JOURNAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

Vol.70, August 2007, pp.297-312

Petrography and Geochemistry of Terrigenous Sedimentary Rocks in

the Neoproterozoic Rabanpalli Formation, Bhima Basin, Southern
India: Implications for Paleoweathering Conditions,
Provenance and Source Rock Composition

R. NAGARAJAN1, J.S. ARMSTRONG-ALTRIN2*, R. NAGENDRA1, J. MADHAVARAJU3 and J. MOUTTE4

1
School of Civil Engineering, Sastra University, Thanjavur - 613 402, India
2
Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo,
Ciudad Universitaria, Carretera Pachuca-Tulancingo km. 4.5, Pachuca, Hidalgo, 42184, México
3
Instituto de Geologia, Estacion Regional del Noroeste, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
Apart. Postal 1039, Hermosillo, Sónora 83000, México
5
Centre SpiNC, Ecole des Mines, 158 cours Fauriel, F 42023, Sant-Etienne, France
*
Email: altrina@uaeh.reduaeh.mx; john_arms@yahoo.com

Abstract: Petrographic, major, trace, and rare earth element compositions of quartz arenites, arkoses, and siltstones of
Neoproterozoic Rabanpalli Formation of Bhima Basin have been investigated to understand the provenance. The quartz
arenites, arkoses, and siltstones have large variations in major element concentrations. For example, quartz arenites and
arkoses contain the higher SiO2 (average with one standard deviation being 97±1, 73±2, respectively) and lower Al2O3
(0.95±0.4, 9.6±0.9, respectively) concentrations than siltstones (SiO2 = 64±4, Al2O3 = 14±1), which is mainly due
to the presence of quartz and absence of other Al-bearing minerals in relation with rock types. This is also supported
by our petrography, since quartz arenites and arkoses contain significant amount of quartz relative to feldspar and
lithic fragments. The observed low CIA values and A-CN-K diagram suggest that the sedimentary rocks of Rabanpalli
Formation have undergone K-metasomatism.
The Co, Ni, Cr, Ba, Zr, Hf, and Th values are higher in siltstones than quartz arenites and arkoses. The Eu/Eu*,
(La/Lu)cn, La/Sc, Th/Sc, Th/Co, Th/Cr, Cr/Th ratios, and Cr, Ni, V, and Sc values strongly suggest that these sediments
were mainly derived from the felsic source rocks. This interpretation is also supported by the Th/Sc versus Sc bivariate
and La-Th-Sc triangular plots. The rare earth element (REE) patterns of these rocks also support their derivation from
felsic source rocks. Further more, these rocks exhibit higher LREE/HREE ratio (8±4) and a significant negative Eu
anomaly (0.77±0.16), which indicate the felsic igneous rocks as a possible source rocks.

Keywords: Geochemistry, Paleoweathering, Provenance, K-Metasomatism, Sandstone, Bhima Basin, Karnataka.

INTRODUCTION
The bulk chemical compositions of terrigenous
sedimentary rocks are influenced by several factors such as
sedimentary provenance, nature of sedimentary processes
within the depositional basin, and the kind of dispersal
paths that link provenance to the depositional basin e.g.
weathering, transportation, physical sorting, and diagenesis
(Roser and Korsch, 1986, 1988; McLennan et al. 1990;
Eriksson et al. 1992; Weltje and von Eynatten, 2004).
However, the bulk chemical compositions of terrigenous
sedimentary rocks can be used to identify tectonic
environments and provenance characteristics (e.g. Bhatia,
1983; Mongelli et al. 1996; Ugidos et al. 1997; Gotze, 1998;
Holail and Moghazi, 1998; Bhat and Ghosh, 2001;
Zimmermann and Bahlburg, 2003; Yang et al. 2004). Hence,
the study of bulk chemical compositions of terrigenous
sedimentary rocks can be used as an effective tool to infer
the factors that control sediment characteristics during
and after their deposition. In this sense, many studies
have contributed to understanding the relationship between
chemical composition of terrigenous sedimentary rocks and
provenance, weathering and palaeoclimate (e.g. Zhang
et al. 1998; Dinelli et al. 1999; Hassan et al. 1999; Lahtinen,
2000; Nath et al. 2000; Mongelli and Dinelli, 2001; Amorosi

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298 R. NAGARAJAN AND OTHERS
et al. 2002; Di Leo, 2002; Lee, 2002; Naqvi et al. 2002;
Raza et al. 2002; Armstrong-Altrin et al. 2004; Noda et al.
2004).
The variation in the chemical composition of terrigenous
sedimentary rocks reflects changes in the mineralogical
composition of the sediments due to the effects of weathering
and diagenetic processes (Nesbitt and Young, 1984, 1989;
Wandres et al. 2004). Also the spatial and temporal patterns
of sedimentation determine changes in the mineralogy and
sorting of sediments, which in turn affect their bulk
composition (Nesbitt et al. 1996; Garcia et al. 2004).
Although mineralogically unstable and soluble elements are
affected during weathering, chemically immobile elements
(e.g. REE, Th, Cr, Sc) are preserved in detrital sediments,
so that they record the chemical signatures of the source
rocks. Hence these elements and their elemental ratios are
highly useful to determine the provenance characteristics
of sediments. This approach has provided useful results,
especially when geological processes have destroyed the
original mineralogy (Cullers, 1994a, 1995).
In addition, the chemical approach is a good complement
to petrographic analysis of terrigenous sedimentary rocks
and the two methods combined are a powerful tool for
examination of provenance and weathering (van de Kamp
and Leake, 1985; Shao et al. 2001; Cingolani et al. 2003;
Le Pera and Arribas, 2004). In the present study, we attempt
to evaluate the paleoweathering conditions, provenance,
and source rock characteristics of quartz arenites, arkoses,
and siltstones of Neoproterozoic Rabanpalli Formation,
Bhima basin, using major, trace, and rare earth element
geochemistry as well as by petrographic analysis. Also this
study describes the importance of some ferromagnesian
trace elements to distinguish the felsic, mafic, and/or
ultramafic source rocks.
GENERAL GEOLOGY
The Bhima Basin, southern India is a NE-SW trending
S-shaped Neoproterozoic, epicratonic, extensional basin
formed due to gravity faulting. Total thickness of sediment
is about 300 m extended over an area of 5,000 km2.
The sedimentary rocks of Bhima Basin have been
divided into five distinct formations i.e. (i) Rabanpalli
Formation, (ii) Shahabad Formation, (iii) Halkal Shale,
(iv) Katamadevarhalli Formation and (v) Harwal Shale
(Janardhana Rao et al. 1975). It comprises an alternating
sequence of terrigenous and carbonate sediments. In the
terrigenous unit, fine-grained sediments dominate over
coarse-grained sediments (Kale et al. 1990). The terrigenous
sedimentary rocks constituting the lower Bhima Basin is
designated as the Rabanpalli Formation and is well exposed
in Adki, Gogi, and Muddebihal areas (Fig.1). The Rabanpalli
Formation mainly consists of quartz arenites, arkoses,
siltstones, and greenish yellow shale. Sedimentation in the
Bhima Basin started with the deposition of a thin
conglomerate but, the conglomerate exposures are very
few. It contains a considerable amount of angular and sub-
angular potash feldspar grains and occasionally pink
granite clasts. Arkoses are located at the bottom. The arkoses
are very fine to medium-grained, showing graded bedding,
and consist mostly of angular and sub-angular potash
feldspar grains with minor amounts of sub-rounded, quartz
grains. The siltstones are a transitional member between
the arkoses and the overlying greenish yellow shales.
Quartz arenites are medium to coarse-grained, showing
irregular graded beddings, horizontal laminations, ripple
marks, and cross-laminations.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fresh samples were collected from the outcrops and the
samples were washed thoroughly in distilled water to remove
the contamination. The samples were disaggregated
following the procedure adopted in Cox and Lowe (1996).
Grain size analysis was carried out in a Ro-Tap sieve shaker
using American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM)
sieves ranging from –1.5 φ to 4.25 φ at 0.50 φ intervals for
20 minutes (Folk, 1966). Cumulative curves were
constructed to calculate the statistical grain size parameters
(MZ: mean grain size) after Folk and Ward (1957).
A detailed petrographic study covering more than
25 thin sections were studied. The thin sections were
subjected to Alizarin Red-S stain to confirm the presence
or absence of dolomite and calcite, and potassium
ferricyanide to ascertain the presence of ferroan/nonferroan
calcite. Friedman’s (1959) organic stain specific for calcite
and Katz and Friedman’s (1965) combined organic and
inorganic stain specific for iron rich calcite have been
adopted to identify the mineralogical variations. For
modal analysis, four hundred frame work grains were
counted from each thin section. Matrix and cement were
not counted. The point counts were done using both
Gazzi-Dickinson (Gazzi, 1966; Dickinson, 1970) and
traditional methods.
Twenty three samples (eight quartz arenites, seven
arkoses, and eight siltstones) were selected for major
and trace elements study. Twelve samples (five quartz
arenites, three arkoses, and four siltstones) were selected
for rare earth elements study. The major, trace, and rare earth
elements were analysed using an inductively coupled
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.70, AUGUST 2007
 PETROGRAPHY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN BHIMA BASIN, KARNATAKA
Fig.1. Geological map of the Bhima Basin showing the study area. The samples collected from Adki, Gogi, and Muddebihal areas belong
to the Rabanpalli Formation.
plasma atomic emission spectrometer (ICP-AES - Jobin-
Yvon JY138 Ultrace) at the Department of Geochemistry,
Ecole des Mines de Saint-Etienne, France. SiO2, Nb, Zr,
and Th were analyzed by XRF method on pressed
pellets. The analytical precision for trace and REE is better
than 5%.
PETROGRAPHY
Quartz Arenites
Quartz arenites mainly consist of well preserved, fine to
coarse-grained quartz (0.51 φ to 1.75 φ; Table 1). The fine-
grained quartz grains are angular to sub-angular in shape
(Fig.2A). Although dominated by quartz, smaller amounts
of rock fragments and potash feldspars are also present.
Among the quartz grains, monocrystalline quartz shows both
straight and undulatory extinction. Polycrystalline quartz
exceeds monocrystalline quartz in quartz arenites and
most of the polycrystalline quartz grains consist of more
than three crystals per grain, which exhibit sutured crystal
boundaries (Fig.2B). The framework grains show long
and concavo-convex contacts. Rock fragments are
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.70, AUGUST 2007
299
predominantly sedimentary and metamorphic. Resistant
heavy minerals, zircon and tourmaline are also present in
the quartz arenites.
The quartz arenites show substantial amount of quartz
overgrowth (Fig.2C). Two types of cements are encountered
in the quartz arenites, i.e. quartz cement and iron oxide
cement. Quartz cement occurs as typical syntaxial
overgrowths that make up several percent. Some quartz
grains show both smaller mode (2-3 µm) and larger mode
(30-40 µm) overgrowths. In quartz grains with smaller mode
of overgrowth, the crystals lack well developed faces and
form “blob-like” features as mentioned by Pittman (1972),
whereas the crystals having larger mode show smooth and
well formed crystal faces. Iron oxides are dark brown in
colour and present in the pore spaces.
The original boundaries of some detrital grains are
lost, providing evidence for pressure solution effect. This
reveals a high degree of compositional maturity, because
they are mainly composed of resistant quartz. The quartz
arenites exhibit bimodal texture with well-rounded grains
from about 0.3 to 0.7 mm in diameter, whereas fine-grained
angular grains are generally 0.05 to 0.1 mm in diameter.
300 R. NAGARAJAN AND OTHERS

Fig.2. Petrographical descriptions of quartz arenites, arkoses, and siltstones of the Rabanpalli Formation (Scale 1 cm = 0.19 mm).
(A) Fine-grained sub angular to angular quartz grains in quartz arenites. (B) Polycrystalline quartz grains with sutured crystal
boundaries. (C) Quartz overgrowth in quartz arenites. (D) Mono crystalline quartz grains, feldspar (microcline) and rock fragments
in arkose. (E) Feldspar grain dissolution in arkose. (F) Well-sorted grain supported siltstone.

Such textures have been encountered in numerous upper Arkoses

Precambrian and lower Paleozoic quartz-rich sandstones
(Folk, 1966). The high content of quartz, minor amounts of
feldspar and rock fragments, and restricted concentration
of heavy minerals such as tourmaline and zircon suggest
the mineralogical maturity for the quartz arenites. This
interpretation is in good agreement to our geochemistry
results.
Arkoses consist of monocrystalline and polycrystalline
quartz, and feldspar with minor amounts of biotite and
opaque minerals (Fig.2D). The detrital grains are very fine
to medium (MZ = 2.0 φ to 3.25 φ; Table 1), sub-angular to
sub-rounded in nature, which exhibit long and concavo-
convex contacts. Among quartz monocrystalline quartz
dominates over polycrystalline quartz. Monocrystalline

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 PETROGRAPHY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN BHIMA BASIN, KARNATAKA
quartz exhibits both straight and undulatory extinction.
Straight extinction is dominant over undulatory extinction.
Polycrystalline quartz grains consist of both 2-3 crystal
units and > 3 crystal units per grain. The grains with
2-3 crystal units show straight crystal boundaries, whereas
grains with > 3 crystal units exhibit sutured boundaries.
The feldspars are microcline, orthoclase, and minor
plagioclase. Feldspar grains shows initial to fifth stage in
degree of dissolution (Fig.2E) and are altered to illite. Lithic
fragments are quartz and feldspar grains, and other rock
clasts. Mica and chlorite are also present within this rock
framework. Quartz overgrowths and minor amount of clay
matrix are present. Two types of cements are encountered,
which are silica and iron oxide cements. Iron oxide cement
is in considerable amount.
Siltstones
Siltstones are fairly well-sorted rocks that contain
approximately >70% of fine, sub-angular to sub-rounded
quartzose grains and some amount of both alkali and
plagioclase feldspar grains (Fig.2F; MZ = 4.0 φ to 4.40 φ;
Table 1). The quartz grains are mostly monocrystalline,
showing straight and undulatory grain boundaries. Grains
are closely packed. The cements are siliceous and
ferruginous, with significant amount of clay matrix.
Detrital Modes
The average framework grain modes of quartz arenites
and arkoses from Rabanpalli Formation are Q96.4F2.7L0.80
and Q82F15.5L2.5, respectively. Quartz, feldspar, and lithic
fragments values are plotted in the QFL diagram (Fig.3;
Dickinson and Suczek, 1979) to find out the tectonic setting
of the source rocks. All the samples from quartz arenites
and arkoses are fall in the field of cratonic interior, which
clearly indicates that these sedimentary rocks were derived
from the igneous source rocks.
GEOCHEMISTRY
Major (wt. %), trace (ppm), and rare earth element (ppm)
concentrations along with the mean grain size values (MZ)
of quartz arenites, arkoses, and siltstones of the
Neoproterozoic Rabanpalli Formation, Bhima Basin are
reported in the Tables 1 and 2.
Major Elements
The CaO content is very low (wt. %; ~0.05-0.97; Table
1) in all rock types (quartz arenites, arkoses, and siltstones).
The K2O content is higher in arkoses (average with one
standard deviation being 4.60 ± 1.20, n = 7) and siltstones
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.70, AUGUST 2007
301
Fig.3. QFL diagram with tectonic fields of Dickinson and Suczek
(1979) for quartz arenites and arkoses. Q, total quartz
(monocrystalline and polycrystalline grains); F, feldspars
(plagioclase and K-feldspars); L, lithic rock fragments
(excluding carbonates).
(3.67 ± 0.71, n = 8) than quartz arenites (0.13 ± 0.08, n =
8). This is almost certainly due to the variations in K- feldspar
content among rock types. The Na2O content is more in
siltstones (2.7 ± 0.7) than arkoses (0.27 ± 0.12), and quartz
arenites (0.13 ± 0.12; Table 1), which can be attributed to
the greater amount of Na-rich plagioclase and alkali
feldspar in siltstones. Quartz arenites and siltstones
show low variation in K2O/Na2O ratio (~ 0.5-4.7, ~ 0.99-
1.85, respectively) whereas arkoses exhibit high variation
(~ 13-28). Similarly, the siltstones have high content of
Fe2O3 when compared to quartz arenites and arkoses
(Table 1).
Quartz arenites and arkoses show the highest SiO2 and
lowest Al2O3 concentrations than siltstones (Table 1),
which is mainly due to the presence of quartz and absence
of other Al-bearing minerals. This is in good agreement
with the petrographic observation, according to that quartz
arenites and arkoses contain significant amount of quartz
relative to that of feldspar and lithic fragment. This suggest
that quartz arenites and arkoses were weathered or
diagenetically altered to remove feldspar and lithic fragments
and thus increasing the relative proportion of quartz relative
to the source rock (Nesbitt et al. 1996). TiO2 content is
more in the siltstones (~ 0.25-0.62) than the quartz arenites
(~ 0.01-0.03) and arkoses (~ 0.02-0.09; Table 1). Low
content of TiO2 in quartz arenites and arkoses is mainly due
to the negligible amount of phyllosilicates among them
 302
Table 1. Major (wt. %), trace element (ppm) concentrations, and elemental ratios for quartz arenites, arkoses, and siltstones of the Rabanpalli Formation along with their mean grain size (MZ) in φ units and Chemical index of alteration (CIA; Nesbitt and Young, 1982)

Rock Type Quartz arenites Arkoses Siltstones

Sample # S034 S031 E073 C099 S014 E071 E072 E074 Mean (n = 8) S063 S061 S058 S064 S065 S066 S067 Mean (n = 7) S029 S030 S032 S035 S036 S037 S038 S039 Mean (n = 8)

MZ 0.65 1.25 1.75 0.75 0.51 0.63 0.73 0.98 0.91 ± 0.41 2.75 3.25 2.10 2.00 2.50 2.75 2.15 2.5 ± 0.5 4.00 4.13 4.30 4.40 4.20 4.00 4.40 4.00 4.2 ± 0.2
SiO2 96.60 97.00 95.30 97.90 97.00 96.24 97.48 96.43 96.69 ± 0.83 72.00 74.40 75.10 74.69 73.12 69.84 74.28 73.4 ± 1.9 62.30 68.20 64.40 66.20 60.02 58.01 68.00 59.70 63.4 ± 3.9
Al2O3 1.13 1.70 1.00 0.70 0.55 0.75 0.63 1.02 0.95 ± 0.37 10.50 9.98 8.11 9.00 10.29 10.02 9.12 9.6 ± 0.9 14.60 12.20 13.40 11.70 14.90 12.70 13.20 15.20 13.5 ± 1.3
Fe2O3* 0.19 0.18 0.60 0.09 0.11 0.47 0.36 0.20 0.28 ± 0.18 0.41 0.44 0.41 0.45 0.43 0.49 0.41 0.43 ± 0.03 5.88 3.64 6.03 3.93 5.20 6.20 3.10 6.50 5.1 ± 1.3
CaO 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.17 0.07 0.08 0.05 0.09 0.08 ± 0.04 0.50 0.50 0.42 0.65 0.50 0.47 0.48 0.50 ± 0.07 0.71 0.40 0.49 0.36 0.67 0.80 0.36 0.97 0.59 ± 0.23
MgO 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.04 ± 0.02 0.19 0.25 0.19 0.20 0.23 0.14 0.18 0.20 ± 0.04 1.05 0.71 1.29 0.64 0.60 1.40 1.20 0.90 0.97 ± 0.31
K2O 0.19 0.27 0.12 0.03 0.05 0.13 0.09 0.17 0.13 ± 0.08 5.88 4.45 3.13 3.57 4.02 6.30 4.79 4.6 ± 1.2 3.26 3.43 3.59 3.22 3.00 5.31 4.01 3.52 3.67 ± 0.71
Na2O 0.12 0.34 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.24 0.06 0.17 0.13 ± 0.12 0.40 0.34 0.11 0.15 0.26 0.29 0.35 0.27 ± 0.12 2.00 3.47 3.16 3.10 1.80 3.60 2.80 1.90 2.7 ± 0.7
MnO 0.003 0.004 0.008 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.004 ± 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.0012 ± 0.0004 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.002 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.02 ± 0.01
TiO2 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.022 ± 0.008 0.09 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.02 0.07 0.07 ± 0.02 0.40 0.28 0.44 0.41 0.62 0.25 0.30 0.56 0.41 ± 0.13
P2 O 5 0.02 0.02 0.85 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.53 0.41 0.19 ± 0.32 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 ± 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 ± 0.01
LOI 1.24 1.02 1.69 1.11 1.58 1.04 1.01 1.46 1.27 ± 0.27 9.27 8.79 10.01 10.00 9.73 10.60 9.53 9.7 ± 0.6 8.71 7.36 6.27 8.89 11.90 10.90 7.01 10.80 9.0 ± 2.1
Total 99.59 100.7 99.74 100.1 99.46 99.03 100.3 99.25 99.8 ± 0.5 99.26 99.25 97.58 98.79 98.69 98.20 99.25 98.7±0.6 98.90 99.75 99.15 98.15 98.73 99.24 100.0 100.1 98.5 ± 0.6

Sc 0.39 0.50 0.85 0.58 0.29 0.25 0.48 0.35 0.46 ± 0.19 1.51 1.50 2.21 2.02 1.80 2.60 1.90 2.0 ± 0.4 6.38 4.35 6.83 5.54 4.00 5.70 6.10 5.20 5.5 ± 1.0
Ga 2.00 2.40 2.80 1.60 2.00 2.50 3.00 2.40 2.3 ± 0.5 9.50 9.80 9.50 10.30 8.40 9.05 11.30 9.7 ± 0.9 15.20 13.70 17.70 14.70 15.60 14.90 13.02 16.00 15 ± 1

R. NAGARAJAN AND OTHERS

V 3.57 3.24 13.30 1.53 6.80 4.70 2.80 3.10 5±4 11.90 14.90 15.00 12.60 14.20 12.20 13.70 13.5 ± 1.3 51.80 35.00 55.10 36.00 45.70 34.10 50.60 52.80 45 ± 9
Cr 6.93 7.41 5.41 15.20 3.80 7.80 4.90 5.30 7.1 ± 3.5 13.90 10.30 10.50 11.70 10.03 12.70 9.40 11.2 ± 1.6 68.20 54.00 73.20 61.90 64.10 66.10 70.50 55.80 64 ± 7
Cu 12.50 9.90 1.18 1.10 4.32 5.00 4.80 1.60 5±4 1.44 1.78 5.01 2.81 2.09 5.03 3.01 3.0 ± 1.5 10.60 6.80 3.72 1.92 4.61 5.20 3.81 8.30 5.6 ± 2.8
Zn 4.04 4.88 9.58 6.86 4.74 5.30 2.20 4.60 5.3 ± 2.2 10.90 12.90 14.30 10.50 11.40 11.00 12.80 12.0 ± 1.4 61.00 35.70 56.30 39.20 40.70 52.90 50.03 37.90 47 ± 10
Co 1.30 1.40 7.40 1.20 4.93 3.80 4.00 2.70 3.3 ± 2.2 10.00 14.60 15.40 16.30 12.80 13.20 14.00 13.8 ± 2.1 47.40 35.00 51.30 37.10 41.70 39.10 43.60 35.70 41 ± 6
Ni 3.27 2.83 11.60 7.90 2.30 2.70 4.00 3.50 4.8 ± 3.3 3.33 4.69 7.87 5.61 4.07 7.02 5.02 5.4 ± 1.6 45.10 11.50 15.20 10.80 13.70 11.30 9.60 12.70 16 ± 12
Rb 7.64 9.55 5.29 1.89 1.57 6.31 7.00 5.20 5.6 ± 2.7 159.0 114.0 87.20 120.0 115.0 98.00 101.0 113 ± 23 166.0 103.0 115.0 105.0 110.0 120.0 102.0 111.0 116 ± 21
Sr 4.40 13.20 43.40 4.09 17.00 12.30 15.05 32.60 18 ± 14 146.0 141.0 47.20 140.0 115.0 98.00 127.0 116 ± 35 102.0 77.80 94.90 94.00 81.00 72.00 91.00 101.0 89 ± 11
Y 2.67 3.40 18.20 1.59 0.74 2.20 0.90 1.90 4±6 10.40 6.17 3.64 7.53 4.90 7.03 3.05 6.1 ± 2.5 8.67 8.39 12.10 16.30 9.30 10.50 11.06 8.90 11.7 ± 2.6
Zr 26.00 38.30 12.00 10.50 1.32 20.40 23.50 13.80 18 ± 11 111.0 45.60 34.20 51.80 40.20 33.70 50.30 52 ± 27 157.0 191.00 309.0 427.0 280.0 310.0 362.0 206.0 280 ± 91
Nb 0.53 0.51 0.70 0.73 0.81 0.62 0.71 0.60 0.65 ± 0.10 1.97 0.84 0.83 0.85 1.02 1.30 0.73 1.1 ± 0.4 4.66 4.03 5.83 5.08 4.03 3.90 5.25 5.60 4.8 ± 0.8
Ba 38.90 682.00 314.00 25.40 276.00 210.00 88.00 127.00 220 ± 215 999.0 791.0 348.0 520.0 862.0 705.0 410.0 662 ± 243 437.0 609.00 647.0 582.0 420.0 510.0 617.0 592.0 552 ± 86
Hf 1.00 1.16 0.67 0.83 0.98 0.66 0.83 0.94 0.9 ± 0.2 3.52 1.05 0.92 1.52 2.48 1.05 3.04 1.9 ± 1.1 3.73 6.18 7.66 10.40 5.30 6.03 8.20 7.04 6.8 ± 2.0
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Pb 5.40 3.94 4.82 7.82 8.07 4.00 7.20 4.50 5.7 ± 1.7 23.70 14.90 4.81 10.05 12.83 18.37 17.26 15 ± 6 14.90 6.59 9.09 6.31 7.83 8.20 10.74 11.60 9.4 ± 3.0
Th 1.35 2.24 1.61 1.00 0.97 1.20 2.50 0.75 1.45 ± 0.62 11.70 4.42 1.74 3.90 2.70 4.00 5.30 5±3 7.91 9.62 13.30 14.80 10.00 8.30 11.80 9.20 10.6 ± 2.5
U 4.49 4.95 3.55 3.57 4.82 4.20 3.80 4.00 4.2 ± 0.5 6.40 6.08 5.65 5.02 5.70 6.04 5.30 5.7 ± 0.5 5.92 7.51 8.07 6.00 6.40 6.50 8.30 5.20 6.7 ± 1.1

CIA 69.24 63.20 78.57 66.41 70.04 52.41 68.43 61.85 69 ± 8 57.00 61.38 65.17 62.96 64.40 55.13 57.88 60.6 ± 3.9 64.30 54.58 57.33 55.87 66.73 49.17 57.89 63.60 58.7 ± 5.8
K2O/Na2O 1.51 0.80 4.73 1.93 1.55 0.54 1.50 1.00 1.7 ± 1.3 14.55 13.28 27.95 23.80 15.46 21.72 13.67 18.6 ± 5.8 1.63 0.99 1.14 1.04 1.67 1.48 1.43 1.85 1.40 ± 0.32
SiO2/Al2O3 85.49 57.06 95.49 139.1 177.98 128.32 154.73 94.15 117 ± 40 6.86 7.45 9.26 8.30 7.11 7.00 8.15 7.7 ± 0.9 4.27 5.59 4.81 5.66 4.03 4.57 5.15 3.93 4.75 ± 0.68
K2O/Al2O3 0.16 0.16 0.12 0.04 0.09 0.17 0.14 0.10 0.13 ± 0.05 0.56 0.45 0.39 0.40 0.40 0.63 0.53 0.48 ± 0.09 0.22 0.28 0.27 0.28 0.20 0.42 0.30 0.23 0.28 ± 0.07
Na2O/K2O 0.66 1.26 0.21 0.52 0.65 1.85 0.67 1.00 0.9 ± 0.5 0.07 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.07 0.06 ± 0.02 0.61 1.01 0.88 0.96 0.60 0.68 0.70 0.54 0.75 ± 0.18
Fe2O3/K2O 1.04 0.65 4.89 3.10 2.23 3.62 4.00 1.18 2.6 ± 1.6 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.08 0.09 0.10 ± 0.02 1.80 1.06 1.68 1.22 1.73 1.17 0.77 1.85 1.4 ± 0.4
Th/Sc 3.47 4.53 1.89 1.72 3.35 4.80 5.21 2.14 3.4 ± 1.4 7.75 2.95 0.79 1.93 1.50 1.54 2.79 2.7 ± 2.3 1.24 2.21 1.95 2.67 2.50 1.46 1.93 1.77 2.0 ± 0.5
Cr/Th 5.13 3.31 3.36 15.20 3.92 6.50 1.96 7.07 5.8 ± 4.2 1.19 2.33 6.03 3.00 3.72 3.18 1.77 3.0 ± 1.6 8.62 5.61 5.50 4.18 6.41 7.96 5.98 6.07 6.3 ± 1.4
Cr/Ni 2.12 2.62 0.47 1.92 1.65 2.89 1.23 1.51 1.8 ± 0.8 4.17 2.20 1.34 2.07 2.46 1.81 1.87 2.3 ± 0.9 1.39 4.70 4.82 5.73 4.68 5.85 7.34 4.39 4.9 ± 1.7
Th/Co 1.04 1.60 0.22 0.83 0.20 0.32 0.63 0.28 0.6 ± 0.5 1.17 0.30 0.11 0.24 0.21 0.30 0.38 0.39 ± 0.35 0.17 0.27 0.26 0.40 0.24 0.21 0.27 0.26 0.26 ± 0.07
Th/Cr 0.19 0.30 0.30 0.07 0.26 0.15 0.51 0.14 0.24 ± 0.14 0.84 0.43 0.17 0.33 0.27 0.32 0.56 0.42 ± 0.23 0.12 0.18 0.18 0.24 0.16 0.13 0.17 0.17 0.17 ± 0.04
Th/U 0.30 0.45 0.45 0.28 0.20 0.29 0.66 0.19 0.35 ± 0.16 1.83 0.73 0.31 0.78 0.47 0.66 1.00 0.8 ± 0.5 1.34 1.28 1.65 2.47 1.56 1.27 1.42 1.77 1.6 ± 0.4

*Total Fe as Fe2O3; n = number of samples

 PETROGRAPHY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN BHIMA BASIN, KARNATAKA 303

Table 2. Rare earth element (ppm) concentrations for quartz arenites, arkoses, and siltstones of the Rabanpalli Formation along with their mean grain size (MZ) in φ units

Rock type Quartz arenites Arkoses Siltstones

Sample # S034 S031 E073 C099 S014 Mean (n = 5) S063 S061 S058 Mean (n = 3) S029 S030 S032 S035 Mean (n = 4)

MZ 0.65 1.25 1.75 0.75 0.51 0.91 ± 0.41 2.75 3.25 2.10 2.5 ± 0.5 4.00 4.13 4.30 4.40 4.2 ± 0.2
La 5.29 1.71 6.56 2.47 3.74 4±2 25.10 32.90 8.00 22 ± 13 6.94 12.20 17.20 19.10 14 ± 5
Ce 8.30 7.41 8.29 5.81 4.39 7.0 ± 1.7 45.90 58.00 14.90 40 ± 22 11.80 32.10 38.40 54.30 34 ± 18
Pr 1.20 0.90 1.20 1.13 1.00 1.1 ± 0.1 3.70 4.30 1.40 3.1 ± 1.5 1.50 2.30 3.10 3.90 2.7 ± 1.0
Nd 5.72 3.68 6.22 5.20 3.92 5.0 ± 1.0 14.50 20.80 5.08 13 ± 8 7.22 9.34 14.10 17.10 12 ± 5
Sm 1.80 1.20 1.55 1.31 1.40 1.5 ± 0.2 2.60 3.50 1.50 2.5 ± 1.0 1.80 2.00 2.50 3.30 2.4 ± 0.7
Eu 0.47 0.41 0.29 0.32 0.46 0.4 ± 0.1 0.54 0.55 0.52 0.54 ± 0.02 0.38 0.54 0.69 0.86 0.6 ± 0.2
Gd 2.00 1.70 1.30 1.33 1.15 1.5 ± 0.35 2.10 2.50 1.60 2.1 ± 0.5 2.02 1.90 2.50 3.60 2.5 ± 0.8
Tb 0.27 0.25 0.20 0.19 0.13 0.21 ± 0.05 0.32 0.34 0.24 0.3 ± 0.1 0.32 0.29 0.41 0.54 0.4 ± 0.1
Dy 1.17 1.25 0.92 0.87 0.58 0.96 ± 0.27 1.75 1.70 1.30 1.6 ± 0.2 1.90 1.60 2.30 2.90 2.2 ± 0.6
Ho 0.20 0.23 0.15 0.15 0.09 0.16 ± 0.05 0.35 0.32 0.23 0.3 ± 0.1 0.42 0.35 0.49 0.62 0.5 ± 0.1
Er 0.46 0.51 0.31 0.30 0.17 0.4 ± 0.1 0.98 0.77 0.56 0.8 ± 0.2 1.20 0.97 1.40 1.80 1.3 ± 0.4
Tm 0.047 0.056 0.033 0.032 0.015 0.04 ± 0.02 0.13 0.092 0.07 0.10 ± 0.03 0.16 0.13 0.19 0.24 0.2 ± 0.1
Yb 0.26 0.31 0.17 0.17 0.04 0.2 ± 0.1 0.85 0.56 0.41 0.6 ± 0.2 1.14 0.87 1.33 1.63 1.2 ± 0.3
Lu 0.04 0.05 0.025 0.024 0.01 0.03 ± 0.02 0.13 0.08 0.06 0.09 ± 0.04 0.17 0.13 0.19 0.23 0.18 ± 0.04
La/Sc 13.6 3.45 7.72 4.26 12.90 8.4 ± 4.7 16.60 21.90 3.62 14.06 ± 9.42 1.09 2.80 2.52 3.45 2.46 ± 1.00
LREE/HREE 5.02 3.42 7.66 5.20 6.61 5.6 ± 1.6 13.80 18.78 6.91 13 ± 6 4.00 9.28 8.55 8.45 8±2
∑REE 22.23 19.67 27.22 13.32 17.10 22.1 ± 4.8 98.95 126.4 35.87 87 ± 46 36.97 64.72 84.80 110.1 74 ± 31
Eu/Eu* 0.75 0.88 0.61 0.73 1.08 0.81 ± 0.18 0.69 0.54 1.02 0.75 ± 0.25 0.61 0.84 0.84 0.76 0.8 ± 0.1
(La/Lu)cn 13.73 3.55 27.24 10.68 38.83 19 ± 14 20.04 42.69 13.84 25 ± 15 4.24 9.74 9.40 8.62 8±2
(Gd/Yb)cn 6.23 4.44 6.20 6.34 23.30 9±8 2.00 3.62 3.16 3±8 1.44 1.77 1.52 1.79 1.6 ± 0.2

n = number of samples

(Dabard, 1990; Condie et al. 1992). Clear positive
correlations of K2O with Al2O3 (r = 0.82, n = 23) and
trace elements such as Ba (r = 0.77), Rb (r = 0.89) and Th
(r = 0.55) for all rock types suggest that concentrations of
these elements are mainly controlled by the clay minerals
(McLennan et al. 1983).
The concentration of U is high in all rock types (~ 3.55-
8.30; Table 1). In the study area, the Bhima Basin, the
granitic rocks tends to have high content of U (~ 3.08-
20.76, mean 8.18, n = 28; Kumar and Srinivasan, 2002),
which could be the reason for the U enrichment than other
trace elements as well as to upper continental crust (UCC,

Trace Elements
The concentrations of Co, Ni, Cr, Ba, Zr, Hf, and Th are
higher in the siltstones than in the quartz arenites and arkoses
(Fig.4). This variation may partially be due to (1) dilution
by quartz in quartz arenites and arkoses relative to siltstones
and (2) higher clay mineral content in siltstones than quartz
arenites and arkoses. The depletion of Zr and Hf in quartz
arenites and arkoses than siltstones could be related to the
amount of heavy minerals (especially zircon) present in
them.
Feldspar is a major host of Ba and Rb in terrigenous
sedimentary rocks (Veizer, 1978). In our study, high
correlation coefficient between Rb-K2O (r = 0.89, n = 23),
Rb-Al2O3 (r = 0.93), and Sr-CaO (r = 0.74), for all rock Fig.4. Multi-element normalized diagram, normalized against
average upper continental crust (Taylor and McLennan,
types suggest that the distribution of these elements is
1985), using the following values (in ppm): Co = 10,
controlled by Rb incorporation into silicate and Sr into Ni = 20, Cr = 35, V = 60, Sr = 350, Rb = 112, Ba = 550,
carbonate phases. In addition, a good positive correlation Pb = 20, Zr = 190, Y = 22, Nb = 25, Hf = 5.8, Th = 10.7,
between Ba and K2O (r = 0.77, n = 23) suggests that Ba is and U = 2.8. Two horizontal lines for rock/upper continental
mainly associated with K-feldspar. crust values of 1 and 0.1 are included for reference.

JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.70, AUGUST 2007

304 R. NAGARAJAN AND OTHERS
Fig.5. Th-U bivariate plot for the samples of the Rabanpalli
Formation. Note a good positive correlation between Th
and U.
Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Fig.4). In addition, a positive
correlation between U and Th (r = 0.79, n = 23; Fig.5) reveals
the characteristic of felsic source rocks.
DISCUSSION
Geochemical Classification
Geochemical classification of terrigenous sedimentary
rocks has been proposed by many authors based on major
elements composition (Pettijohn et al. 1972; Crook, 1974;
Blatt et al. 1980; Herron, 1988). Using the indices of SiO2/
Al2O3 and Na2O/K2O ratios, Pettijohn et al. (1972) proposed
a classification for terrigenous sands based on a plot of log
(Na 2O/K 2O) versus log (SiO2 /Al 2O 3). Herron (1988)
modified the diagram of Pettijohn et al. (1972) using log
(Fe2O3/K2O) along the Y-axis instead of log (Na2O/K2O).
The ratio Fe 2O 3 /K 2 O facilitates arkoses to be more
successfully classified, and it is a measure of mineral
stability. Thus, in log (Fe2O3/K2O) versus log (SiO2/Al2O3)
plot (Fig.6; Herron, 1988) eight samples plot in the quartz
arenite field, seven samples plot in arkose field and the
remaining eight samples plot in the wacke field. This plot is
in good agreement with our classification based on
petrography.
K2O/Al2O3 ratio of terrigenous sedimentary rocks can
be used as an indicator of the original composition of ancient
sediments, because the K2O/Al2O3 ratio for clay minerals
and feldspars are different. K2O/Al2O3 ratios for clay
minerals range from 0.0 to 0.3 and for feldspars it range
from 0.3 to 0.9 (Cox et al. 1995). In our study, K2O/Al2O3
ratio in siltstones (0.28 ± 0.07, n = 8) and quartz arenites
(0.13 ± 0.05, n = 8) indicates the presence of clay minerals
Fig.6. Geochemical classification for the samples of the Rabanpalli
Formation using log(SiO 2 /Al 2 O 3) - log(Fe 2 O 3/K 2 O)
diagram (after Herron, 1988).
in these rock types. The high K2O/Al2O3 ratio in arkoses
(0.5 ± 0.1, n = 7; Table 1) is interpreted to reflect an input
from first cycled granitic material as evidenced by the
presence of K-feldspar through petrography study.
Palaeoweathering
Alteration of minerals due to chemical weathering mainly
depends on the intensity and the duration of weathering.
The dominant process during weathering of the upper crust
is the degradation of feldspars and concomitant formation
of clay minerals. During weathering, calcium, sodium, and
potassium largely are removed from feldspars (Nesbitt et
al. 1980). The amount of these chemical elements surviving
in the soil profiles and in the sediments derived from them
is a sensitive index of the intensity of weathering (Nesbitt et
al. 1997). A good measure of the degree of chemical
weathering can be obtained by calculating the chemical index
of alteration (CIA; Nesbitt and Young, 1982) using the
formula (molecular proportion)
CIA = [Al2O3/(Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O + K2O)] × 100
where CaO* is the amount of CaO incorporated in the
silicate fraction of the rock. However, in the samples studied,
CaO is very low (~ 0.053–0.709) and there was no objective
way to distinguish CaO in carbonate from CaO in
silicate, so total CaO (Table 1) was used in measuring CIA
values.
The CIA is a good measure of paleo-weathering
conditions, and it essentially monitors the progressive
weathering of feldspars to clay minerals (Fedo et al. 1995;
Armstrong-Altrin et al. 2004). High CIA values (i.e. 76–
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.70, AUGUST 2007
 PETROGRAPHY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN BHIMA BASIN, KARNATAKA
100) indicate intensive chemical weathering in the source
areas whereas low values (i.e. 50 or less) indicate
unweathered source areas. In the present study, quartz
arenites exhibit wide range of CIA values (~ 52–79;
Table 1). Likewise, arkoses (~ 55–65) and siltstones (~ 49–
67; Table 1) also show wide variations. The CIA values are
also plotted in Al2O3-(CaO + Na2O)-K2O (A-CN-K; Nesbitt
and Young, 1982) compositional space in Fig.7 (molecular
proportions). In the A-CN-K triangular diagram, all the rock
types (except one siltstone) plot above the feldspar join line.
Quartz arenites and siltstones are scattered in the A-CN-K
diagram whereas arkoses exhibit definite trend. Generally,
quartz arenites should plot away from the feldspar join line
and their trend should approach A-apex, instead of scattering
near to feldspar join line. Most of the siltstones are plot
well near to the feldspar join and arkoses follow AK line
Fig.7. A-CN-K diagram (after Nesbitt and Young, 1982) showing
1
samples of this study and average composition of 2 upper
continental crust (UCC; Taylor and McLennan, 1985).
A = Al2O3; CN = CaO* + Na2O; K = K2O (molecular
proportion; CaO * = CaO in silicate fraction only);
CIA = Chemical Index of Alteration (Nesbitt and Young,
1982).
instead of following A-CN line. Apart from this, most of the
studied samples contain considerable amount of K2O than
expected, and hence it may under gone K-metasomatism.
The sedimentary rocks affected by K-metasomatism,
generally exhibit low values than the premetasomatised
composition (Fedo et al. 1995).
K-Metasomatism
Metasomatic enrichment of potassium to sediments and
sedimentary rocks produces mineralogical changes, which
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.70, AUGUST 2007
305
alter the earlier composition (Glazner, 1988; Nesbitt and
Young, 1989; Sutton and Maynard, 1992; Condie, 1993;
Fedo et al. 1997a, 1997b). Potassium metasomatism is
particularly common, which involves conversion of kaolin
to illite by reaction with potassium bearing pore waters (Fedo
et al. 1995). In sandstones, K-metasomatism can take place
in two different ways, 1) aluminous clay minerals (kaolinite
as matrix) converted into illite and/or 2) conversion of
plagioclase to k-feldspar (Fedo et al. 1995). These processes
produce K2O enrichment in the sedimentary rocks, and it
may vary from the weathering trend. Conversion of
kaolinite into illite by K addition results in a CIA value lower
than the pre-metasomatised rock (Fedo et al. 1995).
Conversion of plagioclase to k-feldspar, where authigenic
k-feldspar replaces plagioclase by K-metasomatism, the
CIA values may not change because the process occur mole
for mole substitution of K2 for Ca or Na2 (Glazner, 1988).
Both these processes may affect the composition of
sedimentary rocks and the extent of these processes can
be identified by petrographic study (Fedo et al. 1995, 1997a,
1997b).
In the present study, quartz arenites exhibit low CIA
values and arkoses show a typical trend towards K-apex.
This type of trend is generally found in the sedimentary
rocks that undergone K-metasomatism, by which addition
of K to weathered residues (Fedo et al. 1995; See their
Fig.1A). This process produces mineralogical changes
results in lowering of CIA values. Hence quartz arenites
plot nearer to the feldspar join rather than displaying their
original chemical maturity (Fig.7). Likewise, siltstones and
arkoses also plot nearer to the feldspar join. In the present
study, K-metasomatic effect can be identified from the
typical trend of arkoses. Arkoses following the A-K line
(Fig.7), which exhibit the addition of K to this rock type. It
is also supported by petrographic study, which shows most
of the arkoses display partially or fully altered plagioclase
grains and it also exhibits the presence of illite as matrix
material. Hence the observed low CIA values in the
sedimentary rocks of Rabanpalli Formation are mainly
due to the K-metasomatism.
Th/U in terrigenous sedimentary rocks is of interest
because weathering tends to result in oxidation of insoluble
U4+ to soluble U6+ with loss of solution and elevation
of Th/U ratios (McLennan and Taylor, 1980, 1991). The
Th/U ratios in the studied samples range from 0.19 to 2.47
(Table 1). Upper crustal igneous rocks have Th/U ratios
averaging about 3.8, with considerable scatter (Taylor and
McLennan, 1985; Condie, 1993; McLennan, 2001). The
sedimentary rocks of Rabanpalli Formation show low
Th/U ratios when compared with upper continental crust
306 R. NAGARAJAN AND OTHERS

value. The observed low Th/U ratios are mainly due to the
elevated concentration of U.
Provenance
Source rock composition is commonly thought to be the
dominant factor that controls the composition of sediments
derived from them (Taylor and McLennan, 1985). However,
secondary processes (weathering, transport, diagenesis, etc.)
can have an effect on chemical composition (Cullers et al.
1987; Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1987), and therefore one
best relies on elements that show little mobility under the
expected geological conditions. Taylor and McLennan
(1985) pointed out that such elements should possess very
low partition coefficients between natural waters and upper
crust and short oceanic residence times.
REE, Th, and Sc are quite useful for inferring crustal
compositions, because their distribution is not significantly
affected by secondary processes such as diagenesis and
metamorphism, and is less affected by heavy mineral
fractionation than that for elements such as Zr, Hf, and Sn
(Bhatia and Crook, 1986; McLennan, 2001). REE and Th
abundances are higher in felsic than mafic igneous source
rocks and in their weathered products, whereas Co, Sc, V,
Ni, and Cr are more concentrated in mafic than felsic igneous
source rocks and their weathered products. In addition, these
elements are relatively immobile during weathering. These
elements are believed to be transported exclusively in the
terrigenous component of sediment and therefore reflect the
chemistry of their source rocks (Veizer, 1978; McLennan et
al. 1980; Armstrong-Altrin, 2004).
Very high levels of Cr and Ni have been used by many
authors (e.g., Hiscott, 1984; Wrafter and Graham, 1989) to
infer an ultramafic provenance for sediments. Furthermore,
the unusual enrichment of Ni unaccompanied by other
ferromagnesian trace elements is also addressed by
Armstrong-Altrin et al. (2004). Garver et al. (1996)
suggested that the sediments having elevated concentration
of Cr (> 150 ppm) and Ni (> 100 ppm), high correlation
coefficient of Cr with Ni, and Cr/Ni ratio of ~ 1.4 are
indicative of ultramafic source. Higher Cr/Ni ratios probably
indicate mafic source rocks (Garver and Scott, 1995). In
our study, Cr and Ni values, and Cr/Ni ratios are
comparatively higher in siltstones (64 ± 7, 16 ± 12, and
5±2, respectively) than quartz arenites (7.1 ± 3.5, 4.8±3.3
and 1.8±0.8, respectively) and arkoses (11.2±1.6, 5.4±1.6,
and 2.3 ± 0.9, respectively; Table 1), but the values are
lower than the sediments derived from ultramafic source
rocks, except Cr/Ni ratios. The negative correlation of
Cr with Ni for arkoses (r = -0.1) and low correlation for
quartz arenites (r = 0.3) and siltstones (r = 0.3) imply that
these sedimentary rocks were derived from the felsic source
rocks. Likewise, low V (21±19) and Sc (2.6±2.3; Table 1)
concentrations are also observed in all the rock types
(concentration of V in sediments is about 20 ppm, McCann,
1991). Thus the lower values of Cr, Ni, V, and Sc in the
quartz arenites, arkoses, and siltstones suggest that these
sediments were mainly derived from the felsic source rocks
rather than mafic to ultramafic source rocks.
Furthermore, the ratios such as Eu/Eu *, (La/Lu) cn,
La/Sc, Th/Sc, Th/Co, Th/Cr, and Cr/Th are significantly
different in mafic and felsic source rocks and may allow
constraints on the provenance of sedimentary rocks
(Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1987; Cullers et al. 1988;
Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1989, 1990; Cullers, 1994b, 1995;
Cox et al. 1995; Armstrong-Altrin et al. 2004). The Eu/Eu*,
(La/Lu)cn, La/Sc, Th/Sc, Th/Co, Th/Cr, and Cr/Th ratios
(Table 3) of quartz arenites, arkoses, and siltstones of
the Rabanpalli Formation are compared with those in

Table 3. Range of elemental ratios for quartz arenites, arkoses, and siltstones in this study compared to the ratios in similar
fractions derived from felsic rocks, mafic rocks, and upper continental crust

Elemental Range of sandstones and siltstones Upper

Range of sediments from2
ratio from the Rabanpalli Formation1 Continental
Quartz arenites Arkoses Siltstones Crust3
Felsic rocks Mafic rocks
(n = 8) (n = 7) (n = 8)

Eu/Eu*4 0.61-1.08 0.54-1.02 0.61-0.83 0.40-0.94 0.71-0.95 0.63

(La/Lu)cn4 3.55-38.83 13.84-42.69 4.24-9.74 3.00-27.0 1.10-7.00 9.73
La/Sc4 3.45-13.60 3.62-21.90 1.09-3.45 2.5-16.3 0.43-0.86 2.21
Th/Sc 1.72-5.21 0.79-7.75 1.24-2.67 0.84-20.5 0.05-0.22 0.79
Th/Co 0.20-1.60 0.11-1.17 0.17-0.40 0.67-19.4 0.04-1.4 0.63
Th/Cr 0.07-0.51 0.17-0.84 0.12-0.24 0.13-2.7 0.018-0.046 0.13
Cr/Th 1.96-15.20 1.19-6.03 4.18-8.62 4.00-15 25-500 7.76
1
This study; 2 Cullers (1994a, 2000); Cullers and Podkovyrov (2000); Cullers et al. (1988); 3 Taylor and McLennan (1985)
4
n (number of samples) = 5 for quartz arenites; n = 3 for arkoses; n = 4 for siltstones

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 PETROGRAPHY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN BHIMA BASIN, KARNATAKA
sediments derived from felsic and mafic source rocks
(Cullers et al. 1988; Cullers, 1994a, 2000; Cullers and
Podkovyrov, 2000, 2002) as well as with upper continental
crust (UCC; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Table 3). This
comparison points out that the trace elemental ratios
of this study are comparable to the range of sediments
derived from felsic source rocks rather than mafic source
rocks.
Th/Sc vs Sc bivariate and La-Th-Sc triangular plots
provide useful information regarding the source rocks
characteristics (McLennan and Taylor, 1991; Cullers, 2002).
The elemental ratio (Th/Sc) and concentrations (Sc, La, Th)
of terrigenous rocks of Rabanpalli Formation are plotted in
the Th/Sc vs Sc (Fig.8) and La-Th-Sc (Fig.9) diagrams to
find out the source rocks characteristics. UCC value
(McLennan, 2001), Archaean granite, cratonic sandstone,
andesite, and basalt + komatiite (Condie, 1993) values are
plotted in these two diagrams for comparison. Several
informations can be made from the Th/Sc vs Sc diagram.
Th/Sc ratio is more or less similar in quartz arenites, arkoses,
and siltstones, which indicate that the Th/Sc ratio is not
affected by the sorting processes. This information implies
that Th and Sc are not present in the minerals, which are
easily removed during weathering and/or other sedimentary
processes, and Th/Sc ratio can be considered as the one of
the best indicators of provenance study (Taylor and
McLennan, 1985). Th/Sc ratio, when plotted against
concentration of Sc that is more sensitive to provenance
composition than REE (Fedo et al. 1997a).
In the Figures 8 and 9, the quartz arenites, arkoses, and
siltstones are fall near to UCC, Archaean granite, and
cratonic sandstone values, which strongly supports that the
Fig.8. Th/Sc vs Sc bivariate plot for the samples of the Rabanpalli
Formation. 1 This study, 2 upper continental crust (UCC;
McLennan, 2001), and 3 Condie (1993).
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.70, AUGUST 2007
307
Fig.9. La–Th–Sc triangular plot for the samples of the Rabanpalli
Formation. 1 This study, 2 upper continental crust
(McLennan, 2001), and 3 Condie (1993).
studied samples were mainly derived from the felsic source
rocks rather than the mafic source rocks.
In addition, the relative REE patterns and Eu anomaly
size have also been used to infer sources of sedimentary
rocks (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Wronkiewicz and
Condie, 1989). Mafic rocks contain low LREE/HREE ratios
and tend not to contain Eu anomalies, whereas more felsic
rocks usually contain higher LREE/HREE ratios and
negative Eu anomalies (Cullers and Graf, 1984). The
depletion of Eu may be interpreted as shallow, intracrustal
differentiation, which resulted in Eu-depletion in the upper
continental crust, associated with the production of granitic
rocks (McLennan, 1989). Some Precambrian rocks like
tonalite-tronjhemite gneiss (TTG), granodiorite, and quartz
diorite show very large LREE/HREE ratios with positive
Eu anomaly and their positive anomaly arises not because
of enrichment of feldspars but is mainly due to hornblende-
melt equilibria (Cullers and Graf, 1984). In the present study,
all rock types exhibit higher LREE/HREE ratio (8 ± 4, n =
12; Table 2) and a significant negative Eu anomaly (0.77 ±
0.16, n = 12; Table 2; Fig.11) indicates the felsic igneous
rocks as a possible source rocks.
Discriminant Function Diagram
Discriminant function scores of major element data
permit separation of provenance into four major groups:
mafic igneous; intermediate igneous; felsic igneous; and
quartzose sedimentary (Roser and Korsch, 1988). In this
discrimination diagram (Fig.10), the quartz arenites and
308 R. NAGARAJAN AND OTHERS

Fig.11. Average chondrite-normalized REE patterns for samples

Fig.10. Discriminant Function diagram for sedimentary provenance
using major elements (Roser and Korsch, 1988).
The discriminant functions are: Discriminant Function 1
= (-1.773. TiO 2 ) + (0.607. Al 2O 3 ) + (0.760. Fe 2O 3 ) +
. . . are from Taylor and McLennan (1985).
(-1.500 MgO) + (0.616 CaO) + (0.509 Na 2 O) +
.
(-1.224 K 2 O) + (-9.090); Discriminant Function 2
. . .
= (0.445 TiO2 ) + (0.070 Al 2O 3) + (-0.250 Fe 2O 3 ) +
. .
(-1.142 MgO) + (0.438 CaO) + (1.475 Na 2 O) + .
.
(-1.426 K2O) + (-6.861).
arkoses plot within the quartzose sedimentary provenance
field, and siltstones plot both in the felsic igneous and
intermediate igneous provenance fields. This observation
clearly indicates the less possibility of the mafic rocks as
source rocks for the studied samples of the Rabanpalli
Formation (Fig.10).
from this study and other rock types for comparison.
1
This study; 2 upper continental crust (UCC; Taylor
and McLennan, 1985); 3Jayananda et al. (1995); 4Jayaram
et al. (1983); 5 Khan (1992) and Rao et al. (1999).
n = number of samples. Chondrite-normalized values
arkoses have (Gd/Yb)cn ratios more than 2 and siltstones
have less than 2 (Table2; Fig.12), suggesting that quartz
arenites and arkoses were derived from sources having
somewhat depleted heavy rare earth elements whereas
siltstones were derived from less HREE-depleted Archaean
or post-Archaean sources, or a combination of both. The
average ratios of Archaean granites (Jayaram et al. 1983;
Jayananda et al. 1995), mafic rocks (Khan, 1992; Rao et al.
1999), Proterozoic shales (Rao et al. 1999) from the source

Probable Source Rocks

To know the probable source rocks for the quartz
arenites, arkoses, and siltstones of the Rabanpalli Formation,
in Fig.11, the average REE data were compared with those
of Archaean granites (Jayaram et al. 1983; Jayananda et al.
1995), and mafic rocks (Khan, 1992; Rao et al. 1999), which
belongs to the adjacent area (south of the Kaladgi Basin;
Fig.1). The chondrite normalize REE plots (Fig.11) of
Rabanpalli Formation show LREE enriched and flat HREE
patterns with significant negative Eu anomaly. The shapes
of the REE patterns of these rock types are similar to the
granites as well as to upper continental crust (UCC; Taylor
and McLennan, 1985). Further more, the rocks of our study
exhibit a clear negative Eu anomaly as similar to the granites
Fig.12. Plot of Eu/Eu* versus (Gd/Yb)cn for the samples of the
as well as to UCC, but the mafic rocks do not have the
Rabanpalli Formation. Fields are after McLennan and
negative Eu anomaly (Fig.11). Thus, we interpreted that all Taylor (1991). 1This study; 2 upper continental crust (UCC;
rock types in the present study probably derived from the Taylor and McLennan, 1985); 3Jayananda et al. (1995);
granite rocks, which belongs to the adjacent area (south of 4
Jayaram et al. (1983); 5Khan (1992) and Rao et al. (1999);
the Kaladgi Basin; Fig.1). Furthermore, quartz arenites and 6
Rao et al. (1999). n = number of samples.

JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.70, AUGUST 2007

 PETROGRAPHY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN BHIMA BASIN, KARNATAKA
area are also shown in this plot. The overlapping of the
studied samples with the Archaean granites and Proterozoic
shales, suggesting that all rock types in the present study
could have been derived by the contributions from the
adjacent area (south of the Kaladgi Basin; Fig.1).
CONCLUSIONS
The rock types were identified as quartz arenites, arkoses,
and siltstones using petrography. Other major element
bivariate plots also support our petrographic observations.
The sedimentary rocks of the Rabanpalli Formation show
low CIA values and these values were plotted in the
A-CN-K diagram in order to find out the paleoweathering
condition of the source rocks, which reveal that the observed
low CIA values are mainly due to K-metasomatism.
The Cr, Ni, V, and Sc values for all rock types in our
study clearly suggest that they were derived from felsic
source rocks rather than mafic and/or ultramafic source
rocks. The rare earth elements concentration, other trace
element ratios such as Eu/Eu*, (La/Lu)cn, La/Sc, Th/Sc, Th/
Co, Th/Cr, and Cr/Th, and the Sc-Th/Sc and La-Th-Sc
diagrams of all rock types suggest that these sediments were
derived from felsic source rocks rather than mafic source
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