr 2
2

But, the S I ratio represents the sq uare of the radius of gyration of the section:
S
I
=
L
P
P
y
x
x
y
MCS V2-5 COLUMNS
page V2-522 Elastic Analysis Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
We can therefore deduce a new expression from the Euler formula:
( )
2
2

L
E
c
cr

=
The L coefficient characterises the general buckling tendency. This is called the slenderness ratio and is
represented by the letter :

L
=
Therefore the Euler formula can be written:
2
2

c
cr
E
=
MCS V2-5 COLUMNS
Issue 0 Effective Length page V2-531
AEROSPATIALE
V2-5 3 EFFECTIVE LENGTH
To establish the Euler formula, we used a specific case of a beam perfectly hinged at its two ends spaced apart by
length L.
In other end connection conditions, we agree to designate the real length of the studied beam as A.
We will obtain, in each case, the distance L which should exist between two fictive hinge points to reproduce the
same critical buckling load.
We will call L the effective buckling length of the beam under study. The comparison of L with A will be
expressed by the following general relation:
where K represents a dimensionless factor called the clamping factor specific to each
case studied.
The critical Euler load will therefore always be given by its primitive expression:
2
2
L
I E
P
c
cr

=

eq uivalent to
2 2
2
A K
I E
P
c
cr


=

The critical Euler stress will therefore be expressed by:
2
2
L S
I E
c
cr


=

eq uivalent to
2 2
2
A K S
I E
c
cr


=

The values of K for the various types of columns, boundary conditions and loads are given on figure
V2-5 3.1.
L = KA
MCS V2-5 COLUMNS
page V2-532 Effective Length Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
MCS V2-5 COLUMNS
Issue 0 Plastic Analysis page V2-541
AEROSPATIALE
V2-5 4 PLASTIC ANALYSIS
The Euler formula reflects a state of elastic eq uilibrium: eq uilibrium between the bending action of P
cr
and the
tendency of the beam to elastically straighten itself. We can therefore conclude that the Euler formula is, at
maximum, valid only during the elastic period of the materials to which it is applied.
When this elastic period is exceeded, we say that we have exceeded the proportionality limit, the original
modulus E
c
that we considered up until then and which, in reality, is valid only during the elastic period must be
replaced in the Euler formula by the tangent modulus E
t
.
We then obtain the following Euler - Engesser eq uations:
2
2
L
I E
P
t
cr

=

eq uivalent to
2 2
2
A K
I E
P
t
cr


=

The Euler - Engesser critical stress will therefore be expressed by:
2
2
L S
I E
t
cr


=

eq uivalent to
2 2
2
A K S
I E
t
cr


=

For the critical stress calculation, the difficulty lies in determining the value of the tangent modulus
corresponding exactly to a compression stress eq ual to the critical stress. Indeed, the tangent modulus E
t
has no
fixed value but varies according to the position of the point on the stress-strain curve.
This leads us therefore to make a correction to the plasticity the techniq ue of which is described below:
We call , the plasticity correction factor:
c
t
E
E
= where E
t
= tangent modulus.
E
c
= Young' s compression modulus.
cr

~
represents the critical stress calculated with E
t
= E
c
= 1.
This gives the following Euler formula:
2 2
2
~
A K S
I E
c
cr


=

If
2 , 0
5 , 0
~
c cr
then the critical stress after plasticity correction will be:
cr cr

~
=
This calculation is iterative as ( ) ( )
cr t
g E f = = . It converges when .
~
cr
cr

MCS V2-5 COLUMNS


page V2-542 Plastic Analysis Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
Bearing conditions Type of load K
Isolated load 1
Bi-hinged column
Distributed load 0.729
Isolated load 0.5
Bi-clamped column,
fixed transversely
Distributed load 0.364
Bi-clamped column,
not fixed transversely
Isolated load 1
Isolated load 0.7
Column clamped at one end and hinged
at the other
Distributed load 0.433
Isolated load 2
Column clamped at one end and free at
the other
Distributed load 1.12
Figure V2-5 3.1: Clamping factors (continued on next page)
P
P P
A
P
P
A
P
P
P
A
P
P P
A
P
P P
A
MCS V2-5 COLUMNS
Issue 0 Plastic Analysis page V2-543
AEROSPATIALE
Bearing conditions Type of l oad K
Bi-hinged column
on elastic supports
Isolated load
See figure
below
k represents the rigidity of an elastic intermediary support.
This graph is valid for a number of supports tending towards infinity but we can assume that it remains
valid in all cases.
P
P
A
W
W
W
W
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
5
5,5
6
6,5
7
7,5
8
8,5
9
9,5
10
10,5
11
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
k.W
3
/EI
(

/
K
)
2
MCS V2-5 COLUMNS
page V2-544 Plastic Analysis Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE
Bearing conditions Type of l oad K
Bi-hinged column,
fixed transversely
Isolated load
+
distributed load
P
q L
47 , 0 1
Bi-clamped column,
fixed transversely
Isolated load
+
distributed load
P
q L
12 , 0 25 , 0
Column clamped at one
end and hinged at the other end
Isolated load
+
distributed load
P
q L
3 , 0 49 , 0
Column clamped at one end and
free at the other end
Isolated load
+
distributed load
P
q L
74 , 2 4
Figure V2-5 3.1: Clamping factors.
P
A
q L
P-q L
P
A
P-q L
q L
P-q L
P
A
q L
A
P-q L
q L
P
MCS V2-5 COLUMNS
Issue 0 Example page V2-551
AEROSPATIALE
V2-5 5 EXAMPLE
Data:
S = 200 mm
2
.
I = 1667 mm
4
.
Material: 2024 T351
E
c
= 7380 daN/mm
2
.

R
= 44 daN/mm
2
.

c0.2
= 32.5 daN/mm
2
.
n
c
= 8.
Question: Calculate the critical buckling stress.
Result:
Step 1: Determine K
K = 0.7 (see figure V2-5 3.1).
Step 2: Calculate the critical buckling stress
We use the Euler formula:
2
2 2
2
2 2
c
2
cr
mm / daN 55
150 7 , 0 200
1667 7380
A K S
I E
~
=


=


=
Step 3: Apply a plasticity correction
We call
cr

~
the critical stress calculated with = 1,
cr cr

~
=
Where:
c
t
E
E
=
We use the Ramberg and Osgood model:

+ =
=

+ =
c
c
s
c
t
cr
s
n
c
cr
c
cr
E
n
E
n
E
E
E
c
1 1
002 , 0
2 , 0

We obtain, after numerical resolution:


2
/ 1 , 27 mm daN
cr
=
P
150
P
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
Issue 0 Introduction page V2-6i
AEROSPATIALE 1999
CONTENTS
issue date change
V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
V2-6 1 INTRODUCTION
V2-6 2 CALCULATION OF AMPLIFIED BENDING
MOMENT
V2-6 3 ALLOWABLE STRESS
V2-6 4 EXAMPLE
0
0
0
0
0
6/1999
6/1999
6/1999
6/1999
6/1999
Creation
Creation
Creation
Creation
Creation
V2-6 1 INTRODUCTION 11
V2-6 1.1 CONDITIONS FOR USE 12
V2-6 1.2 NOTATIONS AND CONVENTIONS 12
V2-6 2 CALCULATION OF AMPLIFIED BENDING
MOMENT 21
V2-6 3 ALLOWABLE STRESS 31
V2-6 4 EXAMPLE 41
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
page V2-6ii Introduction Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE 1999
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
Issue 0 Introduction page V2-611
AEROSPATIALE 1999
V2-6 1 INTRODUCTION
A beam is called a " beam-column" when it is submitted both to compression and bending loads.
When a structural element similar to a beam is subj ected, simultaneously, to a normal load and a bending moment,
we cannot use the superposition theorem to determine the stresses of which it is the seat. Indeed, a part of the
bending moment is due to the action of the normal load on the deflected beam.
Thus, a normal tensile load the direction of which is constant and therefore parallel to the axis of the non-
deflected beam tends to flatten the deflection. Under the same conditions, a compression load tends to amplify it.
In this chapter, we have not considered the case where the normal load is turning (remaining tangent to the
deflected beam). Let us simply invoke on this point the case of the Beck beam (one end clamped, the other end
free, compressed by an external force which remains tangent to the medium fibre). This system has no critical
buckling load but a branch point characterised by a transition to an oscillating dynamic state.
From a practical viewpoint, we apply the superposition theorem to the bent and tensioned beams as this approach
is conservative. However, for beams-columns, we must calculate the amplified bending moments.
The verification of the good resistance of a beam-column will include two steps:
- The study of the column as described in V2-5.
- The study of the beam-column if the axial load is lower than the critical load calculated in the previous
step.
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
page V2-612 Introduction Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE 1999
V2-6 1.1 CONDITIONS FOR USE
See chapter V2.5 " Columns" .
V2-6 1.2 NOTATIONS AND CONVENTIONS
The compression loads are taken to be positive.
A positive bending moment compresses the upper fibres of the beam.
A distributed lateral load leads to a positive moment.
A positive lateral load compresses the upper fibres of the beam.
The compression stresses are positive.
P = compression load expressed in daN.
q = distributed lateral load expressed in daN/mm.
F = applied isolated load expressed in daN.

cr
= critical buckling stress expressed in daN/mm
2
.
E
c
= modulus of elasticity in compression expressed in daN/mm
2
.
I = moment of inertia expressed in mm
4
.
S = area of the section expressed in mm
2
.
K = clamping factor (dimensionless).
L = column effective buckling length expressed in mm.
A = real column length expressed in mm.
Bending moment at end
(+ compresses upper fibres)
Distributed lateral load
(+ compresses upper fibres)
Normal load
(+ compression)
Bending moment at origin
(+ compresses upper fibres)
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
Issue 0 Calculating Amplified Bending Moment page V2-621
AEROSPATIALE 1999
V2-6 2 CALCULATING AMPLIFIED BENDING MOMENT
Let us consider a beam where the ends are on single supports with compression loads (Nx) and bending loads
(Mz).
Beam with compression and bending loads
The bending moment at x is:
y P x
L
Mz Mz
Mz Mz
A B
A


+ =
Let us differentiate / x:
2
2
2
2
dx
y d
P
dx
Mz d
= where:
EI
Mz
dx
y d
=
2
2
Therefore: 0 Mz
EI
P
dx
Mz d
2
2
= +
Let us write:
P
I E
j
t
=
The solution of this eq uation is:
j
x
C
j
x
C Mz cos sin
2 1
+ =
At x= 0:
A
Mz Mz =
A
Mz C =
2
At x = L:
B
Mz Mz = :
j
L
j
L
Mz Mz
C
A B
sin
cos
1

=
We therefore obtain:


=
j
x
Mz
j
x
j
L
j
L
Mz Mz
Mz
A
A B
cos sin
sin
cos
L
x
y
x
P
y
P
A
Mz A
Mz B
B
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
page V2-622 Calculating Amplified Bending Moment Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE 1999
Mz is maximum for:
0 sin cos
0
2 1
=


=
j
x
j
C
j
x
j
C
dx
dMz
That is for
2
1
tan
C
C
j
x
=
Mz maximum for:


=
j
L
j
L
Mz Mz
Arc j x
A B
sin
cos
tan
By studying other examples, we can see that the bending moment expression is always in following form:
Beam - column bending moment: ( ) x f j
j
x
C
j
x
C Mz + + =
2
2 1
cos sin
Values of C
1
, C
2
and f(x) are given on figure V2-6 2.1.
Remark: it is possible to combine several cases (see example below).
Case ' '' '
j
x
M
j
x
j
L
j
L
M M
cos sin
sin
cos
1
1 2
+

Case
2 2 2
cos sin
2
tan j q
j
x
q j
j
x
j
L
q j +
Case
( )
2 2
1
1 2
2
cos sin
sin
cos
2
tan j q
j
x
q j M
j
x
j
L
j
L
M M
j
L
q j + +


+
P P
L
q
P P
L
M
1
M
2
q

=
P P
L
M
1
M
2

= =
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
Issue 0 Calculating Amplified Bending Moment page V2-623
AEROSPATIALE 1999
Conditions C
1
C
2
f(x)
'
j
L
sin
j
L
cos M M
1 2

M
1
0

j 2
L
tan q j
2

q j
2
-q

2
qL j
j 2
L
tan 2
qL j
-q
x a J
a < b
j
L
j
b
F j
sin
sin
0 0
x > a
a < b
j
L
j
a
F j
tan
sin

j
a
sin F j
0

j
L
sin
j
L
cos M M
j 2
L
tan q j
1 2
2

+
M
1
+ j
2
.q -q
x a 1
a < b
j
L
sin
j
b
cos M

0 0
x > a *
a < b
j
L
tan
j
a
cos M

j
a
cos M
0
Figure V2-6 2.1 (continued on next page)
P P
L
M
1
M
2
q
P P
L
q
P P
L
M
1
M
2
P P
L
q
P P
L
F
b
a
x
x
P P
L
F
b
a
P P
L
M
b
a
x
a
x M P P
L
b
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
page V2-624 Calculating Amplified Bending Moment Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE 1999
Conditions C
1
C
2
f(x)
"
j
L
tan
q j
2

j
2
.q
( )
L
1 x q

j
L
sin
q j
2

0
L
x q
x L/2
j 2
L
cos
j
L
q j 2
2

0
L
x q 2

x a
a < b

j
L
sin
j
L
cos
j
L
j
b
sin
j
b
j
L
cos
j
b
F j

j
L
sin
j
L
cos
j
L
j
b
sin
j
b
j
L
cos
j
b
F j
0
x > a
a < b

j
L
sin
j
L
cos
j
L
j
b
j
a
cos
j
L
j
a
sin
j
L
cos
F j

j
L
sin
j
L
cos
j
L
j
b
j
a
cos
j
L
j
a
sin
j
L
sin
F j
0
j
L
q j L q j
j
L
j
L
j
L
j
L
2
tan
tan
2 2
tan
2
+

q j
j
L
L q j
j
L
j
L
j
L
j
L
+

+
2
tan
tan
2 2
tan
-q
j .q L


j
L
tan
j
L
j
L
cos
1
q j
2
-q
j .F
j
L
F j tan
0
Figure V2-6 2.1
11
P P
L
q
P P
L
F
P P
L
q
P P
L
q
P P
L
L/2
x
q
P P
L
F
b
a
x
P P
L
F
b
a
x
P P
L
x
q
12
13
14
15
16
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
Issue 0 Allowable Stress page V2-631
AEROSPATIALE 1999
V2-6 3 ALLOWABLE STRESS
Two main cases must be considered when choosing allowable stress:
Solid beams
No local buckling phenomena occur before general buckling, the allowable stress on tensioned side is eq ual to
R
.
We will then consider that the allowable stress on compressed side is also eq ual to
R
.
Thin web beams
A local buckling phenomenon can occur before general buckling. This state does not give rise to an immediate
collapse but can considerably decrease the allowable breaking stress.
The allowable stress on compressed side is eq ual to:
{ }
R buckling local adm
; MIN = .
The allowable stress on tensioned side is eq ual to:
R adm
= .
Summary:
Tensioned section:
R adm
= .
Compressed section: Solid beams :
R adm
= .
Thin web beams : { }
R buckling local adm
; MIN = .
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
Issue 0 Example page V2-641
AEROSPATIALE 1999
V2-6 4 EXAMPLE
Data:
A = 100 mm.
a = 30 mm.
c = 10 mm.
S = 100 mm
2
.
I = 833 mm
4
.
F = 70 daN.
P = 1160 daN.
M
1
= 1200 mm.daN.
M
2
= 4000 mm.daN.
Material: 7075 T76510
E
c
= 7380 daN/mm
2
. E = 7170 daN/mm
2
.
n
c
= 27. n = 23.

c0,2
= 46 daN/mm
2
.
0,2
= 46 daN/mm
2
.

R
= 52.5 daN/mm
2
. e% = 7.
Question: Calculate the maximum amplified bending moment and the Reserve Factor.
Result:
Step 1: Calculate the allowable compression stress
There is no local buckling phenomenon as the beam is solid in section therefore
R
represents
the allowable compression stress.
R adm
= = 52.5 daN/mm
2
.
Step 2: Column study (see V2-5)
We check that the beam does not buckle under the action of P alone.
Determine K
K = 1 (see figure V2-5 3.1).
Calculate the critical buckling stress
We use the Euler formula:
2
2 2
2
2 2
c
2
cr
mm / daN 7 , 60
100 1 100
833 7380
A K S
I E
~
=


=


=
Apply a plasticity correction
We call
cr

~
the critical stress calculated with = 1,
cr cr

~
=
Where:
c
t
E
E
=
P
P
A
M
1
M
2
F
a
D
D
DD
c
c
A C B
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
page V2-642 Example Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE 1999
We use the Ramberg and Osgood model:

+ =
=

+ =
c
c
s
c
t
cr
s
n
c
cr
c
cr
E
n
E
n
E
E
E
c
1 1
002 , 0
2 , 0

We obtain after numerical resolution:


2
cr
mm / daN 1 , 41 =
But, the stress applied due to the axial load is:
2
mm / daN 6 , 11
S
P
= =
As
cr
< , we can deduce that the column does not buckle.
Step 3: Determine the maximum bending moment expressions
mm 8 , 72
1160
833 7380
P
I E
j
t
=

= = as E
t
= E
c
.
For x a:
By using a combination of cases 1 and 4 (see figure V2-6 2.1), we obtain:
=

+

=
j
A
j
b
F j
j
A
j
A
M M
C
sin
sin
sin
cos
1 2
1
8101 mm.daN.
C
2
= M
1
= 1200 mm.daN.
f(x).j
2
= 0.
j
x
j
x
M
AC
cos 1200 sin 8101 + =
For x > a:
By using a combination of cases 1 and 5 (see figure V2-6 2.1), we obtain:
=


=
j
A
tan
j
A
sin F j
j
A
sin
j
A
cos M M
C
1 2
1
3431 mm.daN.
C
2
=
j
A
sin F j M
1
+ = 3241 mm.daN.
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
Issue 0 Example page V2-643
AEROSPATIALE 1999
f(x).j
2
= 0.
j
x
j
x
M
CB
cos 3241 sin 3431 + =
Step 4: Determine the maximum bending moment
At point A:
0 cos 1200 0 sin 8101 + =
A
M = 1200 mm.daN.
At point C:
8 , 72
30
cos 1200
8 , 72
30
sin 8101 + =
C
M = 4344 mm.daN.
At point B:
8 , 72
100
cos 3241
8 , 72
100
sin 3431 + =
B
M = 4000 mm.daN.
Between A and C:
0
8 , 72
cos
8 , 72
1200
8 , 72
sin
8 , 72
8101
= =
x x
dx
dM
AC
The moment is maximum at abscissa point:
1200
8101
tan 8 , 72 Arc x = = 103.7 mm.
But: 103.7 > x
C
.
Therefore M
AC
is maximum at x
c
.
M
AC max
= 4344 mm.daN.
Between C and B:
0
8 , 72
cos
8 , 72
3241
8 , 72
sin
8 , 72
3431
= =
x x
dx
dM
CB
The moment is maximum at abscissa point:
3241
3431
tan 8 , 72 Arc x = = 59.3 mm.
8 , 72
3 , 59
cos 3241
8 , 72
3 , 59
sin 3431
max
+ =
CB
M = 4720 mm.daN.
Therefore, the maximum moment on beam AB is:
M
AB max
= MAX ( M
AC max
; M
CB max
) = 4720 mm.daN
MCS V2-6 BEAMS-COLUMNS
page V2-644 Example Issue 0
AEROSPATIALE 1999
Step 5: Calculate the total stress and the Reserve Factor
Stress due to the axial load (see step 1):
2
c
mm / daN 6 , 11
S
P
= =
Stress due to the bending moment:
2
/ 3 , 28
2
mm daN
c
I
M
f
= =
Maximum compression stress:
f c MAX
+ = = 39.9 daN/mm
2
.
Reserve Factor:
32 , 1
9 , 39
5 , 52
. . = = F R

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