UGC-NET Special Edition - Teaching Aptitude

There are eight questions in each set. Answers to questions in a set are provided at the end of each set. Questions have been compiled in such a manner that it is easy to follow and memorize. We recommend that you go to the answers only after you have attempted all the questions in the set. 1. The mean score on any class test is the result of: (a) dividing the sum of all scores by the number of scores (b) determining the middle score when all the scores have been listed from the highest to the lowest (c) determining the most frequent score. (d) Adding all the scores and dividing by the most frequent score (e) Adding the highest and lowest scores and dividing by two 2. The least justifiable use of the results of a standardized reading test is to: (a) identify areas of pupil deficiency (b) evaluate the reading instruction programme. (c) Serve as a basis for report card marks (d) Serve as the basis for a parent conference (e) Serve as the basis for class groupings 3. Fifteen year old Arvind has taken to wearing the same style sweaters that his teacher wears. This form of behaviour is known as: (a) compensation (b) transference (c) indentification (d) regression (e) egocentrism 4. At least one third of the learning that will determine later levels of school achievement has already taken place by age six. This is a statement most closely associated with the writings of: (a) Benjamin Bloom (b) Margaret Mead (c) Martin Mayer (d) Fritiz Redl

(e) Nathan Glazer 5. Of the following, the most unreliable predictor of educational achievement is: (a) inherited biological potential for learning (b) ethnic origin of parents (c) family background and training (d) classroom experiences (e) self concept. 6. All the following are acceptable goals for dealing with behaviour problems in the classroom, except: (a) helping the child to improve his/her self-control (b) being impersonal and objective (c) understanding the offense (d) utilizing appeals to children that have personal implications (e) punishing, when necessary, in private 7. In preparing a fifth grade class to take a standardized reading test the teacher is best advised to: (a) tell the children the test is very important and they should do the best they can (b) ditto key questions from a previous test and allow the pupils to answer them (c) do nothing (d) coach the below grade level readers, as the rest of the class will do well anyway (e) Give the pupils practice in answering questions similar to the type that will appear on the test 8. Of the following, the one situation that will cause the greatest difficulty for a child in the initial stages of reading instruction is : (a) confusion of left and right directionality (b) possessing an IQ of 90 (c) having older siblings who are successful readers (d) never having attended kindergarten (e) being an avid television watcher Answers to questions on Teaching Aptitude: 1. (a) dividing the sum of all scores by the number of scores 2. (c) Serve as a basis for report card marks

3. (c) indentification 4. (a) Benjamin Bloom 5. (b) ethnic origin of parents 6. (d) utilizing appeals to children that have personal implications 7. (e) Give the pupils practice in answering questions similar to the type that will appear on the test. 8. (a) confusion of left and right directionality 9. Of the following essentials of learning the one that takes procedure over the other is: (a) average intelligence (b) ability to read (c) an intact home (d) desire to learn (e) a good teacher 10. A child from a disorganized home will experience the greatest difficulty with: (a) well structured lessons (b) independent study (c) programmed instruction (d) workbooks (e) short answer tests. 11. The normal twelve year old child is most likely to: (a) have difficulty with gross motor coordination (b) have anxiety feelings about pleasing adults (c) confine his/her interests to the here and now (d) be eager for peer approval (e) be concerned with boy-girl relationship 12. During the first year of life a childs height increases by about: (a) Ten per cent (b) Thirty per cent (c) Fifty per cent (d) Eighty per cent (e) Hundred per cent 13. The term identical elements is closely associated with: (a) group instruction (b) transfer of learning

(c) jealousy between twins (d) similar test questions (e) The scientific method 14. The statement least characteristic of first grade children is that they are: (a) too young to be taught classroom routines (b) not yet concerned with group approval (c) very concerned with adult approval (d) not concerned with neatness (e) curious and exploratory 15. The evaluation of personality is best made through the use of an: (a) inventory test (b) preference test (c) survey test (d) projective test (e) power test 16. The current movement of behavior modification, wherein tokens are awarded for correct responses, is a reflection of: (a) Herbarts Five Steps (b) Locks Tabula rasa (c) Thorndikes Law of Effect (d) Thorndikes Law of Exercise (e) Pavlovs stimulus- response Answers to Questions on Teaching Aptitude: 9. (d) desire to learn 10. (b) independent study 11. (d) be eager for peer approval 12. (c) Fifty per cent 13. (b) transfer of learning 14. (a) too young to be taught classroom routines 15. (d) projective test 16. (c) Thorndikes Law of Effect 17. All of the following are true about phobias, except that (a) They are generated by an early emotional experience (b) The sufferer cannot the impulse to avoid them (c) The sufferer will resort to reckless activities to conceal them

(d) They can be overcome (e) Acrophobia is a fear of open places agoraphobia is a fear of high places 18. When a pupils misbehavior persists even through the teacher punishes the child for each infraction, the teacher is probably practicing a policy of (a) retribution (b) corporal punishment (c) negative reinforcement (d) sarcasm (e) repression 19. Saurabh and Suresh have the same mental age 8-0. We can conclude that (a) they have the same potential for success in school. (b) they have the same IQ (c) their interests are similar (d) their ability to learn may be quite different (e) they copied from each other on the test 20. A child whose class is in a windowless room may have to be assigned to another class if he/she suffers from (a) acrophobia (b) agoraphobia (c) claustrophobia (d) hydrophobia (e) toxophobia 21. The self adjective mechanism that teachers often unwittingly encourage is (a) an attention getting device (b) daydreaming (c) regression (d) fantasy (e) withdrawal 22. When an individual repeats those leanings that, in the past, proved to be highly satisfying such behavior can best be explained by the law of (a) recency

(b) frequency (c) readiness (d) effect (e) exercise 23. Childrens attitudes toward persons of different ethnic groups are generally based upon (a) their parents attitudes (b) the attitudes of their peer (c) the influence of television (d) their sibling attitudes (e) their religious affiliation 24. All of the following are sound mental hygiene practices, except (a) asking pupils to correct their answers after their tests have been marked (b) discussing an individual pupils test marks with the class (c) asking parents to sign test papers so that that they are aware of their childs marks. (d) Having pupils keep a record of their own test marks (e) Conferring with pupils about the results of a group of tests. Answers: 17. (e) acrophobia is a fear of open places agoraphobia is a fear of high places 18. (c) negative reinforcement 19. (d) their ability to learn may be quite different 20. (c) claustrophobia 21. (a) an attention getting device 22. (d) effect 23. (a) their parents attitudes 24. (b) discussing an individual pupils test marks with the class 25. All of the following advanced principles of child development that are closely allied to the stimulus response learning theory, except (a) Pavilov (b) J B Waston (c) Hull (d) Gesell (e) Skinner

26. All of the following can be signs that a child is gifted, except (a) early development of a sense of time (b) interest in encyclopaedias and dictionaries (c) uneasy relationships with peers. (d) Easy retention of facts (e) High intellectual curiosity. 27. Frobels most important contribution to education was his development of the (a) vocational school (b) public high school (c) kindergarten (d) Latin School (e) Play school 28. Teacher tenure laws can best be justified because they (a) protect teachers whose political views differ sharply with those of the community (b) Provide for stability of staffing (c) Allow an experienced teacher to plan creatively (d) Protect teachers from excessive requirements of principals (e) Prevent teachers from leaving to accept positions in higher paying school districts 29. All of the following are contributing to the crisis in urban schools except (a) the rapid increase in school pollution (b) the disappearance of taxable property (c) the deterioration and decline of real property (d) the displacement of people (e) high mobility 30. of the following, the main purpose of state certification of teachers is to (a) monitor the quality of teacher training institutions (b) provide for a uniform standard of entry-level teacher competency throughout the state (c) exclude from the profession those not trained in pedagogy (d) exclude from the profession those who are mentally unhealthy (e) provide a basis for acceptable performance based on teacher

evaluation 31. The incorrectly associated pair is (a) Joseph Lancaster contract plan (b) Benjamin Franklin-academy (c) James B Conant high school (d) Horace Mann elementary education (e) Elizabeth Peabody kindergarten 32. When parents ask teachers about their childrens television habits, it is best to suggest that they (a) prohibit television viewing (b) use television for rewards and punishments (c) allow children to watch only those programmes selected by the parents (d) encourage family viewing and discussion of jointly selected programmes (e) give children freedom to selected whatever they want to see Answers: 25. (d) Gesell 26. (c) uneasy relationships with peers 27. (c) kindergarten 28. (a) protect teachers whose political views differ sharply with those of the community 29. (a) the rapid increase in school pollution 30. (b) provide for a uniform standard of entry-level teacher competency throughout the state 31. (a) Joseph Lancaster contract plan 32. (d) give children freedom to selected whatever they want to see 33. Curriculum makers have the most difficulty when: (a) there is an inflationary cycle (b) the nature of the student population is changing (c) parents are participants (d) teachers unions insist on input (e) school boards must their final approval 34. A school district has adopted a policy prevents teachers from marking the examinations of their own students. The most valid justification of this policy is that:

(a) teacher favour their pet students (b) some parents pressure teachers to give their children high marks (c) teachers should not be in a position to evaluate the results of their own teaching (d) this is the best way for principals to evaluate how well pupils are learning (e) pupils will have no reason to bring presents to their teachers 35. A major contribution of the Jesuits to education includes all of the following except: (a) insistence on well trained teachers (b) repetition and memorization as teaching methods (c) self discipline (d) concentration on the early education of children (e) emphasis on the classics as the basis of the curriculum 36. De facto school segregation is segregation that is primarily a result of: (a) guidelines issued by the State Commissioner of Education (b) discriminatory zoning of a local school board (c) Residence patterns of the community (d) Federal education laws (e) Rulings of the courts 37. The educator who advanced the idea of the five formal steps in leaving was: (a) Rousseau (b) Comenius (c) Pestalozzi (d) Herbart (e) Froebel 38. That the mind of an infant is a tabula rasa is the contribution of: (a) Plato (b) Horace Man (c) John Locke (d) J.J Rousseau (e) Johann Herbart 39. The disadvantaged childs chances for success in school will be maximized when:

(a) he/she is given a high concentration of skills subjects (b) he/she is provided with vocational training earlier than other children (c) He/she is treated like any other child (d) His/her intellectual potential is discovered and his/her educational deficiencies are overcome (e) It is realised that he/she needs a separate class to meet his/her needs 40. The individual develops through the head, the heart, and the hand, this was the educational philosophy of: (a) Herbart (b) Comenius (c) Pestalozzi (d) Froebel (e) Rousseau Answer: 33. (b) the nature of the student population is changing 34. (c) teachers should not be in a position to evaluate the results of their own teaching 35. (d) concentration on the early education of children 36. (c) Residence patterns of the community 37. (d) Herbart 38. (c) John Locke 39. (d) His/her intellectual potential is discovered and his/her educational deficiencies are overcome 40. (c) Pestalozzi 41. Martin Luthers greatest contribution to education was his: (a) Ninety Five Theses (b) Translation of the Bible into German (c) Advocacy of science curriculum for the universities (d) Concept of justification by good works (e) Advocacy of church control of schools 42. Of the following the statement that is least educationally valid is that: (a) heterogeneous grouping is undemocratic (b) Drill periods should be brief (c) Study habits should be taught (d) Overlearning constitutes a waste of time (e) The quality of a students notes book should be a factor in formulating

the students mark 43. In a kindergarten class it would be unreasonable to expect a child to: (a) care for plants (b) clean up after clay work (c) bring an old shirt for painting activities (d) know when it is time to clean up (e) return a class library book to the shelf 44. Of the following, the best example of an anecdotal report is: (a) Tom is always fidgeting; he must be hyperactive (b) On 12/1, 12/2, 12/4, during reading group time, Tom fidgeted in his seat" (c) Tom doesnt like reading; he always fidgets during a reading lesion (d) Tom is always fidgeting; his parents must be putting a lot of pressure on him (e) Tom is a fidgeter 45. The trial and error method of instruction is best enhanced by: (a) role playing (b) programmed instruction (c) the developmental lesson (d) an audio visual lession (e) independent study 46. A parent of a fourth grader refuse to give permission for her child to go on a class trip. The teacher should first: (a) refer the matter to the guidance counselor (b) confer with the parent to discuss the educational purpose of the trip (c) give the class a homework assignment for all parents to sign, giving reasons why each child wants to go on the trip (d) Ask another teacher in the same grade to take that child on the day of the trip (e) Tell the class that the trip will be cancelled if any child does not receive parental permission 47. All of the following are evidence of a good class audio-visual programme except: (a) using globes and maps to teach geographic skills and concepts (b) developing a weekly list of recommended television programmes for

home viewing (c) teacher previewing of all fimstrips to be shown to the class (d) allowing children to decide which educational television programmes they will view in class (e) providing study guides for class viewing of fims 48. An increase in comprehension skill is most likely to result from: (a) guided silent reading (b) guided oral reading (c) unstructured silent reading (d) the teacher reading to the class (e) listening to tapes of childrens stories Answer: 41. (b) Translation of the Bible into German 42. (d) Overlearning constitutes a waste of time 43. (d) know when it is time to clean up 44. (b) On 12/1, 12/2, 12/4, during reading group time, Tom fidgeted in his seat" 45. (e) independent study 46. (b) confer with the parent to discuss the educational purpose of the trip 47. (d) allowing children to decide which educational television programmes they will view in class 48. (a) guided silent reading 49. In dealing with a class that is misbehaving, the teachers least effective course of action is to (a) ask the principal to observe him/her and make recommendations (b) lower the grades of pupils who create the most serious infractions (c) isolate those most responsible for the misbehaviour (d) ascertain the extent to which his/her methods and/or curriculum are responsible (e) Ask the advice of his/her grade leader 50. A fourth grade child takes the possessions of pupils who sit near her. The teachers best initial step is to (a) isolate the child in a corner of the room (b) make a note of this behaviour in the childs permanent record (c) ignore the behaviour, as it will eventually disappear (d) arrange a parent conference to try to determine causation

(e) assign the pupil to detention 51. All of the following are appropriate areas for pupil teacher planning except (a) the days schedule (b) the selection of committees (c) the sequence in a skills programme (d) a class party (e) the selection of recreational reading 52. All of the following are examples of intrinsic motivation except (a) encouraging pupils to help develop the aim of a lesson (b) permitting pupils to evaluate each others answers (c) utilizing pupils backgrounds and experiences (d) giving short quizzes at the beginning of a lesson (e) asking pupils to contribute to a class resource file 53. The most important objective of committee work is to have children (a) practice parliamentary procedure (b) develop the leadership skills of the high achievers (c) develop skills of cooperative learning and problem solving (d) acquire factual information efficiently (e) learn socialization skills 54. All of the following statements about children are correct except that (a) Older children in elementary schools are less prone to illness than younger children (b) Many children do not eat proper breakfasts (c) A child with an auditory handicap may be completely unaware of it (d) Children like teachers who are firm and consistent (e) Girls are superior to boys of the same age in mathematical abilities 55. All of the following are descriptive of good teaching except that (a) Creative methods can used to achieve traditional goals (b) Teachers may fail to achieve satisfactory adjustment of some children despite use of optimum procedures (c) When given, a punishment should immediately follow the misbehaviour

(d) Teachers should allow acting out children to handle manipulative materials (e) Teachers should refer all children with emotional problems to the guidance counsellor 56. A sixth-grade class includes a group of children reading on the fourth-grade level. Of the following, the best material to use with this group is a (a) fourth-grade basal reader (b) tape recorder (c) high interest, low level book of stories (d) sixth grade workbook (e) local newspaper Answer: 49. (b) lower the grades of pupils who create the most serious infractions 50. (d) arrange a parent conference to try to determine causation 51. (c) the sequence in a skills programme 52. (b) permitting pupils to evaluate each others answers 53. (c) develop skills of cooperative learning and problem solving 54. (e) Girls are superior to boys of the same age in mathematical abilities 55. (e) Teachers should refer all children with emotional problems to the guidance counselor 56. (c) high interest, low level book of stories 57. A child who frequently loses his/her place where reading can be temporarily helped by: (a) allowing him/her to fingerpoint (b) giving him/her a card to place under each line being read (c) providing him/her with a large-print reader such as those used by the visually handicapped (d) letting him/her listen to taped stores (e) telling his/her parents that he/she needs glasses 58. Of the following activities in a science class, the one with least educational value is (a) viewing a filmstrip (b) constructing a model (c) drawing a design (d) reading about a simple experiment (e) discussing a scientific principle

59. The operation of the class library should be the responsibility of (a) The teacher (b) Volunteer parents (c) The children who contributed the books (d) Rotating committees of pupils (e) The school librarian 60. Group tests that have norms for each grade and that that are administered in accordance with uniform procedures listed in a manual of instruction are called (a) School wide finals (b) Quizzes (c) Standardized tests (d) Class tests (e) The WALS 61. In comparing the lecture and developmental lessons, all of the following are true except that (a) there is more pupil activity in the developmental lesson (b) it is more difficult to ascertain pupil learning in a lecture lesson (c) the lecture method is more conducive to larger classes (d) slow children drive more benefit from a lecture than brighter children to (e) motivation and summary are necessary in both lessons 62. A teacher notes poor attendance in class on Fridays, the day weekly tests are given. The teacher should (a) call the parents of the absentees (b) schedule tests throughout the week (c) do nothing (d) tell the pupils that missing two tests will result in a failing mark (e) schedule all tests for Monday, after the children have had a restful weekend 63. When the majority of pupils in a science class is well below grade level in reading, the teacher should (a) read to the class from the text book (b) plan many hands-on activities (c) show many filmstrips

(d) prepare many dittoed sheets for the pupils to use (e) lecture to the class, using simple language 64. During the first parent teacher conference of the year, the teacher should do all to the following except (a) take notes (b) include the child, when appropriate (c) encourage the parent to talk about her child (d) disagree with the parents philosophy of child reading (e) offer a cup of coffee or tea Answer: 57. (b) giving him/her a card to place under each line being read 58. (d) reading about a simple experiment 59. (d) Rotating committees of pupils 60. (c) Standardized tests 61. (d) slow children drive more benefit from a lecture than brighter children to 62. (b) schedule tests throughout the week 63. (b) plan many hands-on activities 64. (d) disagree with the parents philosophy of child reading 65. Career education should begin (a) in kindergarten (b) in the third or fourth grades (c) when the child enters junior high school (d) in high school economics classes (e) when the child begins to ask questions about jobs 66. Of the following birds of advice given by an experienced teacher to a new colleague, it would be best to ignore the one that state (a) if you have a very shy child, dont call on the child, wait until the child volunteers (b) give praise to even the poorest achiever; you can always find something worthwhile to praise (c) When a child misbehaves, first look for the reaction (d) Write an interesting question on the board for the pupils to answer as soon as they enter the room (e) Ask many how and Why questions and not too many what and who questions

67. To be successful with an overactive child, the teacher should (a) Give the child extra written work so he/she will have a reason for remaining in his/her seat (b) Allow the child to leave his/her seat whenever he/she becomes restless (c) Provide the child with purposeful activities that legitimize the need for movement (d) Isolate the child from the class (e) Give the child a pass to the lavatory every half hour 68. The teacher of a class with a sizeable number of Spaniards notices that the Spaniards and the other children form two separate groups on the school playground. The teacher is best advised to (a) ignore the situation (b) suggest that the principal organize a separate class of Spaniards (c) call a meeting of the parents and ask them what they think should be done (d) Organize those playground games that promote co-mingling (e) Plan a unit on America, the Melting Plot 69. A class assembly programme best contributes to educational goals when it (a) presents a well known childrens play written by a talented author (b) features the best singers or actors in the class (c) is prepared by the teacher and based on his/her familiarity with the class (d) Is written by the children with help from the teacher, and is based on one of the current learning activities of the class (e) Is praised by parents as being just like a Broadway show 70. When planning to develop the powers of creative thinking, the teacher should allow for all of the following experience except (a) comparison of the treatment of a social studies topic in two textbooks (b) failure of an experiment in science (c) inability to locate a book in the school library (d) failure to solve a problem because of insufficient information (e) Solving of all problems through use of a well practiced formula 71. All of the following are applicable in good motivation except that it

(a) Should be brief (b) Should be relevant to the pupils (c) Should be related to the lesson that follows (d) Need not always come at the beginning of the lesson (e) Should always come from the teacher 72. Of the following statements above slow learners and bright children, the correct one is that (a) bright children are likely to have a higher incidence of emotional problems (b) slow learners are likely to have greater manual dexterity (c) slow learners are likely to be physically stronger (d) both groups are difficult to identify when very young (e) both groups strive for success in school Answers: 65. (a) in kindergarten 66. (a) if you have a very shy child, dont call on the child, wait until the child volunteers 67. (c) Provide the child with purposeful activities that legitimize the need for movement 68. (d) Organize those playground games that promote co-mingling 69. (b) features the best singers or actors in the class 70. (e) Solving of all problems through use of a well practiced formula 71. (e) Should always come from the teacher 72. (e) both groups strive for success in school 73. A small school assigns a class teacher to several hours of school library management. Of the following, the teachers top priority should be to make sure that (a) no books are lost or damaged (b) only books that are popular with the children are ordered (c) the card catalogue is in order (d) the library is used appropriately by maximum number of children (e) Children are quit while in the library 74. During a conference, the mother of the third grader asks the teacher how she can help improve her childs reading ability. Of the following the poorest recommendation is that she should (a) encourage the child to make regular visits to the public library (b) give the child books as presents for birthdays and special occasions (c) Take the child on trips to interesting places in the community (d) Read to the child

(e) Severely limit the child watching of television 75. Creative writing should be an activity planned for (a) only those children reading on grade level (b) only those children who can spell and who can write cohesive sentences (c) only those children who want to write for the class newspaper (d) all children (e) all children who consistently finish their regular language arts work on time 76. Student courts have not been widely adopted for the following reasons for this, the one most consistent with sound educational principles is that (a) Children should not try to influence the behaviour of their peers (b) Children are too lenient with their peers (c) The teacher is really the ultimate authority, so courts are just shams (d) Student court usually mete out only punishments (e) Teachers are afraid that student courts will want to judge them too 77. Of the following possible procedure to procure to follow after the class has taken a spelling test, the teacher should not (a) permit pupils to discuss the answers (b) correct the paper of the pupils who failed to finish the test (c) assign a drill to the entire class based on the most frequently misspelled words (d) Record the marks because 15 per cent of the class failed (e) Base some future language arts lesson on the results of the test 78. Of the following, the one least important to success in beginning reading is (a) a clear and lucid speech pattern (b) normal vision and hearing (c) directionality (d) knowledge of the alphabet (e) a mental age of about six and one half years 79. Lesson planning should be guided primary by the consideration of (a) meeting the needs of the average child in the class (b) creating a happy classroom environment

(c) The curriculum goals (d) Providing pupils with work (e) Satisfying parents 80. The best procedure for a teacher to adopt with a pupil who frequently stammers in class is to (a) Afford the child ample opportunity to recite to the class (b) Ignore the child (c) Suggest that the parents seek professional help (d) Suggest that the parents apply of home instruction (e) Keep the child after school for individual help Answers: 73. (d) the library is used appropriately by maximum number of children 74. (e) Severely limit the child watching of television 75. (d) all children 76. (d) Student court usually mete out only punishments 77. (c) assign a drill to the entire class based on the most frequently misspelled words 78. (d) knowledge of the alphabet 79. (c) The curriculum goals 80. (c) Suggest that the parents seek professional help 81. Of the following, the most promising step for a teacher to take in order to improve class discipline is to (a) note specific infractions for class rules in the marking book (b) evaluate his/her material, methods, and approaches toe children (c) consult the class and agree upon a graduated series of punishments (d) call a class parent meeting to discuss the situation (e) refer the worst offenders to the guidance office 82. A small machine used in the reading programme to increase rate of speed is the (a) mnemonic device (b) sphygmomanometer (c) tachistoscope (d) audiometer (e) stadiometer 83. A teacher should be catechized for all of the following practices except

(a) undermining the role of the parent (b) becoming overly friendly with pupils (c) exercising firm leadership (d) giving talented pupils special favours (e) excusing the poor behaviour of children from broken homes 84. Team teaching is chartered by all of the following except (a) the use of master teacher (b) the use of large group lectures (c) group planning (d) inflexible groupings (e) differentiated personnel assignments 85. A paraprofessional may properly engage in all of the following activities expect (a) assisting on parents night (b) conferring with parents about a child behaviour (c) making short answer tests (d) tutoring (e) distributing materials 86. The teacher introduces a problem-solving lesson with a good motivation and then asks for proposed solutions. No suggestions are forthcoming. The teacher is best advised to (a) repeat the motivation until children respond (b) tell the student to read their text (c) show an interesting filmstrip (d) stimulate pupil thought by advancing a few personal proposals (e) assign the proposed solution for homework 87. Individual differences within a class are best handled by (a) coaching slow children after school (b) giving the bright students free reading time (c) peer tutoring (d) organizing groups for specific purposes (e) making each pupil fairly 88. A quite, reserved fourth grader brings roadmaps to school and looks at them whenever he gets a chance. The teacher should (a) encourage the pupil to talk about them during a show and tell period (b) tell the pupil the leave the maps at home

(c) take the maps away (d) plan a unit on maps and globes (e) call the mother to determine the reason for the behaviour Answer: 81. (b) evaluate his/her material, methods, and approaches toe children 82. (c) tachistoscope 83. (c) exercising firm leadership 84. (d) inflexible groupings 85. (b) conferring with parents about a child behaviour 86. (d) stimulate pupil thought by advancing a few personal proposals 87. (d) organizing groups for specific purposes 88. (a) encourage the pupil to talk about them during a show and tell period 89. The tightly structured lesson that is taught with little flexibility is least conductive to the learning of the student who (a) is culturally disadvantaged (b) is hyperactive (c) has an 85 IQ (d) has a 125 IQ (e) is learning disabled 90. The discovery method of teaching is best exemplified by (a) play activities (b) rote learning (c) independent study projects (d) the open textbook lesson (e) audio visual lesson 91. The best procedure for a teacher to follow when a pupil habitually calls out in class is to (a) ask for a percent conference (b) put a demerit in the making book on each occasion (c) refuse to recognize the pupil even when he/she is acting appropriately (d) refer the pupil to the guidance counselor (e) call on the pupil to answer questions that are within his/her ability level 92. Ramesh tells her teacher that three other girls, who the teacher knows are Rameshs friends, copy from each other on all the tests. Of the following the teacher is best advised to first

(a) give the three girls a zero on the last two tests (b) confer with Rameshs mother (c) try to understand why Ramesh said this (d) refer the three girls to the guidance counselor (e) ignore the remark 93. Most educators agree that oral reading (a) comes naturally to good readers (b) is do difficult to do well that it is waste of time to teach it (c) is useful only for appreciation of poetry (d) requires an audience situation (e) is only for poor readers so they can hear their own mistakes and be motivated to correct them 94. After a lesson is taught the teachers lesson plan should be (a) thrown away (b) annotated (c) filed for use by a substitute teacher (d) filed for use at the same time next year (e) sent to the supervisor for evaluation 95. Of the following, the least appropriate opening day activity is (a) saluting the flag (b) assigning homework (c) outlining the days schedule (d) tending to class housekeeping (e) giving a brief quiz 96. The discovery method of learning is best exemplified by (a) programmed instruction (b) experimentation in a science laboratory (c) team teaching (d) mainstreaming (e) individualized programming Answers: 89. (d) has a 125 IQ 90. (c) independent study projects 91. (e) Call on the pupil to answer questions that are within his /her ability level

92. 93. 94. 95. 96.

(c) try to understand why Ramesh said this (d) requires an audience situation (b) annotated (b) assigning homework (b) experimentation in a science laboratory

RESEARCH APTITUDE Research: Research is the syst6matic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalisations principles or theories resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. Scientific research is a systematic and objective attempt to provide answers to certain questions. It is an essential and powerful tool in leading towards progress, A significant research leads to progress in some field of life. Research is born lout of human curiosity. Curiosity aroused to study movements, behaviour patterns etc. We can also define research as "ideally, the careful unbiased investigation of a problem, based in sofar as possible upon demonstrable facts and involving refined distinctions, interpretations and usually some generalisations". Educational research is the study and investigation in the field of education or bearing upon educational problems. Since research is. a continuous problem solving approach to learning it aims and assists in achieving the goals through analysis and comprehensive-investigation. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH 1. It is always directed towards the solution of aproblem. 2. It is always based on empirical or observable evidences. 3. It involves precise observation and accurate description. 4. Gives emphasis to the development of theories, principles and generalisations, which are very helpfulm accurate predictions regarding the v~able under study. 5. It is systematic, obsective and logical. Types of Research: There are many classifications of research. Some of the important classifications are: (i) Exploratory and conclusive research: Exploratory or formulate research aims at probing into phenomenon to formulate a more precise research

problem or to develop a hypothesis. While conclusive research tests these hypothesis . developed through exploratory research and may suggest a new idea or a new opportunity. (ii) Fundamental or pure or basi.s research, applied research and action research : A fundamental research is the formal and systematic process where the researcher's aim is to . develop a theory or a model by identifying all the important variables in the situation and by discovering broad generalisations and principles about these variables. Applied research, applies the theory or model developed theories but to test those existing theories in actual problem situations. Action research has recently been popular in the field of social psychology, industrial psychology and education. In action research, researcher focuses upon the immediate consequences and applications of a problem of a theory or a model. (iii) Historical research, descriptive research and experimental research: Historical research describes what was. The process involves investigation, recording, analyzing and interpreting. the everits of the past for the purpose of . discovering generalizations that are helpful in understanding the past and the present and to a limited extent, in anticipating the future. Descriptive research describes records, analyzes', and interprets the conditions that exist, practices that prevail,. beliefs, points of views or attitudes that are held processes that are going in effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing. It involves some type of comparison or contrast and attempts to discover relationship between existing nonmanipulated variables. It can be of various types , like survey studies, interrelationship studies casual comparative studies and development studies. Experimental research describes what will be when certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated. The focus is on variable ~elationship . Deliberate mampulation is always a part of experimental method. Experimel'tal

research is the description and analysis of what will be, or what will occur, under careflilly controlled conditions in which ' one factor is varied and the others are kept constant and can be repeated by another investigator, by the same investigator or another occassion with nearly identical results. (iV) Experimental and non-experimental research: This classification is based on the nature of research. An experimental research is one where the independent variables can be directly manipulated by , experimenter. It is further divided into two main types- Laboratory experiment and field experiment. A non experiinental research is one where independent variables cannot be manipulated and therefore cannot be experimentally studied. A non experimental research can be divided into three main types- field, studies, expost factor research and sUFVey" research. LABORATORY EXPERIMENT: It is the study of a problem in a situation in which some variables are manipulated and some are controlled in order to have an effect upon the dependent variable. The variables which are manipulated are known as in'dependent variables and the variables which are controlled are known as extraneous ot'relevent variables. Thus in ~ laboratory e~periment the effect of manipulation of an iridependent variables upon the dependent variable is observed under controlled conditions. FIELD EXPERIMENTS: It is a study carried out is a more or less realistic situation or field where the experimenter successfully manipUlates one or more independent variables under the maximum possible controlled conditions. FIELD STUDY : It is a study which systematically discovers relations and interactions among variables in real life situations such as school, factory, comm~nity college etc. It field study the ihvestigator depends upon the existing conditions of a field situation as well as upon the selection of subject for determining the relationship among variables. EXPOST FACTO STUDY : In this the investigators attempt to trace an effect which has already occurred to its probable causes. The

effect becomes the dependent variable and the probable causes become the independ~nt variable. The investigator has no direct control over such variables. SURVEY RESEARCH : It is a technique where, the investigator or researcher studies the whole population with respect to certain sociological and psychological variables. Depending upon the ways of collecting data, survey research can be classified into different categories, namely, personal interview, main questionnaire, panel technique arid telephone survey. STEPS OF RESEARCH (a) Identification of research : The very 1st step of research is to identify the subject and nature ofthe problem. (b) Proposal of Action : After identifying the subject or the problem, we proposed an action plan to solve the problem or find a sblution for that. (c) Constructing hypothesis: Hypothesis is a tentative explanation for 'an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation. It is a concept that is not yet varified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena. Characteristics of hypothesis: (i) It should state the relationship between variables. (ii) It must consist of known facts. (iii) ft can be tested. . (iv) It must be dear in its concept. (v) It must be objective and specific. (vi) It shoUld be amendable to testing with in a resonable time. So our next step is to construct a hypothesis for research and after that he plans to explain it either based em laboratory experime'nt or field experiment. (d) Collection of data: The researcher collects data either in experimental way or in non experimental way, for his problem. (e) Presentation of data: The next step is to represent the collected data in logical manner so that he or anyone else will be able to analyse that easily. Most general way' of presentation of data in scientific or social research is to make table of the collected data in certain way which shows the relation between variables. (f) Analy~is of data: The analysis is done in both ways statistical and descriptive analysis. (g) Declaration of Result: Mter analysing

the data, the researcher declares the result of the research. Paper: It is an essay or dissertation read at a seminar or published in a journaL It is a formal written composition intended to published, presented, or read aloud or a scholarly essay. Article : It is a nonfictional literacy , composition that forms an independent part of a publication, as of a newspaper or magazine. Workshop: A meeting at which a group engages in interisive discussion.a:nd activity on a particular subject or project. ' Semiriar : ' A conference for discussion on training' on a specific subject. Conference : A formal meeting for diSCUSSIon or debate. Symposium: A meeting or conference for discussion of a topic, especially one in which the participants form an audience and make presentation. Dissertation : or Thesis : A treafies advancing a new point of view resulting from research; usually a requirement for an advanced academic degree. Thesis and its format : One of the mClst general format for thesis is given below. The list of contents and chapter are almost same for every subjectiuniversity. In some cases one or two heading may be irrel~vant or one or two more heading may be required. We can divide the whole thesis in four parts : (i) Introduction (ii) Explanation of the topic(iii) Details of research & its result (iv) Refererice ,md appendices. Think about the plan of chapters and decide what is best for your research. Then make a list, in point form , of what will go in ea.ch chapter. Always represent the text of thesis in logical order. Make a plan for each chapter and section, the result will probably be clearer and easier to read. The different heading may be the following: (i) Copyright Waiver : This' gives the university library the right to publish your work. ' (ii) Declaration : This page declares that the thesis is your own work and is not taken from any other's work. I (iii)Title Page: The format of this page may be Title/Author "A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of PhilosQphy in

faculty of Sci encelT he ... University"/date. (iv) Abstract : This part is most important part of the thesis it is most widely page. It is best written towards the end. It should be self contained and contains a consise description of the problem(s) addressed. Your method of solving, result and conclusion. (v) Acknowledgements: It is the thanks giving page to all the people who helped in the research or whose work you used' for your research. (vi) Table of content: Introduction starts from page 1, the earlier pages should have different numbering system. (vii) Introduction : This gives the details about the topic its importance. This must be very interesting. You should not bore the reader. Never overestimate the reader's familiarity with your topic. (viii) Literature Review : Where did the problem come from? what is already known about the problem? If you have been keeping up with the literatUre as you vowed to do three years ago, and if you have made notes about important papers over the year, then you have some good points for the review. (ix) Materials and Methods : This varies from thesis to thesis and may be absent in theoretical thesis. It explains the methods used for research. (x) Theory (xi) Results and Discussion: The results and discussion are very often combined in thesis. The division of results and Discussion material into chapters is usually best done according to subject matter. In most cases your result need discussion. What do they mean? How can they fit into existing body of knowledge? Are they consistent with present theories? Do they give new insight? Do they suggest new theories or mechanism? (xii) Conclusion : Generally abstract also contains conclusion in very briefform. A summary of conclusions may be put in point form after the result and discussion chapter. (xiii) Reference and Appendices (xiv) Bibliography

QUESTIONS I 1. Who said that members of the same species are not alike? (a) Darwin (b) Herbert Spencer (c) Best (d) Good 2. A st;:ttistical measure based upon the entire population is called parameter while measure based upon a sample is known as (a) sample parameter (b) inference (c) statistic (4) none of these 3. Generalized conclusion on the basis of a sample is technically known as. (a) statistical inference of external validity of the research (b) data analysis and interpretation (c) parameter inference (d) all of the above 4. A researcher selects a probability sample of 100 out of the total population. It is (a) a cluster sample (b) a random sample .. (c) a stratified sample (d) a systematic sample 5. Aresearcher divides the populations into PG, graduates and 10 + 2 students and using the random digit table he selects some of them from . each. This is technically called (a) stratified sarp.pling (b) stratified random sampling ' (c) representative sampling (d) none ofthese 6. The final result of a study will be more accurate if the sample drawn is (a) taken randomly (b) fixed by quota (c) representative to the population (d) purpOSIVe 7. A researcher selects only 10 members as a sample from the total population of 5000 and considers it good because (a) he was a good researcher (b) he was guided by his supervisor (c) the populations was homogeneous (d) all ofthese 8. Area (cluster) sampling t echnique is used when (a) popul~tion is scattered and large size of the sample is to be drawn (b) population is heterogeneous

(c) long survey is needed (d) (a) and (c) 9. A researcher divides his population into certain groups and fixes the size of the sample from each group. It is called (a) stratified sample (b) quota sample (c) cluster sample (d) all of the above 10. Which ofthe following is a non-probability sample ? (a) Quota sample (b) Simple random sample (c) Purposive sample (d) (a) and (c) both 11. Which t echnique is generally followed when the population is finite ? (a) Area sampling technique (b) Purposive sllmpling technique (c) Systematic sampling technique (d) None ofthe above 12. Validity of a research can be improved by (a) eliminating extraneous factors (b) taking the true representative sample ofthe population (c) both of the above measures (d) none ofthese 13. Field study is related to (a) real life situations (b) experimental situations (c) laboratory situations (d) none of the above 14. Independent variables are not marupulated in (a) normative researches (b) ex-post facto researches (c) both ofthe above (d) none ofthe above 15. The research antagonistic to ex-post facto research is (a) experimental studies (b) normati~e researches (c) library researches (d) all ofthe above 16. Who is regarded the father of scientific social surveys? (a) Darwin (b) Booth (c) Best (d) None oft.hese 17. Attributes of objects, events or things which can be measured are called (a) qualitative measure (b) data (c) variables (d) none ofthe above 18. The process not nE;ededin experimental

researches is (a) observation (b) controlling (c) manipulation and replication (d) . reference collection 19. The experimental study is based on the law of (d) single variable (b) replication (c) occupation (d) interest ofthe subject 20. All are example of qualitative variables except (a) religion and castes (b) sex (c) observation (d) interest of the subject 21. An example of scientific knowledge is (a) authority ofthe Prophet or great men (b) social traditions and customs (c) religious scriptures (d) laboratory and field experiments 22. A teacher encounters various problems during his professional experiences. He should (a) resign from his post ' in . such situations (b) do research onthat problem and find a solution (c) avoid the problematic situations , (d) take the help of head ofthe institution 23. A research problem is feasible only when (a) it is researchable (b) it is new and adds something to knowledge (c) it has utility and relevance (d) all of these 24. Formulation of hypothesis may not be necessary m (a) survey studies (b) fact finding (historical) studies (c) normative studies (d) experimental studies 25. Studying the social status of a population a researcher concluded that Mr. X is socially backward. His conclusion is (aJ wrong (b) right (c) inaccurate (d) biased Note: Such studies are conducted m relative terms. 26. A good hypothesis should be (a) precise, specific and conslstent with most known facts (b) formulated in such a way that it can be tested by the data

(c) of limited scope and should not have global significance '(d) all of these 27. Hypothesis can not be stated in (a) null and question form terms (b) declarative terms (c) general terms (d) directional terms 28. Logic of induction is very close to (a) the logic of sampling (b) the logic of observation (c) the logic of the controlled variable (d) none of the above 29. In order to augment the acc~acy of the study a researcher (a) should increase the size of the sample (b) should be honest and unbiased (c) should keep the variance high (d) all of these 30. All causes n?n ,sampling errors except 19 (a) faulty tools of measurement (b) inadequate sample (c) non response (d) defect in data collection 31. Total error in a research is equal to (a) sampling error + non-sampling error (b) [(sampling error) + (non - sampling error)t (c) only samp'ling error (d) sampling error x 100 32. The probability of a head and a tail of tossing four coins simultaneously is (a) 118 (b) 116 (c) 114 (d) 1164 33. Which of the fQl10wing is a primary source of data? ' (a) Personal records, letters, diaries, autobio-graphies, wills, etc. (b) Official records-governments' documents, information preserved by social-religious organizations etc. (c) Oral testimony of traditions and customs (d) Allofthe ahove 34. For doing external criticism (for establishing the authenticity of data) a researcher must verify: (a) the signature and handwriting of the author (b) the paper and ink used in that period whicltis under study (c) style of prose writing of that period (d) all of the above

35. The validity and reliability of a research will be at stake when(a) The author wh,o is the source of information is biased, . incompetent or dishonest (b) The incident was reported after a long period of time from that of its occurrence (c) T4e researcher himself is not competent enough to draw logical conclusions (d) All ofthe above 36. While writing research report a researcher (a) must riot use the numerical figures in numbers in the beginning of sentences (b) must arrange it in lpgical, topical and chronological order (c) must compare his results with those of the other studies (d) all of the above 37. A researcher wants to study the future of the Congress I in India .. For the study which tool is most appropriate for him? (a) Questionnaire (b) SchedUle (c) Interview (d) Rating scale 38. Survey study aims at: (i) knowing facts about the l!Xisting situation (ii) comparing the present status with the standard norms (iii) criticising the existing situation (iv) identifying the means of improving the existing situation (a) (i) and (ii) only (b) (i), (ii), and (iii) (c) (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) (d) (ii) and (iii) only 39. Seeing a very big rally it was reported that JD will win the election, the conclusion was based on : (a) random sampling (b) cluster sampling ' (c) systematic sampling (d) purposive sampling 40. The per capita income of India from 1950 to 1990 is four times. This study is (a) social (b) horizontal (c) longitudinal (d) factorial 41. It is an example of negative correlation: (a) an increase iiI population will lead to a shortage of food grains

(b) poor intelligence means poor achievement in school (c) corruption in India is increasing (d) poor working condition retards output 45.If you are doing experiment on a large group of sample which method of controlling will you adopt? (a) matching (b) randomization (c) elimination and matching both (d) elimination . The other name of independent variable for an experimental research is/are (a) treatment variable (b) experimental variable (c) manipulated variable (d) all of the above 46.The historical research is different from experimental research in the process of (a) replication (b) the formulation of the hypothesis (c) the hypothesis testing (d) all of the above 47.The reVIew of the related study . is important while undertaking a research because (a) it avoids repetition or duplication (b) it helps in understanding the gaps (c) it helps the researcher not to draw illogical conclusions (d) all of the above 48. Which of the following is not the characteristic of a researcher? (a) He is a specialist rather than a generalist (b) He is industrious and persistent on the trial of discovery (c) He is not inspirational to his chosen field but accepts the reality (d) He is not versatile in his interest and even in his native abilities (e) He is versatile in his interest, even in his native abilities (f) he is objective 49. Collective psychology of the whole period is a theory which (a) can explain all phase of historical 21 development (b) means the psychology of the whole society (e) means psychological approach of data collection

(d) all oftl1.e above 50. Bibliography given in a research report (a) helps those interested in further research and studying the problem from another angle (b) makes the report authentic (e) shows the vastknowledge of the researcher (d) none ofthe above 51. If the sample drawn does not specify any condition about the parameter of the . population, it is called (a) selected statistics (b) distribution free statistics (c) census (d) none of the above ANSWERSI 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (a) (e) (a) (b) (b) (e) (e) (d) (b) (d) 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 le) (e) (a) (e) (a) (b) (e) (d) (a) (d) 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 (d) (b) (d) (b) (e) (d) (e) (a) (d) (b) 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 (b) (b) (d) (d) (d) (d) (a) (b) (b) (e) 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 (a) (b) (e) (b) (d) (d) (d) (d) (a) (a) 51 (b) EXPLANATORY ANSWERS I 12. (c): When we study about an event by 5. (b): Division of population on the basis of taking a sample from the population it class, income, education level etc is is cal.led statistic and a group . of called stratification and every member statistical measures is called statistics. of ea~h stratum has equal chance of 4. (b): In random sampling technique every being selected by the researcher. In number of the population has equal this way characteristics of various chance of being selected. strata are identified and studied. 6. (c): The more the sample represents the population the more accurate are the results of the study. Sample can be made more representative either by increasing the size of the sample or by following more rellable method of sampling. 7. (c): If characteristics of the population is homogeneous a small sample may be enough for study because it may represent the whole population easily. 8. (d): When long survey is being done and population is scattered over a large area then researcher selects various groups from the whole area. The selection of these groups is bailed on the discretion ofthe researcher.

14. (c): In normative researches only data are collected from the survey and after analysing them results are declared. Thus there is no need of manipulating independent variables. In ex-post facto research effects are already known and researcher studies the. causes lying behind these ' effects. Here too independent variable are not manipulated. 15. (a): Studies opposite to ex-post facto are experi-mental ones where various causes are first presented and their effects due to manipulation of the single variable are seen. . 16. (b): Reference collection is not needed in experimental studies because a researcher relies only on his own results which may be different from the previous studies. 22. (b): It is but natural to face various problems in life and seeking solutions to these problems is a must. A true teacher always tries to get solution of his problem by doing formal or informal researches. 25. (c): Such type of studies are always comparative in nature. He should say that Mr. X is socially or economically backward as compared to Mr Y. 32. (b): If there is only one coin the probability of its being head and tail is 50% - 50%. If coins are two then each will have 25% chance of getting down head and tail. Now if coins are four this chance will be 12Y2% each and so on. 37. (a): Questionnaire is most appropriate technique for studying such problems because a large sample of the population can be covered in a short period by mailing it to the respondants. 41. (a): When one variable is increasing and the other one is decreasing then correlation will be negative, zero correlation means variables are independent of each other and in positive correlations direct relationship is seen in both the variables 42. (b): In cross-sectional studies population of various ages, sex or religions is taken and their attributes are collected. Then which attribute is common to a

particular group is identified by averaging the attributes. INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW OF COMPUTERS 1. COMPUTERS Computers were originally invented to carry out numerical calculations in the 19308-408. Later they were gradually developed to process aU kinds of data. such 8S numbers, texts, and other types of media. A computer system consists of two types of components: hardware and software. Hardware is the equipment used to perform the necessary oomputations and includes the central processing unit (CPU), monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, and 80 on. Software consists of programs written in programming languages that control the hardware to carry out variolls tasks. Whatever a computer needs to process are eventually translated into binary numbers, consisting of Os and le. The programs are translated into lists of instructions working on the binary numbers. 2. HARDWARE Major hardware components of a computer include memory, processing unit, and input! output devices. Memory is the place w here the programs and data are stored. It can be imagined as an ordered sequence of storage locations called memory cells. Each cell has a unique address, which is like a serial number of the cell in the memory. The data stored in a memory cell are called the contents of the cell. Program treated as a special type of data. The concept of "stored program", let a program be stored in the memory before they can be executed. A memory cell contains a sequence of binary digits, or bits. Each bit is either a 0 or a l. A sequence of eight bits is usually called a byte, which represent a character, such the ones on a keyboard. To store a value i.nto a certain address means to give it new contents (so the previous one is gone). To retrieve a value from a memory cell means to copy the contents to another place without destroying it. In a computer, there are several types of memory. There is the distinction between main memory and secondary memory - the former is

faster and smaller, but the latter is cheaper, and often removable. At the current time, the former is usually in silicon chips, while the latter in hard disks, floppy disks, CDs and 80 on. There are two types of main memory: RAM (random access memory) and ROM (readonly memory). Their differences are that the contents of RAM can be modified, and are usually volatile i.e., will be lost when the computer is switched off. On the otber band, secondary memory is not volatile. In the following, ~main memory" means RAM. The terms used to quantify storage capacities: 1 byte (B) = 8 bite. 1 kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes, i.e .. 2 10 bytes 1 megabyte (MB) = 1024 kilobytes, i.e., 220 bytes 1 gigabyte (GB) = 1024 megabytes. i.e .. 230 bytes 1 terabyte (fB) = 1024 gigabytes, i.e., 2"0 bytes In a computer, most. of the operations are performed by a CPU (central processing unit.), though there are computers wit.h multiple CPUs. A CPU has two tasks: coordination of all computer operations and performing arithmetic and logical operations on data. The CPU follows the instructions contained in a program (written in a computer understandable language). In each step. the CPU fetches (i.e., retrieves) an instruction, interprets its content to decide what to do, and then do it, which may mean to move data from one place to another, or change data in a certain way. Other common operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, comparison, and so on. CPU usually executes instructions one after another, but can also jump to another memory cell according to an instruction. At the current time. a CPU is in a single integrated circuit (I C), or call it a chip. A computer uscs its inputJoutput (I/O) devices to communicate with human uscs and other computers. For a human user, the usual input device is a keyboard and a mouse, and the usual output device is a monitor (display screen), and a printer. The human-computer interaction (Hef) can either happen in a command-line user interface. or a graphical user interface (GUl). A computer network carries out communications among computer systems.

There are different types of networks: localarea network (LAN) and wide area network (WAN). The Internet connects computers allover the world. which supports the World Wide Web CNWW), am'ong many of its usages. To connect to another computer, a computer needs a modem (modulatorl demodulator), or some other network device, to translate between its intemallanguage and the language used in the network communication. The communications can go through all kinds of cables, or wireless. 3. SOFTWARE In a computer, there is a software that occupies a special position: the operating system (OS). With respect to it, all other softwarca are application softwares. which are managed and supported by the OS. When a computer is turned on, it starts by executing part of the OS that is stored in a ROM, which then loads the rest of the OS from hard disk and starts it. This process is called "booting". When running, an OS has the following main responsibilities: * comm uweating with the user, * allocating resources (CPU time, memory space, printer usage .... ). * connection 1/0 devices With running programs. * transferring data between main and secondary memory. In summary. we often say t.hat the OS manage processes and resources. At the current time, the most often used OS include UnixlLinux, Microsoft Windows. and Macintosh OS. It is possible for a ~mputer to have more than one as stored in its memory. but usually only one can be used at a time. An application software uses the computer to accomplish a specific task. They are usually purchased on CD. and installed into the computer (so itia stored in memory and known to the OS), before they can be used in the computer. The CPU, in a machine language, in which a program is in binary code. eventually executea every software. Since programs in this language are not easily understandable by a human user, the same program is usually also described in other, more human-readable languages. One type of them is a88Cmbly language. in which the instructions are represented by symbols and numbers.

Another type of language are more humanoriented, called "higher level languages", which are closer to mathematicaJ languages and natural languages (such as English), as wellu machi,ne-independent . Typical exampJes of high-level language include FORTRAN, ALGOL, COBOL, BASIC, Pascal, LISP, Prolog, Perl, C, C++, and Java. Special programs accomplish the translation fr,om high-level languages and assembly languages into machine languages: compilers, interpreters, and assemblers. A compiler translates a soUrce program in a highlevel language into an object-program in the machine language. An interpreter interprets and executes a program in a high-level language line by tine. An assembler translate8 a source program in an assembly language inti!? an object program in the machine language . . A high-level language usually comes with many readymade common programs, so the user can include them in programs, neither than rewrite them. The program responsible for this is called a "linker". It links user object programs and related "library programs", and produces executable programs. There are software packages ca lled "integrated development environment" (IDE) which organize all the related software (e.g., editor, compiler, linker, loader, debugger) together to support t he development of a software. During the execution of a program in machine language, it typically get some input data from the memory, process them according the predetermined procedure, then store some output data into the memory, and display some information to the user. 4. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT SClitware developing, also called programming, is .li problem-solving prOcess. It usually consists of the following major steps: 1. Specify the p roblem: to state the problem clearly and unambiguously. 2. Analyze the problem: to identify the corresponding outputs. 3.Design t he algorit hm: to develop a list of steps, called an algorithm, that will start with the input and stop with the output: 4. Implement t he algor ithm: to write a program in a language according to the algorithm.

5. 'Test the program: to verify that the program indeed produces the desired result in selected testing cases. 6. Maintain the program: to update the program according to new information. Very. often, steps in the above procedure need to be repeated to filed the errors found in the process. EXAMPLE Kilometer-mile translation. 1. Specify the problem: a survey of maps, some with dIstances in kilometer, while others with miles. All result should be in kilometer. 2. Analyze the problem: distance in miles should be cOnverted into kilometers. Tbe relationship is that one mile equals 1.609 kilometer. Therefore, the input is a miles value. the output is the corresponding kilometer value. 3. Design the algorithm: there are three steps: (i) get the distance in miles, (ii) times 1.609 to that number. and (iii) display the result. 4. Implement the algorithm 5. Test the program: run it with several distances in miles as input, then check the output. 6. Maintain the program: unnecessary for this problem. The World-Wide Web: Its Uses as a Teaching Tool 'World-Wide Web represents a new concept in technology, the library on your desktop, the dictionary at your fingertips, the sound at your ear. There is nothing that we hear or see that will not be available through WWW'. Why Use the Web? The World Wide Web (or the Web) is one of the most accessible tools available for academician to use. It allows an easy means of publishing material, it has a low learning curve, the majority of its brow del'S are graphical and userfreindly, and above all it is free to most people in Higher Education. The Web works on a client-server prinCIple. The user launches their browser (e.g. Netscape) on their machine, which in turn interrogates a server retrieving files. Files are located via their Uniform Resource Locator (URL)-a unique address detailing the protocol for transferring the data, the domain name of the Web server, and the pathname/filename of the

actual document. The Web presents a head-on comparison with traditional multimedia authoring tools such as Tool Book, HyperCard. Director, and 80 on. Academies who wish to create simple computeraided learning courseware often face the decision of whether they should go down the path of learning a multimedia-authoring tool and distributing the material on a CD-ROM or floppy disk; or whether they should move to the Internet and utilise the multimedia and hypertext capabilities of the Web. To clarify this a bit more, it is useful to list the advantages and disadvantages of multimedia authoring tools (MM) when compared with the Web. Advantages of MM authoring 1. Most of them have very sophisticated editing tools and background scripting languages. 2. Most will allow run-time versions to be distributed without the need for third parties to have the full version of the software they were created in (e,g. HyperCard player, etc.). 3. Due to their long history of development there is 8 substantial amount of supporting material and publications to help a prospective author. 4. The author tends to have control over the data, restricting its distribution, as well as the end-users' abilities to alter material. Disadvantages ofMM authoring 1. Every authoring package has its limitations; often limited to a single platform: poor in handling hypertext. 2. Unless the author creates specialised importing features most of the data used in the final product will be locked into the package making subsequent editing a problem. 3. The life-expectancy of these products is questionable. strides in making the authoring software mOn! easy to use, it should still be noted that the learning curve for some products is still very high. Advantages of the Web 1. Assuming one has access to a Web server (usually your institution's mainframe), publication of ma ter ial (not includinl copyright costs) IS free. 2. HTML. the mark-up la nguage used in creating World-Wide Web documents. ill

very easy to learn. 3. The Web uses non-propriety standards thUl giving the site a longer life expectancy: e.,. text is in plain ASClI. HTML is a sub-setol SGML, graphics appear 8S JPEG or GIF, etc. It is subsequently cross-platform (i.e. the same document can be viewed through a Macintosh, a Windows machine, a UNIX box. and even a dumb terminal using such browsers as LYNX though this necessitatee the loss of multimedia elements). 4. Once established, the material is made available to an international audience amounting to millions (with no extra distribution costs). 5. Linking from the document is not restricted to data elsewhere on the machine's hard drive or the CD-ROM the program is distributed on, but can be international In turn. if you are thinking of creating a virtual environment for your students, the Web will allow to link, with ease, to other Universities. 6. Software needed for the Web is free in most 4. The potential audience is limited by the distribution process (e.g. cost and speed of 7. producing CD-ROMs), and the platform requirements. cases (both browsers and servers) or very cheap, and are easy to use. The Web can deliver multimedia (including video and audio) elements in additio:l to text. Additionally, plug-ins for the various browsers allow users to interact with VRML sites. 5. If the product is upgraded this would have to be in conjunction with a re-issue of a new version, entailing all the problems of 8. advertising these changes, plus a renewed round of distribution. 6. Although software houses have made great Editing of existing files is straightforward. Furthermore, as it works on a clientiserver basis there is no onus on the developer to reo issue upgrades. Disadvantages of the Web 1. At present, the screen design facilities and animation capabilities of the Web are not as advanced as those provided with most of the authoring packages. However, Macromedia's Shockwave goes someway to addressing this; as does Java; or the more user friendly JavaScript. Cascading style

sheets may aid the screen layout process in the near future. 2. Access on networks is slow (probably the most consistent criticism levelled at publishing on the Internet). However, in answer to this, it tlhould not be forgotten that HT11L flies can be read from local networks or bard drives thus dispensing with the reliance on the speed of the Internet. Academics wishing to provide online tutorials or notes via the Web could even distribute their files on floppy disks. 3. By opening up access to an international audience there are serious implications for copyright issues. A developer wishing to publish on the Web will probably have to agree world rights on the material t!tey use. In short, the technical problems, though still there on the Web, are far outweighed by the advantages of using it, making it a more attractive prospect for the development of CBL material than traditional multimediaauthoring packages (though it should be noted that manufacturers of the latter are constantly seeking ways to deliver traditional multimedia packages through Web browsers). INTERNET The term Internet stands for InterNetwork Systems. It is a global network of networks. It consists of thousands of interconnected computer networks. TIle growth of the Internet is phenomenal. The Internet is being viewed as a phenomenon unparalleled since the invention of the printing press that ushered in a revolution in the production, circulation and exchange of information. The technical foundation of the Internet allows it to keep expanding almost indefinitely. The Internet has been compared with a tidal wave that will wash over the computer industry snd many others and drowning those who don't learn to swim in its waves. As the computer has become a part and parcel of modern offices the Internet will force itself into the very texture of our life by the turn of the century. For millions of users the world over, Internet has become a means of cross-border transfer of information. It facilitates direct contact between researchers from different countries. It is an exceptional means of communication. It offers an opportunity to every individual to exercise power in a way that

no information structure has ever provided. Information put on the Internet becomes instantaneously available and which can be accessible to millions of individuals. No single individual or organisation owns the Internet. Its management is completely decentralised. It is entirely managed by individual and organisational volunteers. Each network meets the expenditure for the installation and operating costs as well as those of connecting up with the other networks_ USES OF THE INTERNET The list of services available on the Internet is expanding everyday. It has come to be the single unparalleled dt!vice for rmding solutions to all sorts of problems. Image, sound and text travel easily on the Internet. Users from all over the world can discuss back and forth. The Internet can arrange a round table conference at much lower cost. It has already become a new medium of business. Some important applications of the Internet are: E-mail: E-mail is the most widely used Internet service and it has abolished the notion of distance. To send a message through E-mail one has to type a message and it would travel instantly over the network to whomever one wishes. An electronic mailbox that is an address, which specifies the source or destination of an electronic mail message, is the essence of electronic mail. This mailbox,. a storage area that keeps the message until the user reads it. An e-mail message can include text, graphics, voice and video. FTP: File Transfer Protocol (FTP), a client server protocol allows a user on one computer system to t.ransfer files to and from another computer system over a TeptIP network regardless of the platforms the users or the host. (remote) site are using provided the user knows the address of the host computer and has some kind of idea of the information stored there. Usenet: Usenet originally implemented in 1979-80 has grown to develop as the largest decentralised information utility in existence. It encompasses government agencies, universities, high schools, business houses of all denominations and individuals. Usenet has emerged 8S one of the important segments of the Internet. There are innumerable topics. A typical Use net message may contain plain text andlor encoded binary information. Each

message has a series of headlines which defme the source bfthe messagc, its destination, time and location of posting, what route it has taken over the network and 80 on. Chatting interactively in real time: It is possible to speak (VOICE) in real time on the Internet provided one uses the right kind of software. The quality of the audio depends on the application, the speed of the computer and the compression method used. Standard compression protocols are: CSM, CVSD AND RTP. In a full duplex conversation, one can speak and hear the other person at the same time. In half duplex, only one person can speak at a time. TelNet: One can access other computers via the Internet by using TeLNet one of the most important protocols of the Internet. TelNet provides the user an opportunity to be on one computer system and do work on another which may be very near or thousands of kilometers away. Acquiring .software ; The Internet is the world's biggest software library and it is possible to acquire software from the Internet. The software which are available free from the Internet are known as freeware a nd another kind is known as shareware software which is available for nominal charge. World Wide Web (WWW): There is an incredible amount of inform.ation on the Internet and it is growing exponentially. As any individual or organisation does not control the Internet there is no master record of its information resources. WWW,aproductofthe continuous search for innovative ways of searching information, is a mecha nism that links together information stored on many computers throughout the world. One of the important characteri stics of the WWW documents is their hypertext structure created by Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) a simple data format. HTML lets one easily link words or pictures in one document to other documents and the resulting bypertext documents are portable from one platform to another. HTML works on matter where the documents are stored - whether in the same computer or elsewhere on the Net. One will just have to click on a phrase or icon in t he first document with one's mouse for the Internet to fetch the related documents on the computer's screen. The system requirements for running a

WWW server are minimal. WWW provides a way to interconnect computers running different operating systems. The simplicity of the HTML used for interactive documents allows a user to contribute to the expanding database of documents. The possibilities for hypertext in the WWW environment are endless. ISSUES OF CONCERN * As the Internet is growing 80 are host of ethical concerns abo ut it. Certainly researchers and scholars - the early users of the Internet - would like to protect the Internet from censorsh ip. But law enfol'cing age ncies particularly in those countries where the Internet is widely used are considering means to curb impersonators, pirates and other improper users. At present censorship is mainly intended to protect children against indecent material. * Advertisement on the Net is another thorny issue. By its interactive nature it is more persuasive. * In the beginning, everything that was available on the Net was free. It was intended to provide help to researchers around the world. But as the popularity of the Internet is growing a number of pay service networks are appearing. * Problems of copyright and security have already surfaced. * The continuation of the Internet as a democratic information infrastructure seems to be threatenerl by the notorious web-based terrorists who attempt to spread disinformation and the software giants who are trying to define the Webonomics. * Some people think that Internet may eventually end up in being a medium of ideological propaganda. However, such concerns do not seem to he well founded unlike other technologies of the past it is diversifying rather than a centralising force. * The rising popularity of the Internet is creating traffic jams and at certain times of the day the networks are so crowded that it is practically impossible to connect with certain server. The In~rnet is still evolving. The real Internet of the future may bear very little resemblance to today's Internet. The growth of the Internet has not followed any planned path in the past. But one thing about its future can be said with certainty that it is poised to be much bigger and exponentially faster. SPACE SCIENCE AND COMMUNICATION MILESTONES 1962 : Indian National Committee for Space

Research (INCOSPAR) formed by the Department of Atomic Energy and work on establishing Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) started. 1963 : First sounding rocket laUIlched from TERLS (November 21, ] 963). 1965 : Space Science & Technology Centre (SSTC) established in Thumba. 1967 : Satellite Telecommunication Earth Station set up at Ahmedabad. 1968: TERLS dedicated to the United Nations (February 2, 1968). 1969: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) formed under Department of Atomic Energy (August 15, 1969). 1972 : Space Commission and Department of Space set up. ISRO brought UIlder DOS (June I, 1972). 1972-76 : Air-borne remote sensing experiments. 1975 : ISRO becomes Government Organisation (Ap,il1, 1975). First Indian Satellite, Aryabhata, launched (Ap,il19, 1975). 1975-76 SateUite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) conducted. 1977 Satellite Telecommunication Experiments Project (STEP) carried out. 1979: Bhaskara-I, an experimental satellite for earth observations, launched (JUIle 7, 1979). First Expel'imental launch of SLV-3 with Rahini Technology Payload on board (August 10, 1979). Satellite could not be placed in orbit. 1980: Second Experimental launch ofSLV3. Rohinisatellite successfully placed in ol'bit. (J uly 18,1980). 1981 : First developmental launch of SLV-3. RS-Dl placed in orbit (May 31,1981) APPLE, an experimental geo-stationary communication satellite successfully launched (June 19, 1981). BhaskaraII launched (November 20, 1981). 1982: INSATlA laUIlch~d (April 10, 1982). Deactivated on September 6,1982. 1983 : Second developmental launch ofSLV3. RS-D2 placed in orbit (April 17 , 1983). INSATIB, launched (August 30, 1983). 139 1984 : I ndo-Soviet manned space mIssion (April 1984). 1987 : First developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-] satellite on board (March 24,

1987). Satellite could not be placed in orbit. 1988 : Launch of first operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, lRS-lA (March 17, 1988). INSAT-IC launched (July 21, 1988). Abandoned in November 1989. Second developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS2 on board (July 13, 1988). Satellite could not be placed in orbit. 1990: INSATI0 launched (June 12, 1990). 1991 : Launch of second operational Remote Sensing satelUte, IRSLB (August 29, 1991). 1992 : Third developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-C on board (May 20, 1992). Satellite placed in orbit.. INSAT-2A, the ft.rst satellite of the indigenously built. second generat.ion INSAT series. launched (July 10, 1992). 1993 : INSAT2B, the second sateUite in the I NSAT2 series, launched (July 23,1993). First developmental launch ofPSLV with IRSIE on board (September 20, L993). Satellite could not. be placed in orbit. 1994 : Fourth developmentallaunc.b of ASLV with SROSS-C2 on board (May 4, 199--1). Satellite placed in orbit. Second developmental launch ofPSLV with IRSP2 on board (October 15, 1994). Satellite successfully placed in polar sun synchronous orbit. 1995 : I NSAT2C, the third satellite m the INSAT2 series, launched (December 7,1995). Launch of third operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRSIC (December 28, 1995). 1996: Third developmental launch of PSLV with IRSP3 on board (March 21. 1996). Satellite placed in polar sun synchronous orbit. 1997: INSAT20, fourth sateUite in the INSAT series. launched (June 4. 1997). Becomes inoperable on October 4. 1997. (An in-orbit satellite,ARABSATIC, since renamed INSAT. 2DT, was acquired in November 1997 to partly augment the INSAT system). First operational launch otPSLV with IRS] D on board (September 29, 1997). Satellite placed in orbit. 1998: INSAT system capacity augmented With the readiness of INSAT-2DT acquired from ARABSAT(January 1998). 1999 : INSAT2E, the last satel lite In the multipurpose INSAT-2 series, launched by Ariane from I{Ourali French Guyana (April 3. 1999). fndian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRSP4

(OCEANSAT), launched by_ Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (pSLVC2) along with Korean KITSAT-3 and German OLRTUBSAT from Sriharikotn (May 26, 1999). 2000: I NSAT-3B, the first satellite in the third generation INSAT3 series. launched by Artane from KQurou French Guyana (March 22, 2000). 2001: Successfulllight test ofGeosynch..ronolis Satelhte Launch Vehicle (OSLV). (April 18, 2001) with an experimental satellite GSAT} on board. Successful launch of PSLVC3 (October 22, 2001) placing three satellites India's TES, Belgian PROBA and German BI RD. in to Polar sunsynchronous orbit. 2002 : Successful launch of INSAT-3C by Ariane from Kourou. French Guyana (January 24,2002). ISRO's Polar Satell.tte Launch Vehicle, PSLV C4, s uccessfully launched KALPANAl satellite from Sriharikota (September 12, 2002). Succcssfullaunch ofINSAT-3A by Arlane from Kourou French Guyana, (April 10, 2003). The Second developmental launch ofGSLV-02 with GSAT-2 on board from Sriharikota (May 8, 2003). Successful launch of INSAT -3E by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (September 28, 2003). ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV. C5, successfully launched RESOURCESAT! (lRS-P6) satellite from Srihankota (October 17, 2003). India launchesEOUSAT. exclusive satellite for educatitma1services. (September 2004) India recognised the potential of space science and technology for the socio-economic developmentofthe society soon after the launch of Sputnik by erstwhile USSR in 1957. The Indian space efforts started in the sixties with the establishment of Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station near Thiruvananthapuram for the investigation of ionosphere using sounding rockets. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), was established in 1969 under the Department of Atomic Energy. The Government of India gave fillip to the space activities by formally setting up t.'le Space Commission and the Department of Space (DOS) in June 1972 and ISRO was also brought under Department of Space. Over the last three decades, India has achieved an enviable progress in the design, development and operation of space systems, as

well as using the systems for vital seryices like telecommunication, television broadcasting, meteorology, disaster warning and natural resources survey and management. The space programme has become largely self-reliant with capability to design and build its own satellites for providing space services and to launch them using indigenously designed and developed launch vehicles. The successful first test flight of Geosrynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) from Sriharikota on April 18, 2001 was the most significant milestone of the Indian space programme. The launch unequivocally demonstrated India's capability to place satellites into geo-synchronous transfer orbits. India is among the si" nations in the world to achieve such a capability. The launch of OS LV is the culmination of efforts of several DOS centres and other institutions that involved complex interfaces between scientific and technological disciplines, industries and research institutions. Another important milestone during the year was the succeasfulflight of PSLV-C3 on October 22, 2001 from Sriharikota. In this fifth consecutively successful flight, PSLV placed three satellites - India's Technology Experiment Satellite, TES, Belgian PROBA and German BIRD into their intended polar sun synchronous orbit. The requircment of a higher orbit for the Belgian PROBA compared to other two satellites was successfully met by a flight. manoeuvre. Both German and Belgian satellites were launched under commcrcial agreements. The flight has clearly established the reliabil\ty of PSLV for launching not onJy the Indian remote sensing satellites, but also, multiple satellites thus making it an attractive vehicle for the international space community to launch their satellites. PSLV is also used for a geo-synchronous transfer orbit mission for launching India's l\1ETSAT in 200203. The INSAT system for telecommunication, television broadcasting and meteorology has received further boost during the year with t.he successful launch ofINSAT3C on January 24, 2002. INSAT3C will not only augment the present INSAT system but also continue the services of some of the satellites that need to be phased out at the end of their mission life. INSAT is one of the largest domestic communication satellite systems in the world with five satellites, INSAT2C, INSAT2DT,

INSAT2E, INSAT3B and INSAT3C. The INSAT system also includes a few transponders leased Crom other agencies for meeting the current demands. Planning of IN SAT -4 series of satellites has been initiated based on detailed discussions with the various users. Seven satellites are proposed in the INSAT-4 series. Experimental communication satellites, OSATa, are built, which are launched during the developmental test flights of GSLV. Besides the use of INSAT for telecommunication, broadcasting and meteorological s~rvices, emphasis is being given for using the system for grassroots level applications like developmental communication and satellitebased training. New initiatives' have been taken for using INSAT fOI" introduction of telemedicine to make speciality treatment accessible to the population an remote areas. The Indian remote sensing satellite system, IRS, which has the biggest constellation of satellites, continues to provide space-based remote sensing data for 8 number of applications in India and abroad. IRS system, at present, has five satellites, namely, LRS-lC, IRS1D, IRSP3, fRSP4 (OCEANSAT) and Technology Experiment Satellite (TES). The TES has given further fillip to advance the tecbnolo~ of remote sensing in India. It has enabled testing new satellite hardware and demonstrating newer remote sensing techniques. It incorporates a panchromatic camera providing a spatial resolution of up to 1 m. Remote sensing satellites like RESOURCESAT, CARTOSATI and CARTOSAT2, is progressing well. They will not only continue the services of the present IRS satellites but 8.lso enhance the service capabilities. CARTOSATl is already in service. The remote sensing applications continue to expand to several new areas; the data has been used to assess damage due to floods, earthquakes, etc. and for helping in relief operations. Remote Sensing Data Policy (RSDP) was announced which helps in streamline the availability of remote sensing data from indian and-foreign satellites to users in India. The launch of two satellites . one of Belgium and another of Germany - on board PSLV marks an important event during the year under commercial marketing of India's space

capabilities. Data from IRS satellites continue to be received by several ground stations worldwide. The lease agreement of transponders on board INSAT2E to INTELSAT has continued. SPACE TRANSPORTATION Space Transportation system includes the satellite launch vehicles to place satellites like I NSAT and IRS Bnd scie ntific satellites in the requisite orbits as well as the sounding rockets for carrying out short duration scientific experiments. India made a modest beginning in this area with the launch of a 75 mm diameter sounding rocket in 1963 for investigation of ionosphere over the gee-magnetic equator over Thumba, near Thiruvananthapuram. Since then, India has established a s ubstantial capability in the design, development and operationalisation of a series of sounding rockets for scientific investigations, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV, for launching Indian remote sensing satellites and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, GSLV, for launching geo.stationary communication satellites. EARTH OBSERVATIONS SYSTEM Earth Observations System (EOS) is an important space infrastructure that has been established by the Department of Space (DOS). The system, which was commissioned in 1988 with the launch of Indian Remote Sensing SatelHte, IRS lA, has the world's largest constellation of five satellites (IRS} C, fRSl D. IRS-P3, IRS-P4 and TES) presently in ' operation. It provides space-based remote sensing data in a variety of spatial resolutions and spectral bands meeting the needs of various applications. The EOS definition, development, operation and ita application are coordinated by the National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS), for which DOS is the nodal agency. NNRMS is an integrated resource management system a imed at optimal utilisation of country's natllral resources by a proper and systematic inventory of resource availability using EOS data in conjunction with conventional techniques. NNRMS is supported at the national leve l by the Planning Committee of NNRMS (pCNNRMS), which provides guidelines for implementation of the system and also oversees the progress of remote

sensing applications for natural resources management in the country. The NNRMS activities are guided by ten Standing Committees, namely, (i) Agriculture & Soils, (ii) Bio-Resources (iii) Geology and Mineral Resources (iv) Water Resources (v) Ocean Resources (vi) Cartography & Mapping (vii) Urban Management (viii) Rural Development (ix) Technology & Training and (x) Meteorology. Each of the Standing Committee is chaired by Secretaries of the re spective Government departments and includes experts from major Modular Opto-electronic Scanner (MOS) user departments. Ground reIOiullOl'l (m) 1S69x139fi 623,11.523 523lCfi44 SPACE SEGMENT No. of 8p:tU.l bliimls Satellites in Operation: There are 5 spectral (nm) 765-768 logIOto U;00-1700 Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites in Swath (km) operational at.. present IRSlC, IRS-lD,IRSP3, IRS-P4 and Technology Experiment Satellite X-ray Payload (TES). IRS-IB, which was launched in August - Three Pointed Proportional Counters (PPC) 1991. was decommissioned during the year in Energy range of2-20 keY after it served for more than 10 years, even . Xray Sky Monitor (XSM) 10 Energy though it was designed for only three years life. range 2-8 ke V IRS-1C and IRS-1D: IRS-IC and IRS-ID. IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT). IRSP4 spacecraft was which .r. identical, were launched in launched on board PSLV-C2 10 May 1999. It December 1995 .nd September L997 carries the following payloads: respectively. They carry three cameras. Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) Panchromatic Camera (PAN), Linear Imaging Sensor Parameters Specifications Self Scanner (LISS-III) and Wide Field Sensor Spatial Resolution (m) 360 (WiFS) with foUowing specifications: Swath {km) 1'120 PAN ~ WLl~S Repetitivity (days) 2 VNIR " SWIR Local time of equator 12 nool1 1 ~lIa ,. 23,1) 70.5 ". Crossing (bra) ReaoIuUon {mJ SV0'8lh (\on) 7. '" , .. 81. Spectral Bands (nm) 402-422; 433453; Speroal Band 0.60.76 0.620.159 1.~1.7 0.620.68 480-500; 500-520; (MlCI'OMJ 0.620.68 0.77-0.86 545-565: 660-680; 0,770.86 745-785: 845-885 IRS-PS IRSP3 w8s1aunched Multi-frequency Scanning Microwave 10 March L996 on board India's PSLV. It carries n Wide Field Sensor Radiometer (MSMR) (Wi.FS), Modular Opto-electronics Scanner Frequency (Gflr.) 6.G 10.6 '8 21 (MOS) developed by the German Space Agency. SIl8tJ.a1 Re80lubon (kro) '20 80 40 40 DLR, and an Xray astronomy instrument. The Swath (km) 1360 details of the payload are as follows: Temp. Resolution 1,0 dCR K IRS-P3 is operated in earth pointing mode for the operation ofWiFS and MOS and Dynamic Temp. Range 330 dog J.: In the sky

pointmg mode for the operation of the X-ray Technology Experiment Satellite (TES) instrument. TES was launched on board PSLV -C3 on October Wide Field Sensors (WiFS) 22, 2001. The satellite, weighing lL08 kg, is an llond 3 0.620.68 micron~ experimental satellite to demonstrate and Bond-'I 0.770.86 microns validate, in orbit, technologies that could be Band~ I.M-1.70 microns used in the future satellites of ISRO. Some of Ground nllJOlution 182xl66 (red .. d the technologies that are being demonstrated m m near TES are attitude and orbit control system, high mfn-red); 246xl86 m (shorlwo\'1! infratorque reaction wheels, new reaction control red) system with optimised thrusters and a single SWBth 810 km propellant tank, light woi!ight spacecraft structure, solid state recorder, X-band phased 143 array antenna, improved satellite positioning system, miniaturised TIC and power system and, twomirrorona:'cis camera optics. TES also carries a panchromatic camera with a spatial resolution of 1 m. FOLLOW-ON SATELLITES FOR EARTH OBSERVATION IRS-P6 (RESOURCESAT-l), IRSP6 (RESOURCESATl) is launched by PSLV in 200203. It will carry the following payloads: (i) a multispectral camera USS3 providing 23.5 m spatial resolution in four spectral bands with a swath of 140 km, (ii) a high resolution multispectral camera LISS4 providing 5.8 m spatial resolution operating in three spectral bands and (iii) an Advanced Wide Field Sensor (A WiFS) with a spatial resolution better than 70 m in three spectral bands and providing a swath of 740 km. IRSP6 will not.only provide service continuity to IRS1C and IRSIO but also enhance the service capa,bilities in the areas of agriculture, disaster management, land and water resources, with better resolution imageries. mS-P5 (CARTOSAT -1), lRSP5 is launched by PSLV in 200304. The satellite is primarily intended for advanced cartographic applications. IRSP5 will have two panchromatic cameras on board with 2.5 m resolution with a swath of 30 km each. These cameras are mounted with a tilt of +26 deg and -5 deg along the track with respect to nadir to provide stereo pairs of images needed for the generation of Digital Terrain Model (OTM)/ Digital Elevation Models (OEM) of the required regions. The data products will be used for

cartographic applications, cadastral mapping and updating, land use and other GIS applications. The satellite has a revisit capability of 5 days, which can be realised by steering the spacecraft about roll axis by 26 degrees. During tbe year tbe equipment panel design bas been finalised. Various components are under development and testing. Ground Segment: The ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (lSTRAC) monitors and controls aU the IRS satellites besides other low earth orbit satellites. ISTRAC has a ni!twork of ground stations located at Bangalore, Sriharikota, Port Blair. Thiruvanantbapuram, Mauritius and Bearslake witb multimission Spacecraft Control Centre at Bangalore. TIC stations at Brunei and Biak have a]so been added recently. ISTRAC. at present tra.cks, monitors and controls IRSIC,IRSID, IRSP3, JRSP4 and TES. ISTRAC was extensively used for conducting various demonstrations on TES. The payload operations on IRSIC and IRSID are carried out over the Inman stations at Shadnagar in India as wp.ll as foreign data reception stations at Fairbank (USA), Seoul, Korea, Cotopaxy (Ecuador), Dubai, NeustraJitz (Germar.y), Norman (USA), Tokai (Japan) and Riyad (Saudi Arabia). On an average abou~ 350 to 400 payload operations a.re being carried out per month. IRSP3 payload operations are being carried out for about 250 times per month over Shadnagar in India, Neustralitz and Wallops (Germany) and Maspolamas (Spain). SATELLITE DATA ACQUISiTION, PROCESSING AND DISSEMINATION The Nap.onal Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad, oontinues to receive remote sensing data from the Indian satellites, IRSIC, IRSlO, IRSPS, IRSP4 and the TES as well as the US NOAA14, Landsat5 and European ERS2. The Data Reception Station (ORS) of NRSA at Shadnagar, has been further augmented to receive data from TRSP5 (CARTOSAT) and IRSP6 (RESOURCESAT). Aerial Remote Sensing: NR5A operates two aircraft that have been modified for multi sensor operation with high performance work station and digital photogrammetry system to generate data products. Aerial remote sensing services provided by NRSA is availed by several

agencies for aerial photography, mapping, infrastructure planning, aeromagnetic surveys,large scale base maps and topographic and cadastral mapping. Some of the aerial surveys carried out include aerial photography of nine towns of Gujarat that were affected by the earthquake in January 2001, twenty seven towns in Andhra Pradesh, seven districts in Madhya Pradesh, three towns of Rajasthan, Bangalore peripheral areas and flood affected areas of Orissa. Low altitude flightR for airborne geophysical survey for Atomic Mineral Division and nights carrying Synthetic Aperture Radar have also been carried out. Re mote Sensing Data Policy: The Govcrnmen~ has announced, a Remote Sensing Data Policy (RSDP) in order to streamline the availability of remote sensing data from Indian and foreign satellites to users in India. As per the RSDP. Government's permission will be required for operating remote sensing satellites in India and for distribution of satellite images in India. The NRSA, Hyderabad, will be the national acquisition and distribution aeeney for all satellite data within India. NRSA can enter into agreements for distribution of data from foreign satellite in India. Antrix Corporation, the commercial agency under the Department of Space, will license the use of IRS capacities outside India. The announcement of RSDP is an important step towards making transparent. the procedures of satellite data distribution, including those from highresolution imaging systems. I t would help to regulate the process of image distribution so that Indian users are not denied access to valuable satellite based imageries, which can be used in the development of natural resources. Remote Sensing Applications: Space-based remote sensing, because of its synoptic and repetitive coverage of large areas as well as providing data in a quantifiable manner has enabled monitoring and assessment of various natural resources. Today space based remote sensing is used for several areas of resources, survey and management. Projects of national relevance in different application themes are being carried out with the involvement of user agencies at central and state levels. Some of the major applications to which remote sensing is being used in the country are highlighted in the following paragraphs.

Crop Acreage llnd Production Estimation (CAPE): CAPE was initiated in 1995 with the sponsorship of the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation. Under this project, multidate lRS satellite data are used for pre-harvest acreage and production estimation for major food crops as well as cotton. The estimates are provided far kharif rice in Bihar. rabi dee in Orissa, mustard in Assam, Gujarat, Haryana, Rajasthan and West Bengal, wheat in Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh and sorghum in Maharashtra. FASAL: Based on the success of CAPE. an enlarged and comprehensive scheme known as Forecasting Agricultural output using Space, Agrometeorology and Land based observations (FASAL) bas been taken up. FASAL now covers kharif rice in Orissa as a pilot project as well as forecasting kharif rice production at the national level. It is proposed to set up a FASALNCCF (National Centre for Crop Forecasting) under the aegis of the Ministry of Agriculture. DroughtAssessmentand Monitoring: Based on the data collected by the satellites on the vegetation indices and ground based information, fortnightly bulletins on crop conditions depicting ag,ricultural drought are being issued for eleven slates, and at sub district level for sb: stales during kharifseason. Flood Mapping: The Flood Mapping. using satellite imageries are being undertaken since 1987 to help Department of Agriculture and Cooperation and State Relief Agencies and Central Water Commission. Under this, flood prone river basins of Brahmaputra, Kosi, Ganga, Indus, Godavari and Mahanadi are covered and near real time inundation and damage estimation maps are generated. Forest Monitoring: The Forest Survey of India carries out the forest cover mapping on 1:250,000 scale on a biennial basis. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Mo.harashtra have used satellite based dala for preparation of forest working plans. A biodiversity characterisation at landscape level has also been taken up in four regions of the country, namely, NorthEastern Himalaya, Western Himabya, Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The activities related to preparation ofbiome level ecological zone maps and topographical details are nearing completion. The project is being undertaken with the sponsorship of the

Department of Biotechnology. A few medicinal plant colonies in the Himalayas like Hyppophae rhamnoides, Ephedra gerardiana and Taxus baccata have been mapped. Irrigatron Command Areas: Under the sponsorship of the Central Water Commission, 14 large irrigated commands covering five states (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and West Bengal) extending to an area of 3.12 Mha (million hectare) have been taken up for monitoring using satellite data. So far evaluation of seven command areas has been completed. Snow-melt Run-otl'Prediction: Forecasting and monitoring of Snow-melt Run-off for the Satellite River Basin is being carried out since 1994 with the sponsorship of Bhakra-Beas Management Board. The forecast is made every year by the first week of April, which is further updated subsequently. Integrated Land and Water Resources Development: Generation of data for Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development (IMSD) for 84 Mha area covering 175 districts located in 28 States have been completed and similar work has been extended to Koraput- Bolangir-Kalahandi (KBK) region of Orissa. The Department of Land Resources under the Ministry of Rural Development is now working towards institutionalising IMSD for implementation. Wasteland Mapping: The Wasteland Mapping has been carried out in five phases during 1986-2000 on a 1:50,000 scale under the sponsorship of the Department of Land Resources under the Ministry of Rural Development. 13 categories of wastelands in three broad categories have been identified - (A) Barren rockylsheet rock.; (B) Gullied areal ravines; and (C) Minmglindustrial wastelands. A wasteland atlas of India has been generated and the information is used for planning several developmental programmes. A digital data base is also now being created . National Drinking Watel' Mission: Under the sponsorship of the Department of Drinking Water of the Ministry of Rural Development, maps showing prospective zones of ground water occurrence and recharge are being prepared on 1:50,000 scale ill six states (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Kerala and Rajasthan). So far 930

maps have been prepared out of the 1800 maps required. The maps are integrated with GIS data base and identify areas and sites for locating borewells. Coastal Studies: Information on Coastal wet lands, land forms, land use, shore line changes, etc, have been mapped on 1:250,00011 :50,000 scales for the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Coral reef maps on 1:50,000 scale for Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Palk's Bay, Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar islands have been generated. Mapping of features between High Tide Line (HTL) nnd Low Tide Line (LTL) and land use feaLures for a strip of 500 m from HTL, on 1:25,000 scale, under Coastal Regulation Zone has also been carried out. The maps are used for preparing coastal zone management plans and for formulating regulations on construction along HTL. Use ofIRS-P4 (OCEANSAT) Data: An endtoend task of using IRSP4 data for oceanographic, marine-atmospheric and coastal environmental applications has been taken up. Several agencies like Department of Ocean Development, Indian Meteorological Department, National Institute of Oceanography, Central Ma.rine Fisheries Research Institute, etc., besides several State Departments are participating in this task. The Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) of IRS-P4 provides data on Chlorophyll distribution and primary productivity for locating potential fish zones, sea surface velocities,suspended sediment movement, coastal landforms, coral reefs, etc. The Multi-frequency Scanning Microwave Radiometer (MSMR) on board the satellite provides data on humidity over oceans, water vapour content, winds, rain rate, fluxes, sea ice, etc. Disaster Management: Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ) Mapping: Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ) mapping on 1:25,000 scale is being carried out for all major pilgrim and tourist routes in the Himalayan region in Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh. Database has been created for the entire 2000 km long corridor and LHZ maps have been prepared. The routes covered include: RishikeshRudraprayagChamoli-Badrinath, RishikeshGaumukh, Rudraprayag-OkhimathKe darnath ,Chamoli-Okhimath and Pithoragarh-Malpa, all in Uttarancha1; ShimlaManali, Shimla-Sumdo and Dalhousie-Brahmaur

in Himachal Pradesh. The maps are used by State Public Works Departments (PWD), Border Roads Organisation and some NOOs. Gujarat Earthquake: The space based imagery along with aerial remote sensing provided inputs to the Gujarat State Administration during the Earthquake in January 2001 in terms of locating the worst affected towns, to assess the changes in the terrain features and damage assessment. The satellite news gathering terminal was also moved from the Space Applications Centre and set up at Bhuj which was the only link till February 2, 2001 to co-ordinate rescue and relief operation. National (Natural) kesources Information System: A spatial information infrastructure organised around GIS for facilitating developmental planning and decision making at DistrictJStatelNational level is being implemented for the Planning Authorities. Already NRIS has been implemented for 30 districts and four state nodes. The NRrs comprises 22 spatial layers and 8 non-spatial layers pertaining to natural resources as well as socio-economics. QUESTIONS 1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) A. The computer's primary processing hardware wh,ich interprets and execute program instructions and manages the function of input, output and storage devices. - B. is considered to be heart of the computer. C. may reside on a single chip on the computer's motherboard, or on a larger card inserted into a special slot on the motherboard D. All the above 2. The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)A. is the component of CPU. B. performs arithmetic and logical operations. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 3. Data A. A a collection of unorganized-items that can include letters, numbers, symbols, images and sounds that computer process and organize it into meaningful information.

B. is a set or-standards for controlling the transfer of business dOCUIDnte, such as purchase orders and invoices, between computers. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 4. E-MAIL A. stands for electronic mail B. stores purchase orders and invoices, between computers. C. Both A and B D. None ofthe above 5. ED! A stands for Electronic Data Interchange (ED!) B. is a set of standards for controlling the transfer of business documents, such as purchase orders and invoices, between computers. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 6. Hardware A. The physical components ofa computer B. includes-processors, memory chips, input/output devices, tapes, disks, cables, modems. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 7. Input A. A data or iJlljtruction ~hat you enter into tne memory of a l.UDJPU(,t;L B. hardware components that result in the transfer of data. 147 C. Both A and B D. None of the above 8. Four types ofInput are A. data, programs, commands and user responses. B. hardware components that result in the transfer of data. C. Both A and B D. None ofthe above 9. The input devices are the A. computer hardware that accepts data and instructions from user. B. communication between hardware components that result in the transfer of data. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 10. Input/Output devices(llO) A. Communications between the user and

the computer that results in transfer of data B. Communication between hardware components that result in the transfer of data. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 11. Microsoft office A. is .8 suite of Microsoft primary application for window and Macintosh. B. includes some combination of word, Excel, Powerpoint, Access and schedule along with a host ofinternel and other utilities. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 12. Modem: A. Abbreviation for modulator/demodulator. B. It is an InputJOutput device that allows computer to communicate through telephone lines. C. converts outgoing digital data into analog signals that can be transmitted over phone lines and converts incoming audio signals into digital data that can be processed by the computer. D. All the above 13. Multimedia A. refers to the integration of multiple media such a8 visual imagery, text, vide.o, sound, and animation. B. often associated with the information superhighway, or with interactive T.V-that can prODuce videos (informaion on demand) or with hypermedia. C. is a combinatlOn of software and hardware, both. D. All the above 14. Multimedia A. is a very powerful form of communicating ideas, searching for information and experiencing new concepts of common media. B. enhance business presentations C. Both A and B D. None of the above 15. Motherboard A. is the main circuit board, also called system board, in an electrOniC device which consists of sockets that accepts additional boards. B. is a very powerful form of communicating

ideas C. The interactive feature of network D. None of the above 16. Printers A. is an output device that produce text and graphics on a physical medium such as paper or transparency film. B. are classifieds into the following categories-Impact printers and Nonlmpact printers. C. Both A and B O. None of the above 17. A program A. is a sequence of instructions or actions B. must have mechanisms for carrying out processing operations (like arithmetical operations or moving information around) and for handling . input and output. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 18. Output A. The data that has been processed into a useful form and can be scen on VDU 01' can be taken on paper by using printer or listen to it through speakers or a headset. B. can be saved on a floppy disk or CD for future use. C. can be generated in the form of-text. graphics, audio, video. D. All the above 19. Office Automation System A. Autou ;ate routine office tasks. 148 B. are classifieds into the following categories- Impact and Non-Impact C. Both A and B D. None of the above 20. The Information System (IS) departmentA. Supports organization's information systems and also support organization's overall mission. B. The IS department provide technical support for hardware and software, but may be involved in the design and implementation of an organization's entire information system. C. IS professionals also ensure that systems generate all the appropriate types of information and reports required by the organization's manager and workers.

D. All the above 21. Programming language A. is a higher level language than machine code for writing programs. B. use a variety of basic English. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 22. Low level languages A. are machine dependent, i.e they are designed to run on a particular computer and in the form of D's and 1's. B. are also easier to learn and are not dependent on a particular type of computer. C. need interpreter or compiler to convert into low level language so that computer can understand. D. All the above 23. High level languages A. are English type languages where a single statement may correspond to several instructions in machine language and human being can understand easily. B. are also easier to learn and are not dependent on a particular type of computer. C. need interpreter or compiler to convert into low level language so that computer can understand. D. All the above 24. Pipelining A. is a technique that enable a processor to execute more instructions in a given time. B. the control unit begins executing a new instruction before the current instruction is completed. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 25. Ports: A External devices such as a keyboard, monitor, printer, mouse and microphone often are attached by a cable to the system unit the interface B. point of attachment to the system unit is called a port. Most of the time ports are located on the back of the system unit, but they also can be placed on the front. C. AorB D. None of the above 26. Application software

A. any computer program used to create or process data such as text documents, spreadsheets, graphic~ etc. B. programs to operate only mouse functions C. a type of program designed to handle very small instruction sets. D. None of the above 27. Desktop Publishing programs A. belongs to Application software B. used to literate individuals 10 computing C. a type of program designed to handle very small instruction sets. D. None ofthe above 28. ABell A. is 7 bit binary code B. developed by American National Standards Institute (ANSI) C. represent symbolic, numeric and alphanumeric characters D. All the above 29. Assembler A is a computer program that converts assembly language instructions into machine language. B. developed by American National Standards Institute (ANSn C. represent symbolic, numeric and alphanumeric characters, voice D. All the above 30. ATM A stands for Asynchronous Transfer Mode B. is a network protocol designed to send 149 voice, video and data transmission over a single network C. provides differtent kinds of connections and bandwidth on demand. depending on the type of data being transmitted D. All the above 31. Backup means A. To create a duplicate set of progra m or data files in case the originals become damaged. B. Provides difi'ertent kinds of connections and bandwidth in computers C. the type of data transmission O. None 'ofthe above 32. Computers are now used in A. restaurants, automobile companies

B. offices and homes C. research areas D. All the above 33. Information A is the summarization of data B. implies data that is organized and is meaningful to the person who is receiving it C. should be meaningful, brief, accurate and help us to our knowledge and decision making D. All the above 34. Data. A. can be defined 8S fact, observation, assumption or occurrence and is 8 plural of "datum" B. in general refers to raw facts gathered from different sources. C. denotes any or all facts, num bers, letters. symbols etc that can be processed or manipulated by a computer D. All the above 35. Data and Information is A. often used interchangeably B. not .used interchangt:ably C. not used by people to make decisions D. None of the above 36. Logical data refers A. to the way in which the data are recorded on the storage medium B. in general refers to processed facts gathered from different80urces C. can be defined as fact. observation, assumption or occurrence and is a plural of "datum" D. None ofthe above 37. Data item A is a basic or indjvidual element of data B. is identified by 8 name and is assigned a value C. is something referred to a8 a field D. All the above 38. Smallest addressable unit in computer A. Byte-an arbitrary set of eight bits that represents a character B.FM C.TPM D. None of the above 39. File A is a collection of related records B. is a automated proccS8ing system C.TDM

D. None of the above 40. In electronic form, data refers to A. data fields. records, files and databases B. word processing documentB, graphics, images C. digitally coded voice and video D. All the above 41. Data processing is the A process of converting data from physical format to logical format B. digitally coded voice and video C. Both A and B D. None of the above 42. Electronic mail is the A transmission of letters, messages and memos over a communications network B. Distribution of all information functions in the office C. Both A. and B. D. None of the above 43. The back bone of an Email system is a communication network that connects remote terminals to a A. central system or local area network that interconnect personal computers B. digitally coded voice and video C. Both A and B D. None of the above 44. FAX or Facsimile A. is the communication of a printed page between remote locations . B. terminals scan a paper form and converts its image into analog code [or transmission over private lines/public dialup telephone system C. receiving terminal reconverts the codes ,. 150 into images and prints a "facsimile" of the original page D. All the above 46. Data processing cycle consists of A. three basic steps-Input cycle, Processing cycle, Output cycle B. terrqinals which scan a paper form and converts its image into analog code for transmission C. receiving terminal reconverts the codes into images and prints a "facsimile" of the original page D. All the above 46. An Input operation performs two

functions, they are A. It causes an mput device to physically read data, and transmits the data from the Input device to an Input area of CPU B. It causes an input device to transmits the data, convert into image form C. It causes an input device to physical read data, transmits the data to printer D. None ofthe above 47. During processing cycle, a computer performs operations of A. data transfer, ALU operations that operate on Input data B. sends data to an output area lies within the CPU (which is setup by each program) C. Both A and B D. None of the above 48. An output operation causes A. information to be transmitted from the output area lies within the CPU to an output device such as printer B. CPU to record/display information on some medium C. Both A and B D. None ofthe above 49. Computers A. help you with your banking by using automatic teller machines (ATM) used to deposit or withdraw money B. are present in every aspect of daily living in workplace, home and in the class room C. an electrOnIC machine operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory that can accept data (Input), manipulate the data according to specified rules (process), produce results(output) and store this rcsu.ll for future use D. All the above 50. A person that commUnIcates wIth a computer or uses the mformation It generates is called A. user B. processor C. commentator D. None of these 51. Primary memory of computer A. stores the necessary programs of system software

B. determines the size and the number of programs that can be held with in the computer at same time C. Both A and B D. None of the above 52. As technology advances and computer extend into every facet of daily living, it A. is essential for everybody to gain some level of computer literacy B. is not essential for everybody to gain some level of computer literacy C. can create problems D. None of the above 6S. The main memory of computer A. can be divided in two parts-RAM and ROM B. is not essential for computer C. can be loaded from storage media D. None of the Ilbove 54. RAM A. stands for RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY B. is volatile, which means item stored in RAM are lost when the power to computer is turned off C. Both A and B D. None of the above 65. Computers A. USdS :;ache memory to improve t.heir processing times B. uses main memory for temporary storage C. uses secondary memory, which is non volatile to store bulk data D. All tho above 56. Videoconferencing is a meeting between two or more geographically separated individuals who A. use a network or the Internet to transmit audio and video data B. use a sattelite to transmit audio and video data C. Both A and B O. None of the above 57. CDROM A. stands for Compact Disk Read Only Memory B. is a silver coloured compact disk that uses the laser technology C. Both A and B O. None of the above 58. UNIX A. is a inultiuser, multitasking operating

system B. was developed in early 1970s by scientists at Bell Laboratories C. Both A and B D. None of the above 59. Virus A. is a computer program that copies itself into other programs and spreads through multiple computers B. are often designed to damage a computer intentionally by destroying or corrupting its data C. Both A and B D. None of the above 60. A template A. is a document that formatting necessary document type contains the for a specific B. usually exists for documents such as memos, fax cover sheets and letters C. Both A and B O. None of the above 61. The drawing tools available in MS WORD A. line, rectangle, ellipse, text box, fill color B. line style and select drawing objects C. Both A and B D. None ofthe above 62. In MS WORD a title bar A. is a bar displayed at the top of the document that displays the name of the current document B. locate below the menu bar C. Both A and B O. None of the above 63. Themail merge in MS word A. automatically creates unique, multiple versions of a customized form letter, when sending out a specific letter to a different person B. merges two cell contents in one cell C. Both A and B D. None of the above 64. MS Excel A. is a replacement for the accountants columnar pad, sharp pencil and calculator B. allows users to create colorful charts. print transparancies or bard copy reports, add clip arts and company logo etc. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 65. The difference between SORT and INDEX command A. Sort after sorting generates output file

whereas Index does not B. Sort cannot sort on expressions whereas Index can C. Both A and B D. None of the above . 66. Operating System is A A collection of hardware components B. A collection of input-output devices C. A collection of software routines D. All of the above E. None of the above 67. Backups should be done A daily for most installations B. weekly for most installations C. as several image copies. followed by an incremental O. ~ several incrementals, followed by an unagecopy E. None of the above 68. DOS etc. are called disk operating systems because A. they are memory resident B. they are initially stored on disk C. they are available on magnetic tapes D. they are partly in primary memory and partly on disk E. None of the above 69. Whicq of the following is not an oper&ting system A. UNIX B. MSDOS C. PASCAL D. CPIM E. None of the above 70. User-Friendly Systems are: A. required for object.oriented programming B. easy to develop C. common among traditional main-frame operating system D. becoming more common E. None ofthe above 71. Address Bus is A A set of wires connecting the computer's CPU and RAM, across wbich memory addresses are transmitted. The amount of memory that can be addressed at one time depends on the number of wires used in the bus. B. A set of nooes connecting the computer network C. A or B O. None of the above 72. Algorithm is A A set of ordprcd steps or procedures

needed to solve a specific problem. 152 B. A set of circuit helps in connecting the computer network C. A or B D. None of the above 73. Coprocessors A. is a special processor chip or circuit board designed to assist the processor in performing specific tasks. B. can be used to increase the performance of the computer. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 74. Control Unit (CU)A. The component of the CPU that contains the instruction set. S. gives the computer its ability to decode and then execute a stored program. C. directs the flow of data throughout the computer system. D. All the above 76. Transaction Processing systems A. Store information about individual events B. pro~ide information that is useful in running an organization, such as inventory status, billing etc C. Both A and B D. None of the above 76. Management Information Systems A. Produce reports for different types of managers. B. Automate routine office tasks. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 77. Decision Support systemsA. Produce highly detruled, customized reports based on the information in an . organization's transaction processing system and based on information from other sources. B. These systems are used to assist managers in making mission critical decisions. C. Both A and B O. None of the above 78. Expert systems A. include the knowledge of human experts in a specific subject area in a knowledge base. B. They analyze requests from users and assist. the users in developing a course

of action. C. Both A and B D. None of the above 79. A large 1S department include A lS managers, computer scientists, system analysts , programmers, database specialists B. user assistance architects, purchasing ageots, technical writers, system or network managers C. trainers, hardware maintenance technicians. D. All the above 80. Automated machine tools A. operate from instructions in a program through numerical control B. digitally coded voice and video C. Both A and B D. None of the above 81. E-mail programs often A. come with local area network software Qr add-on options or they are independent programs designed to work with a specific network B. operate as dependent programs designed to work with a specific network C. Both A. and B D. None ofthe above 82. Public Data Service cPOS) is a service bureau, is an organization that A. provides data processing snd time sharing services to its customers and customers pay for their processing B. offers wide variety of software packages, 88 well as customized programming C. charge a monthly rental for each byte of online disk storage reserved for 153 customer's programs and databases D. All the above 83. Two basic types of RAM exists: A. dynamic RAM, static RAM B. natl!Ial RAM, static RAM C. dynamic RAM, virtual RAM D. None ofthe above 84. The SORT command in FOXPRO A. is used to sort the records of a database file in ascending or descending order B. takes records foreorting from currently opened database rue and the sorted records are written in another fileoutput

file C. physically rearranges the records in the database in a new file and new file occupies the same amount of space as unsorted file occupies D. All the above 85. The INDEX command in DBASE III plus A. is used to index the records of a database file and contains only the key values and record numbers B. takes records for indexing from currenLly opened database file but no output file is generated C. Both A and B D. None of the above 86. Presentation graphi.cslsoftwares A. allow you to create presentations to communicate ideas, messages and other information to a group B. incorporates some of the features of word processing software C. can incorporate slides with text, graphics, movie, sound etc D. All the above 87. Powerpoint A. has tools with which you can use drawing tools to add these objects on a slide B. allows you to insert sound, music, video clips on a slide C. allows you to give animation effect to each object introduced in the slide D. All the above 88. To maXimize a Window A. click on the Maximize button in the window you want to maximize B. double click on the Maximize button in the window you want to maximize C. A or B D. None of the above UGC-JRF (Paper 1}-20 89. You can lise scroll bar A to browse through the information in the window B. when window is not large enough to display all information it-contains c. Both A and B D. None oBbe above 90. When you have finished working with a window, you can A. close the window to remove it from your screen. '1'0 do so click on (x) in the window you want to close

B. scan the window. To do so click on (x) in the window you want to close C. Both A and B D. None ofthe above 91. Frame A. is the part of an on-screen window (title bar and other e lements) that is controlled by operating system rather than by the application running in t.he window B. is used when window is not large enough to display all information it contains C. Both A and B D. None of the above 92. Start button A. provides quick access to programs, files and help with Windows B. provides slow access to programs, files and help with Windows C. is not used now-a-days D. None of the above 93. Recycle bin A. stores deleted files and allows you to recover them later B. provides slow access to programs, files and help with Windows C. is not used now-adays D. None of the above 94. Memory protection is normally done by A. the processor and the associa ted hardware B. the operating system C. the compiler D. the user program 95. The size of the virtual memory depends on A. the size of the data bus B. the size of the main memory C. the size of the address bus D. none of the above 96. Which of the following types of software should you use if you often need to create, edit, and print documents? A. Word processing B. Spreadsheet C. UNIX' D. Desktoppublishing E. None of the above 97. Which are t.he most important features of Microsoft Windows program? A Windows B. Pulldown menus C. Irons D. All of the above E. None of the above 98. Whlch of the following requires a device driver?'

A. Register B. Cache C. Main memory D. Disk E. None of the above 99. What is the name of the operating system that read and reacts ih terms of actual time. A Batch system B. Quick response system C. Real time system O. Time sharing system E. None of the above 100. The term "operating system" means A. a set of programs which controls romputer working B. the way a computer operator works C. conversIOn of high level language into machine code D. the way a floppy disk drive operates E. None of the above 101. Data encryption A. is m.ostly used by public networks B. is mostly used by fmanciaI networks C. cannot be used by private installations D. is not necessary, since data can not be intercepted E. None of the above 102. A communication network which is used by large organlsstion over regional, national or global area is called A. LAN B. WAN C. MAN D. VAN 103. If you want to execute more than one program at a time, the systems software you are using must be capable of: A. word processing B. virtual memory C. compiling D. multitasking E. None of the above 104. UNIX operating system A. is multiuser B. is multitasking C. can r un on PCs and larger systems D. All of the above 105. Can you name of the major Operating System used in computers? A. MS DOS B. OS/2 C. UNIX D. All the above E. None of the above 106. Which of the follow 109 is always reSIdent. in machinery? A. Batch System B. Time Sharing System C. Operating system D. Controlling system E. None oftbe above

107. Paging A. is a method of memory allocation by which the program 18 subdivided into equal portions or page and core IS subdivided into equal portions or blocks B. consists of those addresses that may be generated by a processor during execution (If a computation C. is a-method of allocating processor time D. al lows multiple programs to reside in ~p parate areas of core at the time E. ~one oftbe above 108. Which of the following is necessary to work on a computer A. compiler I ,. operating system C. assembly D. interpreter of the above E. None of the above 109. Advantage(s) of using assembly language rather than machine language is (are): A It is mnemonic and p,asy to read B Addresses any symbolic, not absolute C. Introduction of data to program is easier D. All of the above E. None oftbe above 110. With round-robin CPU scheduling in a time-shared system: A. Using very large t.ime slices (quantas) degenerates into FCFS (First Come FirstServed) algorithm B. Using very small time slices (quantas) degenerates into LIFO) Last-Tn First Out) algorithm C. Using extremely small time s lices improves performance D. Using medium sized time slices leads to SRTF (Shortest Remaining Time First) scbeduling poHcy E. None of the abo'le 155 111. A sequence of InsLructJ.o ns ~ in 8 computer language, to get the desired result. is known as A. Algorithm B. Decision Table C. Program D. All the above E. None of the above 112. A characteristic of an on- line real-time system is A. More than one CPU B. No delay in processing C. Off line batch processing

D. All of the above E. None of the above 113. DOS is A. a software B. a hardware C. a data organisation system D. None of the above 114. Which' of the following perform s modulation and demodulation? A. fiber optic B. satellite C. coaxial cable D. modern E. none of the above 115. A local area network A. that connects thirty pe r sonal computers can provide more computing power than a minicomputer B. cannot become bogged down like mainframe would if the load is too high C. both A and B D. all of the above E. none of the above 116. Which class of the software packages allow people to send electronic mail along a network of computer and workstations? A. Memory resident package B. Project management package C. Data communication package D. Electronic mail package 117. We can receive data either through our television aerial or down our telephone lines and display this data on our television screen. What is the general name given to this purpose? A. View data B. Tele text C. Tele software D, Video text 118. The economics of computing data is A. sharing peripherals and B. giving processorS"lo processing time C. both A and B O. all of the above E. none of the above 119. The word telematics is a combination of A. computer B. telecommunication C. informatics D. Band C E. none of the above 120. The application layer of a network A. establishes, maintains. and terminates virtual circuits B. defines the uaer's port into the network C. consists of software bcmg run on the computer connected to the network

D. all of the above E. none of the above 121. What was the ftrst Network that was made available A. DEeNe' 1980 B. Novell Netwarc C. IBMm Token Ring 1985 D.IBM PC Network 1981 122. What does the acronym (ISDN) stand for? A. Indian Standard Digital Network B. Integrated Services Digital Network C. Intelligent Services Digital Network D. Integrated Se rvices Data Network 128. Internet is A. network run by the US Government B. a network run by the United Nations Organisation C. a loose network not owned by anybody but used by all unive rs ities and governments around the globe D. a commercial information service run by Ziff Davis Co., in US 124. What is the name of the device that connects two computers by means of a telephone line? A. tape B. modem C. bus D. cable 125. Working of the WAN generally involves A. telephone lines B. microwaves C. satellites O. all of the above E. noneof tbeabove 126. Video is a combination of A. television B. communication C. axllPuter~ D. all of the above E. none of the above 127. Communication between computers is almost always A. serial B. parallel C. series parallel D. direct 128. Error detection at a data link level is achieved by? A. Bit stuffing B. Hamming codes C. Cyclic redundancy code D. Equali7.8tion E. none of the above 129. The hnking of computers with a communication system is called A. networking B. pairing C. interfacing D. assembling 130. Which of the foUowing items is not used in Local Area Networks (LANs)? 156

A. Computer B. Mcxlem C. Printer D. Cable 131. During networking, the processor of the CPU asking each terminal whether it wants to send a message is caUed A. querying B. sharing C. communicating D. polling 132. Who invented the modem? A Wang Laboratories Ltd B. At & T Information System, USA C. Apple Computers Inc D. Digital Equipment Corpn. 133. All the parts in a computer talk to each other by sending A. digital signal B. analog signals C. smoothly varying signal waves D. both Band C E. none of the above 134. What is going 'online'? A. Buying a MODEM and connecting it to your computer B. Getting 8 PTI or REUTERS news wire connectton C. Connecting your computer to a LAN D. Getting access to the various commercial and other information services over the dial-up lines or I-Net connection 135. Which of the following is an important characteristic of LAN? A. application independent interfaces B. unlimited expansion C. low cost access for bandwidth channels D. none of the above ANSWERS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 DCAAACAAAC 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 CDDCACCDAD 21 22 28 2. 25 26 27 28 29 30 CADCCAADAD 81 32 33 3. 35 36 37 38 39 40 ADDDAADAAD 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 AAADAAAADA 51 52 53 5. 55 56 57 58 59 60 CAADDACCCC 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 CAACCDABCD 71 72 73 74 7. 76 77 78 79 80 AACDCACCDA 81 82 88 8. 85 86 87 88 89 90

ADADCDDACA 91 92 93 9. 95 96 97 98 99 100 AAAACADDCA 101 102 103 10. 105 10. 107 108 109 110 BBDDDCABDA 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 CBADACDCDC 121 122 123 l24 125 126 127 128 129 130 ABCBDDACAB 131 132 133 134 135 DBADA READING COMPREHENSION I The format is quite simple. It contains a passage usually having a l~ngth of 500 to 2000 words. Five question are being asked on the passage. The passage is 'taken from p.ublished material. The word comprehension' actually' means 'grasping with intellect', 'understanding'. The question follow the passage are 6fvarying quality and range. Some of the questions test your ability to recognize implications and draw inferences. The questions test your ability to read a passage comprehend its meaning, criticize its strength and weaknesses : showing that ability by selecting the correct answer from among choice supplied. A comprehension passage contains a number of paragraphs. Every paragraph has a central idea which is expounded with ideas and illustrations and other references. The key sentence that gives the central idea of the paragraph may be at the beginning, middle or end of paragraph. This sentence enunciating the central idea, is otherwise called 'topic sentence'. The student should approach the passage with an 'open mind'. There is no place for the reader own .. <?pinion, assumptions and prejudices. The crux of the problem is just to l.lnderstand the writer's point of view. According to the' -difficulty of the passage reading speed should also VetF;}:: ' Step by step method is useful in solving the questions. Step 1 : The very first step is to read the questions quickly. This give you some idea of . what you should be looking for as you read the passage. Step 2 : The second step is to read the passage at your fastest rate. The questions that have located in your subconscious after reading the

questions will force you more conscious as you come across anything that is r elevent or important if. Step 3 : Again reread the question one at a time. You will get some idea of the location in the passage of material that answe~s the questions. If you have no.ideas as to location in the passage of material that answers the questions, go on the next question; Mter this step you may solve all the question. Only one or two question may be left after this step. Step 4 : Reread. the question carefully that is still unanswered and try to find the reason. They may be analytical in nature which requires the analysis of a certain part of the passage. One of the most important aspect of this is the vocabulary. Directions: Study the paragraph and answer the questions that follows: PARAGRAPH I The most important reason for this state of affairs, perhaps, is that India was the only country in the world to truly recognise the achievements of the Soviet Union-rather than merely focus on the debilitating faults that Communism brought to its people. The people of India realised that~he achievement of one hundred per cent literacy in a country much, much larger than its own and with similarly complicated ethnic and religious groupings, the rapid industrialisati?n of a nation that was a primarily agrarian society w.,hen the Bolshevik revolution took place in 1917, the attendant revolutionary steps in science and technology, the accessibility of health care (primeval according to Western standards, perhaps, but not according to Indian ones) to the general population, and despite prohibition of the government of the time the vast outpourings in literature, music, art, etc., are momentous and remarkable feats in any country. In contrast, all that the West focussed on were the massive human rights violations by the Soviet State on its people, the deliberate uprooting and mass migrations of ethnic peoples from one part of the country to another in the name of industrialisation, the end of religion ..... in short, all the tools of information were employed to condemn the ideology of

Communism, so much at variance with capitalist thinking. The difference with the Indian perception, I think here is, that while the Indians reacted as negatively to what the Soviet governments did to its people in the name of good governance (witness the imprisonment of Boris Pasternak and the formation of an international committee to put pressure for his release with Jawaharlal Nehru at its head), they took the pain not to condemn the people of that broad country in black and white terms; they understood that mingled in the shades of grey were grains of uniqueness. (The Russians have never failed that characteristic in themselves; they have twice experimented with completely different ideologies, Communism and Capitalism both in the space of a century). 1. Which of the following statements according to the passage is correct ? (a) India took heed on the weak faults of Russian policies and system (b) India seriously commended the achievement of Russia, i.e., cent per cent literacy and rapid industrialization (c) The process of industrialization had already started when Russian revolution took place in 1917 (d) The literature, art and music received a setback during the communist regime in Russia 2. The West did not focus on: (a) rapid growth of nuclear weapons in Russia , (b) Massive human rights violation by the Soviet state on its people (c) deliberate uprooting and mass migration of ethnic people in the name of industria-liz at ion. (d) Both (b) and (c) 3. The India perception of the USSR w'as always ' (a) negative (b) neutral (c) counter-reactionary (d) applauding 4. The passage is (a) descriptive (b) paradoxical (c) analytical (d) thought provoking

Directions: Read the following passage and answer questions that follow: PARAGRAPH II It was during one of the most dreadful smallpox epidemic~ in England that Edward Jenner, ,a country doctor, made a: discovery which was to alter the course of history. Jenner noticed that the disease seldom struck those who lived in rural areas and worked around cattle. Most farmers and dairy workers had contracted cowpox and had recovered with nothing more serious than a putsule which left a scar. This observation led Dr: Jenner to think: Why not vaccinate people with cowpox to protect them from smallpox? On May 14, 1876, Dr. Jenner took a healthy boy, James Phillips, to a dairy maid, Sarah Nelmes, who had a cowpox putsule on her hand resulting from' an infection from her master's cow. Dr. Jenner made two shallow cuts on James Phillips' arm and inoculated them with matter taken from the cowpox sore. A putsule developed on the boy's arm formed a scab and healed. In July of the same year. Dr. Jenner inoculated James with matter from a smallpox putsule. During the next two weeks, the doctor watched for signs of smallpox. They did not develop. The vaccination was successful. Dr. Jenner wrote a paper explaining hi~ method of vaccination. At first the doctors were hostile and would not listen to a. ridiculo~s procedure. Many towns people organised anti vaccination campaigns. Gradually, however, the doctors and their patients accepted vaccination. 1. The fact that Edward Jenner was a country doctor, was important in the discovery of smallpox vaccine, because (a) he had enough time to pursue his research in the rural areas (b) he noticed that the disease was prevalent where people worked around cattle (c) he noticed that the disease seldom struck people who worked arounqthe cattle .' r (d) he found that he could convince rural people more easily than city people 2. Dr. Jenner was successful as cowpox virus produces (a) severe infection in humans resulting in deaths (b) a mild infection in humans which is

not enough ' to produce active immunity . . (c) a mild infection in humans which is enough to produce actiye immunity (d) no infection in humans 3. Dr. Jenner made his experiment on a healthy boy who (a) died after experimentation (b) could not be relieved of his mark of putsule (c) developed the sings ofputsule on his body when he was injected the matter of cowpox (d) was paid for it 4. Passage here is having alan (a) narrative style 25 (b) analytic style (c) provocative style (d) idiomatic style Directions: Study the passage and answer the questions that follow: PARAGRAPH III India's role on the international stage was moulded by history rather than by the pomp and circumstances of war. As a separate entity of the British empire, India became a founder member of the League of Nations in the same W'8.y as A~stralia and Canada, and thus acquired a somewhat unique international status long before independence . . During ~he days ofthe League when India's interests were affected, such as in matters of trade or the position of Indians overseas, the Indian delegation did not hesitate to make known its independent position, for what it was worth. Some Indian delegates were. in demand for chairing meetings riddled with contention and controversy, because of their reputation for impartiality and talent for mediation. . These were the small beginnings ofIndia's later entry into the United Nations in 1945, again as a founder member before independence. The drafting of Chapter IX and X of the UN Charter, which deal with international social and economic cooperation, was entrusted to a group that was presided over by an Indian. It is important, however, to bear in mind that fact that the Government of independent India had no part in the drafting of the UN Charter, although in accepted the

obligations contained therein. The UN. was primarily the creation of three powers-The USA, UK and Russia. The size, population, res<?urces and potential ofIndia lent it the weight of a medium power in the functioning of the United Nations. The fact that India was among the first nations to liberate itself from the imperialist domination through non-violent means . endowed it with a moral obligation to work in and outside th~ UN for th~ independence of nations still under colonial rule. India has served on the Security Council for 10 years or 5 terms, on the Trusteeship Council for 12 years or 4 terms and on the Economic and Social Council for 21 years or 7 terms. 1. The title below that best expresses the ideas of the passage is: (a) India's role at the United Nations (b) India and Her Neighbours (c) India's International Prestige (d) British Colonial Expansion 2. Through a part of the British Empire, India enjoyed great prestige at the League in as much as Indian delegates were in demand for chairing meeting to consider controversial issues. lt was because: (l) Indian delegates were well known. for their impartiality. (II) Indian delegates had talent for mediation. (III) India was considered a power to reckon with. (a) I and III are correct (b) I and II are correct (c) I and III are correct (d) only I is correct 3. Which articles of the UN Charter deal with International, Social and EconQmic Co-operation? . (a) Articles IX and X (b) Articles ~I and XII (c) Articles VIII and XIII (d) Articles VI and VII 4. Which of the following countries does not find any coverage in the passage? (a) The USA (b) Britain (c) The Russia (d) Sri Lanka Directions: Study the passage and answer the questions that follow: PARAGRAPH IV Some religious teachers have taught that

Man is made up of a body and a soul: but they have been silent about the Intellect. Their followers try to feed the body on earth and to save soul from perdition after death : but they neglect~d the claims of the mind. Bread for the body and Virtue for the soul: these are regarded as the indispensable requisites of human welfare here and hereafter. Nothing is said about knowledge and education. Thus Jesus Christ spoke much of feeding the hungry, healing the sick, and converting the sinners: but he never taught the duty of teaching the ignorant and increasing scientific knowledge. He himself was not a well educated man, and intellectual pursuits were beyond his horizon. Gautam Buddha also laid stress on morality, meditation and asceticism, but he did not attach great importance to history, science, art or literature. $t. Ambrose deprecated scientific studies anci wrote, "Tel discuss the nature and position of the earth does not help us in our hope for life to come". St. Basil said very frankly and foolishly, "It is not a matter of interest for us whether the earth is a sphere or a cylinder or disc." Thomas Carlyle also followed the Christian traditions when he declared that he honoured only two men and no third: the manual labour and the religious teacher. He forgot the scientist, the scholar and the artist. The cynics of Greece despised education at last? 1. What have the religious teachers taught in the past? (a) That man is made up of body only (b) That" man is made up of soul only . (c) That man is made up of bu b bles (d) That man is made up of body and soul together 2. What is food for the soul? (a) Bread (b) Virtue (c) Vice (d) . Education 3. The following philosophers occur in the passage. But they are not in correct order. Correct the order. (l) Jesus Christ (II) . Gautam Buddha (III) St. Ambrose (IV) . Thomas Carlyle M St. Basil (a) I, II, III, IV, V (b) I, III, IV, V, II (c) I, II, III, V, IV (d) II, I, III, IV, V 4. Intellectual pursuits have been ne"glected because: (I) they are unnecessary and superfluous (II) they make people dwarf

(rn) they lead people to hell (a) Only I is correct (b) Only II is correct ... ;,..... .. . " (c) Only III is correct (d) Only I and II are correct 5. The style of the passage is (a) narrative (b) expository (c) critical (d) Analytical Directions: Study the passage and answer the questions that follow: PARAGRAPH V India is not, as you may imagine, a distant, strange, or at the very utmost, a curious country, India for the future belongs to Europe, it has its place in the IndoEuropean world, it has its place in our own history and in what is the very life of history, the history of the human mind, You know how some of the best talents and the noblest genius of our age has been devoted to the study of the development of the outward or material world, the growth ofthe earth, the first appearance of the living cells, their combination and differentiation leading up to the beginning of organic life, and its steady progress from the lowest to the highest stages, Is there not inward intellectual world also which has to be studied in its historical development, from the first appearance of predicative anddemQnstrative roots, their combination and differentiation, leading up to the beginning of rational thought in its steady progress from the lowest to the highest stages? And in that study of the history ofthe human mind, in that study of ourselves, of our true selves, India occupies a place second to no other country, Whatever sphere of the human mind you may select for your special study, whether it be language, or religion, or mythology, or philosophy, whether it be laws or customs, primitive art or primitive sclence, everywhere you have to go to India, whether you like it or not, because some of the most valuable and most instructive materials in the history of , man are treasured up in India, and in India.- , only, 1. In what field of human endeavour has India surpassed the rest of mankind? (a/~ in industrialization -(b) ,in.mate,rialism ' ,_,' '''' (c) in games and sport's (d) in study of the history of the human

mind 2. What position does India occupy in the study of the histo.ry of the human mind? (a) No place at all (b) First place (c) Third place (d) Second place 3. Philosophy means: (a) the study of human mind (b) the study of systems of thought about soul, etc. (c) the study of political systems (d) the study of stars and cosmos 4. The historical development of intellectual world leads up to: (a) the beginning ofrational thought (b) spiritual illumination '. (c) physicai development , (d) deflation Directions: Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that follow: PARAGRAPH VI Whether India and the US are signing a new extradition treaty or amending the existing one is somewhat unclear, but there is no doubt that India's extradition requests have usually been turned down by western democr!lcies. , For instance, when India requested the extradition of the JKLF leader, Amanullah Khan, who was visiting the US four years ago, a US lawcourt turned down the Indian request. So did a judge in Belgium when Khan went to Belgium: The reason is that our extradition treaties with all w~stern nations forbid the extradition of a person on two grounds: (1) if he is caused or convicted of an offence of a political nature, and (2) ifhe won't get a fair trial in the country requesting his extradition .. Unfortunately for India, its human-right record is so dismal that Khan had no difficulty convincing a US and Belgian judge against his deportation on the ground that Indian lawcourts would be severely pre-judiced against him. Past experience shows that US and European judges have been sympatheti'c to fugitives whose extradition India has sought. Take, for instance, a typical case of Karamjit Singh Chahal, a Khalistani separatist in London. In December 1991 the British Home Office rejected his application for political asylum and ordered his deportation to India. Chahal, However, quickly had the order quashed by moving a London

High Court which directed that his case be tried afresh. Chahal lost that appeal but he still didn't exhaust all avenues of redress. He moved the House of Lords, and even ifhe lost there, he could still appeal to the European Court of Justice. Chahal and Amanullah Khan's cases are just two of several extradition attempts pursued by India which have run a tortuous course. Take, for instance, the case of two Sikh terrorists, Sukhwinder Singh Sandhu and Ranjit Singh Gill, who had fled to the US after assassinating General AS Vaidya. A Pune court had sentenced them to death and when they were arrested by the US police in May 1987, the Indian Government requested their extradition. After examining evidence, a US magistrate ordered their return, but when they went in appeal, a senior judge ordered their case to be re-heard Sandhu and Gill were eventually extradited, but a full one and a half years after their arrest. If two convicted Indian terrorists could block their extradition for so long is it conceivable that others would not succeed in the same way? After all, we haven't been able to get the Union Carbide chief, Warren Anderson, to stand trial for the criminal negligence which led to the death of some 2,500 people in Bhopal in December 1984. 1. A suitable title of the passage is (a) Indo US relations (b) Attitude of western democracies toward India's extradition request (e) Indo-US extradition treaty (d) Western criteria of extradition 2. Western judges favoured the Indian political criminals and terrorists on the ground that (a) India's law courts had a prejudiced attitude toward these people (b) these people bribed the western judges. (e) their own governments were also in favour ofthem (d) none of these 3. When British Home Office ordered Chahal's deportation to India, Chahal (a) went to the European court of justice (b) went to the London High Court for appeal. (e) moved to the House of Lords (d) Both (b) and (e)

4. Which of the following statements according to the paragraph ~s correct? (a) SS Sandhu and RS Gill were sentenced to death in a US court (b) Sandhu and Gill were immediately deported to India when India requested . (e) We have not been able to get Mr. Apderson to stand trial for Bhopal gas tragedy. (d) Union carbide was an Indian company Directions: Study the following passage and answer the quest~ons that follow: PARAGRAPH VII From time immemorial drugs have been used by mankind for medical purposes. But never before had the abuse of narcotics caused such unprecedented world wide concern and posed an alarming menace to the society. 29 According to World Health Organization estimates conducted in 1988, there are over 7,50,000 heroin addicts, 4.8 million cocaine abusers 1. 76 .million opium abusers and 3.4 million abusers of barbiturates, sedatives, and tranquillisers around the world today. Even the eastern hemisphere is no longer secure from the drug network. Drugs have scanned the planet at Jet speed and proved once again ' that the earth is a small place to live in. The . abuse of drugs is now an international problem that bothers Indians and Americans alike. Taking a drug other than for medical reasons in amount, strength, frequency or manner that damages thi:) physical and mental functioning is drug abuse. Drug abuse ' is a painful problem for the addict, for his family and for all those who touch his life. It is mostly the youngster who fall prey to drugs. Adolescence is a period when many choices must be made. At this stage, the youngster is especially vulnerable to pressure from friends. The future generation is virtually being crippled by the spread of drugs. Drug abusers are completely self c;entred and care least about others. His consciousness clouded, and he loses his will power, concentration, memory and judgement capacity. When in need of money, he does not hesitate to steal or indulge in other antisocial activities. ''More drugs, more crime" shows the graph. A new addict

develops friendships with fellow addicts and gradually enters ' the so-called 'drug sub, culture'. He is then regarded as an outcast in the society, and there is little chance that he shall again lead a healthy life 1. Choose a suitable title for the passage (a) Drug abuses (b) Drug addiction (c) Drug criminals (d) Anti social activities 2. The style of the passage is (a) provocative (b) narrative (c) expository ' (d) data based and statistical 3. Which of the following conclusions can not be drawn correctly from the passage? .ra) The ' number of drug abusers is increasing day by day (b) Taking drugs more than the .required doses is called drug abuse (c) Drug abusers care least for their family and the society . (d) All drug abusers ari:) antisocial or viceversa 4. Which of the following groups are more vulnerable to drug addiction? (a) The age group of 13 - 19 (b) The age group of 11- 15 (c) The age group of 30 - 39 (d) The age group of 18 - 30 Directions: Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions that follow: PARAGRAPH VIII The impact of technical advancement in armaments on man, needs to be analyzed with a rational mind, and heart free from prejudices of any kind towards modernisation. The most noticeable impact ofthis development certainly has been the loss of immunity from violence for successive generations ever since the invention of gunpowder. In modern times, the presence of technically advanced arms, not only at the fronts but also among the civilian population, has vastly undermined the value of human life, and endangered the very entity of those virtues of self restraint and discretion, on which .a peaceful and amiable society rests. However, an unbiased view of the present scenario, would refrain one from attributing the rising trends of violence to the availability of technically superior weapons, for one must not overlook the fact that "Necessity is the mother

of invention". Every stage in the development of armaments has been marked by its distinct impact on society. When man fought with stpnes and his bare hands, the society was n'ot yet compact. The discovery of metal and the use of spears, knives and arrows indicate the stage of the formation of small kingdoms. Fire continued to be an effective weapon of destruction. When man introduced the cavalry into the army and improved the strategies of making war, ~ome small kingdoms gave away to form empires, but with no revolution~ry advances in armaments forthcoming, the political structure of society remained mare or less stagnant for the many coming centuries. The next significant development was the use of gunpowder, which could be used to perform acts which were then thought to be impossible. Gunpowder was used to form the ammunition of several guns and canons. This sudden advances in weaponry not only facilitated the con'trol of a large mass of people by relatively few armed men that helping to form strong empires, but the availability of the new technology to a select few nations enabled the formation of colonies in continents which did not have access to the modernized technologies of warfare. Modern technological advances in armaments aided the formation of nation states in Europe. The extensive use of the fire-power lent a lethal edge to the naval power which proved to be the greatest asset to any nation in the 19th century. Small United Nations States of Europe with strong navies, modern arms and disciplined men gained control oflands in foreign continents far greater in areas than the parent countries. 1. Necessity is the mother of invention means (a) where there is mother there IS invention (b) when necessity arises invention IS done (c) "most ofthe invention are preplanned (d) nothing happens without creating congenial environment 2. The invention of modern weapons have resulted into (a) loss of immunity from war in the society (b) successive wars for the last two centuries

. (c) arms race among the nations (d) loss of life and property every now and then 3. Small kingdoms turned into big empires, after (a) the invention of cavalry and canons and its introduction into the army (b) the introduction of nuclear arms into the army (c) the end of the use of knives, arrows and swords (d) the end of the 19th century 4. The style of the passage is (a) informative (b) analytical (c) retrospective (d) provocative ANSWERSI Paragraph I Paragraph V 1234 1234 (b) (a) (d) (c) (d) (b) (b) (a) Paragraph II Paragraph VI 1234 12345 (c) (c) (c) (a) (b) (a) (d) (c) (c) Paragraph III Paragraph VII 1234 1234 (a) (b) (a) (d) (a) (d) (c) (a) Paragraph IV Paragraph VIII 1234 1234 (d) (b) (c) (a) (b) (a) (a) (c) TEACHING AND RESEARCH POTENTIAL Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti was registered as a society on 15 August 1950 Who was the Chairman of the first Indian Education Commission Sir John Hunter Who organizes the National Talent Search Competitive Test N.C.E.R.T. When was Central Advisory Board of Education set up 1956 Navodaya Vidyalayas have been set up In Rural Areas The programme Gyan Vani is broadcasted by AIR When was N.C.E.R.T. Established 2nd Oct. 1971 In 1936-37 who submitted the report on technical Education Abbot Who conducts the admission test for Novdaya Vidyalayas N.C.E.R.T. Who was the chairperson of Wardha Scheme Zakir Hussain National law school of India is situated at Bangalor A.I.C.T.E. stands for All India Council of Technical Education In which year University Grants Commission Act was passed 1956 A.D. The central Institude of Indian Languages is located at Mysore Which Organization was established during Bengal Partition National Council of Education Which was the first University to be opened in Britishers time ? Calcutta University To whom did Lord Macaulay present the famous Macaulays minute ? Lord Bentinck In which year C.B.S.E. set up open school ? 1985 What was the other name for hunter commission Indian Education Commission

 What amount was sanctioned by Charter Act of 1813 to be spent on education ? One Lakh Reshtriya Sanskrit Sansthan has its head quarters at New Delhi Which is the first open University of India ? Indira Gandhi open University New Delhi What is the Minimum qualification requird to appear in any examination of the Open University ? No Minimum qulification Regional College of Education for the Northern region is located at Ajmer Where is situated the Regional College of Education for the eastem region ? Bhuvaneshwar Where is Regional College of Education for Western region ? Ujjain Regional College of Education for the Southern region is at Mysore The Regional Colleges of Education were set up by the N.C.E.R.T. with the cooperation of Planning Commission of India Generally the medium of instruction in Public School is English The famous Doon Public School is located at Dehra Dun The famous Doon Public School Bishop Cotton is situated at Shimla The famous Lawrence Public School is at Sanawar The famous Shivaji Public School is at Pune The famous Air Force Central School is situated at Delhi Cantt Tamil Nadu has a Sainik School at Amrauathinagar The Sainik School in Orissa is at Bhuvaneshwar The Sainik School in Karnataka is at Bijapur Gandhi had which Educational Degree ? Law Gandhi got his law Degree from England Where did Gandhi as a teacher ? South Africa Who said A cowardly teacher cannot make his students valiant ? M.K. Gandhi Effective teaching is a function of -Teachers methodology What should be the attitude of the teacher towards school authorities ? Cordial The attitude of teacher towards new idea should be Receptive Teachers should be made accountable for Teaching An excellent teacher must be Good guide As a teacher, you are never supposed to be angry I am a human and can also be angry What is your Prime duty as a teacher ? To help the student in understanding Physical and Social Environment What is the best Quality of the teacher ? good human subject being The enthusiastic teachers generally ? involve the students in learningteaching process A teacher has better chances of succeeding if ? he is properly trained for the profession Does the teachers enjoy the freedom to make their syllabus flexible ? False A good teacher can overcome the defects of ? System A quality teacher always reaches the school ? Before the morning assembly is over Why you want to make teaching as a career ? it make you eligible for the profession in ten months Generally a good number of students do not like to go to the class rooms becausethe curriculum is dull What is attitude feeling A good teacher priority in school is his students Peoples attitude towards teaching is becoming positive because perceiving teaching as a profession

 Who can be creative teacher- develop thinking ability among the students Among the students faith in the human values can be generated through Moral Education If as teacher you give too much liberty to students what will be result indiscipline in the class room If some one does not agree with you what will you do polite explain your view point to him As a teacher what means of recreation will you like to prefer literary magazines and news papers A teacher always learns and he learns from Students What enhances the status and respect of a teacher community service Why a teacher fails in maintaining discipline in the class because he lacks consistency in his approach to discipline What type behavior is expected from a teacher in the class room calm, dignified and composed Why a teacher should be lover of sports it encourages the students to take part in sports General Studies 1.The study of bones is called ostelogy -Total no of bones 206 -Smallest bone-Stapes(ear boe) -Longest bone-Femus(Thigh bone) -Strongest bone-Tibia(leg bone) -Total no of muscles-639 -Largest grand-liver -Longest gland-thyroid -Longest nerve-Sciatic -Hardest bone-Tooth enamal -Tolal amount of blood in the body is (1/15 of body weight) -Normal body Temperature-98.6F(37C) 2.Govt.of India banned the student Islamic movement of India (SIMI)because it had linked with Osama Bin Ladens a1-Qaeda Group 3.The Salary of member of parliament and higher perks is ehanced from Rs.4000 to 12,000 per month and constituency allowance from Rs.8000 to 10,000 per month and daily allowance of Rs.400 to Rs. 500 for a period of five year 4.Competition bill to replace MRTPC (Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practice Act.) 5.Supreme court ruled on August 2,2001 that a public servant convicted in corruption case should not hold office till he was cleared of the charges by a superior court 6.Number of amendments in constitution is 8 till now 7.The terrorist out fit that brought the WTC and destroyed part of Pantagon in Washington is A1-Queda.the network association with Osama Bin Laden 8. ISI-Inter Service Intelligence 9.Durent line boundary between India and Afghanistan 11.Mc Mohan Line:-boundary between India and china 12.Redcliff Line:- boundary between India and Pakistan 13.Palk Strait:- boundary between India and Sri Lanka 14.Prithvi:-Surface to surface missile.It has a range 250km 15.Agni:- Is Surface to surface missile.it has a range1500-2000km 16.Akash:- Is Surface to surface missile.it has a range of 25km

17 Nag: It is an anti tank missile having range of 4km 18.Bank rate is the rate at which the reserve Bank of India gives credit to commercial Banks 19.Amicus Curiae-Lawyer appointment by the court to represent a poor person.it means friend of court 20.C.R.R- Cash Reserve Ratio 21.Medico Legal case-Accidental Case 22.The most important influence of the moon on the earth is the effect on ocean tides 23.Ranthambore:- Ranthambore National park in Rajasthan(410 sq.km)was ones the private tiger reserve of the Maharaja of Jaipur 24.Ghana Bird Sanctuary-Bharatpur Rajasthan 25.Standerd Deduction in income tax-30,000/26.Maximum income not liable to tax-50,000/27.Americans Robinson Walton(Bill gates)is the richest person in the world 28.Bio terrorism:-It refer to the use of disease causing micro oganism as terroist weapons to cause devastating ipack on the people.for example.Anthrax 29.Public University founded in 1982 at Lahore.After partition in was re-established in India on 1st of October 1947.the University moved to Chandigarh in 1956,vice chancellor of Punjab university is K.N.Pathak 30.Kapil Dev has been chosen the wisdom Indian cricketer of the century. 31.Akshardham Temple is in Gandhi Nagar (Gujrat 35 people were killed by terrorist ) 32.Metro rail Delhi 24 Dec,2002(Shahdra to is Hagari 8.3km) 33.CAG- V.N.Kaul 34.Chairman of SBI-A.K.Purwar 35.Guru Nanak born in Talwandi now called Nankana Sahib in 1469 .He died in 1539.Guru was founder of Sikhism 36. Guru Angad Dev- introduced langer system 37. Guru Amar Das- social reformer and discarded sati pratha 38. Guru Ram Das- founded city of Amritsar 40. Guru Arjun Deb- Built GoldenTemple and compiled Aadi Granph or Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Arjun Deb compled Granth Sahib in 1604 with the of bhai Gurdas Bhalla ji. Guru Arjun Dev was executed by Jahangir on the advice of Chandu Singh. Guru Arjun Dev got the foundation of Harmandir Sahib laid down by a Muslim Faqir main mir. 41.Guru hargobind singh stared the system of Akal takht and miri,piri 42.Guru Har Rai 43.Guru Harkishan 44.Guru Teg Bahadur-Guru Teg Bahadur executed by Aurangzeb 45. Guru Gobind Singh Founder of Khalsa 13th April,1699,Baisakhi, Khalsa means military brotherhood Zafarnama :- This is Letter written by Guru Gobind Singh to Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. This letter was written because Aurangzeb was committed many atrocities on people.Guru Gobind Singh asked Aurangzeb to give up the policy at Anandpur Sahib on the 1st Baisakh 13th April,1699 A..D 46.Dasam Granth was compiled by a devoted sikh mani singh after passing away Of Guru Gobind Singh . 47.Guru Ki kashi-Takhat Damdma Sahib. It is famous Gurudwara, Which is situated at Talwandi Sabo. It is called Guru Ki Kashi 48.Guru Ki Wadali it is Birth place of Guru Hargobind Ji . it is famous Gurudwara of

Punjab 49.Banda Bahadur- Was born on 27th October, 1670. His real name was Lachaman Das. Once, during hunting an arrow of Banda Bahadur stuck a pregnant she deer; Banda Bahadur was greatly pained to see the tragic death of the deer and its two kids. He renounced the world and become a Bairagi. Banda Bahadur adopted the name Madho Das after becoming a Bairagi. Madho Das (Banda Bahadur) met Guru Sahib. He said I am your Banda (Servant). Thus Madho Das become Banda. Guru Gobind Sahib called him Banda the brave. Thus acquired the name Banda Bahadur 50. Sharomani Gurdawara Prabandhak Committee was established on 15th Nov. 1990, at Akal Takhat Amritsar. 51.Aklis launched a non-movement in 1921 with the aim of Librating Sikh Guru Gurudwara from Mahants. General Studies Literature: 52.Creator of Asa-di-war,Japuji sahib-Guru Nanak Dev ji. 53.Creator of Bachittar Natak- Guru Gobind Singh 54.Creator of Jab Sahibh- Guru Gobind Singh 55.Creator of Anand Sahib- Guru Amar Das ji 56.Creator of Sukhmani Sahib Guru Arjan Dev ji 57. Compiler of Guru Granth Sahib Guru Arjan Dev ji 58.Writer of Adhi Granth at the time of its compilation of Bahi Gurdas Bhalla ji 59.Creator of Bani written in Dasam Granth-Guru Gobind singh ji 60.Most famous writer of Qisa Puran Bhagat Fazal Shah. Maharaja Ranjit Singh and his Administration:61.Date of Birth of Maharaja Ranjit Singh-Nov.2,1780. 62.Name of the parents of Maharaja Ranjit Singh- Father name:-Maha singh ,Mother name :-Raj Kaur 63.Time of treaty of Amritsar between Maharaja Ranjit Singh and British 25th April,1809 64.Name of the Foreign minister of Maharaja Ranjit Singh-Faqir Azizudeen 65.Head of Finance minister at the the time of Maharaja Ranjit Singh- Deewan Kaura Mal 66.Most famous prime minister of Maharaja Ranjit Singh- Dhian Singh Dogra 67.Meaning of Kankut system started by Maharaja Ranjit Singh- Tax on standing crop in the field 68.Nazim Adalat at the time of Maharaja Ranjit Singh state level- Court 69.Capital city of maharaja Ranjit Singh- Lahore 70.First war between Sikh and British 1845 A.D. 71.Second Anglo Sikh War-1848-1849 A.D. 72. Ranjit Singh (Thein) Dam has been constructed on the river- Ravi 73.Which Dam is built on Beas near Talwara- Pong Dam. 74. Dam built on the river Satluj- Bhakrha Dam 75.The Dusi dam has been constructed on the river Beas 76.The old name of the Amritser Ramdas nagar 77.Which Guru got constructor Akal Takhat GuruHargobind Sahib 78The real Granth Sahib has been placed at Kartarpur 79.Guru Nanak Dav Ji was enlightenment at- Sultan Pur 80.Which Guru built Buraj Baba Atal- Guru Hargobind Sahib 81. The old name Punjab- Sapat Sindhu

82.The Gurudwara situated at present where foundation of Khalsa Panth was laid Gurudwara Kesgarh Sahib. 83.The other name of Harmandir Sahib is-Darbar Sahib. 84.The Guru;who founded Anandpur Sahib was Guru Teg Bahadur 85.Bhagat Singh was hanged on-23rd March, 1931 86.Number of district in Punjab-17, Lok Sabha seats-13 87. Highest Gallantry Award-Param Vir Chakra 88.NOBLE PRIZES;-The Honors of Wining the Noble Prizes go to the Following 7 Indians (i)Rabinder Nath Tagore win the noble prizes from literature in 1913. (ii)C.V. Raman win the noble prizes from physics in 1930. (iii)Hargobind Khurana win the noble prizes from medicine in 1968. (iv)Mother Teresa win the noble price from peace in 1979. (vi) S. chandrashekher win the noble prize from physics in 1986. (vii) Prof. Amaritya Sen win the noble prizes from Economics in 1998. (viii) V.S.Naipal win the noble prizes from Literature in 2001. 90.Highest Gallantry Award- ParamVir Chakra 91.Highest Civilian Award- Bharat Ratana 92.First Olympic Game held at Athens in 1896 93.First Deputy Prime Minister of India-Sardar Patel 94.2nd deputy Prime Minister of India-Morarzi Desai 95. 3hd Deputy Prime Minister of India Choudhari Charan Singh 96. 5th Deputy Prime Minister of India Y.V.Chauan. 97.6th Deputy Prime Minister of India Dev Lal 98. 7th Deputy Prime Minister of India- Lal Krishan Advani 99. AIDS:Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 100.HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus 101.AIDS:Is caused by Virus Aids is due to Human Immunodeficiency Virus 102.Classical Dances of India -Manipur of Manipur -Oddisi of Orissa -Katha-Kali of Kerala -Kuchi-Pudi of Andhra Pradesh -Bharat Natyam of Tamil Nadu -Kathak of Utter Pradesh -Bihu of Assam 103.Legal Service Clinic:-A Legal Service Clinic open 24 hours on all days, has been established in Ahemdabad to provide free service of retired high court judge and reputed lawyear. 105.The State of Haryana-:Came into begin on , Nov.1,1966 as result of the reorganizations of the old Punjab state into two separate seats.It consist of the Hind speaking area of Punjab,secong language status has been given to Punjab(1996) 106.Book and Author:-Life Diving -Ain-I-Akbari -Aourbinbo Ghosh -Panchtantra -Abdul Fazal -Mahabharta -Vishnu Sharma -India wins Freedom -Ved Vyas -Discovery of India -Maulana Abdul Kalam -My Experiment with Truth -Gandhi

-Madhushala -Harivansh Rai Bachan -Prisoners Scorapbook -L.K.Advani 107.Sports:-Agha Khan Cup -Hockey -Durant Cup -Football(India) -Duleep/renjit Trophyre -Cricket -Santosh Trophy -National Football -Thomas Cup -World Bedminton(Men) -Davis Cup -Lawn Tennis 108.Buddhism:Buddhism was founded by Gautam Buddha. His Original name was Gautam Siddhartha , A Kashatriya, Boran in 563 B.C at Lumbini in Nepal . He attended enlightenment at Bodhgaya under papal tree.Budha died at the age of 80 years in 483 B.C at Kushinagar (District Utter Pradesh).He gave 8 fold paths to control the desire.1st sermon was delivered by him at Srnarth at Banaras .The Language used by Buddhist people was pali. General Studies 109.Red cross was founded by-J.H. Durant , Established in 1864 World red Cross day iscelebrated on May 8,The Birthday its founder J.H. Durant. 110.Sir Robert S.S Baden Powell is the founder of scouting 111.Who gave the call go back to Vedas-Dayanand 112.The construction of Qutab Minar was begun by Quatab-ud-din Aibak but it was complateed by lltutumish. 113.Who built the Sanchi Stupa- Agratala. 114.Who founded slave dynasty in 1206 A.D.- Quatab-ud-din Aibak. 115.The Capital of Tripura is Agratala. 116. The Capital of Mizoram is aizawl. 117. The Capital of Australia is Canberra. 118.Spring tides occurs on- Full moon day as well on new moon day. 119.Tides in the oceans are caused by-Attraction of the moon. 201.Buddhism place of worship is-Pongda. 121.Jews place of worship is-Synagogue. 122.Holish book of Jews-Talmud. 123.Malguddi days written by R.K. Naraynan 124.Das capital-Karl Marx 125.The father of Economics- Adam smith. 126.The Chipko Movement was associated with-preventing felling of trees. 127.Pashmina is a breed of -Sheep. 128.What is the meaning of Buddha An enlightened one. 129.Which is the holy book of Parsis- Jorah 130.Parliament of U.S.A is known as- Congress 131. Parliament of Afghanistan- Shoora 132. Parliament of Russia-Duma. 133. Parliament of Japan Diet. 134.SARS:-It Stands for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. SARS is caused by viruses from the corona and paramyxo virus family. 136.LCA(Light Combat Aircraft)is named as Tejas 137. Lakshva is Pilot Less target Aircraft 138.Kalpna Chawla: She was an Indian born American Astronaut. She died with other six astronauts in the Columbia shuttle crash on feb.1,2003. She embarked on

her second Voyage in the United State space shuttle Columbia on Jan 16,earlier.She was an Indian born American Astronaut.She died with other six astronauts in the Columbia shuttle Columbia on jan 16,earlier.She was one of the six astronaut crew that flew the Columbia Flight STS-87in nov.1997 Chawla who had her schooling in Karnal (Haryana)and college education in Punjab did her Masters in Aerospase Engineering from the university of Taxes in in 1984 and Doctorate from Colorado University two year later. An avid flier, she held certified flight instructors license with Airplane and Gladder ratings, commercial Pilot L icense for single and multi-engine land and seaplanes 139.Jan. 9,the day Mahatma Gandhi return from South Agrica in 1915-was chosen to celebrate the Pravasi Bharatiya Divas 140.The five day 90th session of the Lndian science congress conclude in Bangalore on Jan.7,2003.The focal theme of the congress was Vision for the global Space community. 141.Sriska and Ranthambore are the reserve for lion. 142.International Criminal court was launched formally in the mid march in the Hauge . The first eighteen judges took Oath in the grand ceremony. The court has been set up to handle genocide and the Worst case of war crime or mass atrocities against civilians when no national court is able or willing to do so. 143.Right to Education:-article 21A provides the free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen. 144.Freedom of information bill:- The parliament approved the Freedom of information bill.Now it is statutory right of the citizen to access information from the Government. 145.Right to Education :- article21A provides the free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen 146.Freedom of information bill:- The Parliament approved the freedom of information bill. Now it is statutory right of the citizen to access information from the Government. 149. Sapan is not a member of G-8 group. 150. APSARA is the name of the Indias first Nuclear Reactor. 151.The world environment day is celebrated on june 5. 152.Jainism:-Founded by (Rishabha)Varhamana Mahavira. He was a great 24th Triathankras (Pathfinder).Or prophet of Jainism .Mahavir was a greast Kshtiya ,born at Kundagram (Vaishali) in bihar. He came to be known as Mahavir of jina. The conqueror of passing; his following are known as Janis. He passed away at age 72 in 462 B. C at Pavapuri, a place near modern Rajgir . Mahavira Teaching are known as the Tri Ratna or the three jewels of Jainisn,which lead to the attainment of salvation . They are (I) Right Knowledge and (II) Right Action .The Janis used and developed Prakrit,The language of the common people .Their religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi. 153.Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut in 1498. 154.Ist Chinese traveler, Fahein came to India during the period of chandra GuptaII(Vikramaditya) 155.2nd Chinese traveler Hieun Tsang came to India during the region of Harshvardhana 156.Who is the Napoleon of India Samundra Gupta for his military exploits. 157.Harshvardhana written three books-1.Priya Darshika 2.Rattanavali 3.Naga Nanda. The official poet of harshvardhana was bana bhatt .Bana bhatta composed harsha chirtra and kadambari 158.First battle of panipat in 1526 and founded the Mugahal dynasty in India 159.Second battle of Panipat was fought between Akbar and Ibrahim Lodhi at Panipat in 1556 Akbar Defeated Himu and became the ruled of Delhi and Agra

160 Third battle of Panipat fought between Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan and Marathas in 1761.In this third battle of Panipat Marathas were completely routed by Ahmed Shah Abdali. 161.Indian National Army was founded by Subash Chander Bose in 1943 in Singapore alongwith Rasbihari Bose. The main aim of Azad Hind Fauz was to liberation of India. 162.The Brahmo Samaj was established by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828 whose leadership was later taken by Debendernath tagore and Keshub Chande Sen. 163.The Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1875 attempted to reform the Hindu religion from its decadence. 164.The Ramakrishana Mission was founded by Swami Vevekananda in 1896 . 165.Annie besant:- Founded Theosophical society started home rule league in 1916. She was the first woman president of Indian National Congress.Indian National Congress Founded by A.O.Hume in 1885. However first President of Indian national congress was W.C. Banerjee. 166.Swadeshi movement was started in 1905. 167.Gadder party was founded by lala Hardayal singh in 1913 at Francisco. 168.Home rule league founded by Annie Besant and Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak in 1916. 169.Rowlatt Act. Passed in 1919. 170.Non-Co-Operation movement started in 1920 by Gandhi ji. This movement ended in 1922 after Chauri Chaura incident. 171.Simons commission 1928 172.Civil Disobedience movement-1930 173. Do or die Mahatma Gandhi 174. Nightingale of India-Saorjini Naidu. 175. Father of Indian Unrest-Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak. 176. Architect of India- Pandit Nehru. 177. Man of Peace-Lal Bhadur Shastri. 178. Iron Man of India-Sardar. 179. jai hind subash chander bose 180. Grand old man of India Dada Bhai Naroji General Studies 181.Mughal Dynasty (1526-1540and 1555-1857) 1.Babur (1526-1530) 2.Humayum 3.Sher Shah Suri (1540-45) 4.Akber (1556-1605) 5.Jahangir (1605-1627) 6.Shah Jahan (1628-1658) 7.Aurangzeb (1658-1707) 182.BABUR: -Founder of Mughal Empire -1st battle of panipat between Babur and Ibrahim lodhi 183.HUMAYUN: -Son of Babur -Humayun Tomb at Delhi-1st Mughal Monument 184.SHER SHAH SURI: -He was an Afghan -Introduced a brilliant administration -Issued a coin called Rupia

-Build Grand Trunk Road Linking Peshawar to Calcatta 185.AKBAR: a. Eldest son of Humayun b. Real founded of Mughal empire c. Good works done by him d. Popular for his toleration e. Foundation of Din-e-illahi(code of conduct) f. Akbar Tomb Sikandria g. Largest building built called Agra Forte h. Abdul Fazal was a famous Poat who has written Aaine Akbari ,Akbar Name 186.JAHANGIR: a. Real name Salim b. Son of Akbar c. He is known for his strict administration of Justice d. He married Mehr-un-nissa or Nurjahan in 1661. e. Jahangirs Tomb built at Lohore f. Exeecuted Guru Arjun Dev at the advice of Chand Singh 187.SHAH JAHAN: a. Son of jahangir b. His wife Mumtaz Mahal died in 1631 c. Built Taj Mahal in her memory in Agra d. Known for promotion of Art e. Red Fort and Jama Masjid got built by him f. Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his third son Aurangzeb till he died in 1666 188.AURANGZEB: a. Third son of shah jahan b. Ruled for 50 years and he was a cruel king c. Banned all religious festival and demolished Hindu Temples d. Executed Guru Teg Bahadur Ji (9th Guru) when he refused to embrace Islam 189. NADIR SHAH: a. A Persian King during the region of Mohamd Shah took the Kohinoor diamond to Afghanistan 190.Who was the first Governor of free India Lord Mountbatten 191. Who was the first Governor General of free India C Rajagopalchari 192. Who was the first Governor of free British India Warren Hasting(1772-1793) 193. Who was the first father of Civil Service in India-Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793) 194. Who abolished sati Pratha and other cruel rites Lord W.Bentick (with the help of Raja ram Mohan Rai in 1829 195.Who introduced Widow remarriage Act.In 1856 Lord Dalhousie 196.TRAI -Telecom Regulatory Authority of India 197.VAS-Voluntary Retirement Scheme 198.VAT-Value Added Tex 199.STD-Subscribers Trunk Dialing 200.ISD-Internationl Subscriber s Dialing 201.PAN Permanent Account Number 202.PIN Postal Index Number 203. NATO-North Atlantic treaty Organization 204.SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. 205.C.R.R.-Cash Reserve Ratio. 206. I.S.R.O. -Indian Space Research Organization. 207.NASA-National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 208.V.D.I.S. Voluntary Disclosure Income Scheme 209. P.C.O. Public Call Office

210. L.P.G. Liquefied Petroleum gas 211.C.T.B.T. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty 212. V.P.P. Value Payable Post 213. L.C.A. Light Combat Aircraft. 214. P.O.W. Prisoner of War. 215. T.E.L.E.X Teleprint Exchange. 216 L.C.C Line of Actual Control. 217. CNG-Compressed Natural Gas. 218. SMS Short Messaging Service. 219. OAPEC -Organization of Arab Peteoleum Exporting Copuriers. 220.OPEC -Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 221.Interpol-International Crimunal Police Organisatiom its headquarter is in Lyons (Paris) 222.Who was the first man go to space- Yuri Gagran 223.Who was the first Indian go to in Space- Rakesh 224. Who was the first Indian woman go to in Space Kalpna Chawla. 225. Who was the first man land on moon Neil Armstrong on 21, July , 1969. 226. Bangalore is the Silicon City of the India. 227. Hyderabad is the hil Tec.City of India. 228. 2004 Olympics to be held in Athens. 229. Misslie man of the India A.P.J.Abdul Kalam Azad. 230. Capital of Fiji Suva. 231. Worlds largest river in South Americas Amazon which flows into South Atlantic. The source is Glacier Fed- Lakes. 232. Which of the first Indian state to be recognized on the basis of language Andhra Pardesh. 233. When were the Indian states re-organized on linguist basis 1956. 234. Which scheduled deals with matters relating to anti defection 10th 235. Which scientist laid the foundation of atomic energy research in India Homi J. Bhabha. 236. Which branch of science studies the relationship between matter and energy Physics. 237. Which planet have no atmosphere Mercury 238. Convex lenses are used for correction of Short Sightedness 239. Which mirror is used as a rear view mirror in vehicles Conves 240. Filament of an electric bulb is maid of Tungsten 241. The oil in the wick of an oil lamp rises up due to Capillary action 242. The best conductor of heat Silver 243. A radar which defects the presence of an enemy air craft uses Radio Waves 244. Velocity of round is maximum in Steel 245. The terminal colure of Rainbow are Rd & Blue 245. The gas extinguish fire is Carbon Monoxide 246. The purest form of carbon is-Diamond. Affairs 1. Which movie has won the best motion picture of the year award at Oscars, 2005Million Dollar Baby 2 . Which political party has won the maximum number of seats in the recently held assembly elections in Bihar - Janta Dal United 3. Jamie fox has won the best actor award in the Oscars, 2005. For which movie, He has been awarded Ray

4. 77th Oscars, 2005 has awarded Best actress award in a leading Role To Hilary swank 5. President of Afghanistan was on a visit to India during February March, 2005. His name is -Mr. Hamid Karzai 6. Who is the richest Indian as per Forbes list Lakshmi Niwas Mittal 7. Which film has won the 51st National Film Awards, 2005 in the category of Best Feature film on National Integration also called Nargis Dutt Award Pinjar (Hindi) 8. Who has won Dada Saheb Falke Award, 2003 declared in the National Film Award ceremony, 2005 -Ashok Kumar (Posthumously) 9. Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam, the President of India is the author of the book The Wings of Fire and Ignited Minds 10. Nanavathi Commission relates to - Terrorists attack in Indian Parliament 11. A.D. stands for Anno Domini 12. Tony Blair, Prime minister of Britain, belongs to Labour Party 13. RSVP stands for - Respondez Sil Vous Plait 14. The first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to . in 1901 J.H.Dunant 15.Which French Engineer designed the structure of the statute of liberty 16.Which of the following is called the Mother of all Parliaments The British Parliaments . 17. As per Human Development Report of 2004, what is full form of HDI Human Development Index. 18. Alagh Committee relates to Civil Services Examination. 19.. Treaty on Ozone depletion Montreal Treaty. 20.. First Chief Election Commissioner of India was Sukumar Sen. 21.. East Timor received independence in 2002 from Indonesia 22. First woman Prime Minister in the world was of Sri Lanka. 23. Gratuity is paid at the rate of 15 Days wages for each completed year of service . 24. Postal service in India was opened to the public in 1837. 25. The person was facilitated with Nishan-e-Pakistan Dilip Kumar 26. The author of the book Harry Potter and the Half Blood Princeis J.K.Rowling. 27. Fallujah city, which was recently in news, is in -Iraq 28. The Government of India recently announced a special development package of Rs. 250 crode for the development of Manipur 29. M.S. Subbalakshmi who died recently was a famous Classical Singer. 30. In Which country a non-resident Indian Mr. Bobby Jindal recently won the Parliamentary elections? US 31. Where is Halebida place Which is well Knon for its elaboratedly sculptured temples of the Hoysala eriod?-Karnataka 32.Where is Meenakshi-a famous Hindu temple? Madurai 33. Where is Sriharikota , Indias satellite launching centre? Andhra Pradesh 34. The Tower of Victory is Iocated in- Rajasthan.exander 35.Alexander Graham bell is credited with the invention of-Telephone. 36. The Television was invented by-J.L.Baird. 37.where is the longest railway playtform in the world - Kharagpur 38. which of the following countries is called the land of white elephant - Thailand 39. The capital of Greece is Athens 40.The Headquarters of United Nations Educational, scientific and cultural organization (UNESCO) are located in-Paris. 41.Who is the first Indian recipient of the Olympic Gold Order-Indira Gandhi` 42.The Largest monument in the world Quetzalcoatl Pyramid is in-Cairo 43.Which planets of our solar system do not have moons-Mercury and Venus. 44. Two of Ashoka s lion pillars built in the 3rd century B.C. stand perfectly preserved even today at their original location. One is at Lauriya Nandangarh. Where

is the other?- Sarnath 45.Which article of the constitution of India provides for the post of Governor of state?-Article153 46.In which State is the Sun Temple Suryan Kovil located? Tamil Nadu 47.At which of the following Olympic Games did the lndian Hockey team win its first gold medal?-Amsterdam 48. First Chief Election Commissioner of India was Sukumar Sen. 49. East Timor received independence in 2002 from Indonesia. 50. First woman Prime Minister in the world was of Sri Lanka. 51. Deficiency disease Vitamin A-Night Blindness, Vitamin B beriberi, Vitamin C scurvy Vitamin D Rickets, Vitamin E-Skin and hair disease, Vitamin K Clotting of Blood. 52. Rich sources of Vitamin A- Carrots, PEM- Protein Energy Malnutrients. 53..Disease due to deficiency of Iron Anemia, Life time of RBC 120 Days Communication Technology Communication: Introduction Communication is an indispensable tool in all areas of human interaction. But it is a process that is complex. The extent of its complexity can be seen in the variety of ways in which it can be defined. Thus, communication is any behaviour, verbal, nonverbal or graphic that is perceived by another. It involves a web of activities that differ in different situations. In the workplace, for example, you would probably communicate differently when talking formally to customers as compared to informally with a peer. How you perceive the situation will often determine your communication behavior. Forms and Types of Communication People communicate with each other in a variety of ways that depend on the message they want to send and the context in which it is to be sent. As a result there are a variety of forms and types of communication such as e-mail, face-toface, telephone, meetings, corridor conversations and seminars. Dwyer categorises these into three forms of communication - verbal, nonverbal and graphic four types of communication - intrapersonal, interpersonal, public and mass. Communication Models and Theories Communication is a dynamic and interactive process'. Just as there are many definitions of communication, so there are many models of communication, each providing different views of how people transfer and interpret information. Like a jigsaw puzzle, each model provides a part of the picture, but no one model seems to cover all aspects. Berlo's Model Berlo's focus remained on the transmission model of communication. However, he introduced more of the human elements, such as the relationship between the message channel and the five senses Effective communication involves both the sender and the receiver. The sender must

be as clear as possible and the receiver must signal understanding or clarification. It involves both content and relationship elements content = message, idea relationship = emotions, power, status personal Encoding and decoding are based on a person's perception of the world. The Transmission Model The transmission model is concerned with the transfer of meaning from the sender to the receiver . Communication is a one way process. The Process Model The transmission model was subsequently adapted to form the process models in which people transmit, receive, interpret and respond to messages with feedback. The process models have seven main elements: Sender Message Receiver Feedback Channel Context or setting (environment) Noise or interference In the process models, a message is encoded by the sender through a communication channel, such as voice or body language, and then decoded by the receiver. The receiver then provides feedback. The process is influenced by the context of the situation and any noise or interference. Communication: Continued Communication Barriers Ineffective communication can lead to errors, misunderstanding, poor performance, lower motivation and morale, negative feelings in the workplace and many other issues that may detract from achieving organisational goals. It is, therefore, important to try to minimise barriers to effective and efficient communication: communication barriers distort or interrupt the message and its meaning Organizational Communication Communication in an organisation may be used to influence, inform, control or inspire. Organisational communication can be divided into two broad categories formal or structured (within the 'systems' established by management) and informal (as when co-workers chat about company matters). Both areas are significant and both need to be 'healthy' for the organisation to be healthy. Formal Communication Channels and Networks Formal communication channels follow the organisational structure or hierarchy and flow in four directions:

These four directions in which communication can travel are: downward; upward; lateral or horizontal; and diagonal. Downward (1) communication involves communication from higher to lower levels so that leadership can communicate goals, strategies or role expectations. Upward (2) communication flows from lower levels to higher levels of the organisation, for example, when there is a need to communicate problems, results or suggestions. Horizontal (3) communication occurs across the same level and involves for example, coordination of activities with peers (teams, committees), dissemination of useful information from one department to another (for example sales forecasts from the sales department to production, and problems such as a problem with product design from the production department to research and development). Horizontal communication facilitates the l inking of different areas of expertise and this may encourage innovation. Diagonal (4) channels may potentially cause conflict as they involve communication between the lower level of one department to a higher level in another. In the diagram above, this may cause friction between the employee in accounting department C and the Vice-President (VP) of Accounting as the employee has gone around his or her own superior. Nevertheless this type of communication may be useful as it may simply be information relevant to the Marketing Department and the VP Accounting does not need to be involved. Formal communication networks also occur within the hierarchy of the organisation and reflect how groups of employees, for example those in a department, work together. Networking or mapping the flow of communication in an organisation can be a useful device. This can identify who is communicating with whom and whether the lines of communication are effective and efficient, or whether there is potential for destructive conflict or tension arising from the communication channels (for example, inappropriate diagonal communication). Formal Communication: Problems and Solutions Many communication problems arise from the structure of the organisation. Dwyer mentions three related organisational factors: centralisation; the creation of too many organisational layers; and the structure of the organisation. Other factors may include downsizing which leads to ambiguous reporting structure and poor leadership. Many of these problems may be overcome by: analysing the organisation structure and communication networks for barriers to effectiveness and efficiency ensuring downsizing is well planned and the 'survivors' (those left in the organisation) understand the impact of the process on communication networks and procedures recruiting for competent communication, particularly when recruiting for leadership roles. Informal Communication Informal organisational communication exists outside the formal lines of the organisational structure. An example of this is friendship groups. The informal communication channel serves two main purposes: it permits employees to satisfy their need for social interaction in the workplace and it can improve an organisation's

performance by creating alternative, and frequently faster and more efficient, channels of communication (Robbins et al. 2000). One of the most common forms of informal communication is 'the grapevine'. According to Kreitner and Kinicki (1995) the term grapevine originated from the American Civil War practice of stringing battlefield telegraph lines between trees as a means of efficient communication. Now it supplements the formal channels of communication. Methodology and Aptitude Types of Research - Definitions Action research is a methodology that combines action and research to examine specific questions, issues or phenomena through observation and reflection, and deliberate intervention to improve practice. Applied research is research undertaken to solve practical problems rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake. Basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge without looking for long-term benefits other than the advancement of knowledge. Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals to explore a social or human problem and include methods such as focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research and case studies. Quantitative research is research concerned with the measurement of attitudes, behaviours and perceptions and includes interviewing methods such as telephone, intercept and door-to-door interviews as well as self-completion methods such as mail outs and online surveys. Three basic types of questions that research projects: Descriptive: When a study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or what exists. Public opinion polls that seek only to describe the proportion of people who hold various opinions are primarily descriptive in nature. For instance, if we want to know what percent of the population would vote for a BJP or Congress in the next election, we are simply interested in describing something. Relational: When a study is designed to look at the relationships between two or more variables. A public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males and females say they would vote for a BJP or Congress candidate in the next election is essentially studying the relationship between gender and voting preference. Causal: When a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables (e.g., a program or treatment variable) causes or affects one or more outcome variables. If we did a public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent political advertising campaign changed voter preferences, we would essentially be studying whether the campaign (cause) changed the proportion of voters who would vote BJP or Congress (effect).

Time is an important element of any research design. The most fundamental distinctions in research design nomenclature: cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies. A cross-sectional study is one that takes place at a single point in time. In effect, we are taking a 'slice' or cross-section of whatever it is we're observing or measuring. A longitudinal study is one that takes place over time -- we have at least two (and often more) waves of measurement in a longitudinal design. A variable is any entity that can take on different values. Anything that can vary can be considered a variable. For instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different values for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly, country can be considered a variable because a person's country can be assigned a value. There is a distinction between an independent and dependent variable. In fact the independent variable is what you (or nature) manipulates -- a treatment or program or cause. The dependent variable is what is affected by the independent variable -your effects or outcomes. For example, if you are studying the effects of a new educational program on student achievement, the program is the independent variable and your measures of achievement are the dependent ones. A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory. Methodology and Aptitude Sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen. A response is a specific measurement value that a sampling unit supplies. If you measure the entire population and calculate a value like a mean or average, it is called parameter of the population. The distribution of an infinite number of samples of the same size as the sample in your study is known as the sampling distribution. In sampling contexts, the standard error is called sampling error. Sampling error gives us some idea of the precision of our statistical estimate. A low sampling error means that we had relatively less variability or range in the sampling distribution. How do we calculate sampling error? on the standard deviation of our sample. The greater the sample standard deviation, the greater the standard error /the sampling error. The standard error is also related to the sample size. The greater your sample size, the smaller the standard error. Because the greater the sample size, the closer your sample is to the actual population itself. If you take a sample that consists of the entire population you actually have no sampling error because you don't have a sample, you have the entire population. In that case, the mean you estimate is the parameter. Probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection such as picking a name out of a hat, or choosing the short straw. The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling. Simple random sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to explain to others. Because simple random sampling is a fair way to select a sample, it is reasonable to

generalize the results from the sample back to the population. Simple random sampling is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling and you may, just because of the luck of the draw, not get good representation of subgroups in a population. Stratified Random Sampling, also sometimes called proportional or quota random sampling, involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup. It assures that you will be able to represent not only the overall population, but also key subgroups of the population, especially small minority groups. Second, stratified random sampling will generally have more statistical precision than simple random sampling. This will only be true if the strata or groups are homogeneous. The problem with random sampling methods when we have to sample a population that's disbursed across a wide geographic region is that you will have to cover a lot of ground geographically in order to get to each of the units you sampled. It is for precisely this problem that cluster or area random sampling was invented. In cluster sampling, we follow these steps: 1. divide population into clusters (usually along geographic boundaries) 2. randomly sample clusters 3. measure all units within sampled clusters Non-probability sampling. The difference between nonprobability and probability sampling is that nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. We can divide nonprobability sampling methods into two broad types: accidental or purposive. In accidental sampling, sample is chosen accidently and we have no evidence that they are representative of the populations we're interested in generalizing to and in many cases we would clearly suspect that they are not. e.g. college students in some psychological survey. In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would have one or more specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance, have you ever run into people in a mall or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who are stopping various people and asking if they could interview them? Most likely they are conducting a purposive sample. Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. With a purposive sample, you are likely to get the opinions of your target population, but you are also likely to overweight subgroups in your population that are more readily accessible. One of purposive sampling is quota sampling. In quota sampling, you select people nonrandomly according to some fixed quota. There are two types of quota sampling: proportional and non proportional. In proportional quota sampling you want to represent the major characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount of each. e.g. getting 40% females from a population of say 1000. Then there is snowball sampling. In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who they may know who also meet the criteria. Research Design Research design provides the glue that holds the research project together. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research

project the samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, and methods of assignment work together to try to address the central research questions. Design can be either experimental or non-experimental. Data analysis is the last part of the research. In most social research the data analysis involves three major steps, done in roughly this order: Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis (Data Preparation) Describing the data (Descriptive Statistics) Testing Hypotheses and Models (Inferential Statistics) Data Preparation involves checking or logging the data in; checking the data for accuracy; entering the data into the computer; transforming the data; and developing and documenting a database structure that integrates the various measures. Descriptive Statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data. With descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is, what the data shows. Inferential Statistics investigate questions, models and hypotheses. In many cases, the conclusions from inferential statistics extend beyond the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the population thinks. Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data. Environment I PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT At present the most prominent problem in front of us is of environmental degradation and depletion of natural reeources. The problem is basically due to the fact that our society is fiercely intent on producing and consuming 8S much as possible, and increasing the volume as fast 88 possible every year, without any limit in sight. We are already far beyond sustainable per capita levels of resource use and environmental impact, but our supreme goal is economic growth; i.e., to increase production and consumption and the GDP all the time and without limit! Most people and all governments refuse to face up to the nlimits to growth analysis" of our situation. We can only have an ecologically sustainable society if we move to The Simpler Way, i.e., to a society in which we have materially simple lifestyles, in highly selfsufficient local economies that are run mostly

through cooperative arrangements, in a quite new economy; one that is not driven by the profit motive and market forces and has no economic growth. THE BASIC CAUSE OF THE ENVIRONMENT PROBLEM Our way of life in rich countries like Australia. involves consumption of huge volumes of resources, and consequently it involves dumping vast amounts of wastes into the environment. To provide a US lifestyle to one person, about 80 tonnes of materials have to be processed every year, much of it mining waste. Energy equal to 7 tonnes of oil has to be used. For each kilo offood-eaten some 10 kgofsoil are lost. At least 4.5 ha of productive land are needed just to provide one person living in a rich world city with their food, water, living space and energy. If all the world's people were to live as we do, productive land equal to 3.5 times all the world's productive land would be needed, and world population is very likely going to almost double before it stabilises around 910 billion. In other words the way we live is not just somewhat unsustainable; it is far beyond a sustainable level of re so urce use and" environmental impact. U all the people we are to have on earth soon were to have the Australian average per capita energy use then world energy production would have to be 9 -10 times what it is today. Yet tbe top priority in our society is to increase production , consumption, living standards and tbe G DP, all the time and without limit. We cannot reduce these demands for re80tll"CeS from nature and the dumping of wastes into nature unless we change to a very different society, one in which all can live 'Vell on very low material living standards. AIR POLLUTION Air pollution refers to the degradation of air quality as measured by biological, chemical, or physical criteria. Air pollution occurs when the concentrations of certain substances become high enough to make our atmospheric environment toxic. Air pollutants can be gaseous, liquid or solid in form, and can come from natural as well as human sources. Examples of natural sources of air pollution include forest flres, pollen, volcanic emissions, and dust. Human sources of air pollutants include emissions from industry, agriculture, forestry, transportation, power generation, aud space beating_

TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION In general, two types of air pollutants bave been recognized: Primary Pollutants: Primary pollutants are oonsist of materials (dust, gases, liquids and other solids) that enter the atmosphere through natural and human-made events. The main primary pollutants influencing our atmosphere in order of emission (by weight) are carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and particulate matter. Volatile organic compounds are organic molecules that 8.re mainly composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbons). The most common volatile organic compound release into the atmosphere is methane. Methane poses no drrect danger to human bealth; however, It does contribute to global warming through the greenhouse effect. Other volatile organic compounds releases Into the atmosphere include benzene. forrn.sldehyde, and chlorofluorocarbons. Of these chemicals, benzene and formald ehyde are the most dangerous to human health because they are carcmogeruc. Particulate matter consists of liquid or solid particles that are small enough to remain suspended in the atmosphere for extended periods of time . Ind ustrial activity and transportation are the major source of this type of air pollut.ion. Particulate matter includes common irritants like smoke, pollen, and dust, which can affect the human re spiratory system. In cities, particulate matter may also include particles composed of iron, copper, nickel, and lead. These particles influence the respll'atory system Immediately, and make breathing difficult for people with chronic respiratory disorders. Airborne lead, formed by the burning of lead gasoline, can accumulate in the tissues and boncs of humans and other living organisms. At high levels lead can cause nervous system damage, convulsions, and even death. It is especially dangerous to children and the unborn. Secondary Pollutants: Secondary pollutanta are consist .of primary pollutants that have reacted with each other or with the ba.sic components of the atmosphere to form new toxic substa.nces. In cities, the emissions from cars and industries combine with the help of light energy from the sun to produce photochemical smog. Photochemica1smog is extremely toxic to

arumal and plant life. and damages paint, rubber, and plastics. Finally, air pollution can also occur indoors. In buildings, about 150 different indoor pollutants have been identified. Some of the more common indoor air polJutants include smoke from cigarettes and cooking, radon. formaldehyde, and asbestos. At high concentrations, these pollutants can cause dizziness. headaches, coughing. sneezing. nausea, burning eyes, chronic fatigue, and Ou like symptoms. Some indoor pollutants, like asbestos and smoke, can cause disease and premature death. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Several different strategies have been used to reduce atmospheric pollution. Some polluters have used a number of techniques to redistribute pollutanta to areas not occupied by humans or other forms of life. Smelters and power plants use tall smoke stacks to disperse pollutants at higher levels within t.he atmosphere. Other atmospheric polluters have relocated their particular industry to remote locations. However, it is very difficult to dilute pollution in finite atmosphere. Sooner or later residual amounts of pollution reach levels that. are hazardous to some form of life. Humans have developed a number of technologica l soluti ons to atmospherIC pollution. Filters have been used to stop particles from reaching the atmosphere. Some power plants use electrostatic precipitators to redure pollution output by as much as 99%. 'I'he addition of limestone with coal in specialized burners can reduce sulfur emissions from this fossil fuel by up to 90%. CatalytiC converters in cars and other forms of transportation have been used to reduce emIssions or mtrogen oxides. hydrocarbons. and carbon monOXide by'At. Many automobIle oompanies are now working on t he development of hydrogen powered or electric vehicles to reduce emissions of several pollutants. One of the quickest and most common approachos car companies have used to reduce engine emissions is to increase fuel efficiency. In different. countries, cars must be inspected frequently to insure emissions controls are working properly. I ndoor pollution can be reduced by the modIfication of building codes. These modifications can be used to control materials used in construction and to ensure proper ventilation is set up in the building.

Finally, the s urest way to control atmospheric pollution is to avoid the creation of the pollutants. Fuel switching; and fuel cleaning can reduce the emissions of sulfur and heavy metals from so ca lled 'diTty' IOssil fuels like soft coal. The movement to conserving our fossil fuel energy resources, which began in the 1970s, has been very effective in reducing emissions per pereon. In conclusion, the following general recommendations for developing a cleaner atmosphere should be adopted by ali nations: * Preventing pollution emission rather than controlling it. Improve the energy efficiencies. * Use cleaner fuels. * Den!iop nonpolluting energy sources like solar energy, wind power. and hydropower. * Encourage mass transit and less polluting forms of transportation (e.g., switch from air travel to rail travel). * Slow population growth. * Include environmental costs in the pricing of energy resources and other activities that prOduce atmospheric pollution. KYOTO AND THE CLrMATE CHANGE CONVENTION The problem of global climate change because of increasing greenhouse gas concentrations can only be properly addressed by the united cooperation of our planet's nations. Consequently, the United Nations has set up the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to help mediate this process (see link below). One important partner organization that provides scientific advice to the United Nations is the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (lPCC). At a United Nations sponsored meeting of industrialized countries in Kyoto, Japan, in December 1997, Canada agreed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 6 % below 1990 levels between the years 2008 and 2012. However, as of 2000 greenhouse emissions are still rising in Canada and the federal government of this nation still has not formulated a plan to reach its reduction targets. WATER POLLUTION Water pollution refers to the degradation of water quality as measured by biological. chemical, or physical criteria. Degradation of water is generally judged m terms of the intended use, departure from the norm, effects on public health or ecological impacts. There are many different matermls that may pollute

surface water or groundwater. The following list describes some of the major forms of water pollution: (a) The addition of organic matter to water usually initiates the process of decomposition. Most decompose;s require oxygen to complete this process. As a result. oxygen levels in the water decline with activity. Humans commonly use water bodies, like rivers, lakes and ocean, as a means of disposing of organic wastes. However, adding too much organic matter to a water body can cause it to becom" polluted because of a reduction in oxygen content. Low levels of oxygen can kill off fish , plants, and other organisms. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed in water by bacteria activity. BOD is measured as milligrams per Ilter ofo:x)'gen oonsumed over 5 days at 20 degrees Celsius. All water bodies have some capability to degrade organic waste. Problems result when the water bpdy is overloaded with BOD demanding W3ste. (b) Fecal coliform bacteria and other disease carrying microorganisms are important biological pollutants. Many of these organisms increase in numbers when water is polluted with organic matter and waste. Among the major waterborne human diseases are cholera and typhoid, which are common in many poor developing countries. (c) Nutrients (like nitrogen and phosphorus) released by human activity can cause lake eutrophication and nitrite contammation of drinking water. Excess nitrogen and phosphorous from farm animal waste and agricultural fertilizers is causing a major pollution problem in streams, lakes, and the coastal marine environment in many nations. 160 (d) Oil discharge into surface water, usually ocea n, haa cauaed major pollution problems. (e) Heavy metals such as mercury, zinc, and cadmium are dangerous pollutants and are often deposited with natural sediment in the bottoms of streams. (f) The hot-water emission from industrial and power plants causee thermal pollution.

Many industries cool machinery and products with water drawn from rivers, lakes, or the ocean. After the heat is dissipated into the water, the water is returned to its source. Heated water changes the nature of the aquatic system by reducing its ability to hold dissolved oxygen and by favoring species offauna and flora that are adapted to warmer conditions. (g) Radioactive materials in water may be dangerous pollutants. Of particular concern are possible effects to people, other animals and plants to long-term exposure to low doses of radioactivity. (h) By volume, sediment is the greatest water pollutant. In many areas, sediment is choking streams and filling lakes, reservoirs, ponds, canals, drainage ditches, and harbors. Human activity has increased the amount of sediment entering the hydrologic system mainly through the disturbance of natural habitats, agriculture, and forestry. All of these activities enhance the process of erosion either through the removal of vegetation or via processes that disturb the soil surface layer (soil cultivation). WATER CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES A number of techniques and technologies can be used to make agricultural, industrial and domestic water use more efficient. Reductions can easily occur in the following areas: Reducing Agricultural Waste ~ lrrigation accounts for about 70 % of the world's water use. Most irrigation systems deliver water to crops by flooding the land surface, diverting water to fields via open channels, or by sprinkler systems that apply water to the field surface. In general, these methods are very inefficient as only 50 % of the water applied is absorbed by the plants. The rest is lost to the atmosphere by evaporation. Microirrigation techniques can reduce the amount of water applied to crops by 40 to 60%. Other strategies that can be used to reduce agricultural water waste include: * The cultivation of food crops that require less water for growth. * The use of lined or covered irrigation canals to reduce infiltration and evaporation losses. * Irrigating crops at night or early morning when evaporation potentials are low. * Reduce water subsidies and encourage the proper pricing of this resource.

Reducing Industrial Waste -Industry is the second largest user of water supplies. ReduClng the amount of water used in industry not only makes more water available for other purposes but it can also reduce the volume ofpollution. Industry used water reductions can be achieved by: * Designing industrial processes to recycle water. For example, water used for industrial cooling purposes can be cooled down in a cooling tower and then reused. * Increasing the cost of water to induet.ries to encourage water recycling. * Recycling materials themselves can also greatly reduce water demand. For example, manufacturing a ton of aluminum from scrap rather than from virgin ore can reduce the volume of water used by 97%. Reducing Domestic Waste -Some'strate,gies for reducing domesticconsunlption include: * Replace lawns in semiarid and arid urban areas with xeriscsped surfaces. * Encourage the use of efficient irrigation systems for home garden and lawn use. * Manufacture and legislate the use of more efficient dishwashers, washing machines, and bathroom showers and toilets. * Encourage leak detection and repair for distribution systems. Distribution systems in many of the world's urban areas are losing between 25 and 50% of their water supplies due to leaks in pipes. * Properly price water for domestic u se. This pnce must reflect the environmental cost of over consumption and resource degradation. Many studies have shown that higher prices for water provide motivation for people to conserve. The introduction of water meters in Boulder, Colorado reiluced water use by about 30%. In Canada, water is metered in approximately two-thirds of the municipalities. Apart from these education can encourage people to reduce the amount of personal consumption. NOISE POLLUTION Noise as a Pollutant ''AnY sound, that has the potential to call,se disturbance, discomfort or psychological stress to a. subject e:xposed to it, or any sound, that could cause actual physiological harm to a subject exposed to it, or physical damage to any structure exposed to it, is known as noise. " Hannfnl effects are defined as "negative effects on human health ".

Noise sensitive locations are defined as: . "Any dwelling house, hotel or hostel, health building, educational establishment, place of worship or entertainment, or any other facility or other area of high amenity which affords proper enjoyment requires the absence of noise at nuisance levels." Noise is almost ubiquitous. Many normal everyday activities lead to the prodt:ction of sounds, some of which are regarded as noise. Noise from traffic, lawnmowers, household appliances, concerts, and industrial activities and so on, are considered commonplace. In most cases the majority of people scarcely notice these noises and are not bothered by them, but in some cases people can perceive noise as a nuisance. Such people may be more sensitive than others, or may find themselves in particularly nOISY situations, or may be annoyed by noise because they want to sleep, or relax in a quiet atmosphere. In some cases, noise may present such a nuisance as to actually bring about a negative effect on the health ofthose exposed to it. Noise Measuring The EPA goes on to explain that in order to assess whether intervention is needed to preve nt, control or minimise noise, it is necessary to be able to quantify it. and ascribe a scale ofmeasul'ement to it. It is not a8 simple a science as one might think. Noise is usually measured on the decibel scale, which is a logarithmic scale of sound intensity. For human noise response, the decibel scale is adjusted slightly to compensate for slight aberrations in the way the human ear "hears" sound along the scale. This edjusted scale is known as the A weighted decibeJ scale, and the units of the scale are d BA. The EPA has produced a table, which describes how various decibel levels might sounds as follows: DBA Description o Absolute silence. 25 Very quiet room. 35 Rural night-time setting. No wind. 55 Day-time, busy roadway 0.5 km away. 70 Busy restaurant. 85 Very busy pub. Voice has to be raised to be heard . 100 Disco or rock concert. 120 Uncomfortably loud. Conversation impossible.

140 Noise causing pain in ears. LAND POLLUTION Also known as soil pollution, land pollution involves the following mechanism: * Deposition of solid waste * Accumulation of... non biodegradable materials * Toxification of chemicals into poisons * Alteration of soil chemical composition (imbalance of chemical equilib.riulll to soil medium) By as much, land pollution of this has amass globally, everyday threatening the very foundation and mechanical support of every matter on earth. Statistically, it has been shown that: * 108s of 6 million hectares of land per year * loss of 24 billion tons of topsoil per year * 108s of minimum 15 million acres prime agricultural land to overuse and mismanagement * desertification ofland results in the lost of 16 million per square miles of world's landsurface The causes for such devastation are generally due to two forms of malpractices: Unhealthy soil management methods; improper tillage of soil in which excessive tillage result in the deterioration of soil structure * non-maintenance of a proper supply of organic matter in the soil from the imbalance composition of the reserves of organic matter especially nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur unplenished supply after cultivation of vegetation, living the soil prone to soil infertility, unable to stabilize the soil physicality which ultimately let to desertification. * irregular maintenance ofa proper nutrient supply of trace elements gives rise to the use of excessive synthetic fertilizers, which are non biodegradable and accumulate in t he soil system which eventually destroys useful organisms such as bacteria, fungi and other organisms. * improper maintenance' of the correct soil ocidity which ultimately disrupt the adaptation of various crops and native vegetation of different soils as the solubility of minerals present will be affected. [n a more acidic soil, minerals tend to be more soluble and washed away during rainfall while alkaline soil, minerals are more insoluble which form complex minerals unable to be absorbed into the flora system physiological usage. Imprope r irrigation practices; * poorly drained soil result in salt deposits leading to high soil salinity that inhibit plant growth and may lead to crop failure. * unirrigated land giving rise to stagnation of agriculture waste products which

accumulates and increases land toxicity. * irregular irrigation leads to decreasing moisturization ofland for soil medium and replenishments of solvents for minerals. UGC Environment II SOURCES AND METHODS Agriculture accumulation of animal manures, excessive input of chemical fertilizers and illicit dumping of tainted crops on land. . Mining and Quarrying using of explosives to blow up mines and using of machineries which emits toxic byproducts and leaks to the ground. Sewage sludge improper sanitation system causes sludge to leak at surrounding soil. Dredged spoils improper method of dredging at fertile land causes soil infertility, leaving the soil more prone to external pollution. Household improper waste disposal system and improper sanitation system. Demolition and construction non biodegradable rubbles or debris which are not cleared settled in the soil undergo chemical reactions and increase soil toxicity. Industrial poisonous/toxic emissions of gases which are not filtered or neutrali zed. RADIOACTrvE POLLUTION Nuclear energy is a form of energy that's released by the splitting of atoms. Since scientists have found a way to make use of the energy, it has also been used to generate electricity. Nuclear energy has been recognized as a clean energy because it doesn't release pollutants such BS CO2 to the atmosphere after its reaction that could damage our environment. It's also known that nuclear energy has reduced the amount of greenhouse gas emission, reducing emissions of CO2 for about 500 million metric tons of carbon. Despite the advantage of nuclear as a clean energy, the big concern is the waste resulted from nuclear reaction, which is a form of pollution, called radioactivity. Radioactivity is a form of radiation (a form o(energy that travels through space). Some elements in this world are naturally radioactive while Bome Qthers are made to be. Radioactivity is emitted when a

radioactive element become WlStable and begin to decay in the attempt to regain their molecular stability. When an element decays, it emits energy and small particles. [f it's still radioactive, it will repeat the proceas, until it finally regains its molecular stability and stop decaying. The time that it takes for halfway of decaying process is called half-life, and this differs for each radioactive element. It p0S8ibly takes up to 4.5 billion years (Uranium 238) and as short as 8 days (Iodine 131). This process constantly remains, not coABi~:t:ing e)(te.rnal factors such as pressure or tempe..ratur.e. This process is expressed ill units calle..d.b:e:cque:r.e.ls. One becquerel is equal to on.e di.s.in.t:4tgratio,n.oi nuclei per second. There are commonly three types of :t:ad.i.a.tion. namely: . * Alpha particles, can be blocked by a piece of paper and human skin. * Beta particles can penetrate through skin, which can be blockedby some pieces of glass and metal * Gamma rays can penetrate easily to human skin and damage cells on its way through, reaching far, and can only beblocked by a very thick, strong, massive piece of concrete. Sources and Methods We can classify major sources that lead to radioactive pollution to the following categories * nuclear power plants * nuclear weapon transportation * disposal of nuclear waste * uranium mining THERMAL.POLLUTION This has become an increasing and the most current pollution, owing to the increasing call or globalization everywhere. Heat produced from industries is a major contribution to the pollution, much to the operation of the heavy industries which produces high amount of heat energy As we will show a summary to the event of tms pollution happening: * Raw materials for productivity (organic and inorganic products) * Undergo different chemical reactions with several process * Excess heat energy is produced as a waste PrOOuct * Heat is released into atmosphere (vapor) and riverine system (liquid). * Increase of temperature of environmental system and view of the pollution, global temperature had increased significa ntly. Measurements of atmospheric temperature are done by met~rol ogical center of the weather fo~t annually, and the gi'aph to detect the temperature trend from a pel'iod of 10 years will be CQDlpared with the previous batch of period. Thus we may be able to know the rate of tempe.rature increa se overa ll and make reference to the standard level of heat that shouldbe maintain in the atmosphere to avoid

large deviation of heat in the system. Sources and Methods Wit can classify major sources that Jead to thermal pollution to the following categories: * power plants creating electricity from fossil fuel * water as a cooling agent in ind ustrial facilities * deforestation of the shoreline * soil erosion THE GREENHOUSE PROBLEM A number of the gases we are putting into the atmosphere have the effect of trapping energy that co.mes to the earth as sunlight but which would otherwise be radiated back into space. The main contributor is carbon dioxide, accounting for about half the greenhouse effect. Humans generate about 24 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide each year, mostly from the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) in rich countries. The carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere has inCI'eased by about 25% since humans began to use fossil fuels in large quantities 150 years ago. The concentration is now around 350 ppm and increasing by abou t 1.5% p.a. The effects can't be predicted with confidence but this increase could result in a 1-2 degree rise in average global temperature by 2030. The expected rise at the poles is much greater. If the greenhouse effect continues into the 22nd century then polar ice would begin to melt eventually bring about a sea rise of perhaps a hundred metres. Even a half metre rise would cause huge problems for the many people who live on low lying islands and in coastal regions. Probably the most undesirable effects will be hotter and drier climates in many Third World regions such as the African Sahel, where millions of people even now have difficulty growing enough food , and more frequent occurrence of extreme climatic events such 98 storms, floods, droughts and cyclones. These can devastate food production. It is possible that positive feedback effects from several sources could suddenly produce a catastrophic runaway greenhouse effect. For example, * As the warming dries out the Arctic tundra it begins to rot, releasing greenhouse gases. * As the tropical rainforest is destroyed we lose the cloud, t heir moisture generates. That cloud presently reflects much solar energy back into space, cooling the earth. * As the warming reduces the formation of polar ice each year less salt is separated to fall to the bottom causing the huge currents that take carbon-rich water down. * As these currents diminish less nutrients

are brought up to feed the plankton which take in much carbon. * As the oceans warm and become more poliuted coral reefs dissolve, ceasing to take carbon from the atmosphere and releasing their carbon to the ocean. It seems that the global atmospheric system can flip from one state to another fairly quiclly. Some ice ages have come and gone relatively suddenly. The worry is that human activity could tip the system into a new state, for example, bringing on a new ice age. Nature moves 100 times as much carbon into and out of the atmosphere as humans do, so we might trigger or lever huge shifts and runaway effec:ts in nature's processes. PLANT MANY TREES It doesn't take long to realise that there is no realistic chance of solving the greenhouse problem by planting trees to remove carbon dioxide from t he atmosphere. Firstly we'd have to plant something like the a rea of Australia, and secondly this would only take carbon from the atmosphere while the trees were growing. Similarly, increasing the use of nuclear energy in order to cut coal use would not make much difference. Burning coal to prod uce electricity contributes only a small fraction of the carbon input, carbon constitutes only ahout half of the greenhouse problem, ~nd to build all the reactors needed would reqwre a great deal of energy and would therefore help to make the greenhouse problem worse for possibly 50 years. ... AND ENERGY GROWTH If the CO2 content of the atmosphere continues to increase at the present rate then late next century it will probably have risen to around 8 times the present level. World energy consumption is growing at about 2% p.a. Remember that the Third World is trying to catch up the developed world in energy consumption and use. In fact half the wc:-Id's people average only 1117 the r ich world average per capita usc. !fall the people likely on earth late next century were to rise to the present per capita use levels in rich countries world energy use would be about 8 times its present amount. If India and China insist on pursuing the Western development model they will have to burn their large r esources of dirty coal, causing a far worse greenhouse problem than we have now. We should be trying to convince them that it is a mistake to think of satisfactory

development in terms of high levels of industrialisation and oonsumption. But there is little chance of them listening to UB unless they could see that we in rich oountries were making a big effort to reduce OUl' use of fossil fuel s. The atmospheric scientists have been telling us for years that if we are to stop the level of carbon in the atmosphere from nsmg any higher.lt carbon inputs by 60-80%. If we were to cut them by 60% and share the quantity of energy between all the people we would have on earth by 2060 you and I would have to get by on only 1/18 of the energy we use now. Most people have no idea of the magnitude of the overshoot and therefore the magnitude of the reductions in resource use and in consumption that will have to be made if the problems are to be solved. The greenhouse problem provides strong support for the "limits to growth" argument. There is no plausible way of solving the problem without accepting drastic reduction in per capita levels of production and consumption and thus shifting to The Simpler Way, including a zero-growth economy. THE OZONE PROBLEM In the mid 1980s, it was realised that the ozone in the atmosphere is being depleted. There is only a very small quantity ofthia gas. If all the molecules of ozone were brought together at normal pressure they would make up a layer around the earth less than 3 mm thick. Yet ozone performs the extremely important function of blocking out much of the ultraviolet light that comes from the sun and is hal'mful to life. Life on earth was only able to emerge from the seas on to the land after plants had released enough oxygen to create an ozone shield. In the late 1980s scientists observed a large hole forming each year in the ozone over the antarctic. More recently another hole has appeared over the Arctic. By the early 1990's there had been about a 3-5% reduction in the amount of o~ne in the whole atmosphere. The main destr uctive gases, CFC's, remain active in the atmosphere for 100 years. The ozone problem illustrates the most important aspect of the general environment problem, i.e., the damage being done to the life support systems of the planet. Increased ultraviolet light coming to earth will have undesirable effects on various biological systems, including the productivity of broad

leaf plants (and therefore agriculture) and the micro-organisms in the sea which account for a considerable proportion of the world's ,oxygen and which take much carbon from the atmosphere. Processes such as these are crucial in maintaining the conditions necessary for the health of the entire planet, and the most worrying aspect of the environment problem is that in many ways human activity is degrading these systems and processes that. make life on earth possible. ACID RAIN In the heavily industrialised areas of North America and Europe the rainfall has become acidic due t.o the amount. of nitrogen and sulphur entering the atmosphere especially from cars and power stations. As a result forests and lakes are dying. This is one more factor reducing the productivity of agricult.ure and more importantly degrading the life support systems of the planet. There will be strong pressure to increase use of foss il fuels and fertilisers in coming decades, increasing the release of acid to the atmosphere. SOIL DAMAGE All life on earth depends on the earth's fragile "life jacket" made up by the thin layer of topsoil (average depth only 30 cm) from which all living things derive their sllstenance. We are treating this vital resource in a way that cannot continue for many more decades. Our agriculture is one of the most unsustainable aspects of our society. Consider the main damaging effects. For every 1 kg of food we eat, modern agriculture loses at least 5 kg of soil to erosion. Water logging and salinity in irrigated areas are destroying much land. Large areas of good farmland are continually being turned into urban settlements. In America perhaps h alf million ha p.a. are lost this way. Large scale use of pesticides reduces soil fertility. Much land is being lost to the spread of deserts, at a global rate of 6 million ha p.a .. Another 20 million ha became unprofitable to farm each year. Rainfall is increasingly acidic. Soil nutrients are not returned to the soil. We throwaway all our food wastes, and animal and human wastes. These should all be returned to the soil. Modern agricultlure is therefore well described as "soil mining".

Soils are becoming more acidic due to use of artificial fertilisers. The Greenhouse and ozone problems will have undesirable effects on agriculture in coming years. Another important reason why our agriculture is unsustainable is that it depends on large quantities of energy. especially oil. In addition to all the energy used in tractor fuel, fertilisers, irrigation and pesticides there are huge transport and packaging energy costs. We will not be able to farm as we do now when much less oil is available in a few decades time. We could not do it now if world oil output were shared equally among all the world's people. We in rich countries can use so much in our agriculture only because we take most of the world's oil production. To produce one glass of qiilk can take energy equal to half a glass of diesel fuel. These trends cannot continue for many more decades. We are destroying our capacity to meet our agricultural needs. Remember that there will probably be twice as many people to feed late next century and it is likely that there will then be much less land than there is now. To solve these problems we must move to a very different form of agriculture in which we mostly depend on small farms and gardens, tree crops, "edible landscapes" throughout cities, local self-sufficiency in food (hence little transport), recycling of nutrients and thus negligible use of ploughing, artificial fertilisers or pesticides. THE POLLUTION OF THE OCEANS Large quantities of wastes are dumped into the world's oceans every year, including the runoff of excess fertiliser from farmland, and 2 million tonnes of oil which affects photosynthesis and the amount of sunlight reflected from the planet. In the early 1980s the North Sea was receiving every year 49 tonnes of cadmium, 20 tonnes of mercury, 12 tonnes of copper, 9 tonnes of lead, 34 tonnes of arsenic, and 20 million cubic metres of sewage. THE LOSS OF FORESTS Around 1620 million hectares of rainforest are being lost each year and most of the remaining foreetmighthave been destroyed by early in the 21st century. In addition about -4 million ha of other forest types are being lost every year. This destruction not only reduces the rate at which

carbon is taken out of the atmosphere, but the rotting of cleared vegetation and exposed soil humus is also putting carbon into the atmosphere, )1ossibly equal to 40% of the input from fossil fuel burning. The loss of the rainforest could also reduce the planet's cloud cover and therefore greatly increase its temperature. Tropical forest loss is the main cause of the loss of species. THE LOSS OF SPECIES The expansion of human activity is destroying habitats and causing the extinction of plant and animal species at an accelerating rate. This is probably the most serious of all ecological problems. There are probably 10 to 30 million species in existence, mostly undiscovered as yet. In the 300 years to 1970 humans probably caused the extinction of about 300 species. Some biologists estimate that we are now losing 17500 species every year, about 2 every hour.ln the next 20 years, one million plant and animal species could be made extinct. At this rate, in the next 50 years half of all species could be lost. We have entered a period of rapid extinction unlike any since 60 million years ago when the dinosaurs suddenly died out. The result will be the weakening of the life-support systems of the planet, because it is the diversity and complexity of life forms which maintains these systems, for example recycling nutrients and maintaining the atmosphere. We are also losing many varieties of food plants because it suits corporations to sell mostly the few types which maximise their profits. Becauge the seeds they se ll are "hybrids" the resulting plants will not yield a seed that produces a good crop, meaning that farmers can't save their own seed and have to buy more seed from the big seed companies every year. The seeds sold are the types that thrive only when given many energy-intensive inputs such as fertiliser and water. Because of this trend, within one generation, large numbers of plant varieties that used to be kept in existence by farmers saving their own seed are being lost as farmers all around the world are now mostly buying the same few varieties from the seed corporations. THE DIMINISHING BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY OF THE EARTH Tn the last decade evidence has increased that the productivity of the earth's biological systems has begun to decline, despite the everincreasing

effort humans are making to raise production. Many agricultural production indices which have been increasing in recent decades now seem to be slowing, stable or falling. Consider the following indicators noted by the Worldwatch Institute. * World cropland area increased to the early 1980s but little increase is likely from here on. * World grain lan~ area has decreased since 1970. * The growth rate for forests is declining. * Annual increases in world grain production have been falling over the last three decades, despite increased fertiliser use. * The rate of increase in world irrigated land area is tapering. * The productivity of land did not rise much in the' second half of the 19808, despite increased inputs. * World fish catch is very likely to decline in the near future. The number of fishing vessels doubled in the 1980s but the catch didn't mcrease. These tapering curves are quite disturbing. The environmental impacts largely responsible for t he declining productivity are accelerating. We are only feeding 1 billion people well, but we will soon have 11 billion, and our capacity to produce food is likely to diminish from here on. EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH Since World War 11 humans have had to live in a new chemical environment, increasingly surrounded by and taking in many pollutants created by our industries. Thousands of new chemicals are invented each year and tonnes of these new substances are released into the environment each year, entering our water, air and food. Only a few are ever tested thoroughly for their long term health effects. Many of these wastes are known to be poisonous. Chemicals leaching from dumps into drinki ng water supplies is a major problem. This increase in the contamination of our environment is probably a major factor responsible for the increasing incidence of cancers. Some people argue that we a re experiencing an epidemic. Two worrying factors here are biological magnification, the way some harmful substances become more concentrated as they move up food chains. and synergism, the way some substances in our envu'ollment can interact with each other to have greater effects. For example, the probabilit.y of an asbestos worker who is a smoker contracting cancer is about 10 times as great as the probability for smokers in general or that for asbestos workers in ge neral. These two factors togethel' interact

to produce a much greater risk. We have little idea how t.he many new chem icals we are exposed to could be interacting within us to cause illnesses, but the more we saturate ow' environment with new chemicals the more likely such effects are. THE ENVIRONMENT PROBLEM IN THE THIRD WORLD Some of the most se r io us environmental damage is taking place in the Third World, especially destruction of forests and the loss of species. The resulting famines, floods, erosion and droughts are taking a rapidly increasing number of lives each year. As the trees are lost rain runs off more rapidly, eroding soils and causing more serious flooding, and more serious droughts later on. When there is less wood people burn more dung, which should be going back to the soil. There are now millions of "environmental refugees"; people fleeing because their environments have become unable to support them. To some extent these increasingly serious environmental problems are due to population increase in the Third World and to corrupt and inefficient governments. But the main causes are the unjust way the global economy functions and the inappropriate approach to development the rich countries have promoted. These have encouraged poor countries to sell otT their forests to purchase goods from rich countries. They have led poor countries into debt and thus obliged them La sell even more logs and ooff'ee to pay their debts. They have led to the use of much land for export cropping and have therefore forced many poor people to clear forests and to overgraze poor lands in order to grow food for themselves. [n other words poverty is a major cause of environmental damage in the Third World. Above all, the "limits to growth" analysis shows that t he Third World must be persuaded not to strive for the rich world's industrialised, urbanised and affluent ways. That would require 10 times as much energy and resource oonsumption as'now occurs in the world every year. WE ARE DESTROYING THE LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS OF THE PLANET The most serious environmental concern of all is that we are damaging the biological processes that provide and renew the oonditions all life on earth needs, such as an appropriate climate and a constant supply of nutrients. Every organism depends for its existence on a fairly stable

supply of nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, etc. Where did the oxygen we just breathed in come from? It was produced by organisms such as trees and phytoplankton on the surface of the sea. But we are clearing trees and we a re allowing ultraviolet rays to damage those micro-organisms. Every major indicator shows a deterioration in natural systems. We only have about 40 years left in which to achieve sustainability . We must see all species and environments as contributing to 8 gigantic system which reproduces the oonditions and the chemicaJs that all need in order to live. We all depend entirely on each other ; any organism on earth can only get the things it must have in order to live because all the others are living normally and making those elements and conditions available. Yet we are damaging the system that provides these vital conditions. WHAT ABOUT TECHNlCAL ADVANCE IN POLLUTION REDUCTION? Many people just assume that all we need to do to solve the environmental and resource problems is have tighter poUution control, buy products that ate recyclable, and design more 168 energy efficient products, etc. This is what advocates of "Environmentally Sustamable Development" usually believe. They do' not see that we need to change our lifestyles or the economy. The "limits to growth" argument is that there is no chance of solving the major globa'l problems we face unless we go much further and drastically reduce the amount of producing and consuming going on, because the problems are essentially due to the very high levels of resource use and waste involved in our way of Hre. Even if we achieve large reductions in the pollution generation rate, but remain rommitted to economic growth then in a short time we will be polluting 3S much 8S we were or using as much energy as we were before the cuts. If at a point in time we were to cut the rate of pollution per unit of output by 30%, but our economy continued to grow at 3% p.a. then in only 14 years the annual amount of pollution generated would be back up at the pre-cutlevel, and i.n another 23 it would be twice as great. Obvi ously any plausible reduction in envir onmenta l impact will soon be overwhelmed if we insist on growth in output.

lfthe Third World is to develop to the levels of affluence of developed world that will mean burning 10 times as much fuel as at present, every year -- pollution control would have to achieve miracles to keep the consequences to anywhere near the present (intolerable) levels. Affluent-industrial-oonsumer society can't be saved by Factor 4 or Factor 10 reductions in the amount of resource use and environmental impact per unit of output, while commitment to growth remains. Such reductions will soon be overwhelmed if we continue to pursue growth in output. UGC Environment III "ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT" There is much reference on the part of eCQnomists and governments to the concept of "environmentally Austainable development". However, this is in general only an attempt to take some steps to reduce the environmental impact of economic activity, but there is never any Question of reducing the volume of production and sales, or of eliminating grossly unnecessary or wa steful or luxurious 169 UGCJRF (Paper 1}-22 production. "Ecologically Sustainable Development" is only about looking for ways of contlUulOg to produce, but. in ways that will have reduce environmentru impact. The crucial point IS that the volume of production and consumption current.ly taking place is far beyond levels that can be kept up, extended to all the world's people, or remedied by technical advances. The inescapable conclusion from the limits to growth analysis of our situation is that. t.here must be drastic reduction in the volume of economic activity taking place in the world at. present.. This is the last thing that economists, corporations. and governments want to year, 80 they opt to pretend that it is sufficient to look for less environmentally damaging ways of conti nuing to produce and sell as much as possib le. THE NEAR FUTURE Most of the destruction of the environment has taken place since 1950; i.e., in the short period of rapid economic growth. The rate of impact on the ecosystems of the planet will probably increase greatly in coming decades. * World population will multiply by 1.5. * People in poor countries, who will probably outnumber us by 6 or 8 to 1 late next century, also want the high material living

standards we have in rich countries like Australia. * Resources are becoming more scarce, meaning more effort., more . fuel , a nd pollution will be involved in gelling them, and more pressure on untouched nat.ural areas such as Antarctica * Even people in the richest countries insist on endlessly increasing the amount they produce and consume every year. It is therefol'e virtually certain that the present. quite disturbing levels of environment.al impact will become several times as great in coming decades. THE ECONOMY; BASIC CAUSE OF THE PROBLEM It is essent.ial to realise that it is our economic system that is mainly responsible for the destructive effects we are baving on our environment. The biggest contribution to saving ecosystems would come with t.be elimlOation of our enormous volume of unnecessary proCluction, resource use and the associated ecological disruption, but our economic system will not allow uS to reduce production to levels that are merely sufficient fora reasonable lifestyle. Unless production and consumption increase the economy is in trouble, even though developed countries now produce far more than is necessary. CONCLUSION Are you dark green or only light green? Unfortunate ly most concern about t he environment at present is only devoted to saving areas or species threatened by growth and affiuence society, or to working for less polluting ways or for recycling schemes or more energy efficient transport. etc .. without any thought of changing from a society that is obsessed with growth and affiuence. Such "light green" efforts are important. and admirahle but many people concerned about the environment fail to see that there is no chance of solving the environment problem unless we change to a rad ical conse rver society involving very different lifesty les, pat erns of settlement, levels of cons umption and eco nomic arrangements. NATURAL HAZARDS AND MITIGATION EARTHQUAKES The shnking of ground is known as earthquake. Earthquakes occur when energy stored in elastically strained rocks is suddenly released. This release of ene,rgy causes intense ground shaking in t.he area near the source of the earthquake and sends waves of elast ic

energy, called seismic waves, throughout the Earth. Earthquakes can be generated by bomb blasts, volcanic eruptions, anci sudden slippage along faults. Earthquakes are definitely a geologic hazard for those living in earthquake prone areM, but the seismic waves generated by earthquakes are invaluable for studying the interior of the Earth. ORIGIN OF EARTHQUAKES Most natural earthquakes are caused by sudden slippage a long a fault zone. The elastic reboWld theory suggests that if slippage along a fault is hindered such that elastic strain energy builds up in the deforming rocks on either side of the fault, when the slippage does occur, the energy released causes an earthquake. This theory was discove red by making measurements at a number of points across 8 fault. Prior to an earthquake it was noted that the rocks adjacent to the fault were bending. These bends disappeared after an earthquake suggesting that the energy stored in bending the rocks was suddenly released during the earthquake. SEISMOLOGY, THE STUDY OF EARTHQUAKES When an earthquake occurs, the elastic energy is released sending out vibrations that travel throughout the Earth. These vibrations are called seismic waves. The study of how seismic waves behave in the Earth is called ~ismoiogy. Seismograms - Seismic waves travel through the Earth as vibrations. A seismometer is an instrument used to record these vibrations, and the resulting graph that shows the vibrations is called a seismogram. The seismometer must be able to move with the vibrations, yet part of it must remain nearly s tationary. This is accomplishe.d by isolating the recording device (like a pen) from the rest of the Earth using the principal of ine rtia . The source of an earthquake is called the focus, which is an exact location within the Earth where seismic waves are generated by sudden release of stored elastic energy. The epicenter is the point on the surface of t he Earth directly above the focus. Seismic waves emanating from the focus can travel in several ways, and thus there are several different kinds of seismic waves. Body Waves - Emanate from the focus and travel in all directions through the body of the Earth. There are two types of body waves: P-waves and S-waves:

P-Waves - Primary waves, travel with a velocity that depends on the elastic properties of the rock through which they travel. P-waves are the same thing as sound waves. They move throu gh the material by compressing it, but after it has been compressed it expands, so that the wave moves by compressing and expanding the material as it travels. Thus the velocity of the Pwave depends on how easily the material can be compressed (the incompressibility), how rigid the material is (the rigidity), and the density of the material P-waves have the highest velocity of all seismic waves and thus will reach all seismographs first. S-WaveB - Secondary waves, also called shear waves. Surface Waves - Surface 'waves differ from body waves in that they do not travel through the Earth, but instead travel along paths nearly parallel to the surface of the Earth. Surface waves behave like S-waves in that they cause up and down and side to side movement as they pass, but they travel slower than S-wavcs and do not travel through the body of the Earth. Surface waves are often the cause of the most intense ground motion during an earthquake. These are known as L-waves (Longitudinal Waves). The record of an earthquake, a seismogram, as recorded by a seismometer, will be a plot of vibrations versus time. On the seismograph, time is marked at regular intervals, so that we can determine the time of arrival of the first P-wave and the time of arrival of the first S-wave. Since P-waves have a higher velocity than S-waves, the P-waves arrive at the seismographic station before the S-waves. * Magnitude of Earthquakes -The size of an earthquake is usually given in terms of a scale called the Richter Magnitude. Richter Magnitude is a scale of earthquake size developed by a seismologist named Charles Richter. The Richter Magnitude involvcs measuring the amplitude (height) of the largest recorded wave at 8 specific distance from the earthquake. While it is COl reet to say that for each increase in I in the Richter Magnitude, there is a tenfold increase in amplitude of the wave, it is incorrect to say that each increase of 1 in RIchter Magnitude representB a tenfold increase

in the size of the Earthquake. * The Richter scale is an open ended scale with no maximum or minimum. The largest earthquakes are probably limited by rock strength. although meteorite impacts could cause even larger earthquakes. The largest earthquakes so ScaJe is shown in the table below. Note that far recorded are the Chile earthquake in correspondence between maximum intensity 1960 with a Richter Magnitude oC8.5, and and Richter Scale magnitude only applies in the the Alaska (Good Friday) earthquake of 1964 with a Richter Magnitude of 8.6. area around the epicenter. * It usually takes more than one * Thus, a given earthquake will have zones seismographic station to calculate the of different intensity all surrounding a zone of magnitude of an earthquake. Thus you maximum intensity. will hear initial estimates of earthquake The Modified Mercalli Scale is shown in the magnitude immediately after an table below. Note that correspondence between earthquake and a final assigned maximum intensity and Richter Scale magnitude for tJ:te same earthquake that magnitude only applies in the area a round the may differ from initial estimates, but is epicenter. assigned after seismologists have had time to evaluate the data from numerous (nte- Characteristic Effects Richter Scale seismographic stations. nsity Equivalent I People do not feel any <3.4 Frequency of Earthquakes of Different Earth movement Magnitude Worldwide IT A few people notice movement Magnitude Number of Description if at rest andlor on upper floor Earthquakes of tall buildings per Year 111 People indoors feel movement. 4.2 > 8.5 0.3 Great Hanging objcet:.<! swing back 8.0 . 8.4 1 and forth. People outdoors might not rnalize that an 7.5 - 7.9 3 Major earthquake is occurring 7.0 - 7.4 15 IV People indoors feel mO"/cment. 4.3 4.8 6.6 - 6.9 56 Hllnging objects awing. Dishea, 6.0 - 6.5 210 Destructive windows, and doors rattle. Feels 5.0 - 5.9 800 Damaging like a heavy truck hitting walls. 4.0 - 4.9 6,200 Minor Some people outdoors may 3.0 - 3.9 49,000 fool movement. Parked cars rock 2.0 - 2.9 300,000 V Almost everyone feels 4.9 5.4 o - 1.9 700,000 movement. Sleeping people are awakened. Doors swing Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale open/close. Dishes break. Small The Richter magnitude scale results in one objecta move or are turned over. number fo' the SIze of the earthquake. Trees ahake. Liquids spill from Maximum ground shaking will occur only in open containers the area of the epicenter of the earthquake, but VI Everyone fee ls movement. 5.5 . 6.1 the earthquake may be felt over a much larger People have trouble walking.

area. The Modified Merca1li Scale was developed Obje1::ts fall from shelves. in the late 18005 to assess the intensity of ground Picturea fall oII walls. Furniture shaking and building damage over large areas. mo\'es. Plaster in walls may * The scale is applied after the earthquake crack. Trees and bushes shake. Damage alight in poorly built by conducting surveys of people's response to buildin!;.'!. the intensity of ground shaking and destruction. vn People have difficulty in standing. 6.5 G.l * Thus, a given earthquake will have zones Drivers feel cars s haking. of different intensity all surrounding a zone of Furniture breaks. Loose bricks fall from buildings. maximum intensity. * The MercalJi Scale is very useful on exam ining the effects of an earthquake over a large area, because it is responsive not only to the size of the earthquake as measured by the Richter scale for areas near the epicenter, but will also show the effects of the efficiency that seismic waves are transmitted through different types of material near the Earth's surface. * The Merca\U Scale is also useful fo, determining the size of earthquakes that occurred before t he modern seismog rapruc network was available (before there were seismographic stations, it was not possible to assign a Richter Magnitude). EARTHQUAKE RISK * Many seismologists have said that "earthquakes don't kill people, buildings do", This is because most deaths from earthquakes are caused by buildings or other human construction falling down during an earthquake, * Earthquakes located in isolated areas far from human population rarely cause any deaths. * Thus, eart.hquake hazard risk depends on 1, Population density 2. Construction standards (building codes) EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS * Worst earthquake in recorded history occurred in 1556 in Shaaxi, China, killed 830,000 people, most Hving in caves excavated in poorly consolidated loess (wind deposited silt and clay). * Worst earthquake in the last century also occurred in China (T'ang Shan Province), killed 240,000 in 1976. Occurred at 3:42 AM, magnitude 7.8 earthquake and magnitude 7.1 aftershock. Deaths were due to collapse of masonry (brick) buildings. ContrastIn earthquake prone areas like CaliforOla, in order to reduce earthquake risk, there &restrict building codes requiring the design and construction of buildings and other structures that will withstand a large earthquake. While this program is not always completely

successful, one fact stands out to prove its effectiveness. In 1989 an earthquake near San Francisco, California (The Lorna Prieta, or World Series Earthquake) w:th a Richter Magnitude of 7, 1 killed about 62 people. Most were killed when a double decked freeway in Oakland collapsed. About 10 months lat.cr, an earthquake with magnitude 6.9 occurred in Armenia, where no earthquake- proof buildIng codes existed. The death toll in the l!mcr earthquake was about 25,0001 HAzARDS ASSOCIATED WITH EARTHQUAKFS Possible hazards from earthquakes can be classified as follows: Ground Moti.on : Shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves, especially surface waves, near the epicenter of the earthquake are responaib!e for the most damage during an earthquake. The intensity of ground shaking depends on: * Local geologic conditioll.s ill. the area. In general, loose unconsolidated sediment is subject to more intense shaking than solid bedrock. * Size of the Earthquake. In general, the larger the earthquake, the more intense is Lhe shaking and the duration of the shaking. * Distance from the Epicenter. Shaking is most severe near the epicenter and drops off away from the epicenter. The distance factor depends on the type of material underlying the area. * Damage to structures from shaking depends on the type of construction. o Concrete and masonry structures are brittle and thus more susceptible to damage. o Wood and steel structures are more flexible and thus less susceptible to damage. Faulting and Ground Rupture - Ground rupture generally occurs only along the faulty zone that moves during the earthquake. Thus, structures that are built across faulty zones may collapse, whereas structures built adjacent to, but not crossing the fault may survive. Aftershocks - These are usually smaller earthquakes that occur after a main earthquake, and in most cases there are many of these aftershocks occur because the main earthquake changes the stress pattern in areas around the epicenter, and the crust must adjust to these changes. Aftershocks are vel"y dangerous because they cause further collapse of structures damaged by the main shock. Fire - Fire is a secondary effect of earthquakes. Because pO'Yer lines may be knocked down and

because natural gas lines may rupture due to an earthquake, fJ.res are often started closely following an earthquake. The problem is compounded if water lines are also broken during the earthquake since there will not be a supply of water to extinguish the fires once they have started. Landslides - In mountainous regions subjected to earthquakes ground shaking may trigger landslides, rock and debris falls, rock and debris slides, slumps. and debris avalanches. Liquefaction - Liquefaction is a precess thaL occurs in water-saturated unconsolidated sediment due to shaking. In areas underlain by such matel"ial, the ground shaking causes the grains to lose grain to grain contact, and thus the material tends to flow. Changes in Ground Level- A secondary or tertiary effect that is caused by faulting. Earthquakes may cause both uplift and subsidence of the land surface. Tsunamis - Tsunamis are giant oCean waves that can rapidly travel across oceans. Earthquakes that occur beneath sea level and along coastal areas can generate tsunamis, which can cause damage Lhousands of kilometers away on the other side of the ocean. Flooding - Flooding is a secondary effect that may oeew' due to rupture of human made dams, due to tsunamis, and as a result of ground subsidence after an earthquake. EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION AND CONTROL Long-Term Forecasting: Long-term forecasting is based mainly on the knowledge of when and where earthquakes have occurred in the past. Thus, knowledge of present tectonic setting, historical records, and geological records are studied to determine locations and recurrence intervals of earthquakes. Two aspects of this are important. Paleoseismology - The study of prehistoric earthquakes. Through study of the offsets in sedimentary layers near fault zones, it is often possible to determine recurrence intervals of major earthquakes prior to historical records. If it is determined that earthquakes have recurrence intervals of say 1 every 100 years, and there are no records of earthquakes in the last 100 years, then a long-term forecast can be made and efforts can be undertaken to reduce seismic risk.

SHORT-TERM PREDICTION Short-term prediction involves monitoring of processes that occur in the vicinity of earthquake prone faults for activity that signify a coming earthquake. Anomalous events or processes that may precede an earthquake are called precursor events and might signal a coming earthquake. Despite the array of possible precursor events that are possible to monitor, successful short term earthquake prediction has so far been difficult to obtain. This is likely because: the process~s that cause earthquakes occur deep beneath the surface and are difficult to monitor. Earthquakes in different regions or along different faults all behave differently, thus no consistent patterns have so far been recognized. Among the precursor events that may be important are the following: Ground Uplift and Tilting: Measurements taken in the vicinity of active faults sometimes show that prior to an earthquake the ground is uplifted or tilts due to the swelling of rocks caused by strain building on the fault. This may lead to the formation of numerous small cracks (called microcracks). This cracking in the rocks may lead to small earthquakes called foreshocks. Foreshocks : Prior to a 1975 earthquake in China, the observation ofnumerolls foreshocks led to successful prediction of an earthquake and evacuation of the city of the Haicheng. The magnitude 7.3 earthquake that occurred, destroyed half of the city of about 100 million inhabitants, but resulted in only a few hundred deaths because of the successful evacuation. Water Level in Wells : As rocks become strained in the vicinity of a fault, changes in pressure of the groundwater (water existing in the pore spaces and fractures.in rocks) occur. This may force the groundwater to move to higher or lower elevations, causing changes in the water levels in welle. Emission of Radon Gas: Radon is an inert gas that is produced by the radioactive decay of uranium and other elements.in.rocks. Because Radon is inert, it does not combine with other elements to form compounds, and thus remains in a crystal structure until some event forces it out. Deformation resulting from stram may force the Radon out and lead to emissions of Radon that show up in well water. The newly

formed microcracks discussed above could serve as pathways for the Radon to escape into groundwater. Increases in the amount of radon emissions have been reported prior to some earthquakes. Cbanges in the Electrical Resistivity of Rocks: Electrical resistivity is the resistance to the flow of electric current. In general rocks are poor conductors of electricit.y, but water is more efficient than conducting electricity. If microcracks develop and groundwater is forced into the cracks, this may cause t.he electrical resistivity to decrease (causing the electricaJ conductivity to increase). In some cases a 510% drop in electrical resistivity has been observed prior to an earthquake. Unusual Radio Waves: Just prior to the Lorna Prieta earthq~lUke or 1989. ijome researchers reported observing lmu.suaJ radiO waves. Where these were generated and why, is not yet known, but research is continuing. Strange Animal Behavior : Prior to a magnitude 7.'1 earthquake in Tanjin. China, zookeepers reported unusual animal behavior. Snakes refusing to go into their holes, swans refusing to go near water, pandas screaming, etc. This was the first systematic study of this phenomenon prior to an earthquake. Although other attempts have been made to repeat a prediction based on amtUal behavior, there have been no other successful predictions. CONTROLLING EARTHQUMffiS Although no attempts have yet been made to control earthquakes, earthquakes have been known to be induced by human interaction with the Earth. This suggests that in the futUre earthquake control may be possible. VOLCANOES, MAGMA, AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS Volcanic eruptions are caused by magma (a I Types of Magma : Types of magma are mixture of ~quid rock, crystals, and dissolved determined by chemical composition of the gas) expelled onto the earth's surface. magma. Three general types are recognized: 175 Summary Table Magma Solidified Chemical Temperature Viscosity Gns Content Typ. Rock Composition Basaltic Basalt 4555 Si02 %. high in Fe, Mg, 1000 - 1200 ~C Low Low Ca, low in K. No. Andcaitic Andesite 5565 Si02 %, intermediate Mg, 800 - 1000 C Intermediate Intermediate Co., No., K in Fe,

Rhyolitic Rhyolite 6575 SiO2 %, low in Fe, Mg, Ca, high in K, No.. HOW MAGMAS FORM IN THE EARTH In order for magmas to form, Borne part of the earth must get hot enough to melt the rocks present. Under normal conditions, the geothermal gradient, which is bow the temperature in the earth changes with depth or pressure, is not high enough to melt rocks, and thus with the exception of the outer core, most of the earth is solid. Thus, magmas form only under special circumstances, and thus. volcanoes are only found on the earth's surface in areas above where these special circumstances occur. As pressure increases in the earth, the melting temperature changes as well. For pure minerals, there are two general cases. If the mineral contains no water (H20) or carbon dioxide (C02) and there is no water or carbon dioxide present in the surroundings, then melting occurs at a single temperature at any given pressure and increases with increasing pressure or depth in the earth. This is called dry melting. If water or carbon dioxide are present within or surrounding the mineral, then melting takes place at a single temperature at any given pressure, but first decreases with increasing pressure. Since rocks are mixtures of minerals, they behave somewhat differently. Unlike minerals, rocks do not melt at a single temperatme, but instead melt over a range of temperatures. Thus, it is possible to have partial melts, from which the liquid portion might be extracted to form magma. The two general cases are: 1. Melting of dry rocks is similar to melting of dry minerals, melting temperatures increase with increasing pressure, except there is a range of temperature over which there exists a partial melt. The degree of GSO - 800 C High - High partial melting can range from 0 to 100%. 2. Melting of wet rocks is similar to melting of wet mJnerais, except there is range of temperature over which partial melting occurs. Again, the temperature of beginning of melting ftrst decreases with increasing pressure or depth, then at high pressure or depth the melting temperatures again begin to rise.

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS * In general, magmas that are generated deep within the Earth begin to rise because they are less dense than the surrounding solid rocks. * As they rise they may encounter a depth or pressure where the dissolved gas no longer can be held in solution in the magma, and the gas begins to form a separate phase. * When a gas bubble forms, it will also continue to grow in size as pressure is reduced and more of the gas comes alit of solution. In other words, the gas bubbles begin to expand. * If the liquid pal'tofthe magma has a low viscosity, then the gas can expand relatively easily. When the magma reaches the earth's surface, the gas bubble will simply burat, the gas will easily expand to atmospheric pressure, and a non-explosive eruption will occur, usually as a lava flow (Lava is the name we give to a magma when it is on the surface ofthe earth). * If the liquid part of the magma has a high viscosity, then the gas will not be able to expand very easily, and thus, pressure will build up inside of the gas bubble(s). When this magma reaches the surface, the gas bubbles will have a high pressme inside, which will cause them to burst explosively on reaching atmospheric pressure. This will cause an explosive volcanic eruption. NON-EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS, Nonexplosive eruptions are favored by low gas content and low viscosity magmas (basaltic to andesitic magmas). * If the viscosity is low, non-explosive eruptions usually begin with fire fountains due to release of dissolved gases. * Lava flows are produced on the surface, and these run like liquids down slope, along the lowest areas they can find. * Lava flows produced by eruptions under water are called pillow lavas. * If the viscosity is high, but the gas content is low, then the lava will pile up over the vent to produce a lava dome or volcanic dome. EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS: Explosive eruptions are favored by high gas content and high viscosity (andesilic to rhyolitic magmas), Explosive bursting of bubbles will fragment the magma into.clots of liquid that will cool as they fall through the air. These solid particles become pyroclasts (meaning - hot fragments) and tephra or volcanic ash, which refer to sandsized or smaller fragments. * Blocks are angular fragments that were solid when ejected. * Bombs have an ae rodynamic shape indicating they were liquid when ejected. * Bombs and lapilli that consist mostly of gas bubbles (vesicles) result in a low density highly vesicular rock fragment called pumice.

TEPHRA AND PYROCLASTIC ROCKS Average Pa.rtieie Unconsolidated Pyroclastic Rock Size (nun) lI1a.teriai(Tephra) >64 Bombs or Blocks f\!;"g\omerate 2 - 64 Lapilli Lapilli Tuff <2 Ash Ash Tuff Clouds of gas and tephra that rise above a volcano produce an eruption column that can rise up to 45 km into the atmosphere. Eventually the tephra in the eruption column will be picked up by the wind, carried for some distance, and then fall back to the surface as a tephra fall or ash fall. lf the eruption column collapses a pyroclastic flow will occur, wherein gas and tephra rush down the flanks of the volcano at high speed. This is the most dangerous type of volcanic eruption. The deposits that are produced are called ignimbrites if they contain pumice or pyroclastic flow deposits if they contain non-vesicular blocks. If the gas pressure inside the magma is directed outward instead of upward, a lateral blast can occur. When this occurs on the fla:1ks of a lava dome, a pyroclastic flows called a glowing avalanche or lLUie ardenles (in French) can also result. Directed blasts often result from sudden exposure of the magma by a landslide or collapse of a lava dome. VOLCANIC HAZARDS * Ash Falls (tephra falls) * Hot Ash Flows (pyroclastic flows) * Mud.f1ows Qahars) * Volcanic Landslides (debris flows and debris avalanches) * Lava Flows * Volcanic Gases PRIMARY EFFECTS OF VOLCANISM * Lava Flows Control of lava flows has been attempted with limited success by bombing flow fronts to attempt to divert the flow ,and by spraying with water to cool the flow. The latter is credited with saving the fishing harbor during a 1973 eruption of Heimaey in Iceland. * Violent Eruptions and Pyroclastic Activity * Poisonous Gas Emissions SECONDARY AND TERTIARY EFFECTS OF VOLCANISM * Mudflows (Lahars) * Debris Avalanches and Debris Flows . * Flooding * Tsunamis * Volcanic Earthquakes and Tremors * Atmospheric Effects * Famine and Disease BENEFICIAL ASPECTS OF VOLCANISM Volcanism throu ghout Earth history is responsible for outgasing of the Earth to help produce both the atmosphere and hydrosphere. Volcanism helps renew the soil, and soils around active volcanoes are some of the richest on Earth. Hydrothermal processes associated with volcanism produce rich ore deposits, and the heat rising around magma bodies can

sometimes be tapped to produce geothermal energy. Predicting Volcanic Eruptions: Before discussing how we can predict volcanic e r uptions, it is important to get some term inology strai ght by defining some commonly used terms. Active Volcano -An active volcano is a volcano that has shown eruptive activity within recorded history. Thus an active volcano need not be in eruption to be considered active. * Currently there are about 600 volcanoes on Earth considered to be active volcanoes. * Each year 50 to GO of volcanoes actually erupt. Extinct Volcano - An extinct volcano is a volca no that has not s hown any historic activity, is usually deeply eroded, and shows no signs of recent activity. How old must a volcano be to be considered extinct depends to a large degree on past activity. * Yellowstone Caldera is about 600,000 years old and is deeply eroded. But fumorolic activity. hot springs, and geysers all point to the fact that magma still exists beneath the surface. Thus, Yellowstone Caldera is not considered extinct. * Other. volcanoes that are deeply eroded. smaller, and much younger than Yellowstone, that show no hydrothermal activity may be considered extinct. Dormant Volcano - A dormant volcano (sleeping volcano) is somewhere between active and extinct. A dormant volcano is one that has not shown eruptive activity within recorded history, but shows geologic evidence of activity within the geologic re~nt past. * Because the lifetime of a volcano may be on the order of a million years, dormant volcanoes ca n become active volcanoes all of sudden. These are perhaps the most dangerous volcanoes because people living in the vicinity of a dormant volcano may not understand the concept of geologic time. and there is no written record of activity. These people are sometimes difficult to convince when a dormant volcano shows signs ofrenewed activity. * Yellowstone Caldera would be considered a dormant volcano. * Mount St. Helens was considered as a dormant volcano, baving not erupted for 123 years, before its reawakening in 1980. * Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines had been dormant for over 400 years before its eruption in 1991. * Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, Italy was considered an extinct volcano prior to its devastatUlg eruption of 79 A.D. LONG : Term Forecas ting and Volcanic Hazards Studies * Studies of the geologic history of a volcano

are generally necessary to make an assessment of the types of hazards posed by the volcano and the frequency at which these types of hazards have occurred in the past. * Once this information is avai lable. geologists can then make forecasts concerning what areas surrounding a volcano would be subject to the various kinds of activity should they occur in a future eruption. and also make forecasts about the longterm likelihood or probability of a volcanic eruption in the area. * During such studies, geologists examine sequences of layered deposits and lava flows. Armed with knowledge about the characteristics of deposits left by various types of eruption a, the past behavior of a volcano can be determined. * Using radiometric age dating of the deposits the past frequency of eve nts can be determined. * This information is then combined with knowledge about the present surface aspects of the volcano to make volcanic hazards maps which can aid other scientists, public officials, and the public at large to plan for evacuations. rescue and recovery in the event that. short term prediction suggests another eruption. ., * Such hazards maps delineate zones of danger expected from the hazards discussed above: lava flow s, pyroclastic flow s, tephra falls, mudflows, flood s, etc. SHORT -TERM PREDICTION BASED ON VOLCANIC MONITORING Short-term prediction of volcanic eruptions involves monitoring the volcano to determine when magma is approaching the surface and monitoring for precursor events that. often signal a forthcoming eruption. * Seismic Exploration and MonitorillgSince seismic waves are generated by both earthquakes and explosions, and since Swaves cannot pass through liquids, a rrays of seismographs can be placed around a volcano and small explosions can be set off to generate seismic waves. If a magma body exists beneath the vclcano, then there will l:.e zone were no S-waves arrive (an S-wave shadow zone) that can be detected. Monitoring the movement of the S-wave shadow zone can delineate the position and movement of the magma body. * Changes in Magnetic Field - Rocks contain minerals such as magnetite that are magnetic. Such magnetic minerals generate a magnetic field. However, above a temperature called the Curie Temperature, these magnetic minerals show no magnetism. Thus, if a magma body enters a volcano, the body itself will show no magnetism, and if it heats the

surrounding rocks to temperatures greater than the Curie Temperature (about 500C for magnetite) the magnetic field over the volcano will be reduced. Thus, by measuring changes in the magnetic field, the movement of magma can sometimes be tracked. * Changes in Electrical Resistivity Rocks have resistance to the flow of electrical current which is highly dependent on temperature and water content. As magma moves into a volcano this electrical resistivity will decrease. Making measurements of the electrical resistivity by placing electrodes into the ground, may allow tracking of the movement of magma. * Ground Deformation - As magma moves into a volcano, the structure may inflate. This will cause deformation of the ground, which can be monitored. Instruments like tilt meters measure changes in the angle of the Earth 's surface which are measured in microradians track changes in distance between several points on the ground to monitor deformation. * Changes in Groundwater System -As magma enters a volcano it may cause changes in the groundwater system, causing the water table to rise or fall and causing the temperature of the water to increase. By monitoring the depth to the water table in wells and the temperature of welJ water, spring water, or fum aroles, changes can be detected that many signify a change in the behaVior of the volcaOlc syste m. . Changes in Heat Flow - Heat IS everywhere flowing out of the surface of the Earth. As magma approaches the surface or as the temperature of groundwater increases, the amount of surface heat flow will increase. Although these changes may be smalJ they can be measured using infrared remote sensing. * Changes in Gas Compositions - The composition of gases emitted from volcanic vents and fumaroles often changes just prior to an eruption. In general, increases in the proportions of hydrogen chloride (Hel) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) are seen to increase relative to the proportion of water vapor. UGC Environment IV TSUNAMI A tsunami is a very long-wavelength wave of water that is generated by sudden displacement of the seafloor or disruption of any body of standing water. Tsunami are sometimes called "seismic sea waves", although, as we will see, they can be generated by mechanisms other than earthquakes. Tsunami have also been

called "tidal waves", but this term should not be used because they are not in any way related to the tides of the Earth. Because tsunami occur suddenly, often without warning, they are extremely dangerous to coastal communities. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TSUNAMI All types of waves, including tsunami, have a wavelength, a wave height, an amplitude, a frequency or period, and a velocity. * Wavelength is defined as the distance between two identical points on a wave (i.e. between wave crests or wave troughs). Normal ocean waves have wavelE"ngths of about 100 meters. Tsunami have much longer wavelengths, usualJy measured in kilometers and up to 500 kilometers. * Wave height refers to the distance between the trough of the wave and the crest or peak of the wave, * Wave amplitude refers to the height of the wave above the still water line, usually this is equal to 112 the wave height. Tsunami can have variable wave heieht and amDlitude tha~ depends on water depth as well as moment. Wave frequency 0'" period Is the amount of time it takes for one full wavelength to pass a stationary point. * Wave velocity is the speed of the wave. Velocities of normal ocean waves are about 90 kmlhr while tsunami have velocities up to 950 kmIhr (about as fastasjetairplanes), and thus ' move much more rapidly across ocean basins. Tsunami are characterized as shallowwater waves. These are different from the waves most of us have observed on the beach, which are caused by the wind blowing across the ocean's surface. Wind-generated waves usually have period (time between two successive waves) of five to twenty seconds and a wavelength of 100 to 200 meters. A tsun.ami can have a period in the range often minutes .to two hours and wavelengths greater than 500 km. A wave is characterized as a shallowwater wave when the ratio of the water depth and waveleQ.gth is very small. The rate at which a wave loses its energy is inversely related to its wavelength. Since a tsunami has a very large wavelength, it will lose little energy as it propagates. Thus, in very deep water, a tsunami will travel at high speeds with little loss or energy. For example, when the ocean is 6100 m deep, a tsunami will travel about 890 kmlhr, and thus can travel across the Pacific Ocean in less than one day. As a tsunami leaves the deep water of the open sea and arrives at the shallow waters near

the coast, it undergoes a transformation. Since the velocity cf the tsunami is also related to the water depth, as the depth of the water decreases, the velocity of the tsunami decreases. The change of total energy of the tsunami, however, remains constant. Furthermore, the period of the wave remains the same, and thus more water is forced between the wave crests causing the height of the wave to increase. Because of this "shoaling" effect, a tsunami that was imperceptible in deep water may grow to have wave heights of several meters or more. If the trough of the tsunami wave reaches the coast first, this catiSes a phenomenon called drawdown, where it appears that sea level has dropped considerably. Drawdown is followed immediately by the crest of the wave which can catch people observing the drawdown off guard. When the crestofthe wave hits, sea level rises (called run-uf. Run-up is usually expressed in meters above normal high tide. Run-ups frOOl the same tsunami can be variable because of the influence of the shapes of coastlines. One coastal area may see no damaging wave activity while in another area destructive waves can be large and violent. The flooding of an area can extend inland by 300 m or more, covering large areas of land with water and debris. Flooding tsunami waves tend to carry loose objects and people out to sea when they retreat. Tsunami may reach a maximum vertical height on shore above sea level, called a run-up height, of 30 meters. A notable exception is the landslide generated tsunami in Lituya Bay, Alaska in 1958 which produced a 60 meter high wave. HOW TSUNAMl ARE GENERATED? Most of the tsunami are generated by earthquakes that cause displacement of the seafloor, but, as we shall see, tsunami can be generated by volcanic eruptions, landslides, underwater explosions, and meteorite impacts. EARTHQUAKES Earthquakes cause tsunami by causing a disturbance of the seafloor. Thus, earthquakes that occur along coastlines or anywhere beneath the oceans can generate tsunami. The size of the tsunami is usually related to the size of the earthquake, with larger tsunami generated by larger earthquakes. But the sense of displacement is also important. Tsunami is generally only formed when an earthquake

causes vertical displacement of the seafloor. Because of this, most tsunami are generated by earthquakes that occur a long the subduction boundaries of plates, along the oceanic trenches . Since the Pacific Ocean is surrounded by plate boundaries of this type, earthquakes arOlmd the margins of the Pacific Ocean frequently generate tsunamis. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS Volcanoes that occur along coastal wnes, like in Japan and island arcs throughout the world, can cause several effects that might generate a tsunami. Explosive eruptions can rapidly emplace pyroclastic flows into t he water; landslides and debris avalanches produced by eruptions can rapidly move into water, and collapse of volcanoes to form calderas can suddenly diElplace the water. LANDSLIDES Landslides moving into oceans, bays, or lakes can also generate tsunami. Earthquakes or volcanic eruptions generate most such landslides. UNDERWATER EXPLOSIONS Nuclear testing by the United States in the Marshall Islands in the 1940s and 1950s generated tsWlami. METEORITE IMPACTS While no historic examples of meteorite impacts are known to have produced a tsunami, the apparent impact of a meteorite at the end of the Cretaceous Period, about 65 million years ago near the tip of what is now t he Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, produced tsunami that left deposits all along the Gulf coast of Mexico and the United States. MITIGATION OF RISKS AND HAZARDS The main damage from tsunami comes from the destructive nature of the waves themselves. Secondary effects include the debris acting as projectiles which then run into other objects, erosion that can undermine the foundations of structures built along coastlines, and fires that result from disruption of gas and electrical lines. Tertiary effects include loss of crops and water and electrical systems, which can lead to famine and disease. PREDICTION AND EARLY WARNING For areas located at great distances from earthquakes that could potentially generate a tsunami there is usually plenty of time for warnings to be sent and coastal areas evacuated, even though tsunami travel at high

velocities across the oceans. Hawaii is a good example of an area located far from most of the sources of tsunami, where early warning is possible and has saved lives. For earthquakes occurring anywhere on the subduction margins of the Pacific Ocean there is a minimum of 4 hours of warning before a tsunami would strike any of the Hawaiian Islands. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has set up a Pacific warning system for areas in the Pacific Ocean, called the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center. MASS-WASTING AND MASSWASTING PROCESSES MASS-WASTING AND ITS HUMAN IMPACTS Mass-Wasting is defined as the down slope movement ofrock and regolith near the Earth's surface mainly due to the force of gravity. Mass-wasting is an important part of the erosional process, as it moves material from higher elevations to lower elevations where transporting agents like streams and glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to ev~n lower elevations. Mass-wasting processes are occurring continuously on all slopes; some mass-wasting processes act very slowly, others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results. Any perceptible down slope movement ofrock or regolith is often referred to in general terms as a landslide. However, as we will see, landslides can be classified in a much more detailed way that reflects the mechanisms responsible for the movement and the velocity at which the movement occurs. As human populations expand and occupy more and more of the land surface, masswasting processes become more likely to affect humans. Knowledge about the t'elationships between local geology and mass-wasting processes can lead to better planning that can reduce vulnerability to such hazards. Thus, we will look at the various types of mass-wasting processes, their underlying causes, factors that affect slope stability, and what humans can do to reduce vulnerability and risk due to masswasting hazards. TYPES OF MASS-WASTING PROCESSES The down-slope movement of material, whether it be bedrock, regolith, or a mixture of these, is commonly referred to as a landslide. All ofthese processes generally grade into one another, so

classification of such processes is somewhat difficult. We will use a classification that divides mass-wasting processes into two broad categories. * Slope Failures - a sudden failure of the slope resulting in transport of debris down hill by sliding, rolling, falling, or slumping. * Sediment Flows - debris flows down hill m.ixed with water or air. SLOPE FAILURES * Slumps - types of slides wherein downward rotation of rock or regolith occurs along a concave-upward curved surface (rotational slides). The upper surface of each slump block remains relatively undisturbed, as do the individual blocks. Slumps leave arcuate scars or depressions on the hill slope. Slumps can be isolated or may occur in large complexes covering thousands of square meters. They often form as a result ofhurnan activities, and thus are common along roads where slopes have been oversteepened during construction. They are also common along river banks and sea coasts, where erosion has under-cut the slopes. Heavy rains and earthquakes can also trigger slumps. * Falls - Rock faUs occur when a piece of rock on a steep slope becomes dislodged and fallg down the slope. Debris falls are similar. except they involve a mixture of soil, regolith, vegetation, .and rocks. A rock fall may be a single rock or a mass of rocks, and the falling rocks can dislodge other rocks as they collide with the cliff. Because this process involves the free fall of material, falls commonly occur where there are steep cliffs_ At the base of most cliffs is an accumulation of fallen material termed talus. * Slides - Rock slides and debris slides result when rocks or debri::; slide down a preexisting surface, such as a bedding plane, foliation surface, or joint surface GointB are regularly spaced fractures in rock that result from expansion during cooling or uplift of the rock maBB). Piles of talus are common at the base of a rock slide or debris slide. Slides differ from slumps in that there is no rotation of the sliding rock mass along a curved surface. * Sediment Flows- Sediment flows occur when sufficient force is applied to rocks and regolith that they begin to flow down slope. A sediment flow is a mixture of rock, and/or regolith with some water or air. They can be broken into two types depending on the amount of water present. 1. Slurry Flows- are sediment flows that contain between abou~ 20 llnd 40% water. As the water content increases above about 40% slurry flows grade inlo

streams. Slurry flows are considered as water-saturated flows. 2. Granular 'Flows - are sediment flows that contain between 0 and 20% water. Note that granular flows are possible with little or no water. Fluid-like behavior is given these flows by mixing with air. Granular flows are not. saturated with water. Each of these classes of sediment flows can be further subdivided on the basis of the velocity at which flowage occurs * Slurry Flows o Solifluction - flowage at rates measured on the order of centimeters per year of regolith containing water. Solifluction produces distinctive lobes on hill slopes. These occur in areas where the soil remains saturated with water for long periods of time. o Debris Flows - these occur at higher velocities than solifluction, with velocities between 1 meterlhr and 100 meters/hr and often result from heavy rains causing saturation of the soil and regolith with water. They sometimes start with slumps and then flow down hill forming lobes with an irregular surface consisting of ridges and furrows. o Mudflows - these are a highly fluid, high velocity mixture of sediment and water that has a consistency ranging between soup-like and wet concrete. They move at. velocities greater than 1 kmlhr and tend to travel along valley floor s. These usually result from heavy rains in areas where ther~ is an abundance of unconsolidated sediment that can be picked up by streams. Thus after a heavy rain, streams can turn into mudflows as they pick up more and more loose sediment. Mudflows can travel for long distances over gently sloping stream beds. Because of their high velocity and long distance of travel they are potentially very dangerous. As we have seen, mudflows can also result from volcanic eruptions t hat cause melting of snow or ice on the slopes of volcanoes, or draining of crater lakes on volcanoes. Volcanic mudflows are often referred to as lahars. Some lahars can be quite hot, if they are generated as a result of eruptions of hot tephra. * Granular Flows o Creep - the very slow, usually continuous

movement of regolith down slope. Creep occurs on almost all slopes, hut the rates vary. Evidence for creep is often seen in bent trees, offsets in roads and fences, and inclined utility poles. o Emthflows - are usually associated with heavy rains and move at velocities between several cmlyr and 100s ofm/day. They usually r emain active for long periods of time. They generally tend to be narrow tongue like features that begin at a scarp or sOl all cliff. o Grain Flows - usually form in relatively dry material, such as a sand dune, on a steep slope. A small disturbance sends the dry unconsolidated grains moving rapidly down slope. o Debris Avalanches - These are very high velocity flows of la rge volume mixtures of rock and regolith that result from complete collapse of a mountainous slope. They move down slope and then can travel for considerable distances along relatively ge ntle slopes. They are often triggered by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. MASS-WASTING IN COLD CLIMATES Masswasting in GOld climates is governed by the fact that water is frozen as ice duri.ng long periods of the year. Ice, although it is solid, does have the ability to flow, and freezing and thawing cycles can also contribute to movement. * Frost Heaving - this process is large contributor to creep in cold clim ates. When water saturated soils freeze, they expand, pushing rocks and boulders on the surface upward perpendicular to the slope. When the soil thaws, the boulders move down vertically resulting in a net down slope movement. * Geliflu.ction - Similar to solifluction, this process occurs when the upper layers of soil thaw during the warmer months resulting in water saturated soil that moves down slope. * Roell Glaciers - a lobe of icecemented rock debris (mostly rocks with ice between the blocks) that slowly moves downhill. SUBAQUEOUS MASS-WASTING Mass wasting processes also occur on steep slopes in the ocean basins. A slope failure can occur due to overaccumulation of sediment on slope or in a submarine canyon. 01' could occur as a result of a shock like an earthquake. Slumps, debris flows, and landslides are common.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SLOPE STABILITY GRAVITY The main force responsible for mass wasting is gr avity. Gravity is the force that acts everywhere on the Earth's surface, pulling everything in a direction toward the center of the Earth. On a flat surface the force of gravity acts downward. So long as the material remains on the flat surface it will not move under the force of gravity. On a slope, the force of gravity can be resolved into two components: a component acting perpendicular to the slope and component acting tangential to the slope. THE ROLE OF WATER Although water is not always directly involved as the transporting medium in masswasting processes, it does play an important role. Dry unconsolidated grains will form a pile with a slope angle determ ined by the angle of repose. The angle of repose is the steepest angle at which a pile of unconsolidated grains remains stable, and is controlled by the frictional contact between the gr ains. In general. for dry mater ials the angle of repose increases with increasing grain size, but usually lies between about 30 and 37. Slightly wet unconsolidated materials exhibit a very high angle of repose because surface tension between the water and the solid grains tends to hold the grains in place. When the material becomes saturated with water, the angle of repose is reduced to very small values and the material tends to flow like a fluid. This.is because the water gets between the grains and eliminates ~rain - to-grain frictional contact. Another aspect of water that affects slope stability is fluid pressure. In some cases fluid pressure can build in such a way that water can support the weight of the overlying rock mass. When this occurs, friction is reduced, and thus the shear strength holding the material on the slope is also reduced, resulting in slope failure. TROUBLESOME EARTH MATERIALS * Liquefaction - Liquefaction occurs when loose sediment becomes oversaturated with water and individual grains loose grain to grain contact with one another as water gets between them. * Expansive and Hydrocompacting Soils - These are soils that contain a high proportion of a type of clay mineral called smectites or montmorillinites. Such clay minerals expand when they become wet as water enters the crystal structure and

increases the volume of the mineral. When such clays dry out, the loss of water causes the volume to decrease and the clays to shrink or compact (This process is referred to as hydrocompaction). * Sensitive Soils - In some soils the clay minerals are arranged in random fashion, with much pore space between the individual grains. This is often referred to as a "house of cards" structure. Often the grains are held in this position by salts precipitated in the pore space that "glue" the particles together. But this may cause a loss in shear strength of the soil and result in slippage down slope or liquefaction. This is referred to as remolding. Clays that are subject to r.emolding are called quick clays. Some clays, called thixotropic clays, when left undisturbed can strengthen. but wben disturbed they loose their shear strength. TRIGGERING EVENTS A mass-wasting event can occur any time a slope becomes unstable. Sometimes, 8S in the case of creep or solifluction. the slope is unstable all of the time and the process is continuous. But other times, triggering events can occur that cause 8 sudden instability to occur. * Shoclls - A sudden shock, such as an earthquake may trigger slope instability. Minor shocks like heavy trucks rambling down the road, trees blowing in the wind, or human made explosions can also trigger mass-wasting events. * Slope Modification - Modification of a slope either by humans or by natural causes can result in changing the slope angle so that it is no longer at the angle of repose. A masswasting event can tben restore the slope to its angle of repose. * Undercutting - Streams eroding their banks or surf action along a coast can undercut a slope making it unstable. * Changes in. Hydrologic Characteristic&Heavy rains can saturate regolith reducing grain to grain contact and reducing the angle of repose, thus triggering a mass-wasting event. Heavy rains can also saturate rock and increase its weight. Changes in the groundwater system can increase or decrease fluid pressure in rock and also trigger masswasting events. * Volcanic Eruptions - Produce shocks like explosions and earthquakes. They can also cause snow to melt or empty crater lakes, rapidly releasing large amounts of water that can be mixed with regolith to reduce grain to grain contact and result in debris flows. mudflows. and landslides. ASSESSING AND MITIGATING MASSWASTING HAZARDS

As we have seen mass-wasting events can be extremely hazardous and result in extensive loss of life and property. But, in most cases. areas that are prone to such hazards can be recognized with some geologic knowledge. slopes can be stabilized or avoided, and warning systems can be put in place tbat can minimize such hazards. * Because there is usually evidence in the form of distinctive deposits and geologic structures left by recent mass wasting events, it is possible, if resources are available, to construct maps of all areas prone to possible mass-wasting hazards. Planners can use such hazards maps to make decisions about land use policies in such areas or, as will be discussed below, steps can be taken to stabilize slopes to sttempt to prevent a disaster. Short-term prediction of mass-wasting events is somewhat more problematical. For earthquake triggered events, t he same problems that are inherent in earthquake prediction are present. Slope destabilization and undercutting triggered events require the constant attention of those undertaking or observing the slopes, many of whom are not educated in the problems inherent in such processes. Mass-wasting hazards from volcanic eruptions can be predicted with the same degree of certainty that volcanic eruptions can be predicted, but again, the threat has to be realized and warnings need to be heeded. Hydrologic conditions such as heavy precipitation can be forecast with some certainty, and warnings can be issued to areas that might be susceptible to mass-wasting processes caused by such conditions. Still, it is difficult to know exactly which hill slope of the millions that exist will be vulnerable to an event triggered by heavy rainfall. * Prevention and l\Ilitigation All slopes are susceptible to mass-wasting hazards if a triggering event occurs. Thus, all slopes should be asscssed for potential masswasting hazards. Mass-wasting eve nts can sometimes be avoided by employing engineering techniques to make the s lope more stable. Among them are: o Steep slopes can be covered or sprayed with concrete to prevent rock falls. o Retaining walls could be built to stabilize a slope. o Drainage pipes could be inserted into the slope to more easily allow water to get out and avoid increases in fluid pressure, the

po88ibility of liquefaction, or increased weight'due to the addition of water. o Oversteepened slopes could be graded to reduce the slope to the natural angle of repose. o In mountain valleys subject to mudflows, plans could be made to rapidly lower levels of water in human-made reservoirs to catch and trap the mudflows. Some slopes, however, cannot be stabilized. In t hese cases, huml).ns should avoid these areas or use them for purposes that will not increase susceptibility of lives or property to mass-wasting hazards. FLOODING HAZARDS, PREDICTION & HUMAN INTERVENTION HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH FLOODING Hazards associated with flooding can be divided into primary hazards that occur due to contact with water, secondary effects that occur because of the flooding , such as disruption of services, health impacts such as famine and disease, and tertiary effects such as changes in the position of river chaDllels. Throughout the last century flooding has been one of the most. costly disasters in terms of both property damage and human casualties. Primary Effects: Again, the primary effecta of floods are those due to direct contact with the flood waters. Water velocities tend to be high in floods. As discharge increases velocity increases. * With higher velocities, streams are able to transport larger particles as suspended load. Such large particles include not only rocks and sediment, but, during a flood , could include such large objlO'cts as automobiles, houses and bridges. * Massive amounts of erosion can be accomplished by flood waters. Such erosion can undermine bridge structures, levees. and buildings causing their collapse. * Water entering human built structures cause water damage. Even with minor flooding of homes, furniture is ruined, floors and walls are damaged, and anything that comes in 185 UGC~JRF (Paper 1}-24 contact with the water is likely to be damaged or lost. Flooding of automobiles usually resul ts in damage that cannot easily be repaired. * The high velocity of flood waters allows the water to carry more sediment as suspended load. When the flood waters retreat, velocity is generally much lower and sediment is deposited. After retreat of the floodwaters, everything is usually covered with a thick layer of stream deposited mud, including the interior

ofbutldings. * Flooding of farmland usually results in crop 10s8. Livestock, pets, and other animals are often carried away and drown. * Humans that get caught in the high velocity flood waters a re often drowned by the water. * Floodwaters can concentrate garbage, debris, and toxic pollutants tbat can cause the secondary effects of health hazal'ds. Secondary and Tertiary Effects: Secondary effects are those that occur because of the primary effects and tertiary effects are the longterm changes that take place. Among the secondary effects or a flood are: * Disruption of serviceso Drinking water supplies may become polluted, especially if sewerage treatment plants are flooded. This delay result in disease and other health effects, especially in under developed countries. o Gas and electrical service may be diarupted. o Transportation systems may be disrupted, resulting in shortages of food and clean-up supplies. In under developed countries food shortages often lead to starvation. * Long - term effects (tertiary effects)o Location of river channels may change as the result of flooding, new channels develop, leaving the old channels dry. a Sediment deposited by flooding may destroy farm land (although silt deposited by floodwaters could also help to increase agricultural productivity). o Jobs may be lost due to the disruption of services, destruction of business, etc. (although jobs may be gained in the construction industry to help rebuild or repair flood damage). o Insurance rates may increase. o Corruption may result from misuse of relief funds. o Destruction of wildlife habitat. PREDICTING RIVER FLOODING Floods can be such devastating disasters that anyone can be affected at allllost anytime. As we have seen, when water falls on the s\ITface ofthe Earth, it has to go somewhere. In order to reduce the risk due to flood s, three main approaches are taken to flood prediction. Statistical studies can be undertaken to attempt to determine the probability and frequency of high discharges of streams that

cause flooding. Floods can be lllodeled and maps can be made to determine the extent of possible flooding when it occurs in the future. And, since the main causes of flooding are abnormal, amounts of rainfall and sudden thawing of snow or ice, storms and snow levels can be monitored to provide short-term flood prediction. Monitoring the Progress of Storms: If factors such as amount of rainfall, degree of ground saturation, degree of permeable soil, and amount of vegetation can be determined, then these can be correlated to give short-term prediction. in this case called a forecast. of possible flood s. If a forecast is issued, then a flood warning can be communicated to warn the public about the possible extent of the flood, and to give people time to move out of the area. Such forecasts are very useful for flooding that has a long lag time between the storm and the peak disch &...-ge. Flash floods, wpich characteristically have s hort. lag times, are more problematical. Thus, in some areas known to be susceptible to flash floods, a flash flood warning is often issued any time heavy rainfall is expected because there is always the chance of a nash nood accompanying heavy rainfall. HUMAN INTERVENTION Humans can modify Lhe landscape in many ways. Sometimes humans attempt to modify drainage systems to prevent flooding, but sometimes these efforts have adverse effects and at:tually help to cause nooding in ether areas. Any modification of the landscape has the potential to cause changes in the drainage system. and such changes can have severe consequences. CHANNEL MODlFICATIONS Humans onen decide lhata stream should now along a specified path for such reasons as nood control. enhancement of drainage. control of erosion. increasing access to the floodplain for development, or improvement of the appearance of the channel. uch channel modifications involve measures such as the straightening the channel, deepening or widening the channel, clea ring vegetation from the banks, or lining the channel with concrete. These modifications are referred to as channelization. * Channelization can also interfere with t.he natural habitat of the stream system and decrease the 8csthetic value of the stream. * Channeliz.ntion. or any other modification

of a stream system. changes the validity of all historic data collected over the years on that. stream. Effects of Development on Flood Hazard: Whenever humans modify the landscape in any way, changes are to be expected in the way water drains from the land. Unless ca rerul consideration is given to the possible drainage consequences, such landscape modifications can result in higher incidence of flooding. Development on floodplains should therefore be undertaken only with great ca re. Existing developments that have enhanced nooding problems are often costly to fix. Among the fa ctors that enhance the flood potential are: * Channelization - Channelization is undertaken to reduce nood hazards. But, channelization IS a.lso undertaken to allow development on the floodplain. lf the channelization results in decreasing the cross-sectional area of the stream. as in the example above, then the same discharge that may not have produced flooding prior to channelization, may overnow the banks and cause extensive flooding anE'rchannelization. * Subsidence - Subsidence often results in developed areas due to compaction of the sediment. both due to the increasing weight of structures and hydrocompaction associated with the lowering of the water table. Any time the elevation of nn area is lowered. it becomes subject to collection of more water, and in severe cases, could drastically change the drainage pattern. * Storm Sewers-In order to collect run off from streets, parking lots. and buildings. all of which block the inftitration of water into the soi1, storm sewers are installed to provide underground drainage of the surface. While this may prevent local flooding of street.s, it moves water more rapidly to the major stream systems and thus decreases the lag time anel increases the peak discharge of the streams collecting the run off from the storm sewers. * Reduction of infiltration - Any time the surface materials of the Earth are covered with impermeable materials like concrete, asphalt, or buildings. the infiltration of water into the soil is prevented. Urbanization tends to reduce inflitration. and thus water mustoollect in storm sewers and eventually in the main droinage systems. Thus. extensive urbanization also decreases the lag time and increases the peak dIscharge even further.

Urbanization can therefore lead to a higher incidence or flash floods. Organized Response to Flood Hazards: Response to flood hazards can be attempted in two main ways: An engineering approach. lO control nooding, and a regulatory approach designed to decrease vulnerability to flooding. * Engineering Approaches Channel modifications - As discussed above, channelization can enlarge cross-sectional area and thus create a situation where a higher stage is necessary before flooding. In other words by enlarging the cross-sectional area, higher discharge can be held within the channel. Channelization also increases water velocity, and thus reduces drainage time. Dams _ Dams can be used to bold water back 80 that discharge downstream can be regulated at a desired rate. Human constructed dams have spillways that can be opened to reduce the level of water in the reservoir behind the dam. Thus, the water lp.vel can be lowered prior to a heavy rain, and more water callbe trapped in the reservoir and released later at a controlled discharge. Retention ponds - Retention ponds serve a similar purpose to dams. Water can be trapped in a retention pond and then released ata controlled discharge to prevent flooding downstream. Levees, DOles, and FloodwaUs These are structures built along side the channel to increase the stage at which the stream floods. Some controversy has developed concerning the use of such structures. Floodways - Floodways are areas that can be built to provide an outlet to a stream and allow its flood into an area that has been designated as a floodway. Floodways are areas where no construction is allowed, and where the land is used for agricultural or recreational purposes when there is no threat of a nood, but which provide an outlet for flood watera during periods of high discharge. REDUCTION OF VULNERABILITY With a better underatanding of the behavior of streams, the probability of flooding, and areas

likely to be flooded during high discharge, humans can undertake measures to reduce vulnerability to flooding. Among the non structural measures a re: Floodplain zoning Floodplain building codes Floodplain buyout programs Mortgage limitations METEORITES, IMPACTS, AND MASS EXTINCTION METEORITES A Meteorite is a piece of rack from outer space that strikes the surface of the Earth. A Meteoroid is a meteorite before it hits the surface of the Earth. Meteors are glowinglragments of rack matter from outside the Earth's atmosphere that burn and glow upon ente ring the Earth's at.mosphere. They are more commonly known as shooting stara. Some meteors, particularly larger ones, may survive passage thrnugb the atmosphere to become meteorites, but most are small objects that burn up completely in the atmosphere. They a re not, in reality, shooting stars. Fireballs al'e very bright meteers .. Meteor Showers - During certain times oft.he year, the Earth's orbit passcs through a belt of high concentration of cosmic dust and other particles, and many meteors are observed. The Perseid Shower, results from passage through one o(these beltaevery year in midAugust, and Leonid shower occurs in mid-November. Throughout history there have been reports of stones falling (rom the SKY, but the scientific community did n ot recognize t he extraterrestrial origin of meteorites until the 1700s. Within recent history meteorites have even hit humans- * 1938 - a small meteorite crashed t.hrough the roof of a garage in Illinois. * 1954 . a 5kg meteorite fell through the roof of a house in Alabama. * 1992. a small meteorite demolished a car near New York city. 2003 a 20 kg meteorite crashed through a double story house in uptown New Orleans. * 20Q3 . 8 shower of meteorites destroys several houses and injures 20 people in India. Meteorite fragments have been found all over the surface of the Earth. although most have been found in Antarctica. In Antarctica they are easily seen on the snow covered su rface or embedded in ice. The fall of meteol'ites to the E,arth's

surface is part of the continuing process of accretion of the Earth from the dust and rock of space. When these rock fragments come close enough to the Earth to be attracted by its gravity they may fall to the Earth to become part of it. The evolution of life on the Earth has likely been affected by collisions with these space objects, and collisions could affect the Earth in the future as well. Environment V COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF METEORITES Meteorites can be classified generally into three types: * Stones - Stony meteorites resemble rocks found on and within the Earth. They are the most common type of meteorite, although because they resemble Earth rocks they are not commonly recognized as meteorites unless someone actually witnesses their fall. Stony meteorites are composed mainly of the minerals olivine, and pyroxene. Some have a composition that is roughly equivalent to the Earth's mantle. Two types are recognized: o Chondrites - Chondrites are the most common type of stony- meteorite. They are composed of small round glassy looking spheres, ca lled chondrules, that likely formed from condensation from the gaseous solar nebula early in the history of the formation oft.he solar system. Most. chondrites have radiometric age dates of about. 4.6 billion years. o Achondrites -Achondrites are composed of the same minerals as chondrites, but lack the chondrules. They appear to have been heated, melted. and recrystallized so that the chondrules are no longer present. Most resemble volcanic rocks found on the Earth's su rface. * Irons - Iron meteorit.es are composed of alloys of iron and nickel. They are easily recognized because they hav(l a much higher density than normal crustal rocks. Thus, most. meteorites found by the general populace nrc iron meteorites. When cut and polished, iron meteorites show a distinct texture called a Widmanstatten pat.tern. This pattern results from slow cooling of a once hot solid material. Most researchers suggest that such slow cooling occurred in the core of much larger body

that. has since been fragmented. Iron meteorites give us a clue to the composition of the Earth's core. * Stony IrOI1S - Stony iron meteorites consist of a mixture of stony silicate material and iron. Some show the silicates embedded in a matri'( of iron nickel alloy. Others occur as a breecif', where fragments of stony and iron material have been cemented together by either heat or chemical reactions. Origin of Meteorites: MOSL meteorites appear to be fragments of larger bodies called parent bodies. These t:ouJd have been small planets or' large asteroids that were part of the original solar system. There are several possibilities as to where t.hese parent bodies. or their fragments. originated. The Aste roid Belt: The asteroid belt is located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. It consists of a swarm of aboul 100,000 objects eaBed asteroids. Asteroids are small rocky bodies with irregular shapes t.hat have a cratered surface. About 4.000 of these asteroids have been officially classified and their orbital paths are known. Once they are so classified t.hey are given a name. The asteroids are either remnants of a planet that. formed in the region between Mars and Jupiter but was later broken up by a collision with another planetary body, or are fragments that failed lO accrete into a planet. The latler possibiljty is more likely because the total mass of the asteroids is not even equal to our moon. It does appear that some of the asteroids are large enough to have undergone internal differentiation. Di.!1'erentiation is a process that forms layering in II planetary body (i.e. the Earth has differentiated into a core, man tIe, and crust). If these larger asteroids did in fact undergo djfferentiation, then this could explain the origin of the different types of meteorites. Because of the shapes of the asteroids it also appears that some of them have undergone fragmentation resulting from collisions with other asteroids. Such collisions could have caused the larger bodies to be broken up into the smaller objects we observe as meteorites. The Asteroids as Parent Bodies of Meteorites: Much evidence suggests that the asteroids could be the parent bodies of met.eorit.es. The larger ones could have differentiated into a core, mantle. and crust. Fragmentation of these large bodies wou Id then

have done two things: First the fragments would explain the various types of meteorites found on Earth the st"nes representing the mantle and crust. of the original parent body, the irons representing the cores. and the stony irons the boundary between the core and mantIe of the parent bodies. Second, the collisions thllt caused the fragmentation could send the fragments into Earthcrossing orbits. Some of the asteroids have orbits that bring them close to Earth. These are called Arnor objects. Some have orbital paths that cross the orbital path of the Earth. These are called Earthcrossing asteroids or Apollo objects. All objects that have a close approach to the Earth are often referred to as Near Earth Objects or NEOs. About 150 NEOs with diameters between 1 and 8 km are known, but this is only a fraction of the lOtal number. Many NEOs will eventually collide with the Earth. These objects h&ve unstable orbits because they are under the gravitational influence of both t.he Earth a.nd Mars. The source of these objects is likely the asteroid belt.. COMETS AS PARENT BODIES OF METEORITES A Comet is a body t.hatorbits around the Sun with an eccentric orbit. These orbits are not circular like those of the planets and are not necessarily within the same plane as the planets. Most comets have elliptical orbits which send them to the far outer reaches of the solar system and back toward a closer approach to the sun. As a comet approaches the sun, solar radiation generates gases from evaporation of the comet's surface. These gases are pushed away "rom the comet and glow in the sun light, thus giving the comet its tail. While the outer surface of comets appear to composed of icy material like water and cal'oon dioxide solids, they likely contain a Illore rocky nucleus. Because of their eccentric orbits, many comets eventually cross the orbit of the Earth. Many meteor showers may be caused by the Earth crossing an orbit of a fragmented comet. The collision of a cometary fragment is thought to have occurred in the Tunguska region of Siberia in 1908. The blast was about the size of a 15 megaton nuclear bomb. It knocked down trees in an area about 850 square miles, but did not leave a crater. The consensus among scientists is that a cometary fragment

about 20 to 60 meters in diameter exploded in the Earth's atmosphere just above the Earth's surface. Only small amounts of material similar to meteorites were found embedded in trees at the site. Other Sources: While the asteroid belt seems like the most likely source of meteorites. some meteorites appear to have come from other places. Some meteorites have chemical compositions similar to samples brought back from the moon. Others are thought to have originated on Mars. These types of meteol'ites could have been ejected from the Moon or Mars by collisions with other asteroids. or from Mars by volcanic eruptions. IMPACT EVENTS When a large object impacts the surface of the Earth. the rock at the site of the impact. is deformed and some of it is ejected into the atmosphe re to eventually fall back to the surface. This results in a bowl s haped depression with a raised rim, called an Impact Crater. The s ize of the impact crater de pends on such factors as the size and ve locity of the impacting object and the angle at which it strikes the surface of the Earth. Me te~rite Flux and Size Meteorite flux is the total mass of extraterrestrial objects that strike the Earth. This is currently about 107 to 109 kg/year. Much of this material is dust-sized objects called micrometeorites. The frequency at which meteorites of different sizes strike the Earth depends on the size of the objects. Meteorites of larger sizes s trike the Earth less frequently. If they have a size greater than about 2 or 3 cm, they only partially melt or vaporize on passage through the atmosphere, and thus strike the surface of the Earth. Objects with sizes greater than 1 km a re considered to produce effects that would be catastrophic, because an impact of such an object would produce global effects. Such meteorites strike the Earth relatively infrequently a 1 km sized object strikes the Earth about once every million years, and 10 km sized objects about once every 100 million years Ve locity and Energy Release of Incoming Objects: The velocities at which small meteorites bave impacted the Earth range from 4 to 40 km/sec. Larger objects would not be slowed down much by the friction

associated with passage through the atmosphere, and thus would impact the Earth with high veloci ty. Calculations show that a meteorite with a diameter of 30 m, weighing about 300,000 tons, traveling at a velocity of 15 km/sec (33,500 mileslhour) would re lease energy equivalent to about 20 million tons of TNT. Such a meteorite struck at Meteor Crater, Arizona (the Barringer Crater) about 49,000 years ago leaving a crater 1200 m In diameter and 200 m deep. Cr a tered Surfaces: Looking at the surface of the Moon, one is impressed by the fact that most of the surface features of the moon are shaped by impact craters. The Earth is subject to more than twice the amount of impacting events than the moon because of its larger size and higher gravitational attraction. Yet, the Earth does not show a cratered surface li ke the moon. The reason for this is that the surface of the Earth is continually changing due to processes like erosion, weathering, tectonism, sedimentation. a nd volcanism. Thus, the only craters that are evident on the Eart.h are either very young, very large, or occurred on stable continental areas that have not been subject to intense surface modification processes. Currently, approximately 200 terrestrial impact structures have been ident ified, with the discovet'y rate of new structures in the range of 3-5 per year. The Mechanics of lmpnct Cratering: When a large extraterrestrial object enters the Ea rth's atmosphere the initial impact with the atmosphere will compress the atmosphere, se nding a s hock wave through the ai r. Frictional heating will cause the object to heat and glow. Melting and even vaporization of the outer parts of the object will begin, but if the object is large enough, solid material wil! remain when it impacts the surface of the Earth. METEORITE IMPACTS AND MASS EXTINCTIONS The impact of a space object with a size greatet' than about 1 km would be expected to be felt over the entire surface of the Earth. Smaller objects would certainly destroy the ecosystem in the vicinity of the impact. similar to the effects . of a volcanic eruption, but larger impacts could have a worldwide effe<:t on life on the Earth. We will here first consider the possible effects of an impact, and lhen discuss how impacts may

have resulted in mass extinction of species on the Earth in the past. Regional and Global Effects: Again, we 8S humans have no firsthand knowledge of what the effects of an impact of a large meteorite or comet would be. Still, calculations can be made and scaled experiments can be conducted to estimate the effects. The general consensus is summarized here. 1. Massive earthquake up to Richter Magnitude 13, and numerous large magnitude, aftershocks would result from the impact of a large object with the Earth. 2. The large quantities of dust put into the atmosphere would block incoming solar radiation. The dust could take mont.hs to settle back to the surface. Meanwhile. the Earth would be in a state of continual darkness. and temperatures would drop throughout. the world, generating global winter like conditions. A similar effect has been postulated for the aftermath of a nuclear war (termed a nuclear winter). Blockage of solar radiation would also diminish the ability of photosynthetic organisms, like plants, to photosynt.hesize. Since photosynthetic organisms are the: base of the food chain, this would seriol1sly disrupt. all ecosystems. 3. Widespread wildfires ignited by radiation from the fireball as the object passed t;hrough the atmosphere would be generated. Smoke from these fires would further block solar radiation to enhance the cooling effect and further disrupt photosynthesis. 4. If the impact occurred in the oceans, a large steam cloud would be produced by the sudden evaporation of the seawater. This water vapor and CO2 would remain in the atmosphere long after the dust settles. Both of these gases are greenhouse gases which scatter solar radiation and create ~ warming effect. Thus, ~fter the initial global cooling, the atmosphere would undergo global warming for many years after the impact. 5. lfthe impact occurred in the oceans. giant tsunamis would be generated. For a 10 kmdiameter object., the leading edge would hit the seafloor of the deep ocean basins before the top of the object had reached sea level. The tsunami from such

an impact is estimated to produce waves from 1 to S km high. These could easily flood the interior of continents. 6. Large amounts of n.itrogen oxides would result from combining Nitrogen and Oxygen in the atmoRphere due to the shock produced by the impact. These nitrogen oxides would combine with water in the atmosphere to produce nitric acid which would fall back to the surface as acid rain, resulting in the acidification of surface waters. The Geologic Record of Mass Extinction: It hsslong been known that extinction of large percentages families or species of organisms have occurred at specific times in the history of our planet. Among the mechanisms that have been suggested to have caused these mass extinctions, have been large volcaniceruptions, changes in climatic conditions, changes in sea level, and, more recently, meteorite i.mpacts. While the meteorite impact theory of mass extinctions has become accepted by many scientists for particular extinction events, there is sti ll considerable controversy among scientists. An impact with a large object could have caused at least some of the mass extinction events, as it would certainly seem possible given the effects that an impact could have. Human Hazards: It should be clear that even if an impactofa large space object did not cause the extinction of humans, the effects would cause a natural disaster of proportions never witnessed by the human race. Here we first look at the chances that such an impact could occur, then look at how we can predictor provide warning of such an event, BDd finally discuss ways that we might be able to protect ourselves from such an event. Risk - It is estimated that in any given year the odds that you will die from an impact of an asteroid or comet are about 1 in 20,000. Prediction a n d Warning - It i$ estimated that over 90% of NEOs have not yet been discovered. Because of t.his. with our present knowledge. there is a good chance that the only warning we would have is the flash of light from the fireball as one of these objects ent.ered the Earth's atmosphere. Scientists have proposed the "Spaceguard Survey" to find and track a ll of t.he large NEOs. If such a survey is carried out, we could predict the paths

of all NEOs and have years to decades to prepare for an NEO that could impact the Earth. Mitigation -Impacts are the only natural hazard that we ca.n prevent from happening by either deflecting the incoming object or destroying it. Of course, we must first know about such objects and their paths in order to give us sufficient warning to prepare a defense. FORESTS OF INDIA The 'jungles' oflnma are ancient in nature and composition. They are rich in variety and shelter a wide range of avifauna and mammals and insects. The fact that they have existed for very long time is proved from the ancient text.s all of which have some mention of the forests. The people revered forests and a large number of religious ceremonies centred on trees and plants. Even today in parts ofIndia the sacred groves exist and are worshipped. During the early part of the British rule, trees were used for timber and forests were cut for paper. Large numbers of trees such as sal. teak. and sandalwood were cut. for export also. The history of modern Indian forestry was a process by which the British gradually appropriated forest resources for revenue generation. Trees could not be felled without prior permission and knowledge of the authority. This step was taken to ensure that they were the sale users of the forest trees. But. after some time, the British began to regulate and conserve. In 1800. a commissioner was appointed to look into the availability of teak in thf' Malabariorests. In 1806, the Madras government appointed Capt. Watson as the commissioner of forests for organizing the production of teak and other timber suitable for the buiJding of ships. In 1855. Lord Dalhousie framed regulations for conservation of forest in the entire country. Teak plantations were raised in the Malabar hills and acacia and eucalyptus in the Niligiri Hills. In Bombay. the conservator of forest, Gibson, tried to introduce rules prohibiting shifting cultivation and plantation of teak forests. From 1865lo 1894. forest reserves were established to secure material for imperial needs. From the 18th century, scientific forest management syst.ems were employed to regenerate and harvest t.he forest to make it sustainable. Between 1926 and 1947 afforestation was carried out on a large scale in

the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. In the early 1930s, people began showing interest in the conservation of wild life. Around the same time the Indian rulers of the States also started conservation of habitats to help conserve the birds and mammals. Though all oft.hem were hunters and between them and t.he British they cleaned at least 5000 tigers if not more. But st.ilI these areas of conservation helped save the species from extinction and formed most of the modern National Parks. The new Forest Policy of 1952 recognized the protective functions of the forest and aimed at maintaining onethird of India's land area under forest. Certain activities were banned and grazing restricted. Much of the original British policy was kept in place, such as the classification of forest land into two broad types. The next. 50 years saw development and change in people's thinking regarding the forest. A constructive attitude was brought about through a number of fiveyear plans. Until 1976, the forest resource was seen as a source of earning money for the state and therefore little was spent in protecting it or looking after it. Today India'S forests are protected in National Parks like Corbett and 193 UGC-JRF (Paper 1}-25 Nagarhole or in Sanctuaries like Pakhui and Little Rann of Katch. The modern way of thinking has resulted in Biosphere Reserves and Biodiversity Hotspots and extensive research on them have resulted in rediscovery of new species of mammals like the Leaf Deer in Arunachal Pradesh or the Hook Nosed Frog in Western Ghats. Supporting more than 14 percent of the wild fauna and a higher percentage of the wild flora of the world the forests of India is an intricate web of life with many surprises to explore. As we proceed to an era of advanced wildlife management and as the pressure on the foreftjts. all over the world increase the need of the hou~ is to Irealize the potentiall'esoul'ce that the forests have both economically and from the natural point of view. A brief description of the wildlife zones of India is given below: THE TRANS-HIMALAYA Stretching from Ladakh to the Lahul-Spiti the Trans-Himalaya covers an estimated land area of 186.200 sq. km. Trans-Himalaya, means beyond the Himalaya. Outside the Indian region, the TransHimalaya is very extensive, covering a total of nearly 2.6 million sq_ km.

comprising the Tibetan plateau. Nursery to the Indus, Brahmaputra and Sutlej; decorated by the Zanskar, Ladakh and the Karakoram, the Trans-Himalaya is home to some of best biological grandeur which survive this cold desert conditions through their ability to economise resources. Some rare fauna like the Black Necked Crane breed in the brackish lakes like Tso Morari, Hanle and Chushul. Some parts of the Trans-Himalaya are above the snowline, including the Siachen, a 1,180 sq. km. glacier said to be the largest outside the polar regions! Though the landscape is characterised by a distinct lack of natural forests, along the river banks and valleys, some greenery does exist. with willows, poplars, wild roses and many herbaceous plants' and shrubs which is home to at least eight distinc~' species and/or sub-species of wild sheep includill5 the nayan or great Tibetan sheep (Ovis ammon hodgsoni), the urial or shapu (Ovis orientaiis), the bharal OJ" blue sheep (pseudois nayaur) and the ibex (Capra ibex). On the plateau of the Trans-Himalaya, The Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni) or the chiru, and the Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) are occasionally s ighted. Smaller animals of the region include pikas. marmots and Tibetan hares. The mountains are shared by predat.ors like the snowleopard or ounce. The Pallas cat, Indian wolf and the lynx can also be seen with extreme luck. THE HIMALAYA The world's youngest, loft.iest and most breathtaking mountain chains are home to several tropical Jife forms. Extending some 236,300 sq. km. in the Indian region, the Himalaya accounts for nearly seven per cent of the country's total surface area. The Himalaya has extreme habitat. types, ranging from arid Mediterranean and temperate in the western parts, to warm, moist, evergreen jungles in the east. Currently there are 56 protected areas in this zone and this cover roughly five per cent of the total su rface area. 10 of these protected areas are National Parks where one can qxpect to see the amazing diversity of the flora and fauna that this region supports. In t.he luxuriant eastern parts where the tree-line is higher, animals like the red panda, binturong and several lesser cats can be seen with some effort. Of the existing 56 protected areas in the Himalaya, at least 41 lie in the temperate

sector either completely, or partly (the higher reaches of some of these protected areas merge into the third major habitat type, t.he highaltitude sub-alpine). The sub-alpine habitat type, above the middle level temperate sector (higher than 3,500 metres) consists of birch, rhododendrons. junipers, dwarf bamboo and a mixture or open meadows and scrubdoLted grasslands. As habitat types change. a noticeable transformation takes place in the faunal community as weD. T~e higber reaches house several threatened species such as the ibex, shapu, wolf and snow-leopard. Nearly half the 56 protected areas in the Himalaya extend partially or extensively into the high-altitude sub-alpine. This area is supported with protection programmes like Project Hangul, the Himalayan Musk Deer Ecology and Conservation Project, the Snow Leopard Project and several Pheasant Projects. The Himalayas offers fantastic trekking and overIandjourney options to enjoy the fascinating wealth that is nurtures in its icy foldB. THE INDIAN DESERT Spread through the majestic states of Gujarat and Rajasthan the Indian Desert is an amazing place to look for truly fantastic wild flora and fauna. Animals that never drink and plant seeds that can stay alive for years without water are typical of the miracles of this most fragile zone. In the Indian subcontinent, deserts, with an area of about 225,000 sq. km. account for just under seven per cent of the total land area. Divided into two distinct sub-divisions, Thar desert region covering 180,000 sq. kms. in the state of Rajas than and the Rann ofKutchh, covering some 45,000 sq. kms. of western Gujarat. It is a land of grand mirage and miracles. The desert system is characterised not so much by the variety and numbers of animal species but by the adaptations exhibited to tackle the rigours of desert life. The Thar shows a good extent of endemism in its faunal structure. The desert cat, desert fox, the winter visiting houbara bustard and several ssndgrouse species, as also a few reptiles are found only in the Thar. Blackbuck, chinksra, the Indian wolf, caracal, great Indian bustard can also be seen here. In contrast to the sandy Thar, the Little and the Great Ranns, with very similar vegetation communities, have a high variety of

faunal and floral composition. Though the Ranns are predominantly flatlands, they are interspersed with raised mour.ds or islands, locally called bets. Both the Ranns have unique faunal communities. The Great Rann is best known for its huge breeding colony of lesser flamingoes. The Little Rann is the only home of the wild ass in the Indian peninsula, besides playing host to a fair number of houbara bustards, sandgrouse and bther avifauna. THE SEMI-ARID ZONE Between the Indian desert and the Gangetic Plain, the Semi-arid Zone encompasses a total area of 508,000 sq. km. Covering nearly 15 per cent of India's area, with vast grasslands and some fascinating forests home to the Leopard, Tiger and the Asiatic Lion this is a truly wild belt ofIndia. Most ofthis wne houses the flat, alluvial deposits of the Indus river drainage system. The region comprises predominantly cultivated flatlands, interspersed with a network of wetlands-marshes and rivers. Consisting of the Punjab Plains in the North home to the Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Harike and Sultanpur and parts of Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat in the South the Semi-arid Zone is a vast land-mass. The Aravalli and the Vindhya mou~tain ranges dominate the central portions of this zone. An inY>resting feature of the zone is the heavy rainfall region of Mount Abu in the southern Aravallis. Here several plant and animal species bear close affinity to the Western Ghats. Plants such as those of the genus Acacia, Anogeissus, Balanites, Capparis, Grewia and several others clearly have Aftjcan affinities. What is however, very interesting is the high density of wildlife (mainly ungulates) in the protected areas here, where livestock grazing and other adverse impacts have been controlled. The herbivores in this area include nilgai, blackbuc.k, chowsingha or four horned antelope, chinkara or Indian gazelle, sambar and spotted deer, the last two being more or less restricted to the forested mountain ranges and valleys. The Semi-arid Zone boasts of a good population and variety of predators including the wolf, caracal and the jackal, all of which have close relatives in Africa. Two of the finest tiger rescrvea- RanthaIllborc and Sariska-Bre located in the Aravallis. Amongst the richest of Indian wildlife areas. these two wilderness areas are true showpieces of lndian wildlife. On

t.he whole. itcan be stated that while the Semi arid Zone does not exhibit any gteatendemism, it nevertheless holds viable populations of several species of conservation criticality today. Besides those mentioned above. others include the sloth bear. Lesser' Florican, the Great Indian Bustard. mugger. gharial, several turtles and also waterfowl. both resident and migratory. THE WESTERN GHATS Along the west coast of lndia .. beginning from the Surat Dangs at the western extremity of the Satpuras in south Gujarat, for over 1,500 km. to the southern tip of India in Kerala -- stretch the Western Ghats. a mountain range second only to the Himalaya in magnificence. The Ghat.s are the second largest tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forest belt of the sub continent. There is a high degree of biological endemism; species desperately in need of preservation. The natural forests and protected areas of Western Ghats still house a biological wealth matched only by the North-east. The famous forests of Silent Valley form a part of this vital forested swatch. A wide climatic (rainfaU and temperature) and geographical (altitude and associated mountain spurs) gradient exists in this zone. This is manifested in a tremendous diversity of vegetal communities and animal associations. From the coastal plains along the western flanks, the zone rises up to a maximum altitude of 2,735 metres in the south. while falling gradually (sharply in a few places) along the eastern side, towards the dry Deccan Peninsula. The Western Ghats Zone covers barely five per cent. of India's area, but. its biological rich ness can be best understood when one realises t.hat 27 percent of all the species of higher plants recorded in the Indian region are found here (about 4,000 of 15,000 species). Further. almost 1.800 species are endemic to the region. The NilgiriTravancoreAnamalai PalniCardamom hill areas in the southern parts of the zone exhibit t.he highest degree of endemism. Further, several interesting plant associations are observed in the evergreen forcsts of the Zonc. There are montane 'sholn' forests, riverine or swamp forests and nearly half 8 dozen ot.her evergreenspecles associations, mostly observed in the southern half of the Zone, where numerous ancillary mountain ranges converge to produce 8 region

of exceptional diversit.y. Becduse of the heavy rainfall and healthy soil co nd it..ions that much of the Zone's southern half enjoys. cash crops like coffee. cocoa, ca rdamom, Tubber. Lea and pepper are extens ively grown. setting in their wake additional maninduced habitats. The Western Ghats Zone is also characterised by a series offorestgaps or breaks. that are actually valleys that break the continuity of the mountain ranges a nd accordlOgly of the biological components as well. Some of the major ones are the Palghat Gap, the Moyar Gorge or Gap and the Shencottah Gap. These series of gaps have resulted in preventing the sp read of certain species and have hence, fa cilitated local speciation and endemism. The associated mountain ranges such as the Annamal~is, the Nilgiris and the Agastyamalais are a ll separated by clear-cut barriers and besides the interesting floral speciation, a distinct faunal endemism andlor local speciation, is also found. Areas such as thi s are in urgent need of study and documentation. Though this zone has healthy populations of much of the animal species characteristic of peninsular India (tiger, elephant, gaur, dhole, s loth bear, panther and several species of deer), it also exhibits a fairly good degree of endemism among primates. ungulates. carnivores, rodents, squirrels and several birds. Amongst flmphibia, most of the species and nearly half t.he genera are endemic, while a good degree of endemism is visible also amongst reptiles, fish and insects, most fau nal endemism and restriction being only in the centraJ and and southern parta of the zone. Several of the zone's faunal components are of 196 great interest (&nd importance) in that they have helped provide justification for what is called The Hora Hypothesis. This explains the spread of several species from the Himalaya and North-east along a once continuous central Indian mountain range into the Western Ghats. giving rise to several interesting biological linkages between the Western Ghats. t he Himalaya and North-East! More natural history field research would reveal vital clues to the management of sllch areas. CONSERVATION STATUS Presently, of all the Bio-geographic Zones, The Western Ghats with 44 Sanctuaries and National Parks, covering some 15,935 sq. km.

has the highest percentage of protected areas. However, the two sub-divisions of this Zone (viz., the coastal plains and the main Western Ghats) do not enjoy the same extent of protection. The coastal plains, from north to south, cover 60,000 sq. km. (37.5 per cent) of the zone. This is one of t he most highly developed and populated areas of the oountry. It is also the area with the least number of protected areas. Only four sites (three Sanctuaries and one National Park) totalling a mere than 240 sq. km. (less than 0.5 per cent) exist in this section of the Western Ghats. Taking the tremendous pressures on this region into consideration, even by the most conservative estimate the total protected area percentage in this region can barely be extended beyond one per cent. Bombay'S Sanjay Gandhi National Park is the only National Park in this sub-division! In marked contrast to the coastal plains region, the 100,000 sq. km. main Western Ghats region has the largest extent of protected. areas in India. 41 sites (six national parks and 35 sanctuaries) cover 15,695 sq. km. or 15.8 per cent of lhe total area. On paper this might seem to be a considerable area, but taking the exception al biodiversity of this Zone into consideration, not only is this inadequate, but it is not uniformly distributed and some of the vital ecozones, such as the Coorg, Palnis and the Upper Nilgiris have either been totally overlooked or are barely represented through tiny reserves. To successfully conserve the rich biological wealth reveal vital clues to the managementof such areas of evergreen tropical forest regions, it is imperative that there be large-sized, unbroken protected areas that have a minimum disturbance. The forests in the northern half of the Western Ghats are highly fragmented, as a result of which considering areas for protection is not possible. Hence the emphasis here is on smaller units, with a well spread network to incorporate as much of the diversity as possible. Less than 25 per cent of the protected areas network of the Western Ghats lies in the northern half -- Gujarat, Maharashtra and Goa. Currently t.he largest, contiguous stretch of wilderness exists in the Nagarahole-BandipurMudumalai belt of Karnataka and TamilNadu. and the adjoining W ynaad region of North Kerala. This forms a

more or less unbroken protected area conservation unit of over 2.000 sq. km. The significance can be gauged from the fact that the forests hold an estimated 1,500 elephantsIndia's largest protected population of pachyderms. Additionally, this area is home to several other threatened species. The other well-protected portion of the Western Ghats extends over 1.500 sq. km. in the Anamalai Hills region of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The highest point in mainland India, south of the Himalaya, is to be found here as can some of the finest examples oflowland Dipterocarp forests, which rise up into tho sholas. The presence of extensive moist deciduous forests adds up to the fact that this is undoubtedly peninsular lndia's richest bio-zone. Unfortunately, extensive plantations and related human disturbances threaten much of this region, which is fast losing most of its viable evergreen forest units. The PeriyarCardamom Hills belt in Kerala and Tamil Nadu is a major elephant conservation area. The grizz led squirrel too is found here. perhaps nowhere else in India. The total protected area unit in this region extends some 1,227 sq. km., much of it under great pressure frO"Q1 all sides. Located more or less at the southernmost end of the Western Ghats Zone are the Agastyamalai Hills in Reraia and Tamil Nadu. Separated from the northern Kerala forests by the Shencottah Gap, the Agastyamalais have an interesting biological commonness with the forests of Sri Lanka. There is great endemism observed here in the floral and lesser faunal (amphibians, insects etc.) communities. Mundanthurai and Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuaries form the southernmost range of the tiger in the sub-continent. The entire protected area unit of this belt works out to just over 1,000 sq. km. It is believed that under the existing conservation programmes in this Zone, much of the end'emic flora l community appears relatively secure. However, the habitat of some of the faunal elements of principal concern, though well-protected in pockets, is under threat from plantation encroachments. Rodgers and Panwar recommend a substantial increase the size of the main conservation units in this zone, particularly in the main Western Ghats region. Almost two dozen more protected areas have been recommended, to offer adequate

protection to species in additional areas. However, inspite of this increase in the number of protected areas, the actual network will be reduced by nearly 500 sq. km. This is because much ofthe over 5,000 sq. km. Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka, being a much disturbed and interfered area, is proposed to be degazetted, for it is realised that it is far more advantageous to have healthy, undisturbed reasonably good-sized areas than a huge, highly d isturbed region where much of the conservation and management programmes cannot even be implemented. Implementation, in fact, is a key factor in the success of all wildlife plans which have invariably sounded good on paper, yet failed in pr actice. SOILS The soils of India can he classified on the basis of several criteria. Indian Agricultural Research Institute (1ARl) Delhi divides soils into eight groups. (i) Alluvial Soil: The largest and the most important group is alluvial soil, which cover about 24% of India' land surface. This type of soil is composed of sediments deposited by the mighty rivers in the interior parts of India and by the sea wave in the coastal areas of the country. The Great Plains of India running from Punjab to Assam possess rich alluvial soil. It is also found in Narmada and Tapti valleys in Madhya Pradesh and Orissa, Godavari valley in Andhra. Pradesh and Cauvery valley in Tamil Nadu. It also occurs in the deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery rivers. Alluvial soils are generally deficient in nitrogen ana humus and thus need repeated use of fertilizers. Such soils are suitable for growing all types of cereals, pulses, sugarcane, vegetables, oilseeds etc. (ii) Black Soil: The second major group is black soil. Ideal for the cultivation of cotton crop, it is frequently referred to as black cotton soil and covers large tracts of the Deccan plateau . This soil is also classified as Chernozem though locally known as regur soil. It covers large areas in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and in Tamil Nadu. The black colour is due to the presence of compounds of iron and aluminium. The soil is sticky when wet and its level of fertility is well known. Possessing high moisture retention capacity, black soil does not

require much irrigation. (iii) Red Soil: The red soil, the third major group occurs mosUy in the southern peninsula and extends up to Jhansi in the north, Kutch in the west and Rajrnahal Hills in the east. This soil is made up of crystalline and metamorphic rocks and is rich in ferromagnese minerals and soluble salts but is deficient in nitrogen ~nd humus and thus needs fertilisers. It has a light texture and a porous structure. Red soil is most suited to growth of rice, ragi, tobacco and vegetables. (iv) Laterite Soil: Laterites and lateritic soil are the fourth group formed through t.he process oflaterisation. They contain tron oxides which import a red to the soil. The soil occurs in the higher reaches of the Sahyadris, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal Hills and other higher areas in the peninsular region. It can also be found on the lower lands in parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and in many parts of Kerala, as well as pockets of Orissa, West Bengal and Assam Generally poor in nitrogen and mineral salts due to heavy leaching, it is suitable for rice and ragi cultivation if manured. (v) Forest Soil: Forest soil is rich in organic matter and humus. It is found in t.he Himalayas and other mountain regions of the north, higher summit of the Sahyadris, Eastern Ghats, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Manipur, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Crops like tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits are grown on t.his type of soiL (vi, Arid and Desert Soil: It is found in north western India. It covers the entire area west of the Aravalli's in Rajasthan and parts of Haryana, Punjab and Gujarat. It is rich in phosphates but poor in nitrogen and proves quite fertile if irrigated. (vii) Saline and Alkaline Soil: Soils in many parts of the arid and se miarid areas of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Bihar have saline and alkaline effervescences mainly of sodium, calcium and magnesium. These soil are called reh or kallar or usar and are infertile. The salts are usually confined to the upper layers and soil can be reclaimed by improving drainage. (viii) Peaty and other Organic Soils: Peaty soils contain large accumulations of humus, organic matter and soluble salts. These soils are highly saline and are deficient phosphorus and potash. Marshy soU occurs in

regions of Orissa, West-Bengal and Tamil Nadu. They are also found in central and. north Bihar a nd in Almora district of V.P. IRRIGATION Water is vital for realising full potential of agriculture sector and country's development. The productivity in fields is severely affected by the vagaries of the 8C8son. Droughts, alternating 'With floods have been a common festure, making irrigat.ion and modern agricultural technology indispensable. A good system of irrigation removes uncertainty about agricultural production by reducing the dependence on rains and assuring regular, continuous and copious water supply at the appropriate time for the crops. It helps in having multiple crops in a year from the field, ensuring full employment for the workers througbout the year. Assured supply of water helps adoption of modem agricultural technology, which in turn helps in increa8in~ productivity. Irrigation helps in more economIcal use of land by bringing in more area, including wastelands under cultivation. The importance of irrigation has been realised in the planning process and a large outlay has been provided for the sector. With sustained and systematic development of irrigation. Its potential has increased from 22.6 mha prior to 1951 to about 95.4 mha at the end of 2000. Against this, the utilisation of irrigation potential at the end of 2000 was about 85.4 mha. Irrigation projects with a Culturable Command Area (CCA) of more than 10,000 hectare are cla8sified as major projects and these with a CCA of more than 2,000 hectare and upto 10,000 hectare a8 medium projects. The irrigation system is ba..sed on three sub systems, viz., (1) Tapping adequate resources of water; (2) Preservation and conveyance of the water made available; and (3) Optimum utilisation of the water resources called the water mRnagement systems. Types ofIrrigation: Three main types of irrigation are known: (1) Well Irrigation: Open wells, dug wells, dug cum bored wells and tube welle provide an assured supply ofwat.er _Tubewells are very popular in north India as power operated tube-wells can provide water for a longer period of time and cater to a large area. (2) Tank Irrigation: Tanks provide good

storage of rain water for use in the dry season. They are found in different sizes In south India. (3) Canol Irrigation: Canals, carryLng water from major rivers, transfer water to the deficient areas. They form the mllJor means of irrigation in India. accounting for t.bout 40% of the irrigated land. Perennial cauaIs have an assured supply of water throughout the year. While Inundate canale get water only d;rring the rainy season. Storage canals get water from the reservoirs, conatructed specifically to store rain water. Command Area Development Programme: It was initiated in 197475 with the objective of bridging the gap between potential created and utilised for optimising agricultural production from irrigated lan~. The main assumption behind the programme IS that the potential for improvement in the utilisation of water is maximum and that the underperformance of irrigation systems is di rectly linked to the absence of any government. involvement and influence over on-farm devel opment activities like land shaping and levelling, construction of field channels and drains. realignment. of field boundaries wherever necessary, enforcement of a proper system of warabandi and fair d18tribution of water to individual fields and supply of all inputs and services including credit and strengthening of extension se rvices. The programme Olvera Selection and introduction of suitable cropping pattern; Development of ground water to supplement surface irrigation; Development and maintenance of the main and intermediate drainage system and modernisation, maintenance and efficient operation of the irrigation system. Beginning with 60 major and medium irrigation projects in 1974, the Programme included 236 irrigation projects at the end of 2002 with Culturable Command Area (eCA) of 22.78 million hectare spread over 28 states and two union territories. The performance of CAD programme has been found to be generally disappointing. Farmers' disputes over land consolidations, absence of cooperation among various government departments and the lack of an integrated approach to the problem of soil and water management are the main resources of CAD's poor performances. To make CAD a success, farmers' active involvement and

cooperation in development a ctivities is very essential. DrylandfRainfed Farming: Dryland or Rainfed agriculture is practised on about 73 per cent of the net cultivated area but its contribution accounts for only about 42 per cent of the total foodgrains production. Coarse grains, pulses, cotton and oilseEl,ds are produced in the rainfed areas. The main\constituents of dry farming techniques are soil management, harvesting of water, new crop varieties and new agronomic practices. Soil management includes measures relating to soil structure, soil fertility and correction of alkalinity of the soil. Development of modern water harvesting procedures including the use of Aluminium foil, polymer films and widespread installation of small water reservoirs. The new agronomic practices envisage the proper application of nutrients. I POWER SITUATION IN INDIA I The installed power generation capacity in the country has increased from 1,400 MW in 1947 to 1,12,058.42 MW as on 31 March 2004 comprising 77,968.53 MW thermal, 29,500.23 MW hydro. 1,869.66 MW wind and 2,720 MW nuclear. A capacity addition programme of 5,245.52 MW has been fixed for the year 2004~ 05. Consdiering the fact that a large chunk of proportion of the installed capacity will come from the public sector, the outlay for the power sector has been raised from Rs. 45,591 crore during the Ninth Plan to Rs. 1.43,399 crore in the Tenth Plan. This would include a gross budgetary support of Rs. 25,000 crore and the remaining Rs. 1,18,399 crare would be internal and extra budgetary resources. Power generation during 2003-04 was 558.134 BUs comprising 466.618 BUs thermal, 73.796 BUs hydro and 17.720 BUs nuclear. The target of power generation for 2004-05 has been fied at 566.590 BUs. The plant load factor has shown a steady improvement over the yea rs and has improved from 52.8 per cent in 1990-91 to 72.7 per cent in 2003-04. Most of power in Inwa is generated through h ydal or thermal conversion. Since the northern and eastern India have perennial rivers, hydal -power generation is more in the area while thermal power plants are more in western and southern India where rivers dry up during summer season. Hydal power projects are sometimes part of multi-purpose projects which also curse flood control, water storage,

fishery and irrigation. Damodar valley corporation waS set up to look after first such project on Damodar river. Bhakra Beas Management board has an installed capacity of 2730 MW and caters to the requirements of Northern states. Nevyeli Lignite Corporation uses lignite for power generation in Tamil Nadu. Atomic Energy plants have been set up in Tarapur, Ka lpakkam, Kota and Narora to produce energy from nuclear fission. They contribute about 1400 MW of energy. National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) has been set up to construct and manage the thermal plants of central government. National Hydal Power Corporation (NHPC) for hydal projects and Nuclear Power Corporation (NPC) for nuclear plants. North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPC) implements the power projects in North Eastern region. Power Grid 201 UGC-JRF (Paper 1}-26 RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL AND ACHlEVEMENTS Corporation of India was set up to operate interstat. e and inter-regional transmission system. Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) looks after the electrification of villages and rural areas. To encourage private sector investment in the power sector, major policy changes were initiated in 1991. Procedures for cl~arances of the projects have been simplified a nd streamlined. Liberal environment for private entrepreneur is being provided, with some projects being given counter-guarantee and assured rate of return. Dabhol power project in Maharashtra was the first major power sector plant for which the State Governmentsigned a Power Purchase Agreement and Central Government gave counter-guarantee. ~ides conventional sources of energy, due emphasis has been given on t he nonconventional, renewable energy sources in the country. The main work has been done on harnessing solar, wind, small hydro !lI1d bioenergy_ Photo-voltaic and solar thermal systems have been developed. The Sagar Island in West Bengal has been turned into "Solar Island" as all needs of peopJe living there are met with solar energy. In the field of wind energy development, India is third in world with 900 MW of installed capacity. Farm projects have been set up in parts of the country

where wind velocity is large enough. Small, mini and micro hydal projects have been set up to fit in small budgets and local resources. r n the bio--energy field, technology for conversion of agro - wastes to energy have been developed. The biomass systems and improved chullah can be adopted, even at far flung areas. The rural and far-off areas depend on wood and agre- wastes for their energy requirement and efficient utilisation of these will save wood and hence protect environment alRO over 25 takh biogas plants installed in the country l:telp save 75lakh tonnes of fue l wood every yed In the Ninth Five Year Plan there is proposal' to add additional capacity of 3000 MW through non-conventional sources or energy. Attempts are being made to produce energy from urban and industrial wastee wbch is increasing day by day. Environment VI QUESTIONS 1. Sericulture is: A. science of the various kinds of serum B. a r tificia l rearing offish C. art of silkworm breeding O. study of various cultu res of a community 2. Tides in the oceans are caused by: A Gravitational pull of the moon on the earth's suCrace including sea water B. Gravitational pull of the sun on the earth's surface only and not on the sea water C. Gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on the earth's surface including the sea water O. None of these 3. Nagarjunasagar Project is situated on the rIver: A Tungabhadra B. Cauvery C. Krishna 0 ', Godavari 4. The diffe r e nce between t he Indian Standard Time and the Greenwich mean Time is: A - 3~ hours B. + 3Yz hours C. - 3~ hours D. + 5~ hours 6. Which of the foUowing dams is not. on Narmada river? A. IndiraSagar Project B. Maheshwar Hydel Power P roject C. J obat. Project

D. Koyna Power Project 6. Which of the following statements is no true about the availability of water on the earth, the crisis for which is going to increase in the years to come? A About 97.5 per cent of the total volume of water av8.ilable on the earth is salty B. 80 per cent of the water available to us for use comes in bursts as monsoons C. About 2.5 per cent of t.he total water available on the earth is polluted water and cannot he used for human activities D. Possibility is that some big glaciers will melt in the coming tenftfteen years and sealevel will rise by 3--4 meters all over the earth 7. Through which States does Cauvery River Dow? A. Gujarat. M.P. Tamil Nadu B. Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu C. Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh D. M.P., Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu 8. The biggest reserves of thorium are in: A. India B.China C. The Soviet Union D. U.S.A. 9. Photosphere is described as the: A. Lower layer of atmosphere B. Visible surface of the sun from which radiation emanates C. Wavelength of solar spectrum D. None of the above 10. Different seasons are formed becau~ A. Sun is moving around the earth B. of revolution of the earth around the Sun on its orbit C. of rotation of the earth around its axis D. All of the above 11. The world is divided into: A 12 time zones B. 20 lime zones C. 24 time zones O. 36 time zones 12. The term 'Hegur' refers to: A. Laterite soils 8. Black Cotton soils C. Redsoils D. Deltaic Alluvial soils 13. Location of sugar industry in India is shifting from north to south because of: A. cheap labour B. expanding regional market C. cheap and abundant supply of power

D. high yield and high sugar content in sugarcane 14. Consider the following statements: 1. Ozone is found mostly in the Stratosphere. 2. Ozone layer lies 5575 km above the surface of the earth. 3. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. 4. Ozone layer has no significance for life on the earth. Which of the correct? above statements ar.E;'" A. 1 and 3 C. 2and3 B. 2 and 4 D. 1 and 4 15. Atmosphere exists because: A. The Gravitational force of the Earth B. Revolution of the Earth C. Rotation of the Earth D. Weight of the gases of atmosphere 16. Where are most of the earth's active volcanoes concentrated? A. Europe B. Pacific Ocean C. Africa D. South America 17. The area covered by forest in India is about: A. 46% B. 33% C. 23% D. 19'% 18. The natural vegetation of Sa van a consists of: A. Tall grass B. Scrub jungle C. Short grass D. Trees 19. The zone of excessively dry climate with very cold temperature throughout the year correspond to: A. Arctic deserts B. Tundra C. Alpine meadouss D. Antarctica 20. The fertility of the soil can be increased by growmg: A. Cereals B. Fibre Crops C. Legumes D. Root Crops 21. India's Oil bearing areas are mostly associated with the: A. Plutonic rocks B. Volcanic rocks C. Sedimentary rocks D. Metamorphic rocks 22. The much discussed Tehri Dam Project is located in which of the following states? A. Madhya Pradesh

B. Rajasthan C. Haryana D. Uttaranchal 23. Laterite soil develop as a result of: A. deposits of alluvial B. deposition of loess C. leaching D. continued vegetation cover ~4. The coldest place on the earth is: A. Halifax B. Chicago C. Siachen D. Verkhoyansk 25. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? A. Kota - Chambal B. Bhubaneshwar - Mahanadi C. Jabalpur - Narmada D. Surat - Tapti 26. Which of the following is the biggest fresh water lake in India? A. Dal Lake B. Sukhna Lake C. LoktakLake D. None of these 27. Which of the following rivers is not a tributory of the Indus? A. Sutlej B. Jhelum C. Bhagirathi D. Chenab 28. Which of the following pairs of the river dam project and the State in which it is located, is not correct? A Gandhi Sagar-Madhya Pradesh B. Tungabhadra - Tamilnadu C. Bhakra Nangal- Punjab D. Hirakud - Orissa 29. Match List I and List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I (Rivers) (a) Cauvery (b) Krishna (c) Narmada (d) Chambal Codes: (a) (h) (e) (d) A.I 4 2 3 B. 2 I 4 3 C.2 I 3 4 D. I 3 4 2 List II (D ams) 1. Alamatti 2. Mettur 3. Gandhi Sagar 4. Sardar Sarovar

30. What is approximately the percentage of forest cover in India? A. 10 per cent B. 8.5 per cent C. 25 per cent D. 19.5 per cent 31. When does the moon come between the sun and the earth? A Lunareclipse B. Solar eclipse C. Sidereal day D. Full moon day 32. The latitude of a place is expressed by its angular distance in relation to: A. Equator B. South Pole C. Axis of the Earth D. North Pole 33. The southern tip of India is: A. Cape Comorin B. Point Cali mere C. Indira Point in Nicobar Islands D. Kovalam in Trivandrum 34. During winter, the northern half of India is warmer than areas of similar latitudinal location by 30 to 80 because: A. India is essentially a tropical country B. The surface wind blows in a particular direction in one season C. The Great Himalayas check the penetration of cold polar air into India effectively. D. Dfwinte'r rains 35. Turpentine oil used III medicine' IS obtained from: A Acacia B. Chir pin C. Myrobalans O. Kusum 36. Which country IS known for the most frequent earthquakes? A. Italy B. Japan C. China. D. Iran 37. In determining the Indian climate, major role played by Himalayas is/are: A. The east west extension of the GreatHimalayas does not permit the summer monsoon to cross it and thus keeps its sojourn restricted to India B. The direct the summer monsoon towards the northwest C. During the winter they stop the southward penetration of the cold and dry polar air D. All of the above 38. Which river is flowing near Ayodhya? A. Ganga B. Yamuna C. Saryu D. Krishna 39. Which of the following is cold stream?

A. Curasia B. Labrador, C. Gulf of Stream D. Hakuna Hatata 40. High velds are the temperate grasslands of: A. Africa B. South Australia C. EuropeandAsia D. SouthAmerica 41. The rock material carried by a glacier is called A alluvium B. meanders C. nodules D. moraines 42. Match List I and List IT and find out the correct answer from the codes given below the Lists: List I List II (Thermal (wcations) Power Plants) (a) Kahalgaon 1. West Bengal (b) Farakka 2. Bihar (c) Ramagundam 3. Gujarat (d) Gandhar 4. Andhra Pradesh Codes: (a) (b) (e) (d) A1234 8.4 3 1 2 C.2 1 4 3 D.3 2 1 4 43. Solar eclipse takes place when: A. The moon comes between the sun and the earth B. The earth comes between the sun and the moon C. The sun comes between the moon and the earth D. None of the above 44. The Suez Canal connects: A Baltic Sea and the Caspian Sea B. Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea C. Red Sea and the Caspian Sea D. Mediterranean Sea and North Sea 45. Krishna Raja Sagar Dam is built across the river: A. Cauvery B. Tungabhadra C. Krishna D. Godavari 46. Which of the following States has rich forests of sandalwood? A. Andhra Pradesh B. Karnataka C. Kerala D. Madhya Pradesh 47. Which of the following is the smallest ocean of the world? A. Pacific C. Atlantic B. lndian D. Arctic

48. Light Year is a unit of: A Intensity of light B. Distance C. Time D. Planetary motion 205 49. Match List t and List 11 and select. t.he correct answer using the codes given below t.he Lists : List I (a) Troposphere (b) Stratosphere (e) Ionosphere (d) Exosphere Codes.' (a) (b) (e) (d) AI243 6. I 2 3 C.2 4 0.2 3 4 3 4 List IT 1. Dust particles 2. Ozone layer 3. Meteors 4. Aurora 50. The Nagarjunsagar project is on the river: A. Sutlej S. Narmada C. Krishna D. Kaveri 51. The planets are kept is motion in their respective orbits by the: A. Rotation of the sun on its axis S. Gravitation and centrifugal forces C. Great size and spherical shape D. Rotation and the density of the planets 52. AU vitalalmospheric processes leading to various Cli018tic and weather conditions take place in the: A. Troposphere S. Ionosphere C. Exosphere D. Stratosphere 53. The greatest diversit.y of animal and plants species occurs in: A. temperate deciduous forests S. tropical moist forests C. heavily poUuted rivers O. desert lands 54. The cold oceanic current passing through the coast. of North America is known as: A. Kuroshio Current S. Gulf Stream C. Labrador Current

O. Falkland Current 55. Which of the following soil is very hard to cultivate? A Alluvial B. Red C. Black o. Sandy 56. The Hirakud Project is on which of the foUowing rivers? A. Godavari B. Mahanadi C. Damodar D. Kosi 57. What is meant by the term "cirrusH? A. A low cloud B. A rainbearing cloud C. A high-cloud D. A hail-hearing cloud 58. Most of the w~athel' phenomena take place in the: A. stratosphere S. troposphere C. tropopause D. ionosphere 59. Atmospheric pressure exerted on earth is due to: A. rotation of earth B. revolution of earth C. gravitational pull D. uneven heating of earth GO. The circulation of ocean water occurs: A. only laterally B. only vertically C. both laterally and vertically D. neither laterally nor vertically 61. Match List I and List U and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I (Storm) (a) Cyclone (b) Hurricane (e) Typhoon (d) Willy Willy Codes: (a) (b) (e) (d) A.3 4 2 1 6.4 3 2 1 C.3 4 2 1 0.4 3 I 2 List II 1. China 2. Australia 3. India 4. U.S.A. 62. Which is called the "Tiger State--? A Rajasthan B. Madhya Pradesh C. Uttar Pradesh

D. Jammu & Kashmir 206 63. Which one of the following rivers is known as "Sorow of Bihar"? A. Damodar B. Gandak C. Kosi O. Sone 64. Given below are two statements. one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other lebelled as Reason (R): Assertion (A) : One of the movements of the su rface water of ocea n is known as ocean current. Reason (R) : Ocean cu rrents are caused mainly due to planetary winds ancl the difference in temperature and density of water. In the context of the above two statements, which one the following is correct? A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A. B. Both A and R are true but. R is not a correct explanation of A. C. A is true but R is false. O. A is false but R is t rue 65. Tsunamis are huge sea waves caused by: A. Earthquakes B. Volcanoes C. Winds D. Icebergs 66. Through which of the following countries does the river Tigris flow? A. Egypt B. ira n C. Italy D. Iraq 67. Imaginary lines drawn on a global map from pole to pole and from the perpendicular to the equator are called A. Contours B. Isobars C. Meridians D. Steppes 68. The 23South latitude is known as A. The Tropic of Cancer B. The Tropic of Capricorn C. The Equator D. The Prime Meridian 69. 'Equinox' means A. Days are longer than nights B. Days and nights are equal C. Days a re shorter than nights O. None of these 70. Summer solstice occu rs on A. March 21 B. April 21 C. May 21 D. June 21 71. A lunar eclipse occurs when A. Sun, Moon and Earth are not in the same line B. Earth comes between the Sun and t he

Moon C. Moon comes between the Sun and the Earth D. Sun comes between the Earth and the Moon 72. The sky appears blue because A. It is actually blue B. The atmosphere scatters blue light more than the others C. All colours interfere to produce blue D. In white light. blue colour dominates 73. International Date Line passes through A. 0 Greenwich B. 1BOoGreenwich C. 90 Greenwich O. 270" Greenwich 74. Port Blair is situated in A. North Anclaman B. South Andaman C. MlddleAndaman D. Little Andaman 75. Which of the following passes through Lnrna? A. Tropic of Capricorn B. Tropic of Cancer C. Equator O. 0 Longitude 76. At the Equator, the duration of a day is A. 10 hrs B. 12 bes C. 14 hrs D. 16 hrs 77. Suez navigati on ca nal links up Mediterranean Sea with the A. Atlantic Ocean B. Pacific Ocean C. North Sea D. Red Sea 78. Teak and Sal are the principal trees in the forests known as A. Tropical moist evergreen B. Dry deciduous C. Tropical moist deciduous D. Dry evergreen 79. When a ship crosses the International Date Line from west to East A. ltlosesone day B. It gains one day C. It.loseshalfa-day D. ltgainshalfa-day SO. Siachen is A. Limiting glacier zone between India and Pakistan B. Limiting desert zone between India and Pakistan C. Limiting zone between China lind Pakistan 207 D. Limiting zone between India and Myanmar 81. Which oft.he following people are related to T.E. Lawrence? A. The people of China

B.lnhabitantsofMangole C. The people of Afghanistan D. The people of Arab 82. For which of the following reasons, clouds do not min in desert.? A. Maximum air velocity B. Minimum temperature C. Minimum air velocity D. Minimum humidity 83. Which countries are joined by the Palk Strait? A. India & Sri Lanka B. North & South Korea C. Pakistan & China D. Britain & France 84. The smallest Continent is A. Europe B. Australia C. Antarctica D. South America 85. The longest dam in India is A. Bhakra Dam B. Nagarjuna Sagar Dam C. Hirakud Dam D. Kosi Dam 86. Jawahar Tunnel, the largest in India, is located in the state of A. Himachal Pradesh B. Rajasthan C. West Bengal D.J&K 87. 'Jog' the highest waterfall In India IS located in the state of A. Uttar Pradesh B. West Bengal C. Karnataka D. Maharashtra 88. Where is the Siachin Glacier situated in India? A. Uttar Pradesh B. Himachal Pr~desh C. Jammu & Kashmir D. Sikkim 89. The standard time of India is the local time of A. 81 a East longitude B. East longitude C. 84" East longitude D. 86" East longitude 90. In which South American country does one find the Atacama desert? A. Chile B. Peru C. Brazil D. Columbia 91. Which of the following ports has a free trade zone? A. Kandla B. Cochin C. Madras D. 1'uticorin

92. Which one of the following mountain peaks of the Himalayas is not in India A. Annapurna B. Nanda Devi C. Mt. Kamel D. Kanchenjunga 93. Match List I (Types of Natur':l.l Regions) with List II ( Areas Associated with the Regions) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (Typ es of Natural (Areas Associated Regions) with the Natru'(Jl Regions) (I) Dry continental 1. Brazil (11) Humid Subtropics 2. British Isles (III) Marine West Coast 3. Canada (IV) Subarctics 4. China Codes: 5. Mangolia A. I - 5, fl - 4, IfI - 2. IV - 3 B. 1- 2, III - 3. 11 - I, IV - 5 c. 1- 2, II - 4, 111- I, IV-:-J'o, D. I - 5, II - 3, 1II - 2, IV - 4 94. Winter rains in north and northwest india are generally associated with the phenomenon of A. Retreating monsoon B. Temperate cyclones C. Local thunderstorms D. Shift in Jet stream movement 95. When the moon is near the horizon, then it appears bigger because of A. Atmospheric refraction B. Scattering of light C. Diffraction D. Total internal reflection 96. Savanna grasslands are found in A. Australia B. Africa C. East Asia D. SmIth America 208 97. Life expectancy is highest in the world in A. Canada B. Germany C. J apan D. Norway 9S. Israe l has common borders with A. Lebanon. Syria. J ordan and Egypt B. Lebanon. Syria. Turkey and J ordan C. Cyprus, Turkey. Jordan a nd Egypt D. Turkey, Syria. iraq and Yemen 99. What is the correct sequence of the rivers-Godavari, Mahanadi, Narmada and Tapi in the descending order of their lengths? A. Godavari-Mahanadi-Narmada-Ta pi B. Godavo.ri-Narmada-Mahanadi-Tapi C. Narmada-GodavariTapi-Mahanadi

D. Narmada-TapiGodavari-Mahanadi 100. Among t he following cities, which one is nearest to the Tropic of Cancer? A. Delhi B. Kolkata C. Jodhpur D. Nagpur 101. Among the following which planet takes maximum time for one revolution around the Sun? A. Earth B. Jupiter C. Mars D. Venus 102. Which one among the following languages has largest number of speakers in t he world? A. Bengali B. French C. Japanese D. Portuguese 103. Which one of the fo llowing is the longest glacier of India? A. Pinda ri B. Gangotri C. Siachen D. Zem\1 104. In wha t regions can the sun be seen at midnight? A. The tropical zone B. Warm temperate regions C. The Arctic and Antarctic regions D. Anywhere at the time of lunar eclipse 105. Match the rivers flowing through the cities below: Cities A Baghdad B. Cairo C. New York D. Rotterdam Rivers (I) Rhine (II) Hudson (llI) Nile (IV) Tigris ABCD A IV 1U II I B. I II ill IV C. n I IV ill D. ill IV I II 106. Where was electricity supply first introduced in India? A Kolkata B. Darjeeling C. Mumhai D. Chennai 107. Which of the following is the highest waterfa ll in the world? A Angel B. Ribbin C. Hungela D. Quecanag lOS. Which among the following planets intersects the orbit of Neptune? A. Mercury B. Pluto

C. Earth D. Uranus 109. Nubian desen is in A. Ethiopia C. Sudan 110. The capital of Laos is B. Egypl D. Somalia A. Vientiane B. Ankara C. Abu Dhabi D. Hanoi 111. Peso is the currency of A. Cuba B. Bermuda C. Grenada D. Jamaica 112. Which oflhe following countries is called the "Country of white elephants"? A. Thailand B. Kuwait C. South Africa D. India 113. The longest highway in India runs from A. Kolkata toJammu B. Jammu to Kanya Kumari C. Ambala La Nagercoii D. Varanasi to Kanys Kumari 114. Which strait separates India from Sri Lanka? A. Malldeb B. Magellan C. Malacca I). Palk 115. Which city was known as the 'Manchester of India'? A. Mumbai B. Surat C. Ahmeda,bad D. Ludhiana 116. Where is the fa m Olls shore temple located? A. Puri B. Visakhapalnalll C. Mamallapuram D. Chennai 117. The new alluvial del.osits found i'n Lhi Gangetic plain are known as I 209 UGC-JRF (Paper 1)-27 A. Bhabar C. Khadar B. Bhangar O. Terai 118. Which of the island? following is the largest A. Sumatra B. Madagascar C, Honshu D. Cuba 119. Kodaikanal, the famous hill-station of South India is situated on: A. Palni Hills B. Anaimalai Mountain C. Nilgiri Mount-ain D. Cardamon Hills 120. The largest continent in the world is:

A. North America B. Africa C. Asia O. Europe 121. Which water body separates Aust.ralia from New Zealand? A. Cook Straits B. Tasman Sea C. McMunro Sound D. Great Barrier Reef 122. 'Radcliff Line' is a boundary line between A. India and Bangladesh B. India and Bhutan C. India and China D. India and Pakistan 123. The samallest continent of the world isA. Europe B. Antarctica C, South America D. Australia 124. J og waterfall, the highest waterfaU in India, is located inA. Kerala B. Karnataka C. Maharashtra D. Madhya Pradesh 125. Which of the following district is on the international border of India A. Gor-akhpur B. West Khasi Hills C. Kinnaur D. Kullu 126. Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched? A. Panna: Diamond B. Neyveli: Lignite C. Mysore: Marb!e D. Sambhar: Salt 127. The earthquake waves which have transverse movements are known as A. Primary waves B. Secondary waves C. Surface waves D. None of the above 128. The first man to reach the South Pole on December 14. 1911 was A. Commander Robert, E. Peary of U.S. Navy B. Racald Amundsen from Norway C. The Navigator Ferdinand Magellan D. Sir Francis Drake of England 129. Which one of the following is not t.he vegetalion in Selva forests? A. Epiphytes B. Xerophytes C. Llanas D. Hydrophyr.es 130. Where does the primitive cOl)'lmunity of Bushman live? A. Sahara desert B. Thar desert C. Kalahari desert D. Attacama desert

131. Which region of India receives rainfall due to western disturbance in wint.er? A. Western region B. Central region C. Eastern region D. NorthWestern region 132. Freely suspended magnetic needle stands in which direction? A. North-West direction B. North-South direction C. North-Eastdirection D. SouthWestdirection 133. How far the axis of earth is inclined of its orbital surface? A. 23 B.66 C. 1800 D. It is not inclined 134. Difference of longitudinal of two places on the earth is 15. What will be the difference in its local time? A. No difference B. 1 hour C. 2 hours D. 15 hours 135. Which of the roHowing is only star? A. Moon 8. Venus C. Earth D. Sun ANSWERS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 CCCDDDBABB 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 CBDAABDAAC 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 CDCDADCBBD 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 BACCBBDCBA 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 DCABCBBBBC 51 52 53 54 65 66 57 58 59 60 BABCBBCBCC 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 CBCCADCBBD 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 60 BBBBBBDCAC 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 DAABCDCCBA 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 AAAAABCABB 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 BACCABADCA III 112 113 114 115 116 117 ]]8 119 120 AADDDCCBAC

121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 J29 130 . BDDBCCBBBC 131 132 133 134 135 CBABD Part I TEACHING APTITUDE Teaching is a complex process which brings socially desirable behavioural change in a person. Teaching is a part ofteaching-learning process. It is required to bring certain changes in a person according to the need of his society and environment in which he is living. 'Teaching is not an act as it is dynamic in nature so it is termed as process. It is also not a fundamental concept as it is greatly influenced by social and human factors. Teachlng is both artan,d science. It is an ' activity involving teacher and student with a view to the development of student. The main aim of teaching is to bring about socially desirable behavioural changes in the students and can be achieved only if teaching is effective and based on certain values or principles. Teaching is one of the main parts of the teaching-learning system. So effective teaching is mostly depending on the teacher. It is a common fact that a good teacher is born and not made. Training and research can make a good teacher better and a better teacher best. Teacher should follow various methods of teaching devised from time to time. A teacher encourages the practice of thinking among students. Teacher should give to the students the' freedom and opportunity to express their ideas. . Teaching is required to give education to the students. Edl,lcation may be defined as the process of drawing out least in an individual. We can define education as "the aggregate of all processes by means of which a person develops attributes, attitudes and other forms of behaviour of positive value in the society in 'which he lives". We can also define it as "the 'social process by which people are subjecte.d to tHe influence of a selected and controlled environment, so that they may attain social competence and optimum individual development" . The complete process of education must contain four common factors (i) Educator

(teacher) (ll) Educand (Student) (iii) the subject matter (iv) the context (setting). Now, education is the proces~ of developi~g some abilities in an individual. Though abilities are in'born quality, it is also a fact that these can be nurtured and developed in an educand through various means by a n educator. Education must also be relevant and useful to the society in which educand has to live. Since 'every individual is unique in their own way, th~ educator has to adopt strategies and methods suitabl~ to i~dividual needs. Educati~n II,u-J-st also be productive. The educational productivity (rate of efficiency of work) can be classified as .qualitative and quantitative. For better education both qualitative and quantitative productivity is required. Quality means here the excellence in the part of textbook, teachets students's aids, facilities and other teaching aids where as quantity refers the number of teachers, institutions, professionals, etc. Education and teaching are interrelated. Education is a complex social cultural and ethical process designed in a social or cultural content. It is related with social structures, cultural environments, values, and ideas of people, society and government. All these . factors are dynamic in nature. So teaching is also a dynamic process and its definition changes according to place and t ime . Morrison defines it as a disciplined social process in which teacher influences the behaviours of the less experienced pupil and helps him develop according to the needs and ideas ofthe society. Smith termed it as an organised system of worker. He/she must have proper guts to lead specific activities aimed to help the learner learn by an example at a superior level as he is the something. leader of his pupil. He/she has to exercise An analytical approach makes it clear that neGe!?.ary influence for bringing the .desired neither of the definition fulfils the purpose. . modification in behaviour. A good definition ofteaching should Teacher works to change the behaviour of (i) Tell whether teaching is a process or students according to the need of the society. act. He/she must also creates situation to increase (ii) Clearly indicates constitutional factors. the thinking capacity of mind of students. He (iii) Reveals objectives, and give education to the people. Education is a (iv) Say something about its organisational tripolar process involving educator, educant and 'structural aspect. and social milieu. The educand is deperident

Accordirig to' this analysis we can define variable of education whereas educator is teaching as a-tripolar process ~nvol~ing human independent variable. Social milieu is required or material source ' of teaching students and a for the direction of education. Education should set of organi4ed ' activities designed and develop intellectual, moral, aesthetic, manipulated for bringing changes in the democratic, material and economic life to make behavious of the taught. our country a leading force. Hard work and Since teaching is a process and' it is mental alertness should be the rst requisite of dynamic in nature so it changes its concept the educational training. according to time and place. It is a professional . The teacher has to provide intellectual and activity. TeachIng can be ' analysed and. social leadership. He is to follow a curriculum assessed. This analysis and assessm:ent . 'but his task is beyond this. He acts as an ideal provides feedback for further improvement in for his students. He has to follow the way of methods of teaching. Teaching is highly simple life with great thinking, His morale dominated by communicaitcin 'skilL It is should be high. He must be competent. His interactive process carried with .purpose and efficiency and enthusiasm is also very objectives, Teaching may have various forms as important. He must also possess some other formal, imformal, diiectional,lnstructional . qualities as he is . the pivote of educational formational; training, conditioning, talking: system. Such as 'J.se of good means for good showing etc. All these words single handly can't ends, clear thinking no prejudice, ability of be synonym of teaching. Teac41ng is a much critical judgements at the righttime, tolerence broader term, All these activities ariparts of are all needed for a teacher. Teacher m~st be teaching at different leveL' . . ready to impart to their students all Teaching ' has been analysed in seve'ral information geographical, historical, political ways for understanding it, fo r "designing social practical and strategic and scientific. teaching methods and inaterials with a view.to The complete educational process has four reaI is m. g speci' fi c objectives making teaching important common factors more effective .. This modification is based on (i) teacher (ii) student (iii) subject matter feedbacks. Teaching skill is o~e of the'.nlost(iv)setting (context). important thing required 'for it tacherhlt itis ' TEACHER not the only requirerrie~t. :Tea:cning involve~ Teacher is -a person, who, due to his rich or interaction. So, communication: ' skill, . unusual experience in education or both in a personality, attitude, .attribute, interest .all . giyen field is able tocontribute to the growth these are also countedJor effective teachlng. A and development of the other person who comes teacher cannot be regarded only as a skilled in contact with him. There are four dimensions

associated with a teacher, his competence, efficacy, enthusiasm and morale. Teacher's competence : Teacher's competence has been defined as the e~tent to which the teacher has t~ relevant subje~t matter and the pedagogical experties needed to impart the curriculum effectively. Teacher's efficacy: It IS defined as the self belief in his capacity of doing what is expected from them. Teacher's enthusiasm: A teacher must be very enthusiastic. Teacher's Morale : It is very important in maintaining balance in the classroom interaction. The various factors contributed to the morale are psychological well being, self esteem; commitment to a cause. Knowledge and identification with the organisational goal. The teachers morale is a combination of psychological, physiological and environmental cause. These four factors 'are seen in process of effective classroom interaction. CLASSROOM INTERACTION : The classroom interaction between a student ~nd a teacher is completely based on the climate created by teacher. He should be able to bring the blendiness of friendship with a definite degree of firmness. The interaction must be smooth and pleasant without any friction for a complete:and fruitful teaching learning process. Normally, verbalism' goes on in the name of teaclfing. Students are merely expected to listen to th~ explanation and lectures. This is known as direct teaching. The effectiveness of direct teaching has been questioned many times and it is found that this type of teaching is not very effective one. For effective teaching the active , participation of students IS very important. This participation IS done through the classroom interaction. 'This interaction consist of thier explanations and lectures with students , suggestions, ideas concepts, and questions,etc. These activ:ities of students make important for making teaching learning process effective, democratic and friendly. Interaction is required for the rectification of the drawbacks of direct teaching. This interactive teaching is known as indirect teaching. Through the interaction; the teacher analyses the capacity and tequirement of students and can bring subsequent changes in their behaviour according to the requirement

and can also change way of teaching. I One of the most important thing ill classroom interaction is the communication. Communication will be learned in UNIT-IV in details. SUBJECT MATTER : It is also known as curriculum. Curriculum is a "general overall plan of the content or specific material of instruction, that an educational institution should offer to the student by way of qualifying him for graduation or certification". It is also a body of prescribed educational experience under an institutional supervision, designed to provide an individual with the best possible training and experience to fit him foy the society of which he/she is a part, or to qualify him for a trade or profession. It is also defined as "a subject matter, instructional materials, situations o~ experience that may , help to develop understanding, skills, appreciation and attitudes". , Curriculum should be logical, . psychological and according to the needs of the pupil and also the society. It should be objective in approach. Curriculum can be of two types: (i) Teacher oriented curriculum :''In this type of 'curriculum the process of selection of materials content is based on the needs-of the instructor/teacher. The teacher is proficient in , his particular field and is considered superior. (ii) Child/student orient~d cu~riculum : A curriculum in which the criteria for the selection. and sequence of material, activities and experiences for any particular pupil are the needs, maturity, interests and experiential backgrounds ofthe individual child. In our country the NCERT is the main institution authorised for making curriculum. Every state has . his own curriculum making bodies known as SCERT.Some 'states follows the NCERT curriculum. All schools affliated uses. This is the most important step of -teaching learning process. the CBSE boards generally follow NCERT curriculum. At higher _level every university make their own curriculum according to the guidelines of University Grant Commission which acts for the uniformity in curriculum at higher level in our country. QUALITIES OF TEACHER CONTEXT (SETTING) : Previously schools were not designed to successfully teach all . students. Nowadays their motto have been changed. Their nE;W motto is 'DO LEARN'. This setting is dynamic and flexible. This is

changing in view -of making it beneficial to society rather than for an individual. Teaching is a process carried out in .differerit steps. There are five main steps of teaching (i) Preparatioli : This stage is required or intended for the preparation of both the teacher and the students. The teacher prepare the ~tudent for a new topic or ~ lesson in variety of ways. (ii) Presentation : At this stage the new lesson actually begins. The students know that what they are going to learn. The subject material should be carefully arranged by the teacher. He has to encourage the students to observe, compare and contrast the. facts presented to them. This stage requires mental alertness from the students. The presentation rests in. the principle of selection of the area to be covered. It is not necessary for a teacher to cover up all areas of the course of study. He. may leave some areas for students self study. (iii) -Comparison : In this section after presentation of subject matter, the student (i) Teacher should be mentally nad physically fit. (ii) Teacher should be keen in his wGrk and should be enthusiastic and anxious to keep his knowledge fresh & update. (iii) He should possess patience and tolerance and try to study the difficulties and problem of students and try to solve them in a quite and calm manner. (iv) He should have feelings of love and sympathy. (v) He must not be superstitious about his students and class. (vi) He should be well dressed and well maintained. (vii) His voice should be sweet, polite and clear. (viii) His language should be understandable to the students. (ix) He must not give any false promise. (x) He/she should have interest in his profession and the knowledge must be updated. (xi) He must not have any bad habits. (xii) Teacher must have a good communication skill and must be a master of his area or field of teaching.

(xiii) Teacher should be trained in various methods of teaching. (xiv) He should know the child psychology. (xv) -Teacher should be a good researcher. (xvi) He should have a control over students - to maintain peace and order in,class. (xvii) Teaching should be pupil central rather than subject centres. is given opportunity to compare two or more sets of facts. This enhance the uriderstanding of lesson among students as they compare and observe different facts. (iv) Generalisation: This stage comes after the comparison and observation. Different tyPes of conclusions can be drawn from comparison and generalisation. These conclusions are systemised in a particular (xviii) Teacher should arose interest among students about the subject. / order to give a generalised truth. (v) Appiication : At this stage the generalised facts are applied for various (;dx) .Teacher must be fair in grading and marking. (xx) Teacher -should organise extra curricular activities for -better understanding of subject matter. (xxi) Good interpersonal relationship should be maintained. (xxii) Rewards and punishments should b~ given according to their behaviour but usually punishment should be avoided. (xxiii) Teacher should use modern techniques, methods and gadgets in teaching for better understanding of subject matter. (xxiv) Teacher should evoke curiosity of the pupils by presenting the subject matter in an effective manner with clear explanation leading to better understanding of the matter. (xxv) Teacher should arrange subject matter in a logical way. (xxvi) Teacher should make a lesson plan before presenting the lesson in the class . . (xxvii) Teacher should work as a leader in the class. (xxviii) Teacher should maintain a democratic atmosphere in the class so that every student will be able to put his doubt, questions and ideas with suggestion. (xxix) Teacher should act as a role model for his students with his character and behaviour. He way follow the way of

"simple living and great thinking". (xxx) Teacher should inspire his pupil. Part II QUESTIONS 1. If majority of students in your class are weak you should (a) not care about the intelligent students (b) keep your speed of teaching fast so that students comprehension level may increase (c) keep your teaching slow (d) keep your teaching slow along with some extra guidance to bright pupils 2. If some ,o f your pupils misbehave with you in the college campus you must (a) report to the principal (b) report to their parents (c) improve their behaviour by your own character and scholarship (d) mobilize other teachers against these guys 3. A teacher in the class should keep the pitch of his voice (a) high enough (b) low (c) moderate (d) sometime low and somtime high 4. If some students fail in the examination it isthe fault of (a) the teacher (b) the principal (c) pupils themselves (d) text books 5. A teacher who is not able to draw the attention of his students should (a) evaluate hIS teaching method and improve it (b) resign from the post (c) find fault in his pupils (d) start dictating 6. Itback-benchers are always talking in the classroom a teacher should (a) let them do what they are doing (b) punish them (c) ask them to sit on the front benches (d) none of the above 7. A teacher (a) should introduce the lesson before he starts teaching (b) should have command over his language

(c) should have command over his subject (d) all of the above 8. If a teacher is not able to answer the question of a pupil he should (a) say that he will answer after consultation (b) rebuke the pupil (c) say that the question is wrong (d) feel shy of his ignorance 9. Arrange the following teaching process in order . (i) relating the present knowledge with the preVious knowledge (ii) evaluation (iii) reteaching . (iv) . formulating objectives (v) preseritation of materials (a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) (b) (ii), (i), (iii), (iv), (v) (c) (v), (iv), (iii), (i), (ii) (d) (iv), (i),(v), (ii), (iii) 10. Use oftelecast materials (a) enhances concentration and learning (b) reduces the burden ofthe teacher (c) increases retention power (d) all of the above 11. If students are not able to follow, you should (a) give them prompt (b) make the matter easy (c) illustrate with examples (d) All ofthe above 12. Micro teaching is useful to students of (a) . primary classes only (b) junior classe~ only (c) 10 + 2 classes only (d) higher classes and primary classes both 13. If remarks are passed by students on you, as a teacher, you will (a) punish them (b) expel them from the college (c) take revenge while evaluating internal test copies (d) be impartial at the time of evaluation 14. Ma.ximum participation of . students IS possible in teaching through (a) lecture method (b) discussion method (c) textbook method (d) audio-visual aids 15. Which of the following IS the most

important single factor in underlying-the success of beginning a teacher? (a) scholarship (b) communicative ability (c) personality and its abi~ity to relate to the class and to the pupils (d) organisational ability 16. The greatest important cause of failure in beginning for a teacher lies in the areaof (a) inter-personal relationship (b) verbal ability (c) know ledge oJ the teacher (d) tight handling of the students 17. All ofthe following are the characteristic features of an effective teacher except (a) emphasis upon standard (b) emphasizing group discussion for the purpose of clarifying the objectives (c) emphasis upon the quick control of the problematic situation (d) differential treatment meted out to students of his class 18. An effective-teachirig means all of the following except (a) a teacher teaches with enthusiasm (b) a teacher finds fault in his students (c) a teacher puts emphasis more on teachi.ng than on class control (d) a teacher is interested in making the subject . matter understood rather than on completing the course 19. The field of education is permeated by conflicts and misconception because (a) problems In education call for subjectivity of interpretation (b) problems encountered in teaching are not amenable to rigorous scientific investi -gation (c) there are not good teaching methods and procedures (d) teachers are not worthy of dOIng rigorous scientific investigation 20. The introduction of career courses in schools and colleges aims at (a) developing the ability to make the intelligent choice of jobs (b) providing professional knowledge to students (c) increasing G.K. in students (d) All ofthe above 21. The main role of education according to Plato was' (a) to develop the power of contemplation

(b) to develop the personality of each individual (e) to strengthen the state (d) All of the above 22. Teachers should study educational philosophy because (a) they do not know it (b) they do not have their own philosophy ' (c) philosophy' is the backbone of all disciplines (d) they may improve their work by clarifying their own philosophy 23. Kindergarten (KG.) system o(education means garden of small kids ;which IS indebted to (a) Dewey (b) Froebel (c) Plato (d) Spencer 24. John Locke's phrase oftabula rl:!-sa means (a) Tal and Ras (b) free education (c) mind its eli is a result ofthe process of evolution (d) All of the above 25. A democratic society is one which (a) follows the principles of equality, free dom, fraternity and justice . (b) respects the enlightened individuals (c) believes Ill ' equal educational opportunity (d) All of the above 26. An effective teacher adopts the norms of the (a) democratic society (b) leizes faire society (c) autocratic society (d) all of the above according to the situation 27. While dealing with juvenile delinquents a teacher should (a) play them with filthy sex jokes (b) talk with them frankly and guide and channelize their potentialities in constructive ways (e) complain to .the principal against them . UGC-JRF (Paper 1)- 2 (d) none ofthe above 28. TV is superior-to radio as teaching aid because it (a) is costly (b) invites two senses-hearing and . vision simultaneously leading to more accurate form of learning (c) is generally liked by pupils

(d) all of the above 29. The major responsibility with which the school personnels have been entrusted is that I (a) it harmonizes the needs of th~ child and demands of the society for the benefit of both (b) it makes the child able to get job (e) ,it prepares the school programme according to the need of the child (d) all oftheabove . 30. The best educatiQnal programme is one which is according to the (a) need of the child (b) ability of the child (c) interest of child (d) all of these along with the need ofthe society 31. While delivering leeture if there is some disturbance in the class, then a teacher should (a) keep quite for a while and then go on (b) . n0t bother of what is happening in the class (e) punish those causing disturbance (d) all ofthe ~ove 32. On which of the following statements there is consensus among educators? (a) Disciplinary cases should be sent to the principal only when other means have failed (b) Disciplinary cases should never be sent to the principal's office (e) Disciplinary cases should be totally neglected in the class (d) None of the above 33. Classroom discipline can be maintained effectively by . (a) knowing the cause of indiscipline and handling it with stern hand (b). providing a programme which isaccording to the need and interest of the pupils (e) by putting on fancy clothes in the classroom (d) none of the above 34. The most appropriate meaning oflearning is (a) inculcation of knowledge '. (b) modification of behaviour (c) personal adjustment (d) acquisition of skills 35. In the final analysis, teaching must be

thought of mainly as a process of . (a) asking questions and evaluating the learning (b) directing the activities ofthe pupils le) hearing the lrecitation of pupils (d) all ofthe above 36. The functions of a teacher is in the order of (a) guiding the child, helping him towards progress and evaluation (b) checking homework, guiding him and assigning further task (c) Both of these (d) None of the above 37. A teacher in the class is (a) the president ofthe group (b) a director of the group (c) a leader and guide of the group (d) all of the above 38. Teachers primary responsibilIty lies in (a) planning educational experiences (b) implementing policies (e) keeping students records (d) all of the above 39. A teacher is expected to d0,all except (a) participation in community activities (b) help pupils to solve their problems (c) taking interest in politics (d) sponsor clubs and other school affairs (e) keeping students'records 40. In order ' to develop rapport with your pupils you should (a) guide them (b) behave them in a democratic ray (c) have communicative ability , (d) all ofthe above I 41.Verbal guidance is least effective m ' teaching (a) attitude (b) concept and facts (c) relationship (d) skills 42.A teacher meeting his students for the first time should (a) start teaching without caring the students likes and dislikes. (b) develop rapport with the class (e) give a broad outline of the whole subject (d) (b) and (c) both 43: Before starting instruction a teacher should (a) know the existing knowledge of his students and their background knowledge

(b) be aware of the environmental variables acting on the mind of the pupils (c) be competent enough to arouse the curiosity of his pupils (d) all of the above 44. Observable behaviours which a teacher can use in the class to bring home to the pupil an idea or point is technically called (a) teaching skills . (b) communication facilities (c) demonstration (d) none of these 45. Quality of education in a school/college can be measured through (a) infra structural facilities available (b) manpower, teachers arid principal available (c) students'achievement (d) all of the above 46. Which of the following statement~ regarding motivation is correct? (a) Freewill, intellect and reason are the motivating factors ac,cording to Plato (b) Inborn, unlearned tendencies, called instincts are the motivating forces according to James Burt (c) Curiosity and level of aspiration are the motivating factors according to Berlyne (d) All ofthe above 47. An effective teacher is expected to (a) encourage the students to make initiative (b) reduce the anxiety level of students to moderate leyel (c) to make students feel that education is their need (d) all ofthe above , 48. The professional requirements of a teacher as explained in the UNESCO publication is/are (a) mastery over the subject and competency for teaching (b) Innovativeness ill approach and teaching strategies (c) justice to the profession (d) All of the above 49. Effective teaching means (a) Love, cooperation, sympathy, affection and encouragement given to students . (b) Corporal punishment given to

students at the time of moral offences (c) Individualized instruction and open classroom discussion (d) both (a) and (c) 50. All ofthe following statements regarding a teacher are correct except):hat he islhe (a) a friend, guide and philosopher 51. (b) teaches what the students do not know (c) the leader of the Class (d) changes his attitudes and behaviour ac~ordi~g to the need of the society Drop outs are more likely to be (a) unemployed (b) vulnerable to the. requirement of public assistance (c) engaged in antisocial behaviour (d) all ofthese 52. Teacher's professionalism means (a) the extent to which a teacher subscribes to a professional code (b) a teacher has to teach for the sakI;! of getting salaries (c) a teacher must have completed professional teachers training course before his appointment (d) all of the above 53. Teachers' professionalism may be assessed in terms of all of the following commitments except .. (a) commitment to the profession and students (b) commitment to the colleagues and employer (c) commitment to the religion and castes (d) commitment to the parents and community 54. The first important step in teaching is (a) planning before }land . (b) organizing material to be taught (c) knowing the background of students (d) non~ ofthe above 55. Suppose .you are an ambitious teacher. You have high ideals for class room teaching but your hard labour goes In vain. The reason underlying this problem maybe (a) Your teaching level is above the ability level of students (b) Individual differences among students make your efforts futile (c) both ofthese (d) none ofthc above

56. If a student becomes unconscious in the class what will you do first? (a) Rushing to theprincipal's office and con vas sing for help impatiently (b) Telephoning student's parents and waiting for them (c) Giving first aid to him and trying to contact any nearby doctor (d) making arrangement to send him to his home 57.If you come across to teach a blind student along with the normal students what type of behaviour you are expectedto exhibit? (a) Take care of him with sympathy (b) Don't give any extra attention because majority of students may suffer (c) Arrange the seat in the front row and try to keep your teaching pace according to him without making the other students suffer (d) none of the above , , 58. A new comer teacher w:ho is maltreated in his class will deal with the students by (a) applying punitive measures (b) improving his qualities and expressing it before them in a good way (c) changing his class after consultation with the principal (d) giving them a threat of expulsion 59. If a child is a back bencher and is unable to watch the black board cleariy, As a result he stands, sees and sits repeatedly. What inference will you draw regarding the case? ' (a) The child is of short height as compared to his class mates (b) The blackboard is under shining effect oflight (c) The child has defective-vision (d) both (a) and (c) " 60.A child may have hearing impairment if (a) he speaks loudly unusually (b) he comes nearer to the speaker during conversation ' (c) he generally says, "Please repeat" to the teacher (d) all of the above If a girl student requests you to collect her posts at your address what would you like to do in this case ? ( a) You would not gIve permission as it is against your own principles

(b) You will never give her your own address suspecting a foul game (c) You will permit the girl to collect the 12 posts at your address because as a teacher you should do it (d) You will permit her bec'ause you have some attachment with her 62: Suppose you are teaching in a minority college where casteism and narrow mindedness victimize you, for better adjustment there you should (a) uplift the humanistic values beyond these narrow wall and develop scientific temper in your students (b) be submissive there and save your job at all costs (c) rebel against such attitudes as it is against the norms of the Indian society (d) none ofthe above 63.' If a high 'caste teacher adopts a discriminatory attitude toward a low caste students his behaviour is (a) correct according to his religion (bj against the national spirit, and need of the hour (c) not against the constitutiOnal provisions (d) not against the code of teacher's professionalism of UNESCO 64. If a student is-constantly rubbing his eyes and is 'unattentive during blackboard work he is having (a) adjustment problem (b) ' hearing problem (c) visual problem (d) all of the above 65. If you are irritated and show rashness because of the inadequate behaviours shown by others what'do you think about your own behaviour (a) it is justified because behaviours are echo lime (b) your behaviour is not good because elders have the right to qehave you in this way (c) your behaviour is also the sign of maladjustment and so try to control youselfwhen you are maltreated (d) none' ofthese 66. Suppose the teachers are busy in cracking (b) live in isolation or change the group filthy jokes and you are also there but you (c) instruct them to mind their language

are unable to stop them you should while passing leisure time (a) persuade them decently not to waste (d) be critical and remind them "for the their time-in-fifthy jokes nobility of their jobs ANSWERS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (d) (c) (a) . (c) (a) (c) (d) (a) (d) (a) 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 (c) (d) (d) (b) (c) (a) (c) (b) (b) (a) 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 , (a) (d) (b) (c) (d) (a) (b) (b) (a) (d) 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 (a) (a) (b) (b) (b) (a) (c) (a) (c) (d) 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 (d) (d) (d) (a) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (b) 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 (d) (a) (e) (c) (c) (c) (c) (b) (d) (d) 61 62 63 64 65 66 (a) (a) (b) (c) (c) (a) Note: Steps in teaching 1. Planning before hand 5. Analysis and Synthesis 2. Knowing the background 6. Evaluation 3. Organizing the material to be taught 7. Recapitulation 4. Presentation of material .. Communication Part I COMMUNICATION INTRODUCTION Communication is one of the most general features of life. We cannot imagine life without it. Every living species have their own way of communication. We use different symbols, gestures, and other different means to communicate with each other. Communication is required not only to represent our ideas, views, . feeling but also to understand other people. Classroom communication is very important in teaching. It requires the attention from both sides i.e. from the teacher as well as from the student. As, if a teacher explains a . topic in a languase which is not known to the students, his teaching will be unusable. He has to communicate in a way which is most a~ceptable to the students. Therefore, Communication may be defined as "an exchange of ideas, facts, opinion or emotions by two or more people". An important virtue to be developed by teacher is the promotion of competent communication skill. The teacher should be able to communicate in an effective manner by arranging the information emphatically and logically. It should enable

children to understand and conceptualised their world. This is the essence of communication in teaching. The word "Communication" is originally derived from the Latin verb "Communicare" which means "to make commor.." or "to share". It is also believed to have been based on a Latin word, "communis", which means to communicate and share, to impart a piece of information, a message, an idea or concept. It is a process, which includes transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills, knowledge by using symbols, words, pictures, graphs, drawings, illustrations etc. The act of communication is referred as 'transmission'. Again, "Communication" is the process by which we understand and in turn try to be understood by others. It is dynamic, constantly changing and shifting in response to the overall situation. Therefore, "communication" can be defined as "the interchange of thoughts or ideas". The objective of communication is to motivate, inform, suggest, warn, order, change behaviour and establish better relation with others. Effective communica:;ion is a prerequisite for the attainment of objectives, more so in educational institutions . All teaching-learning process is carried through the process of communication. Generally, it seems that communication is a one way process. But we can see in our daily life that it is a two way process, as, cOIpmunication is a system through which the messages are sent, and feedback are received. Communication is, therefore, the process of transferring a particular information or message from an information source to a desired, definite or a particular destination. One of the fundamentals of communication messages is perception. The effectiveness of communication is limited by the recipient's range of perception. Secondly, people perceive only what they expect and understand. Thirdly, communication makes a demand on the recipient, in terms of his emotional preference or rejection. Finally, communication is not to be focused with information. While information is logical, formal and impersonal, communication is perception. Communication of message takes place through spoken or written words, pictures and in many other similar forms. In oral communication, the transmitter is the "voice box" of the speaker. In telegraphy, it is the

telegraphic key board (Morse key) which codes the message into dashes and dots. The receiver decodes the.transmitted message in a form he can understand and comprehend. The receiver of the message may be the human ear, which converts sound waves into a comprehensible form which can be recognized by the human brain; a television receiver decodes the electromagnetic waves into recognizable visual representation. Similarly, the printed message can be deciphered by a receiver which can recognize and understand the language. Noted communication scholar, David K. Berlo, has stated that "we look to the message (speech, manuscript, play, advertisement, etc.) in order to determine the communicative purpose". The process of communication involves a procedure consisting of only a few steps. Berlo has suggested one model to properly comprehend the process which includes: A communication source or an encoder, A message, A channel, A decoder or a communication receiver or a destination. This is illustrated as under: The information source, decides to communicate and encodes a message, transmits it through a channel to the receiver, which is then decoded and acted upon. There are noises or distortions in between. Thus, as illustrated above, we see that there are six elements of communication: a code, a channel, encoding, decoding, encoder and decoder. A message is comm unicated or a piece of information is conveyed by means of a mechanism. This is necessary with a view to being able to convey the message/information fully and completely. Thus, there is a sender of the messagewho is also called an encoder, "just as a computer understands the language of a code." A channel or device is used to communicate the message. It could be a radio or a television set, newspaper or magazine and the like. The encoding process means putting the message together or arranging the ideas in a recognizable and understandable form, for conveying it to the receivers. Unlike in telegraphy, the encoder here is an human agent. The encoder decides the content of the message. Similarly, decoder is the destination where the message lands.

The receiver has to wait for the words to be spoken or written and to make out what he/ she can make of them according to his/her knowledge, experience, assumption, and attitudes. When two people communicate who are equally matched in intelligence, social backgrounds and comprehension power; the advantages and disadvantages pass from one to the oth~r. Thus, the encoder (who is the initiator of the communication activity) chooses his subject and the channel of comm unication and makes the first impact on the mind of the decoder. Decoding is one of the most important and very crucial elements of the communication process. The entire process of comprehension process of communication hinges on the decoder of course, the message will be received, recorded and interpreted differently by different people according to their knowledge, experience and understanding levels. FEATURES OF COMMUNICATION We can define communication as a systemic process in which people interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meanmgs. The definition of communication has three important facets. Process: Communication is a process, which means that it is ongoing and always-in motion. It's hard to tell when communication starts and stops because what happened before we talk with someone may influence our interaction, and what occurs in a particular encounter may affect the future. That communication is a process means it is always in motion, moving forward and changing continuously. We cannot freeze communication at anyone moment. So it is dynamic in process. Systemic: Communication takes place within systems. A system consists of interrelated parts that affect one another. In classroom communication, teacher and each student is part of the system. In addition, the physical environment and the time of day are elements of the system that affect interaction. The history of a system also ~fects communication. If a student has a history of listening sensitively and working out problems constructively, then helshe will be in better communication mode. On the other hand, if the student has a record of nasty conflicts and internal strife, helshe will not communicate in a better way in classroom.

Communication is also affected by the larger systems within which it t&~ces place. Symbolic communiCation is symbolic. It relies symbols, which are abstract, arbitrary, arid ambiguous representations of other things. Remember that human communication involves interaction with and through symbols. Meanings: Finally, our definition focuses on meanings, which are at the heart of communication. Meanings are the significance we bestow on phenomenon, or what they signify to us. We do not find meanings in experience itself. Instead, we use symbols to create meanings. THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION We can determine the elements involved (circulatory and digestive systems, for example), analyze how those elements' affect one another, and thus determine the nature ofthe process as a whole. Applying this approach to the communication process, we find eight elements (1) a source/encoder of communication, which sends (2) a message (3) through a channel to (4) a receiver/ decoder, which (5) responds via feedback w'ith (6) possibilities of com'munication breakdowns (Barrier) in each stage of comm~nication. However, these elements must be understood and analyzed in relation to (7) the situation or context, ;md (8) the system (such as relationship), which is created and maintained . at some level by the communicators. ,The SourcelEncoder and The sender begins the communication process by forming the ideas, intentions and feelings that will be transmitted. The sender is required to filter out the details that are uilimportant and focus hislher energy on the most relevant information. The source, or en~oder makes the decision to communicate. The source also determines what the purpose of the message will be to inform, persuade, or entertain. The communication process starts from the source. First, the source must encode, or create, a message. That is, the information that the source wishes to convey must be put into a form that can be sent to the receiver. Message : The . second element of the communication process is the message, or that information which is being communicated. The source encodes an idea and then determines whether or not to inform , persuade, or

entertain. After deciding what message to send, the source uses symbols to get the message across to others. These symbols stand for other things. The most important symbols are words, which can represent objects, ideas, and feelings. These words permit us to share our thoughts with other members of our species. To increase the likelihood of successful communication, the source must try to encode in a way that the receiver understands, so that the receiver can properly decode (interpret) the message. Channel: Channels are the means (that is, pathways or devices) by which messages are comm).lnicated. Channels may be described and analyzed in two different ways. The first involves the form in which messages are sent to receivers. Forms include both verbal and nonverbal channels of communication. We use our five senses to receive messages from others. Channels may also be described according to the manner of presentation employed in communication. Depending on the situation, the source would concentrate on verbal andlor rlonverbal channels of communication. If the speaker is not infront of the audience hislher physical appearance wouldn't matter, but ifhe or she is giving lectures in a classroom or before a live audience, personal appearance could easily influence the reception of the message. Whatever channels of communication are used, the source must learn to adapt the message to make use of the most appropriate channels available for the situation. ReceiverlDecoder : The person (or persons) who attends to the source's message is the receiver. The act of interpreting messages is called decoding. Receivers decode messages ba sed on past experiencs, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings . We first have a physiological reception of stimuli (a noise causes sound waves to hit our eardrum or a movement catches our eye). We then pay attention to both the verbal and nonverbal stimuli and reduce all the stimuli bombarding us to one or two we can cope with more easily. Next, we try to understand the stimuli and interpret them into messages (we decide that the noise is a telephone bell or that the movement is a friend waving to us across campus). Finally,we store this information for later use so that next time we will be able to respond to the stimuli more quickly. It is important to remember that receivers make

immediate decisions about what they will respond to in a given situation. F eedback : Another element in the communication process is feedback. Each party in an interaction continuously sends messages back to the other. This return process is called feedback. Feedback tells .the source how the receiver has interpreted each message: The feedback, which conveys lack of understanding, is known as negative feedback. ' Positive feedback, on the other hand, indicates that the receiver has understood the source's message. It does not necessarily mean that he or she agrees with the source, just that the message was interpreted accurately. Feedback can also be ambiguous, not clearly positive or n'egative. 'q.. see" and "mm-hmm" can be examples of ' ambiguous feed back . Th e effective communicator is always sensitive to feedback and constantly modifies his or her messages as a result of the feedback received. BarrierslNoise : The human communication system can be compared with a radio or telephone circuit. Just as in radio transmissions, where distortion can occur at any point along the circuit (channel), there can be similar barriers in human communication. The source's information may be insufficient or unclear. Or the message can be ineffectively or inaccurately encoded. The wrong channel of communication may be used. The message may not be decoded the way it was encoded. Finally, the receiver may not equipped to handle the decoded message in such a way as to produce the response (feedback) expected by the source. 'Barriers' are any obstacles or difficulties that come in the way of communication. They may be physical, mechanical, psychological, cultural or linguistic in nature. Besides, then are the barriers, raised by interpersonal relationships between individual and groups, the prejudices of both individuals and groups and the channels they use to communicate. Barriers to communication also occur if the sender and receiver are not on the same "wavelength". This is as true in human communication as it is in radio transmission. In the 'jargon' of communication, all barriers whatever their nature are clubbed under a common label' noise', it denotes not only atmospheric or channel disturbance, but all barriers that distort communications in any manner. Physical Barriers: Four main kinds of

distractions act as 'physical barriers' to the communication process. These are: (1) The Competing Stimulus in the form of another conversation going on within hearing distance, or loud music or traffic noise in the background. (2) Environmental Stress: A high temperature and humidity, poor ventilation, vibrations felt, a strong glare all can contribute to distortions in the sending and receiving of messages. (3) Subjective Stress: Sleeplessness, ill health, the effects of drugs and mood variations give rise to forms of subjective 35 stress that often lead to great difficulties in listening and interpretation. (4) Ignorance of the Medium: The various media for communication are: oral, written, audio, visual and audiovisual. The use of a medium with which the communicators iue not familiar would turn the medium itself into a barrier. Psychological Barriers: Each of us has a certain 'frame of referenc-e', a kind of window through which we look out at the world, at people,' and events and situations. A frame of reference is a system' of standards and values, usually implicit, underlying and to some extent controlling aI! action, or the expression of arty belief, attitude or idea. No two individuals possess exactly similar frames of reference, even if they are identical twins. To a large extent our experiences, particularly our childhood experiences, and the cultural environment we have grown up in influence our frames of reference. Linguistics and Cultural Barriers: A language is the expression ofthe thoughts and experiences of people in terms of their cultural environment. When the same language is made use of in a different culture, it takes an another colour, another meaning. Mechanical Barriers: Mechanical barriers are those raised by the channels employed for interpersonal, group or mass communication. Channels become barrier when the message is interfered with by some disturbance, which (1) increased the difficulty in reception or (2) prevented some elements of the message reacping its destination or both. The absence of communication facilities too would be a mechanical barrier. This ' type of barrier

includes any disturpance, which interferes with the fidelity of the physical transmission of the written, intentional- unintentional etc.. One of the' most common typology relates 0 the size of the social group or the number of people involved in the experience of communication. Such a typology ranges from the intrapersonal and interpersonal and t ranspersonal, to the group and the mass. Communication Part II INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION This means communicating within yourself. When you think, daydream, solve problems, and image, you a re in the realm of intrap ersonal communication. Some investigators also include all physical feedback mechanisms, such as the sensations of hunger, pain, and pleasure in this area. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION This form of comrriimication describes the interact ions of two or more people. The most significant setting for interpersonal commu nication IS di r ect fac e-to -face communication between two persons. An interview, a conversation, and in timate communications come under this heading. It is more per~uasive and int1uential than any other type of communication. For it involves ,the in,terplay of words and gestures, the warmth of human closeness and in fact all the five senses. Feedback is the key word here. Feedback is instantaneous. GROUP COMMUNICATION Group commun ica tion shares all these qualities, though in a muchJess measure. The larger the group the less personal and intimate is the possibility of exchange. In fact, as the group grows in size communication tends to become more and more of monologue, for participation becomes problematic. The degree of directness and intimacy, therefore, depends upon the size of the group, the place where it meets, as also the relationship of the members of the-group to one another , and to the group message. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION Communication has been classified into several types: in terms of the verbal-nonverbal, oralI leader. Group communica tion requires the

following conditions: leadership, equal sharing of ideas, peer pressure, roles and norms, and focus on a common goal. MASS COMMUNICATION When a message needs help to get from its source to its destination, mass communication begins to function. Usually some form of medium-one meaning of which is 'between'- is needed to connect the sender to receivers. These media and visibility to some people and points of views, whereas it mutes other voices and viewpoints. Thus mass communication affects our perceptions of issues, events, and people. BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Barriers at the sender: Encoding means creating and sending of massage. The process of selecting and organizing symbols to represent a message requires skill and knowledge. Obstacles listed below can interfere with an effective message. 1. Lack ...o. f Sensitivity to Receiver. Sender must know the receiver's needs, status, knowledge of the subject, and language skills before creating and sending a massage as breakdown in communication may result when a message is not adapted to its receiver. 2. Lack of Basic COInnllinicatio.n Skills. If the sender will not choose the precise words needed and arranging those words in a grammatically correct sentence then the receiver is less likely to understand the message. 3. Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject. If the sender lacks specific information about something, the receiver will likely receive an unclear or mixed message. 4. Information Overload. If a message is . --'with too much information, then generally receiver may tend to put up a barrier because the amount of information is coming so fast that he/she may have difficulty in understanding of interpreting that information. 5 . . Emotional Interference. An emotional sender cannot send its message III wellplanned manner. If someone is angry, hostile, resentful, joyful, or fearful, that person may be too preoccupied with emotions to receive the intended messa,ge.

Transmitting Barriers: Things that get in the way of message transmission are sometimes called "noise." Communication may be difficult because of noise and some of these problems: 1. Physical Distractions. A noisy classroom can destroy communication. If a notes or something on board is not formatted properly, or if it contains grammatical and spelling errors, the receiver may not be able to concentrate on .the message because the physical appearance of the massage is sloppy and unprofessional. 2. Conflicting Messages. Messages that cause a conflict in perception for the receiver may result in incomplete communication. For example if a teacher requests his pupil to answer some questions immediately without giving the students enough time to gather the proper information. 3. Channel Barriers. If the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of communication, communication may not reach in a proper way. Such as if a teacher started saying something in 'a class of deefs verbally he will not be able to communicate properly to his students. Barriers . at the receiver: The communication cycle may break down at the receiving end for some of these reasons: 1. Lack of Interest. If a student doesnot have any interest in your class or subject he will not take care of what you are telling. 2. Lack of Knowledge. If a student don't know the basics of a topic or . subject, he/she is unable to understand the topic or subject if you will start at a higher level. 3. Lack of ComnlUnication Skills. Those who have weak reading and listening skills make ineffective receivers. On the other hand, those who have a good professional vocabulary and who concentrate on listening, have less trouble hearing and interpreting good communication. 4. Emotional Distractions. If emotions interfere with the creation and transmission of a message, they can also disrupt reception. If a student .

does not like hislher teacher receive a lesson from the teacher, he/she may have trouble even reading and listning the lesson objectively. He/she may read, not objectively, but to find fault. Student may misinterpret words and read negative impressions between the lines. Consequently, he/she is likely to misunderstand part or all of the report. 5. Physical Distractions. If a classroom is full of bright lights, glare on computer screens, loud noises, or in an area of excessively hot or cold place, or physical ailments, those students will probably experie nce communication breakdowns on a regular basis. QUESTIONS I 1. Following are the experimental learning _. activities adopted by a teacher. Arrange them in cyclic order. (f) Avoid teaching when pupils are not in proper mood (g) All of these (i) Accommodation (ii) Converging (iii) Assimilation (iv) Diverging (a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) (b) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i) (c) . (ii), (iii), (iv), (i) (d) (iii), (i), (ii), (iv) 2; Which of the following methods ofcommunication is the most effective? (a) presenting written material (b) presenting written material (c)alongwith film projector (d)multi-media method (e)can not be determined 3. Better classroom management means (a) per group work and better interaction among pupils . (b) prior preparation of teacher in the making of suitable aids (c) punctuality of the teachers in comming in the class and finishing the course in time . (d) getting the attention and cooperation of all the students befo:re starting the class/task (e) moving around the room to identify pupils having 0.1' creating problems 4. Arrange the following activities of

interaction in logical order (i) Analysis of the work done (ii) Plarining and preparation (iii) Presentation of material (iv) Modification and improvement (a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) (b) (ii), (iii), (i), (iv) (c) (iv), (i), (ii), (iii) (d) (i), (iii), (iv), (ii) 5. Which of the following skills has the largest share in communication time in schoolS/college? (a) Listening (b) Reading (c) Writing (d) Speaking 6. All are the components of listening except (a) hearing (b) attending-being attentive (c) answenng (d) understanding and remembering Note: These four components are used in the order of hearing, atten~ing, understanding and remembering. 7. Listening is badly affected by (a) message overload-excess of listened material (b) high speed of speaking (c) a sizable hearing loss-physiological problem (d) all ofthe above 8. The most important aspect of communicationlistening, can be improved by (a) making the attention fully paid (b) making the communicated material novel-interes~ing and need based. (c) making voice effective and impressive (d) all of these 9. Listening to a lecture is (a) informational listening (b) evaluative listening (c) emphatic listening (d) none of these 10. The main purpose of evaluative listening is (a) to accept or reject an idea given to the listener (b) to evaluate the speaker's credibility and personality (c) ' both of above (d) none of these 11. A student helps a teacher to solve the problem while the teacher was delivering the lecture. He was (a) an emphatic listener (b) an evaluative listener (c) a realistic listener (d) an informational listener

12. The process of communication enhances through: (a) belongingness (b) security and freedom to make choices (c) informality of meeting and avoidance of pressure (d) all ofthese 13. Software computer can not be used (a) for demonstration (b) for reading and writing (c) as a systematic programmed learning techniques (d) as a machine for evaluating students progress 14. Which of the following can not be a good way of communication in promoting literacy among villagers? (a) Demonstration (b) Reading and writing (c) providing material on TV and film projector (d) Large group discussion 15. All are the examples of the media of two way communication except (a) public meeting (b) padyatra (c) streetplays (d) procession and rallies 16. The latest development in the hardware technology is the introduction of (a) FM channels (b) Z channels (c) M channels (d) Star channel 17. CHEER stand for (a) Children Enrichment Education Through Radio (b) Child Health Education Electronic Recording (c) Children for Engineers and Energy Requirement (d) None of the above 18. Educational TV was first introduced in India in (a) 1961 (b) 1959 (c) 1968 (d) 1961 19. SITE stands for (a) System for International Technology and Engineering (b) Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (c) South Indian Trade Estate (d) None ofthese 20. Visualization in the instructional process can not increase (a) interest and motivation (b) retention and adaptation

(c) stress and boredom (d) curiosity and concentration 21. Which of the following teachers will you like most? (a) On~ who uses board occasionally (b) One who uses chart and maps (c) One who uses film projector alongwith the proper use of the board (d) One who uses motion picture as a last resort 22. Overhead projector is superior to short circuit TV In a classroom teaching because (a) it is cheap and self devised (b) pictures in it may be shown in a desired sequence and with a minimum oflost motion (material) (c) information presented though it is easily retained (d) it is easy to use . Which of the following groups of students can be most benefited computer based education programme? (a) Small group of low IQ (b) Large group of moderate intelligence (c) Heterogeneous groups in IQ (d) All of the above 24. Closed circuit televisIon is useful 25. 26.(a) only for a restricted audience residing at a particular place (b) for large group communication (c) only for poor students of the class (d) none of the above Televised educational programme is useful because (a) it can present the natural phenomenon of the world in natural form (b) it can magnify the microscopic forms of life and can be presented on TV (c) it affords the opportunity for large audience in the same auditorium or in different locations to view it clearly (d) all ofthese Teaching on TV is superior to class room instruction because (a) very large classes are made possible and thus it is economically advantageous (b) experts for teaching a difficult topic can be arranged and others can be benefIted from them (c) teaching materials can be fIlmed for 39

27. (d) all of these All of the following are the limitations of televised instruction except (a) televised lesson moves at a fIxed speed and thus can not take the individual differences of students into account (b) it does not permit the exchange of ideas between the teachers and taught (c) it does not properly help the students in making the materials clearly understood. (d) experts consume much time in ' ,planning and preparation of the programme. 28. Which of the following is not a successful communicator? (a) One who presents material in a precise and clear way. (b) One who is able to adapt himself according to the language of the communicatee. (c) One who knows a lot but is somewhat reserve in his attitude. (d) One who sometimes becomes informal before the receiver and develops rappont 29. Which of the following teachers will you like most? (a) a loving teacher (b) a teacher of highly idealist philosophy (c) a teacher who often am uses his students (d) a disciplined teacher 30. As a chairmanofUPSC while selecting a teacher you should be (a) fair and impartial (b) able to judge the personality of candidates (c) encouraging to those appearing for interview. reuse (d) All ofthese Answers: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (b) (c) (g) (b) (a) (c) (d) (d) (a) (c) 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 (a) (d) (a) (b) (c) (a) (a) (b) (b) (c) 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 (c) (b) (d) (a) (d) (d) (c) (c) (a) (d) main features as objectives and different stages? Answer: Research is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. According to Redman and Mary research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge. According to D.Sleshinger and

M.Stemson has defined research as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, heather that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art. Social research is a scientific undertaking which by means of logical and systematized techniques, aims to discover new factory verify a test old facts, analyze their sequence interrelationship and casual explanation which were derived within an appropriate theoretical frame of reference, develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilities reliable and valid study of human behavior. According to PV young social research the systematic method of discovering news facts or verifying old facts, their sequences, inter-relationships, casual explanation and the natural laws which governs them. Prof C.A Mosr defines social research as systematized investigation to give new knowledge about social phenomena and surveys. Rummel defined social research as it is devoted to a study of mankind in his social environment and is concerned with improving his understanding of social orders, groups, institutes and ethics. Mary Stevenson defined social research as social research is a systematic methods of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to extend ,correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aid in the construction of a theory or in the practice of an art. The characteristic features of social research: Social research is scientific approach of adding to the knowledge about society and social phenomenon. Knowledge to be meaningful should have a definite purpose and direction. The growth of knowledge is closely linked to the methods and approaches used in research investigation. Hence the social science research must be guided by certain laid down objectives enumerated below Development knowledge The main object of any research is to add to the knowledge. As we have seen earlier, research is a process to obtain knowledge. Similarly social research is an organized and scientific effort to acquire further knowledge about the problem in question. Thus social science helps us to obtain and add to the knowledge of social phenomena. This one of the important objective of social research. Scientific study of social research: Social research is an attempt to acquire knowledge about the social phenomena. Man being the part of a society, social research studies human being as an individual, human behavior and collects data about various aspects of the social life of man and formulates law in this regards. Once the law is formulated then the scientific study tries to establish the interrelationship between these facts. Thus, the scientific study of social life is the base of the sociological development which is considered as second best objective of social research. Welfare of humanity: The ultimate objective of the social science study if often and always to enhance the welfare of humanity. No scientific research makes only for the sake of study. The welfare of humanity is the most common objective in social science research. Classification of facts: According to Prov P.V.Young, social research aims to clarify facts. The classification of facts plays important role in any scientific research. Social control and prediction: The ultimate object of many research undertaking is to make it possible, to redirect the behavior of particular type of individual under the specified conditions. In social research we generally study of the social phenomena, event and factors that govern and guide them. a) Social research deals with phenomena. It studies the human behavior. b) It discovers new facts and verifies old facts. With the improvement in the technique and changes in the phenomena the researcher has to study the. c) Casual relationship between various human activities can also be studies in social research. For the sake of systematic presentation, the process of research may be classifies under three stages

Primary stage Secondary stage Tertiary stage The primary stage includes Observation Interest Crystallization, identification and statement of a research problem Formulation of hypothesis Primary synopsis Conceptual clarity Documentation Preparation of bibliography and Research design The secondary stage includes Project planning Project formulation Questionnaire preparation Investigation and data collection Preparation of final synopsis Compilation of data Classification Tabulation and presentation of data Experimentation Analysis Testing of hypothesis and Interpretation The tertiary stage includes Report writing Observation, suggestions and conclusions. also mention the different problems of social research and how they are solved? within the last 20 to 25 years, courses in methods of social research have come to occupy an increasingly important role in sociological curricula. It likely that at present every major university offers such courses. This is because growing significance of social research and also growing job opportunities in this field. The market analysis, the public opinion expert, the investigator of communication and propaganda all are growing facts for governmental and business needs. Knowledge of social research is useful for interpreting and weighing such reports. In this present age, social science are accruing a scientific method of study for this method, research is an important factor. In the last two or three decades, a social research has become an important subject of the curriculum of sociology. In fact almost all the universities, where sociology is taught, social research is a apart of the curriculum of the sociology. Social research has therefore, assumed greater importance. Apart from thus, the social science research is essential for proper understanding the society and proper collection and analysis of social facts. The social research is an effective method. Research laboratory techniques are helping in finding further knowledge, about the subject. Through research only it has been possible to make progress and reach further. It is part of mans nature. The importance saying goes, necessity is the mother of invention and invention is the result if research. So long as necessity exists the research shall be these social science and particularly sociology has come occupy an importance place for us. In fact, research is an organized effort to acquire new knowledge. It is based on the

past experience and past knowledge. The richer the past knowledge, greater the surely of the results. In science sociology is assuming a scientific base, research has become a part of study, it is not an easy task to predict social behavior because of human nature is ever changing. Problems of scientific social research In fact social research deals with social phenomena which are quite different than natural phenomena. Hence there are fundamental difference between research in social science and that of physical or natural science. Let us study main difficulities faced by the researcher in the application so scientific methods in social research. Complexity of social data It is a well known that social science studies the human behavior which depends on several factor such as physical, social, temperamental ,psychological, geographical, biological social cultural etc. because of these factors a researcher is generally confused. It is therefore said that because of this complexity of social fata human beings cannot be put to scientific test. Problems of concepts: In social science research, one has to face number of problems among which of a) Abstraction b) Faculty reasoning Plays major role in formulating and defining the concepts and laws. Problems in interpreting relationship between cause and effects: In social science research, we generally find interdependent relationship between cause and effect. The cause and effect are one and the same, for example, in underdevelopment countries, the economics development cannot be accelerated due to lack of technical know how and capital cannot be obtained due to underdevelopment of the country. Dynamic nature of social phenomena Man is a social animal and human society undergoes constant change. What is true today may not be useful tomorrow. The techniques used in past may prove useless for present ad future studies. On a account of this dynamic nature of social phenomena our task of analyzing data becomes very much complicated and the interferences drawn may be misleading. Problems of maintaining objectivity The problem of impartiality in part of problem of objectivity. It is generally argued that the social scientific are less objective than natural scientific because their own interest affected by the finding of their studies, hence leading to prejudice and bias. Unpredictability Predictability is one of the most important characteristics of science. In case of physical science, high degree of predictability is possible but it is not so in case of social data. but this statement is also partially true, the social scientist can roughly estimate the behavior of the group. Difficulty in the verification of the inferences: In social research, the events of social science are non repetitive and the social science are ill-equipped with their tools to verify inferences. Difficulty in the use of experimental method. In case of social science research its product being a human being cannot be put to laboratory test. Even if it is done, their responses wouldnt be natural but subject to the awareness of the artificial condition. Thus social scientist has to watch them in wide world. Difficulty in the use of experimental method. In case of social science research, its product being a human being cannot be put to lab test. Even if it is done, their responses wouldnt natural but subject to the awareness of the artificial condition. Thus the social scientist has to watch them in the wide world. Incapability of being dealt through empirical method: An empirical method cannot be applied in case of social science research as repeated experiment is not possible ,for example, the problem of unbiased sampling selection of data etc. Problem of inter-disciplinary research Social science being, inter-disciplinary one i.e related with, economics, political science and sociology, we cannot draw water-tight compartments for each other social science. Paucity of funds:

In case of social science research, we generally observed that small amount if finance is made available to them, it is not sufficient to conduct research effectively. Less resources: Prof Mitchell has rightly pointed out that social science researcher require less resources in comparing to physical science. stages of research process. Research is a source which can be draw upon to make a substantial contribution to the body of the knowledge; research should be followed by some sort of original contribution. The primary stage includes Observation: Research start with observation, which leads to curiosity to learn more about what has been observed. Observation can either be unaided visual observation or guided and controlled observation. Sometimes a casual or associated observation leading to substantial research and a great invention. Deliberate and guided observation can also form the basis for research. While observation leads to research, research results in elaborate observation and convulsions; or even further research observation can either be subjective or objective. These are participant observation, on participant observation, controlled observation and non controlled observation. Interest: The observation of certain occurrences creates an interest and inquisitiveness in the mind of the researcher to study it further. This is the basis of interest to study the subject matter of observation. It may be self interest or group interest. The interest is the guiding force behind any research. Crystallization, Crystallization is the process of designing the definite form of Research to be undertaken for the purpose of studying the subject matter. It is the formulation of the research project, a defining its objectives, rationale, scope, methodology, limitations, including financial commitments and sources. It is at this stage that the research project is given a concrete shape and structure, forming a basis of further investigation. Formulation of hypothesis At this stage the hypothesis is formed on the basis of observation. Hypothesis is apart of the scientific method, and has been dealt with in detail in the chapter on scientific method and hypothesis Primary synopsis Synopsis is a summary /outline/brief of any subject. It is not a complete subject still formalization of a subject/replica of a subject. It saves time. It will give an idea of time required for presentation of the main subject. Once the subject is decided you can arrange titles likes like main headings, paragraph heading-elaborate the paragraph with important of main issues. Conceptual clarity Any researcher should have in-depth background knowledge of the topic of his study. He can gain such basic knowledge only be an extensive reading of text books, specialized books and publications on the topic in addition to articles and research papers published in journals and periodicals, reports of the past studies, etc. he can also gain knowledge by details discussion with the people concerned and by his own observation. However it is imperative for a researcher to gain a deep knowledge form any reliable source prior to actually plunging himself into a research, so theta he may have clear knowledge of the concepts which would be of value to him in his task. Documentation The documentary sources are important sources of information for a researcher. A document is anything in writing a record, files or diaries, published or unpublished-

which can be extracted and used in research. It is very valuable source of information for research either in management or in social science. it may comprises office files, business and legal papers, biographies, official and unofficial records, letters, proceedings of any courts ,committees, societies, assemblies and parliaments, enactments, constitution, reports of surveys or research of commissions, official statistics, newspapers editorials, special articles, company news, cases or company directors reports etc. documentation is the process of collecting and extracting the documents which relevant research. Documents may be classified into 1) 2) 3) 4) Personal documents Company documents Consultants report and published materials and Public documents

Bibliography At the end of any research report a bibliography is generally added. This is the list of books publication, periodicals, journals, reports, etc which are used by researcher in the connection with the study. It is a description of books, their authorship, editions, publishers, year of publication, place of publication etc. in ordinary circumstance, a researcher reads, and makes notes form, many books and publications at the primary stage of researcher in order to gain conceptual clarity. He prepares a list of such publications are reports then and there, which helps him in the course of his research. Some mistakenly believe that a bibliography is merely a list of publication compiled at the end of report writing like an appendix. On the contrary a bibliography contains and is composed of the details of publications that the researcher has used in connection with his study. These facilities any further reference to the matter either by the researcher himself or anybody who goes through the researcher report. questionnaire- mention its characteristics and illustrate a sample questionnaire for any product you can choose Answer: Questionnaire is a method used for collecting data; a set of written questions which calls for responses on the part of the client; may be selfadministered or group-administered. Questionnaires are an inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number of respondents. Often they are the only feasible way to reach a number of reviewers large enough to allow statistically analysis of the results. A well-designed questionnaire that is used effectively can gather information on both the overall performance of the test system as well as information on specific components of the system. If the questionnaire includes demographic questions on the participants, they can be used to correlate performance and satisfaction with the test system among different groups of users. It is important to remember that a questionnaire should be viewed as a multi-stage process beginning with definition of the aspects to be examined and ending with interpretation of the results. Every step needs to be designed carefully because the final results are only as good as the weakest link in the questionnaire process. Although questionnaires may be cheap to administer compared to other data collection methods, they are every bit as expensive in terms of design time and interpretation. The steps required to design and administer a questionnaire include: 1. Defining the Objectives of the survey 2. Determining the Sampling Group 3. Writing the Questionnaire

4. Administering the Questionnaire 5. Interpretation of the Results This document will concentrate on how to formulate objectives and write the questionnaire. Before these steps are examined in detail, it is good to consider what questionnaires are good at measuring and when it is appropriate to use questionnaires. What can questionnaires measure? Questionnaires are quite flexible in what they can measure, however they are not equally suited to measuring all types of data. We can classify data in two ways, Subjective vs. Objective and Quantitative vs. Qualitative. When a questionnaire is administered, the researchers control over the environment will be somewhat limited. This is why questionnaires are inexpensive to administer. This loss of control means the validity of the results are more reliant on the honesty of the respondent. Consequently, it is more difficult to claim complete objectivity with questionnaire data then with results of a tightly controlled lab test. For example, if a group of participants are asked on a questionnaire how long it took them to learn a particular function on a piece of software, it is likely that they will be biased towards themselves and answer, on average, with a lower than actual time. A more objective usability test of the same function with a similar group of participants may return a significantly higher learning time. More elaborate questionnaire design or administration may provide slightly better objective data, but the cost of such a questionnaire can be much higher and offset their economic advantage. In general, questionnaires are better suited to gathering reliable subjective measures, such as user satisfaction, of the system or interface in question. Questions may be designed to gather either qualitative or quantitative data. By their very nature, quantitative questions are more exact then qualitative. For example, the word "easy" and "difficult" can mean radically different things to different people. Any question must be carefully crafted, but in particular questions that assess a qualitative measure must be phrased to avoid ambiguity. Qualitative questions may also require more thought on the part of the participant and may cause them to become bored with the questionnaire sooner. In general, we can say that questionnaires can measure both qualitative and quantitative data well, but that qualitative questions require more care in design, administration, and interpretation. When to use a questionnaire? There is no all encompassing rule for when to use a questionnaire. The choice will be made based on a variety of factors including the type of information to be gathered and the available resources for the experiment. A questionnaire should be considered in the following circumstances. a. When resources and money are limited. A Questionnaire can be quite inexpensive to administer. Although preparation may be costly, any data collection scheme will have similar preparation expenses. The administration cost per person of a questionnaire can be as low as postage and a few photocopies. Time is also an important resource that questionnaires can maximize. If a questionnaire is selfadministering, such as a e-mail questionnaire, potentially several thousand people could respond in a few days. It would be impossible to get a similar number of usability tests completed in the same short time. b. When it is necessary to protect the privacy of the participants. Questionnaires are easy to administer confidentially. Often confidentiality is the necessary to ensure participants will respond honestly if at all. Examples of such cases would include studies that need to ask embarrassing questions about private or personal behavior. c. When corroborating other findings. In studies that have resources to pursue other data collection strategies, questionnaires can be a useful confirmation tools. More costly schemes may turn up interesting trends, but occasionally there will not be resources to run these other tests on large enough participant groups to make the

results statistically significant. A follow-up large scale questionnaire may be necessary to corroborate these earlier results Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire Questions worded simply and clearly, not ambiguous or vague, must be objective Attractive in appearance (questions spaced out, and neatly arranged) Write a descriptive title for the questionnaire Write an introduction to the questionnaire Order questions in logical sequence Keep questionnaire uncluttered and easy to complete Delicate questions last (especially demographic questions) Design for easy tabulation Design to achieve objectives Define terms Avoid double negatives (I haven't no money) Avoid double barreled questions (this AND that) Avoid loaded questions ("Have you stopped beating your wife?") tendency? In statistics, the general level, characteristic, or typical value that is representative of the majority of cases. Among several accepted measures of central tendency employed in data reduction, the most common are the arithmetic mean (simple average), the median, and the mode. FOR EXAMPLE, one measure of central tendency of a group of high school students is the average (mean) age of the students. Central tendency is a term used in some fields of empirical research to refer to what statisticians sometimes call "location". A "measure of central tendency" is either a location parameter or a statistic used to estimate a location parameter. Examples include: #Arithmetic mean, the sum of all data divided by the number of observations in the data set.#Median, the value that separates the higher half from the lower half of the data set.#Mode, the most frequent value in the data set. Measures of central tendency, or "location", attempt to quantify what we mean when we think of as the "typical" or "average" score in a data set. The concept is extremely important and we encounter it frequently in daily life. For example, we often want to know before purchasing a car its average distance per litre of petrol. Or before accepting a job, you might want to know what a typical salary is for people in that position so you will know whether or not you are going to be paid what you are worth. Or, if you are a smoker, you might often think about how many cigarettes you smoke "on average" per day. Statistics geared toward measuring central tendency all focus on this concept of "typical" or "average." As we will see, we often ask questions in psychological science revolving around how groups differ from each other "on average". Answers to such a question tell us a lot about the phenomenon or process we are studying Arithmetic Mean The arithmetic mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It simply the sum of the numbers divided by the number of numbers. The symbol mm is used for the mean of a population. The symbol MM is used for the mean of a sample. The formula for mm is shown below: m=SXN m S X N where SX S X is the sum of all the numbers in the numbers in the sample and NN is the number of numbers in the sample. As an example, the mean of the numbers 1+2+3+6+8=205=4 1 2 3 6 8 20 5 4 regardless of whether the numbers constitute the entire population or just a sample from the population. The table, Number of touchdown passes, shows the number of touchdown (TD) passes thrown by each of the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000 season. The mean number of touchdown passes thrown is 20.4516 as shown below. m=SXN=63431=20.4516 m S X N 634 31 20.4516 Number of touchdown passes

37 22 19 14

33 22 19 14

33 22 18 14

32 21 18 12

29 21 18 12

28 28 23 21 20 20 18 16 15 9 6

Although the arithmetic mean is not the only "mean" (there is also a geometic mean), it is by far the most commonly used. Therefore, if the term "mean" is used without specifying whether it is the arithmetic mean, the geometic mean, or some other mean, it is assumed to refer to the arithmetic mean. Median The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpoint of a distribution: the same number of scores are above the median as below it. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th highest score (which equals 20) is the median because there are 15 scores below the 16th score and 15 scores above the 16th score. The median can also be thought of as the 50th percentile. Let's return to the made up example of the quiz on which you made a three discussed previously in the module Introduction to Central Tendency and shown in table 2. Three possible datasets for the 5-point make-up quiz Student Dataset 1 Dataset 2 Dataset 3 You 3 3 3 John's 3 4 2 Maria's 3 4 2 Shareecia's 3 4 2 Luther's 3 5 1 For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For Dataset 2, the median is 4. Therefore, your score is below the median. This means you are in the lower half of the class. Finally for Dataset 3, the median is 2. For this dataset, your score is above the median and therefore in the upper half of the distribution. Computation of the Median: When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle number. For example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number of numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers. Thus, the median of the numbers 22, 44, 77, 1212 is 4+72=5.5 4 7 2 5.5 . mode The mode is the most frequently occuring value. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes, the mode is 18 since more teams (4) had 18 touchdown passes than any other number of touchdown passes. With continuous data such as response time measured to many decimals, the frequency of each value is one since no two scores will be exactly the same (see discussion of continuous variables). Therefore the mode of continuous data is normally computed from a grouped frequency distribution. The Grouped frequency distribution table shows a grouped frequency distribution for the target response time data. Since the interval with the highest frequency is 600-700, the mode is the middle of that interval (650). Grouped frequency distribution Range Frequency 500-600 3 600-700 6 700-800 5 800-900 5 900-1000 0 1000-1100 1 Trimean The trimean is computed by adding the 25th percentile plus twice the 50th percentile plus the 75th percentile and dividing by four. What follows is an example of how to compute the trimean. The 25th, 50th, and 75th percentile of the dataset "Example 1" are 51, 55, and 63 respectively. Therefore, the trimean is computed as:

The trimean is almost as resistant to extreme scores as the median and is less subject to sampling fluctuations than the arithmetic mean in extremely skewed distributions. It is less efficient than the mean for normal distributions. . The trimean is a good measure of central tendency and is probably not used as much as it should be. Trimmed Mean A trimmed mean is calculated by discarding a certain percentage of the lowest and the highest scores and then computing the mean of the remaining scores. For example, a mean trimmed 50% is computed by discarding the lower and higher 25% of the scores and taking the mean of the remaining scores. The median is the mean trimmed 100% and the arithmetic mean is the mean trimmed 0%. A trimmed mean is obviously less susceptible to the effects of extreme scores than is the arithmetic mean. It is therefore less susceptible to sampling fluctuation than the mean for extremely skewed distributions. It is less efficient than the mean for normal distributions. Trimmed means are often used in Olympic scoring to minimize the effects of extreme ratings possibly caused by biased judges. dispersion, explain each of them? Answer: In many ways, measures of central tendency are less useful in statistical analysis than measures of dispersion of values around the central tendency The dispersion of values within variables is especially important in social and political research because: Dispersion or "variation" in observations is what we seek to explain. Researchers want to know WHY some cases lie above average and others below average for a given variable: o TURNOUT in voting: why do some states show higher rates than others? o CRIMES in cities: why are there differences in crime rates? o CIVIL STRIFE among countries: what accounts for differing amounts? Much of statistical explanation aims at explaining DIFFERENCES in observations -also known as o VARIATION, or the more technical term, VARIANCE If everything were the same, we would have no need of statistics. But, people's heights, ages, etc., do vary. We often need to measure the extent to which scores in a dataset differ from each other. Such a measure is called the dispersion of a distribution Some measure of dispersion are 1) Range The range is the simplest measure of dispersion. The range can be thought of in two ways . 1. As a quantity: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. "The range of scores on the exam was 32." 2. As an interval; the lowest and highest scores may be reported as the range. "The range was 62 to 94," which would be written (62, 94). The Range of a Distribution Find the range in the following sets of data: NUMBER OF BROTHERS AND SISTERS { 2, 3, 1, 1, 0, 5, 3, 1, 2, 7, 4, 0, 2, 1, 2, 1, 6, 3, 2, 0, 0, 7, 4, 2, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 5, 12, 4, 2, 0, 5, 3, 0, 2, 2, 1, 1, 8, 2, 1, 2 } An outlier is an extreme score, i.e., an infrequently occurring score at either tail of the distribution. Range is determined by the furthest outliers at either end of the distribution. Range is of limited use as a measure of dispersion, because it reflects information about extreme values but not necessarily about "typical" values. Only when the range is "narrow" (meaning that there are no outliers) does it tell us about

typical values in the data. 2) Percentile range Most students are familiar with the grading scale in which "C" is assigned to average scores, "B" to above-average scores, and so forth. When grading exams "on a curve," instructors look to see how a particular score compares to the other scores. The letter grade given to an exam score is determined not by its relationship to just the high and low scores, but by its relative position among all the scores. Percentile describes the relative location of points anywhere along the range of a distribution. A score that is at a certain percentile falls even with or above that percent of scores. The median score of a distribution is at the 50th percentile: It is the score at which 50% of other scores are below (or equal) and 50% are above. Commonly used percentile measures are named in terms of how they divide distributions. Quartiles divide scores into fourths, so that a score falling in the first quartile lies within the lowest 25% of scores, while a score in the fourth quartile is higher than at least 75% of the scores. Quartile Finder The divisions you have just performed illustrate quartile scores. Two other percentile scores commonly used to describe the dispersion in a distribution are decile and quintile scores which divide cases into equal sized subsets of tenths (10%) and fifths (20%), respectively. In theory, percentile scores divide a distribution into 100 equal sized groups. In practice this may not be possible because the number of cases may be under 100. A box plot is an effective visual representation of both central tendency and dispersion. It simultaneously shows the 25th, 50th (median), and 75th percentile scores, along with the minimum and maximum scores. The "box" of the box plot shows the middle or "most typical" 50% of the values, while the "whiskers" of the box plot show the more extreme values. The length of the whiskers indicate visually how extreme the outliers are. Below is the box plot for the distribution you just separated into quartiles. The boundaries of the box plot's "box" line up with the columns for the quartile scores on the histogram. The box plot displays the median score and shows the range of the distribution as well. By far the most commonly used measures of dispersion in the social sciences are Variance and standard deviation. Variance is the average squared difference of scores from the mean score of a distribution. Standard deviation is the square root of the variance. In calculating the variance of data points, we square the difference between each point and the mean because if we summed the differences directly, the result would always be zero. For example, suppose three friends work on campus and earn $5.50, $7.50, and $8 per hour, respectively. The mean of these values is $(5.50 + 7.50 + 8)/3 = $7 per hour. If we summed the differences of the mean from each wage, we would get (5.50-7) + (7.50-7) + (8-7) = -1.50 + .50 + 1 = 0. Instead, we square the terms to obtain a variance equal to 2.25 + .25 + 1 = 3.50. This figure is a measure of dispersion in the set of scores. The variance is the minimum sum of squared differences of each score from any number. In other words, if we used any number other than the mean as the value from which each score is subtracted, the resulting sum of squared differences would be greater. (You can try it yourself -- see if any number other than 7 can be plugged into the preceeding calculation and yield a sum of squared differences less than 3.50.) The standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance. In some sense, taking the square root of the variance "undoes" the squaring of the differences that we did when we calculated the variance. Variance and standard deviation of a population are designated by and , respectively. Variance and standard deviation of a sample are designated by s2 and s, respectively. 4) Standard Deviation The standard deviation ( or s) and variance ( or s2) are more complete measures of dispersion which take into account every score in a distribution. The other measures

of dispersion we have discussed are based on considerably less information. However, because variance relies on the squared differences of scores from the mean, a single outlier has greater impact on the size of the variance than does a single score near the mean. Some statisticians view this property as a shortcoming of variance as a measure of dispersion, especially when there is reason to doubt the reliability of some of the extreme scores. For example, a researcher might believe that a person who reports watching television an average of 24 hours per day may have misunderstood the question. Just one such extreme score might result in an appreciably larger standard deviation, especially if the sample is small. Fortunately, since all scores are used in the calculation of variance, the many non-extreme scores (those closer to the mean) will tend to offset the misleading impact of any extreme scores. The standard deviation and variance are the most commonly used measures of dispersion in the social sciences because: Both take into account the precise difference between each score and the mean. Consequently, these measures are based on a maximum amount of information. The standard deviation is the baseline for defining the concept of standardized score or "z-score". Variance in a set of scores on some dependent variable is a baseline for measuring the correlation between two or more variables (the degree to which they are related). Scores" Actual scores from a distribution are commonly known as a "raw scores." These are expressed in terms of empirical units like dollars, years, tons, etc. We might say "The Smith family's income is $29,418." To compare a raw score to the mean, we might say something like "The mean household income in the U.S. is $2,232 above the Smith family's income." This difference is an absolute deviation of 2,232 emirical units (dollars, in this example) from the mean. When we are given an absolute deviation from the mean, expressed in terms of empirical units, it is difficult to tell if the difference is "large" or "small" compared to other members of the data set. In the above example, are there many families that make less money than the Smith family, or only a few? We were not given enough information to decide. We get more information about deviation from the mean when we use the standard deviation measure presented earlier in this tutorial. Raw scores expressed in empirical units can be converted to "standardized" scores, called z-scores. The z-score is a measure of how many units of standard deviation the raw score is from the mean. Thus, the z-score is a relative measure instead of an absolute measure. This is because every individual in the dataset affects value for the standard deviation. Raw scores are converted to standardized z-scores by the following equations: Population z-score Sample z-score where is the population mean, is the sample mean, is the population standard deviation, s is the sample standard deviation, and x is the raw score being converted. For example, if the mean of a sample of I.Q. scores is 100 and the standard deviation is 15, then an I.Q. of 128 would correspond to: = (128 - 100) / 15 = 1.87 For the same distribution, a score of 90 would correspond to: z = (90 - 100) / 15 = - 0.67 A positive z-score indicates that the corresponding raw score is above the mean. A negative z-score represents a raw score that is below the mean. A raw score equal to the mean has a z-score of zero (it is zero standard deviations away). Z-scores allow for control across different units of measure. For example, an income that is 25,000 units above the mean might sound very high for someone accustomed to thinking in terms of U.S. dollars, but if the unit is much smaller (such as Italian Lires or Greek

Drachmas), the raw score might be only slightly above average. Z-scores provide a standardized description of departures from the mean that control for differences in size of empirical units. When a dataset conforms to a "normal" distribution, each zscore corresponds exactly to known, specific percentile score. If a researcher can assume that a given empirical distribution approximates the normal distribution, then he or she can assume that the data's z-scores approximate the z-scores of the normal distribution as well. In this case, z-scores can map the raw scores to their percentile scores in the data. As an example, suppose the mean of a set of incomes is $60,200, the standard deviation is $5,500, and the distribution of the data values approximates the normal distribution. Then an income of $69,275 is calculated to have a z-score of 1.65. For a normal distribution, a z-score of 1.65 always corresponds to the 95th percentile. Thus, we can assume that $69,275 is the 95th percentile score in the empirical data, meaning that 95% of the scores lie at or below $69,275. The normal distribution is a precisly defined, theoretical distribution. Empirical distributions are not likely to conform perfectly to the normal distribution. If the data distribution is unlike the normal distribution, then z-scores do not translate to percentiles in the "normal" way. However, to the extent that an empirical distribution approximates the normal distribution, z-scores do translate to percentiles in a reliable way. scope and testing of hypothesis? Answer: A tentative proposal made to explain certain observations or facts that requires further investigation to be verified. A hypothesis is a formulation of a question that lends itself to a prediction. This prediction can be verified or falsified. A question can only be use as scientific hypothesis, if their is an experimental approach or observational study that can be designed to check the outcome of a prediction. Nature of hypothesis N the various discussions of the hypothesis which have appeared in works on inductive logic and in writings on scientific method, its structure and function have received considerable attention, while its origin has been comparatively neglected. The hypothesis has generally been treated as that part of scientific procedure which marks the stage where a definite plan or method is proposed for dealing with new or unexplained facts. It is regarded as an invention for the purpose of explaining the given, as a definite conjecture which is to be tested by an appeal to experience to see whether deductions made in accordance with it will be found true in fact. The function of the hypothesis is to unify, to furnish a method of dealing with things, and its structure must be suitable to this end. It must be so formed that it will be likely to prove valid, and writers have formulated various rules to be followed in the formation of hypotheses. These rules state the main requirements of a good hypothesis, and are intended to aid in a general way by pointing out certain limits within which it must fall. In respect to the origin of the hypothesis, writers have usually contented themselves with pointing out the kind of situations in which hypotheses are likely to appear. But after this has been done, after favorable external conditions have been given, the rest must be left to "genius," for hypotheses arise as "happy guesses," for which no rule or law can be given. In fact, the genius differs from the ordinary plodding mortal in just this ability to form fruitful Hypotheses in the midst of the same facts which to other less gifted individuals remain only so many disconnected experiences. Hypothesis is to determine its nature a little more precisely through an investigation of its rather obscure origin, and to call attention to certain features of its function which have not generally been accorded their due significance. The scope hypothesis

We should be surprised that language is as complicated as it is. That is to say, there is no reasonable doubt that a language with a context-free grammar, together with a transparent inductive characterization of the semantics, would have all of the expressive power of historically given natural languages, but none of the quirks or other puzzling features that we actually find when we study them. This circumstance suggests that the relations between apparent syntactic structure on the one hand and interpretation on the other --- the interface conditions, in popular terminology --- should be seen through the perspective of an underlying regularity of structure and interpretation that can be revealed only through extended inquiry, taking into consideration especially comparative data. Indeed, advances made especially during the past twenty-five years or so indicate that, at least over a broad domain, structures either generated from what is (more or less) apparent, or else underlying those apparent structures, display the kind of regularity in their interface conditions that is familiar to us from the formalized languages. The elements that I concentrate upon here are two: the triggering of relative scope (from the interpretive point of view), and the distinction between those elements that contribute to meaning through their contribution to reference and truth conditions, on the one hand, and those that do so through the information that they provide about the intentional states of the speaker or those the speaker is talking about, on the other. As will be seen, I will in part support Jaakko Hintikkas view that the latter distinction involves scope too, but in a more derivative fashion than he has explicitly envisaged. TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS Hypothesis testing refers to the process of using statistical analysis to determine if the observed differences between two or more samples are due to random chance (as stated in the null hypothesis) or to true differences in the samples (as stated in the alternate hypothesis). A null hypothesis (H0) is a stated assumption that there is no difference in parameters (mean, variance, DPMO) for two or more populations. The alternate hypothesis (Ha) is a statement that the observed difference or relationship between two populations is real and not the result of chance or an error in sampling. Hypothesis testing is the process of using a variety of statistical tools to analyze data and, ultimately, to fail to reject or reject the null hypothesis. From a practical point of view, finding statistical evidence that the null hypothesis is false allows you to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Hypothesis testing is the use of statistics to determine the probability that a given hypothesis is true. The usual process of hypothesis testing consists of four steps. 1. Formulate the null hypothesis (commonly, that the observations are the result of pure chance) and the alternative hypothesis (commonly, that the observations show a real effect combined with a component of chance variation). 2. Identify a test statistic that can be used to assess the truth of the null hypothesis. 3. Compute the P-value, which is the probability that a test statistic at least as significant as the one observed would be obtained assuming that the null hypothesis were true. The smaller the -value, the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis. 4. Compare the -value to an acceptable significance value (sometimes called an alpha value). If , that the observed effect is statistically significant, the null hypothesis is ruled out, and the alternative hypothesis is valid. Flow Diagram 1 Identify the null hypothesis H0 and the alternate hypothesis HA. 2 Choose ?. The value should be small, usually less than 10%. It is important to consider the consequences of both types of errors. 3 Select the test statistic and determine its value from the sample data. This value is called the observed value of the test statistic. Remember that a t statistic is usually

appropriate for a small number of samples; for larger number of samples, a z statistic can work well if data are normally distributed. 4 Compare the observed value of the statistic to the critical value obtained for the chosen ?. 5 Make a decision. If the test statistic falls in the critical region: Reject H0 in favour of HA. If the test statistic does not fall in the critical region: Conclude that there is not enough evidence to reject H0. Practical Example A) One tailed Test An aquaculture farm takes water from a stream and returns it after it has circulated through the fish tanks. The owner thinks that, since the water circulates rather quickly through the tanks, there is little organic matter in the effluent. To find out if this is true, he takes some samples of the water at the intake and other samples downstream the outlet, and tests for Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). If BOD increases, it can be said that the effluent contains more organic matter than the stream can handle. The data for this problem are given in the following table: Table 3. BOD in the stream One tailed t-test : Upstream Downstream 6.782 9.063 5.809 8.381 6.849 8.660 6.879 8.405 7.014 9.248 7.321 8.735 5.986 9.772 6.628 8.545 6.822 8.063 6.448 8.001 1. A is the set of samples taken at the intake; and B is the set of samples taken downstream. o H0: ?B < ?A o HA: ?B > ?A 2. Choose an ?. Let us use 5% for this example. 3. The observed t value is calculated 4. The critical t value is obtained according to the degrees of freedom The resulting t test values are shown in this table: Table 4. t-Test : Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances Upstream Downstream Mean 6.6539 8.6874 Variance 0.2124 0.2988 Observations 10 10 Pooled Variance 0.2556 Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 Degrees of freedom 18 t stat -8.9941 P(T The numerical value of the calculated t statistic is higher than the critical t value. We therefore reject H0 and conclude that the effluent is polluting the stream.

Answer: Case study research excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research. Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships. Researchers have used the case study research method for many years across a variety of disciplines. Social scientists, in particular, have made wide use of this qualitative research method to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of ideas and extension of methods. Researcher Robert K. Yin defines the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984, p. 23). Critics of the case study method believe that the study of a small number of cases can offer no grounds for establishing reliability or generality of findings. Others feel that the intense exposure to study of the case biases the findings. Some dismiss case study research as useful only as an exploratory tool. Yet researchers continue to use the case study research method with success in carefully planned and crafted studies of real-life situations, issues, and problems. Reports on case studies from many disciplines are widely available in the literature. This paper explains how to use the case study method and then applies the method to an example case study project designed to examine how one set of users, non-profit organizations, make use of an electronic community network. The study examines the issue of whether or not the electronic community network is beneficial in some way to non-profit organizations and what those benefits might be. Many well-known case study researchers such as Robert E. Stake, Helen Simons, and Robert K. Yin have written about case study research and suggested techniques for organizing and conducting the research successfully. This introduction to case study research draws upon their work and proposes six steps that should be used: Determine and define the research questions Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques Prepare to collect the data Collect data in the field Evaluate and analyze the data Prepare the report

Step 1. Determine and Define the Research Questions The first step in case study research is to establish a firm research focus to which the researcher can refer over the course of study of a complex phenomenon or object. The researcher establishes the focus of the study by forming questions about the situation or problem to be studied and determining a purpose for the study. The research object in a case study is often a program, an entity, a person, or a group of people. Each object is likely to be intricately connected to political, social, historical, and personal issues, providing wide ranging possibilities for questions and adding complexity to the case study. The researcher investigates the object of the case study in depth using a variety of data gathering methods to produce evidence that leads to understanding of the case and answers the research questions. Case study research generally answers one or more questions which begin with "how" or "why." The questions are targeted to a limited number of events or conditions and their inter-relationships. To assist in targeting and formulating the questions, researchers conduct a literature review. This review establishes what research has been previously conducted and leads to refined, insightful questions about the problem. Careful definition of the questions at the start pinpoints where to look for evidence and helps determine the methods of analysis to be used in the study. The literature

review, definition of the purpose of the case study, and early determination of the potential audience for the final report guide how the study will be designed, conducted, and publicly reported. Step 2. Select the Cases and Determine Data Gathering and Analysis Techniques During the design phase of case study research, the researcher determines what approaches to use in selecting single or multiple real-life cases to examine in depth and which instruments and data gathering approaches to use. When using multiple cases, each case is treated as a single case. Each case?s conclusions can then be used as information contributing to the whole study, but each case remains a single case. Exemplary case studies carefully select cases and carefully examine the choices available from among many research tools available in order to increase the validity of the study. Careful discrimination at the point of selection also helps erect boundaries around the case. The researcher must determine whether to study cases which are unique in some way or cases which are considered typical and may also select cases to represent a variety of geographic regions, a variety of size parameters, or other parameters. A useful step in the selection process is to repeatedly refer back to the purpose of the study in order to focus attention on where to look for cases and evidence that will satisfy the purpose of the study and answer the research questions posed. Selecting multiple or single cases is a key element, but a case study can include more than one unit of embedded analysis. For example, a case study may involve study of a single industry and a firm participating in that industry. This type of case study involves two levels of analysis and increases the complexity and amount of data to be gathered and analyzed. A key strength of the case study method involves using multiple sources and techniques in the data gathering process. The researcher determines in advance what evidence to gather and what analysis techniques to use with the data to answer the research questions. Data gathered is normally largely qualitative, but it may also be quantitative. Tools to collect data can include surveys, interviews, documentation review, observation, and even the collection of physical artifacts. The researcher must use the designated data gathering tools systematically and properly in collecting the evidence. Throughout the design phase, researchers must ensure that the study is well constructed to ensure construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability. Construct validity requires the researcher to use the correct measures for the concepts being studied. Internal validity (especially important with explanatory or causal studies) demonstrates that certain conditions lead to other conditions and requires the use of multiple pieces of evidence from multiple sources to uncover convergent lines of inquiry. The researcher strives to establish a chain of evidence forward and backward. External validity reflects whether or not findings are generalizable beyond the immediate case or cases; the more variations in places, people, and procedures a case study can withstand and still yield the same findings, the more external validity. Techniques such as cross-case examination and withincase examination along with literature review helps ensure external validity. Reliability refers to the stability, accuracy, and precision of measurement. Exemplary case study design ensures that the procedures used are well documented and can be repeated with the same results over and over again. Step 3. Prepare to Collect the Data Because case study research generates a large amount of data from multiple sources, systematic organization of the data is important to prevent the researcher from becoming overwhelmed by the amount of data and to prevent the researcher from losing sight of the original research purpose and questions. Advance preparation assists in handling large amounts of data in a documented and systematic fashion. Researchers prepare databases to assist with categorizing, sorting, storing, and retrieving data for analysis. Exemplary case studies prepare good training programs for investigators, establish clear protocols

and procedures in advance of investigator field work, and conduct a pilot study in advance of moving into the field in order to remove obvious barriers and problems. The investigator training program covers the basic concepts of the study, terminology, processes, and methods, and teaches investigators how to properly apply the techniques being used in the study. The program also trains investigators to understand how the gathering of data using multiple techniques strengthens the study by providing opportunities for triangulation during the analysis phase of the study. The program covers protocols for case study research, including time deadlines, formats for narrative reporting and field notes, guidelines for collection of documents, and guidelines for field procedures to be used. Investigators need to be good listeners who can hear exactly the words being used by those interviewed. Qualifications for investigators also include being able to ask good questions and interpret answers. Good investigators review documents looking for facts, but also read between the lines and pursue collaborative evidence elsewhere when that seems appropriate. Investigators need to be flexible in real-life situations and not feel threatened by unexpected change, missed appointments, or lack of office space. Investigators need to understand the purpose of the study and grasp the issues and must be open to contrary findings. Investigators must also be aware that they are going into the world of real human beings who may be threatened or unsure of what the case study will bring. After investigators are trained, the final advance preparation step is to select a pilot site and conduct a pilot test using each data gathering method so that problematic areas can be uncovered and corrected. Researchers need to anticipate key problems and events, identify key people, prepare letters of introduction, establish rules for confidentiality, and actively seek opportunities to revisit and revise the research design in order to address and add to the original set of research questions. 4. Collect Data in the Field The researcher must collect and store multiple sources of evidence comprehensively and systematically, in formats that can be referenced and sorted so that converging lines of inquiry and patterns can be uncovered. Researchers carefully observe the object of the case study and identify causal factors associated with the observed phenomenon. Renegotiation of arrangements with the objects of the study or addition of questions to interviews may be necessary as the study progresses. Case study research is flexible, but when changes are made, they are documented systematically. Exemplary case studies use field notes and databases to categorize and reference data so that it is readily available for subsequent reinterpretation. Field notes record feelings and intuitive hunches, pose questions, and document the work in progress. They record testimonies, stories, and illustrations which can be used in later reports. They may warn of impending bias because of the detailed exposure of the client to special attention, or give an early signal that a pattern is emerging. They assist in determining whether or not the inquiry needs to be reformulated or redefined based on what is being observed. Field notes should be kept separate from the data being collected and stored for analysis. Maintaining the relationship between the issue and the evidence is mandatory. The researcher may enter some data into a database and physically store other data, but the researcher documents, classifies, and cross-references all evidence so that it can be efficiently recalled for sorting and examination over the course of the study. Step 5. Evaluate and Analyze the Data The researcher examines raw data using many interpretations in order to find linkages between the research object and the outcomes with reference to the original research questions. Throughout the evaluation and analysis process, the researcher remains open to new opportunities and insights. The case study method, with its use of multiple data collection methods and analysis techniques, provides researchers with opportunities to triangulate data in order to strengthen the research findings and conclusions. The tactics used in

analysis force researchers to move beyond initial impressions to improve the likelihood of accurate and reliable findings. Exemplary case studies will deliberately sort the data in many different ways to expose or create new insights and will deliberately look for conflicting data to disconfirm the analysis. Researchers categorize, tabulate, and recombine data to address the initial propositions or purpose of the study, and conduct cross-checks of facts and discrepancies in accounts. Focused, short, repeat interviews may be necessary to gather additional data to verify key observations or check a fact. Specific techniques include placing information into arrays, creating matrices of categories, creating flow charts or other displays, and tabulating frequency of events. Researchers use the quantitative data that has been collected to corroborate and support the qualitative data which is most useful for understanding the rationale or theory underlying relationships. Another technique is to use multiple investigators to gain the advantage provided when a variety of perspectives and insights examine the data and the patterns. When the multiple observations converge, confidence in the findings increases. Conflicting perceptions, on the other hand, cause the researchers to pry more deeply. Another technique, the cross-case search for patterns, keeps investigators from reaching premature conclusions by requiring that investigators look at the data in many different ways. Cross-case analysis divides the data by type across all cases investigated. One researcher then examines the data of that type thoroughly. When a pattern from one data type is corroborated by the evidence from another, the finding is stronger. When evidence conflicts, deeper probing of the differences is necessary to identify the cause or source of conflict. In all cases, the researcher treats the evidence fairly to produce analytic conclusions answering the original "how" and "why" research questions. Step 6. Prepare the report Exemplary case studies report the data in a way that transforms a complex issue into one that can be understood, allowing the reader to question and examine the study and reach an understanding independent of the researcher. The goal of the written report is to portray a complex problem in a way that conveys a vicarious experience to the reader. Case studies present data in very publicly accessible ways and may lead the reader to apply the experience in his or her own real-life situation. Researchers pay particular attention to displaying sufficient evidence to gain the reader?s confidence that all avenues have been explored, clearly communicating the boundaries of the case, and giving special attention to conflicting propositions. Techniques for composing the report can include handling each case as a separate chapter or treating the case as a chronological recounting. Some researchers report the case study as a story. During the report preparation process, researchers critically examine the document looking for ways the report is incomplete. The researcher uses representative audience groups to review and comment on the draft document. Based on the comments, the researcher rewrites and makes revisions. Some case study researchers suggest that the document review audience include a journalist and some suggest that the documents should be reviewed by the participants in the study. Case studies are complex because they generally involve multiple sources of data, may include multiple cases within a study, and produce large amounts of data for analysis. Researchers from many disciplines use the case study method to build upon theory, to produce new theory, to dispute or challenge theory, to explain a situation, to provide a basis to apply solutions to situations, to explore, or to describe an object or phenomenon. The advantages of the case study method are its applicability to real-life, contemporary, human situations and its public accessibility through written reports. Case study results relate directly to the common reader?s everyday experience and facilitate an understanding of complex real-life situations. Assumption of case study method

The case study method is based on several assumptions. The importance assumptions are explained below Uniformity of human nature The assumption of uniformity in the basic human nature in spite of the fact that human behavior may vary according to situations. This assumption underlines the collection of case data. Nature history of the unit The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned. It gives the background for the study Comprehensive study The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned Applicability Psychologist has stated that some statement about human broadly apply to each individual or to each member of a large group. Homogeneity According to cora dubois,an antraopologist, the case study is possible only because of certain basic homogeneity or similarity in evidenced in the mankind. Major steps of case study method: I. Identify the case topic, setting, primary focus, and perspective. II. Obtain relevant public background materials and knowledgeable informant insights. III. Obtain access, approval, and clarify anonymity issues with key gatekeeper. IV. Obtain relevant documents, minutes, reports and other appropriate materials. V. Develop preliminary chronology of key events leading to controversy or decision and identify key players and issues. VI. Consider varied perspective and sources of information and pedagogical purpose of the case. VII. Develop interview protocol (key questions for various informants) and further information to collect. This will evolve further. VIII. Conduct interviews and collect other documents, information and materials. IX. Develop case outline and style of presentation. X. Draft case. Obtain comment and feedback from key gatekeeper (and other students). Revise and finalize the case sources are important sources of information for a researcher. A document is anything in writing a record, files or diaries, published or unpublished- which can be extracted and used in research. It is very valuable source of information for research either in management or in social science. it may comprises office files, business and legal papers, biographies, official and unofficial records, letters, proceedings of any courts ,committees, societies, assemblies and parliaments, enactments, constitution, reports of surveys or research of commissions, official statistics, newspapers editorials, special articles, company news, cases or company directors reports etc. documentation is the process of collecting and extracting the documents which relevant research. Documents may be classified into 1) Personal documents: personal documents are those are written by or on behalf of individuals. They may include autobiographical, biographies diaries memories letters observations and inscriptions, which are primarily written for the use and satisfaction of individuals and which can be utilized for research purposes. Personal documents play a very vital role in research. 2) Company documents 3) Consultants report and published materials and 4) Public documents

b) sources and tabulations It is the process of condensation of the data for convenience, in statistical processing, presentation and interpretation of the information. A good table is one which has the following requirements : 1. It should present the data clearly, highlighting important details. 2. It should save space but attractively designed. 3. The table number and title of the table should be given.+ 4. Row and column headings must explain the figures therein. 5. Averages or percentages should be close to the data. 6. Units of the measurement should be clearly stated along the titles or headings. 7. Abbreviations and symbols should be avoided as far as possible. 8. Sources of the data should be given at the bottom of the data. 9. In case irregularities creep in table or any feature is not sufficiently explained, references and foot notes must be given. 10. The rounding of figures should be unbiased. "Classified and arranged facts speak of themselves, and narrated they are as dead as mutton" This quote is given by J.R. Hicks. The process of dividing the data into different groups ( viz. classes) which are homogeneous within but heterogeneous between themselves, is called a classification. It helps in understanding the salient features of the data and also the comparison with similar data. For a final analysis it is the best friend of a statistician. c) Classification and tabulation The data is classified in the following ways : 1. According to attributes or qualities this is divided into two parts : (A) Simple classification (B) Multiple classification. 2. According to variable or quantity or classification according to class intervals. Qualitative Classification : When facts are grouped according to the qualities (attributes) like religion, literacy, business etc., the classification is called as qualitative classification. (A) Simple Classification : It is also known as classification according to Dichotomy. When data (facts) are divided into groups according to their qualities, the classification is called as 'Simple Classification'. Qualities are denoted by capital letters (A, B, C, D ......) while the absence of these qualities are denoted by lower case letters (a, b, c, d, .... etc.) (B) Manifold or multiple classification : In this method data is classified using one or more qualities. First, the data is divided into two groups (classes) using one of the qualities. Then using the remaining qualities, the data is divided into different subgroups. For example, the population of a country is classified using three attributes: sex, literacy and business Classification according to class intervals or variables : The data which is expressed in numbers (quantitative data), is classified according to class-intervals. While forming class-intervals one should bear in mind that each and every item must be covered. After finding the least value of an item and the highest value of an item, classify these items into different class-intervals. For example if in any data the age of 100 persons ranging from 2 years to 47 years In deciding on the grouping of the data into classes, for the purpose of reducing it to a manageable form, we observe that the number of classes should not be too large. If it were so then the object of summarization would be defeated. The number of classes should also not be too small because then we will miss a great deal of detail available and get a distorted picture. As a rule one should have between 10 and 25 classes, the actual number depending on the total frequency. Further, classes should be exhaustive; they should

not be overlapping, so that no observed value falls in more than one class. Apart from exceptions, all classes should have the same length. f) Scope of managerial research: Management Research (MR) is an international journal dedicated to advancing the understanding of management in private and public sector organizations through empirical investigation and theoretical analysis. MR attempts to provide an international dialogue between researchers and thereby improve the understanding of the nature of management in different settings and, consequently, achieve a reasonable transfer of research results to management practice in several contexts. MR is especially dedicated to foster the general advancement of management scholarship among iberoamerican scholars and/or those academics interested in iberoamerican issues. Iberoamerica is defined broadly to include all of Latin America, Latino populations in North America, and Spain/Portugal. However, submissions are encouraged from all management scholars regardless of ethnicity or national origin and manuscripts should not be limited to themes dealing with iberoamerican populations. MR is a multidisciplinary outlet open to contributions of high quality, from any perspective relevant to the field and from any country. MR intends to become a supranational journal which gives special attention to national and cultural similarities and differences world-wide. This is reflected by its international editorial board and publisher and its sponsorship by the Iberoamerican Academy of Management. MR is open to a variety of perspectives, including those that seek to improve the effectiveness of, as well, as those critical of, management and organizations. MR is receptive to research across a broad range of management topics such as human resource management, organizational behavior, organization theory, strategic management, corporate governance, and managerial economics. The management and organization contributions present in MR articles can also be grounded in the basic social disciplines of economics, psychology, or sociology. Articles can be empirical, theoretical or measurement oriented. Conceptual articles should provide new theoretical insights that can advance our understanding of management and organizations. Empirical articles should have well-articulated and strong theoretical foundations. All types of empirical methods -quantitative, qualitative or combinations- are acceptable. MR encourages the interplay between theorizing the empirical research in the belief that they should be mutually informative. MR is especially interested in new data sources. That includes models that test new theory and expand our sample pools by including alternative approaches to sampling and measurement and samples drawn from non-traditional sources (e.g., from iberoamerican firms), and the examination of the validity and reliability of such samples. MR publishes only original research as articles or research notes. Manuscripts will be considered for publication with the understanding that their contents are not under consideration for publication elsewhere. Prior presentation at conference or concurrent consideration for presentation at a conference does not disqualify a manuscript from consideration by MR. POLITY AND GOVERNANCE Making Of The Constitution : The Constituent Assembly which had been elected for undivided India and held its first sitting on 9th Dec.1946, re-assembled un the 14th August 1947, as The Sovereign Constituent Assembly for the dominion of India. In regard to its composition the members were elected by indirect election by the members of The Provisional Legislative Assemblies (lower house

only). According to the schemes recommended by the Cabinet, the essentials of the Schemes were as follows: 1. Each Province and each Indian State or group of States were allotted the total no. of eats proportional to their re spective population, roughly in the ratio of 1:1000000. As a result, The Provinces were to elect 292 members while the Indian States were allotted a minimum of93 seats. 2. The seats in each Province were distributed among the three main communities, Muslims, Sikh and general, in proportion to their respective populations. 3. Members of each community in the Provisional Legislative Assembly elected their own representatives by the method of proportional representations with single transferable vote. 4. The method of selection in the case of representatives of Indian States was to be determined by consultation. Unfortunately as a result of a partition under the plan of June3, 1947, the territories, which fell under Pakistan and those members who were part of'T'ht' ConstituentAssembly, ceased to be members of the Constituent Assembly, which re assembled on the 31st Oct.1947. The members of the house was reduced to 299 of these 284 was actually present on the 26th Nov. 1949 and appended their signature to the Constitution as finally passed. Constitutional Background: The constitution was passed by the Constituent Assembly on 26 Nov 1949 and is fully applicable since 26 Jan 1950. Thanks to the help of Prof. K.B. Agrawal, the ICL-Edition of the Constitution now incorporates all amendments until and includin~ e 78th amendment (1995) [30 Aug 1995]; there are no newer amendments until Dec 1996. Amendments after Dec 1996 have not yet been included. India is a federal democratic republic of 25 states and seven Union Territories. Each state is administered by a Governor appointed by the President while each Union Territory is administered by the President through a Minister. The bicameral parliamentiB composed of the Council of States, Rajya Sabha, and the House of the People, Lok Sabha. The Council of States will consist of250 members out of which the President of India will nominate 12 persons having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of

literatul"e, art, science and social service. The remaining 238 seats are to be filled in by the persons to be elected by the legislative assemblies of their respective states in staggered re-elections of one-third every second year. The House of People is composed of 550 members, Le., 530 members from the States and 20 members l'om the Union Territories. The states of Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharshtra, and Uttar Pradesh have bicameral legislatmes while the other 23 states have unicameral legislatures. Upper houses (Legislative Councils) are re-elected to one-third of thetr members every two years. Legislative Assemblies are chosen by direct election. There are some extraordinary features of the Indian system of government. For example, the Constitution encourages the states to introduce the prohibition. The states of Andhra Pradesh, Manipur, and Haryana have already banned the production, possession. and consumption of alcohol. Commencement: The provisions relating to Citizenship, elections, pl'ovi sional Parliament, temporary and transitional positions were given immediate effect. on The 26th Nov.1949. While the rest of the Constitution came into force on the 26th Jan. 1950. And this date is referred to in the Constitution as The D"lte of its Commencement. PREAMBLE TO INDIAN CONSTITUTION The Preamble to the IndIan ConstItutlOn reads thus;"We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens;Justice, social, economic and political:Liberty of thought. explession, belief, faith and worship:Equality of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation: In our Constituent Assembly this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves this Constitution" . The Preamble seeks to establish what Mahatma Gandhi described as The India of my Dreams, " ... an India in which the poorest shall feel that it is their country in whose making they have an effective voice; ... an India ~n which all

communities shall leave wIth perfect harmony. There can be no room in such an India for the curse of untouchability or the curse of IntoXicating drinks and drugs. Woman will enjoy as t.he same rights as man." SALIENT FEATURES OF CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (1) It makes India Sovereign, Socialist, Secular. Democratic Republic. (2) It is designed to work as Federal Government in normal times and as a Unitary Government in an emergency. (3) It establishes India as a Secular State. (4) It establishes a Parliamentary System of Government in India (5) It introduces adult franchise and the system of Government in India (6) I ndia is a U mon of 28 States and 7 U ruon Territories. (7) It abolishes untouchability in India (8) It guarantees Fundamental Rights to all citizens of India. (9) It lays down Directive Principles of state Policy for the guidance of Legislature and the Executive of the country. (10) It establishes independence of judiciary from the executiVe. (11) It declares Hindi as the National language of India which would rep lace English as early as possible. (12) A Union Public Service Commission has been set up to make recruitment to various services. (13) Provision has been made for amending the constitution. Fundamental Rights: The provisions of Part rn of our Constitution, which enumerates the Fundamental Rights, are more elaborate than those of any other existing written Constitutions of the World and cover a wide range of topics. The Purpose of the Fundamental Rights are to act as limitations not only upon the powers of the Executive but also upon the power of the Legislature. The model haa been taken (rom the Constitutions of The United States, though The Indian Constitutions does not gO so far, and rather affects the compromise between the doctrines of Parliamentary Sovereignty and Judicial Supremacy. The Constitutions itse lf classifies the Fundamental Rights under seven groups as follows: .

a. Right to Equality b. Right to Particular freedoms c. Right against Exploitation d. Right to freedom of religion e Cultural and educational rights f. Right to Constitutional l'emedies g. Right to property - has been eliminated by the 44th amendment Act. thus only six freedom now remain. in Article 19 (I ). Fundamental Duties: A countervailing factor has been introduced by t he 42nd amendment Act of 1976, known as the Fundamental Duties. These duties are mentioned in Art. SlA. Under thie Article, it shall be t.he duty of every citizen of India: I. To abide by the Constitution and respect the national flag and the nationa l anthem; 11. To che risr. and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom; III. To protect the Sovereignty, unity and integrity of India; rv. To defend the country; V. To promote the spir it of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India; VI. To preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture; VI[. To protect and improve the natural envtronment; VIII. To develop the scientific temper and spirit of inquiry: IX. To safeguard Public property; X. To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity. These duties are not them serves enforceable in The Courts nor their violation, as such, punishable, nevertheless, if a Court, be fore which a Fundamental Right is sought to be enforced, has to be read all parts of the Constitution, it may refuse to enforce a Fundamental Right at the instance of an individual who has patently violated any ofilie duties specified in Art, 51A. Directive Principles: PART IV of the Constitution Art. (36-51) contains the Directive Principles of State Policy. These Principles are in the nature of instruments of instruction to the govt. of the day to do certain things and to achieve certain ends by their actions, in other words Directive

Principles are essentially guidelines to the State. A Directive Principle required to be implemented by legislation and so long as there is no Law carrying out the Policy laid down in a Directive, neither the State nor an individual can violate any existing Law or legal right under the color of a Directive. Further still the Directives ali'e not enforceable in the Courts and do not create any justicable rights in favor of the individuals. In case of a conflict between Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights of the Constitution, the latter shall prevail. These Directive Principles may be classified as follow s: a) Certain ideals, particularly Economic, which according to the framers of the Constitution, State should strive for. b) Certain directions to the legislature and the executive intended to show in which manner The State should exercise their legislative and executive powers. c) Certain Rights of the citizen shall not. be enforceable by The Courts (Fundamental Rights) nevertheless The State Gon. shall aim to secure by regulations of its legislative and administrative policy. It shall be the duty of The State to foUow t hese Principles both in the matter of Administration as well as in the making of Laws. Differences between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles (1) Fundamental Rights are enforceable in the courts of law while Directive Principles cannot be enforced. (2) While Fundamental Righ ts constitute limitations upon state action, the Directive Principles are in the nature of instructions to the Government to achieve certain ends by their decisions. (3) Judiciary can declare any law void on the ground that it contravenes any of the Fundamental Rights, while the same is not in the case of Directive Principles. (4) In the case of conflict between the Fundamental Rights and t.he Directive Principles. the former prevail. I PARTS I PART I The Union and Its Territory Art.( 1-4) PART II Citizenship Art.( 5- 11 ) PART TlI Fundamental Rights Art.(12-35)

PART IV Directive Principles of State Policy Art. (36-51) PART IVA Fundamental Duties Art.. (51A) PART V The UoionArt.. (52- 151) PART VI The States Art. (152-237) PART VII The States in Part B of The First Schedule Art. (238) PART VI II The Union Territories Art. (239-243) PART IX Panchayats Art. (2.13-243 zg) PART lXA Municipalities Art. (243 243) PART X The Scheduled and Tribal Areas Art. (244-244A) PART XI Relations Between The Union and The States Art. (245-263) PART XU Finance Property, Contracts and Sui .. Art. (264-300A) PART XIII Trade. Commerce and Intercourse within the Territory of Inuis Art. (301307) 223 PART XlV Services Under The Union and The States Art. (308323) PART XlVA Tribunals Art. (323A323B) PART}''V Elections Art. (324329A) PART XVI Special Provisions Relating To Certain Classes Art. (330-342) PART XVll Official Language Art. (343-35 1) PART XVIII Emergency Provisions Art. (352 360) PART XIX Miscellaneous Art. (361 367) PART XXAmendment of the Constitution Art. (368) :>ART XXI Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions Art. (369-392) PART XXII Short Title, Commencement, Authoritative Text in Hindi and Repeals I SCHEDULES I FIRST SCHEDULE - [Article, 1 and 4] I. THE STATES II. THE UNION TERRITORIES SECOND SCHEDULE - [Articles 59(3}, 65(3}, 75(6}, 97.125, 148(3}, 158(3}, 164 (5},186 and 22J1 PART A-Provisions as to the President and the Governors of States. PART B-[Repealed.) PART C-Provisionsas to the Speaker and the Deputy Spe~er of the House of the People and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Council of States and the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council of a State PART D - Provisions as to the Judges of the

Supreme Court and of the High Courts PART E - Provisions as to the Comptroller and Auditor-General oflndia THIRD SCHEDULE - Forms of Oaths or Affirmations [Articles 75(4), 99, 124(6), 148(2},164(3}, 188 and 219] FOURTH SCHEDULE -Allocation of seats in the qouncil of States [Articles 4(1) and 80(2}] FIFTH SCHEDULE - Provisions as to the Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes [Article 244(1)] Part A - General Part B - Administrative and control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Part C - Scheduled Areas Part D - Amendment of the Schedule SIXTH SCHEDULE - Provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in [the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and MizoramJ [Articles 244(2) and 275(1)J SEVENTH SCHEDULE - (Article 246) List 1-Union List List II-State List List III Concurrent List EIGH'1'H SCHEDULE - Languages [Articles 344(1} and 351) NINTH SCHEDULE - Validation of certain Acta and Regulations (Article SIB) TENTH SCHED\JLE - Provisions as to disqualification on ground of defection [Articles 102(2} and 191(2}] ELEVENTH SCHEDULE - Powers, authority and responsibilites of Panchayats [Article 243G) TWELTH SCHEDULE - Powers, authority and responsibilites of Municipalities, etc. UGC Governance II NATURE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION The Constitution of I ndis proVIdes for a Federal System of Government, though the term 'federation' has nowhere been used in the Constitution. For resolving the controversy regarding the nature of the IncUan Federal System, it is desirable to understand as to what is im'plied by a Federal System; what are its special features and how far these features are present in India. FEDERAL FEATURES OF THE CONSTITUTION The main federal features of the Indian

Constitution are as follows: (1) Written Constitution : The first essential feature of a Federal System is a written Constitution which defines the stxucture, organization and powers of the Central 8S well as the State Governments 80 that the two 'Operate with each other's jurisdiction. The Indian Constitution is a written document which now contains 440 Articles and 12 Schedules. It stands at he top of hierarchy of all laws and all the authorities in India are legally bound to respect it. (2) Rigid Constitution: Another essential feature of our federation is a rigid Constitution which can be amended either by the joint action of the Federal and State Legislatures or by an independent authority. The lndian Constitution is rigid to a large extent. (3) Indep.endent Judiciary: The existence of an independent judiciary is another important feature of the Indian Federal System. The Supreme Court of India, which is the apex court in India, acts 8S the guardian of the Constitution and can declare any law or order ultra vires if it contravenes any provision of the Constitution. The Supreme Court also ensures that the Federal and the State Governments operate witbin the spheres allotted to them by the Constitution. (4) Division of Powers: Another feature of a federation is statutory division of powers between the Federal Government and the State Governments. The Indian Constitution divides the powers on the pattern of the Canadian Constitution. All the powers have been divided into three lists-the Union List, the State List and the Concurrent List. The residuaJ'y powers have been vested by the Constitution in the Central Government. (5) Bicameral Legislature: Like other Federations, the Constitution of India also provides for a bicameral Parliament consisting of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. While the Lok Sabha comprises representatives directly elected by the people on the basis of universal adult franchjse, the Rajya Sabha mainly comprises representatives of the units. (6) Supremacy of the Constitution: The

supremacy of the Constitution, another feature of federalism, IS also prescnt in India. The Constitution of India stands at tht: top of the hierarchy of all laws both national and state. NON-FEDERAL OR UNITARY FEATURES In addition to the above federal features, the Constitution contains certain non-federal or unitary features, which have led the critics of the Indian Constitution to challenge its federal character and charge that it is merely federal in form but unitary, in,s pirit. Some of the important unitary features of our Constitution are as under: (1) A Strong Centre: In the first instance, the Constitution provides for a very strong Centre, a feature of unitary government. In the division of powers, 99 items have been included in the Union Ust, while the State List contains only 61 items. Further, even on the subjects contained in the Concurrent List (52 items), both the Centre and the States have power to legislate, but the Central Government enjoys an over-nding position. The residuary powers have also been vested in the Centre. In short, the Constitution provides for a very strong Centre. (2) A Single Constitution for Union and States! Unlike ot.her Federations of the world, the States in India have not been given any right to make or unmake their own Constitution. The framers provided a single common and unified Constitution, both for the Centre and the States. Further, the States have not been given any power to initiate amendments to the Constitution. a power which exclusively vests in the Indian Parliament. This has enhanced the power and prestige of the Centre at the cost of the States. (3) Flexibility of the Constitution: In comparison to other federations, amendments to the constitution can be made only with lhe consent and approval of the units. In Indio on the other hand, the parliament can amend most of the provisions of the Constitution singlehandedly. either by single majority or by a two third majority. Only incase of some of the provisions the approval of the legislatures of the majorityofthe states is also required moreover, the states do not

possess any power to initiate amendment to the constitution. All this has contrib uted to the strengthening of the centre at the cost of the states. (4) Single Citizenship: Usually in other federation provision for double citizenship exit, viz., each citizen is not only the citizen of the country as such but is also a citizen of a particular State in which he resides. The Indian Constittltion on the other hand. creates a single citizenship of India which is oommon to all the people of various states and Union territories. (5) Inequality of representation in the Rajya Sabha: The Indian Constitution also deviates from the traditional principle of providing equal representation to the States in the Upper House of the federal legislature. Unlike the US Senate, which accords equal representation to all the States irrespective of their size, the Indian Constitution accords representation to the various States in the Rajya Sabhs on the basis of their population. This means lhat the States with larger population send more representatives in comparison to the States with smaller population. This is a clear departure from the federal principle. (6) Existence of Union Te rritories! Another feature, whIch is a clear pointer to the unitary character of the Inclian Constitution , is the existence of administrative units known as the Union Territories. These units are directly governed by the Centr:al Government and do not enjoy any independent powers or autonomy. (7) Special Powers of Rajya Sabha on State Subjects: Under the Indian Constitution, the Rajya Sabha can authorize the Parliament to make laws even on the subjects mentioned in the State List. The existence of this provision in the Constitution implies that the Centre can encroach on the State List at will. (8) Emergency Provisions: The existence of the e mergency provisic.ns in the Constitution also poses a serious challenge to the federal character of the Indian polity. The President of Indin is authorized to proclaim a state of

emergency under Articles 352, 356 and 360. During the proclamation of emergency. the Parliament gets the power to legislate for the whole or any part of the temtory of India with respect to any of the matters enumerated in the State List. The Union Government can also issue directions to the States as to the manner in which their executive authority is to be exercised. 226 (9) Appointment of Governors by the President{ The provision regarding the appointment of GovemorsofStat.es by the President is also a clear violation of the federal principles. Under the Indian Constitution, the Governors, who are the administrative heads of the State administration, are appointed by the President and hold office during his pleasure. The States do not have any say in their appointment or removal. Naturally, the Governors act as the agents of the Centre rather than as representatives of the States. This clearly gives power to the Centre to control the administration ofilie States which is contrary to the principles of a true federation. (10) Common All~lndia Services: Another feature, which is a pointer to the unitary character of the Indian Constitution, is the provision of common AlIIndia Services like LA.S., IIP.S., etc. The members of these Services are appointed by the President of India on the recommendations of the Union Public Service Commissiotl and are accountable to the Union Government. The States have hardly any control over the members of these Services. (11) Single Unified Judiciary: Unlike other federations, India possesses a single unified judiciary with the Supreme Court at the apex. The Supreme Court not only exercises supervision but also control over the functioning of other Courts. The writs of the Supreme Court are observed throughout the country in all spherescivil, constitutional and criminal. The judges of High Courts are also independent of the States, which do not possess any power with regard to their appointment, removal and service

conditions. They are appointed by the President and can be removM by him only after -they are impeached by the Parliament. Further, there are no separate sets oflaws and a single ~ivil and criminal procedure operates throughout the country. AU this is a clear pointer to the unitary character of the Constitution and is incomplete contrast to the position prevailing in the USA, where two separate sets of Courts existone for the Centre and the other for the States. (12) Centralised Election Machinery: The Constitution provides for an Election Commission which is responsible for the conduct, supervision, direction and control of the elections not only to the parliament but to the State Legislatures as well. The members of the Election Commission are appointed by the President in consultation with the Prime Minister and the States do not have say in there appointment, removaJ, working or service condition. This is yet another unitary feature of the Indian Constitution. (13) Compt t'oller and AuditorGeneral: The creation of the office of the ComptroUer and Auditor-General of India. who is responsible for the audit of the accounts of the centre as well as the states, is also a violation of the federal principle. The Comptroller and Auditor General of [ndia is appointed by the President and the States have no say in his appointment or removal. (14) Inter-State Councils and Boards: The Constitution makes provision for the appointment of InterState Councils and Boards the settlement of disputes and differences between the centre and the State, and among the States. The members of these InterState Councils and Boards are appointed by the president and make necessary recommendations to the president regarding the settlement of disputes. It is noteworthy that in the appointment of the councils and boards. the stales have no say. This is a clear encroachment on the autonomy of the units of the lndilln fcdcrutioll. 227 (16) Constitution does not Protect Territorial Integrity of States: Unlike

other federations, where the territorial integrity of the states is protected by the Constitution. the Constitution of India does not contain any provision to this effect. On the other hand, it specifically denies this righ t to the states' For example, Article 3 of the Constitution aut.horises the President to change the name, lerritory or boundary of any State without ascertaining their wishes. The parliament can also bifurcate an existing State or combine two or more States into one State. In other words, the very existence of the States depends on the sweet will of the Central Government.. Conclusion: It. is evident from the above discussion that t.hough the Indian Constitution outwardly possesses a federal structure, in spirit, it is unitary. The framers of the Constitution deliberately made the Centre st.rong in keeping with the inescapable realities of the situation. CITIZENSHIP The Constitution of India provides for a single citizenship for the hole oflndia. It does not lay down a permanent law relating to the Indian citizensh.ip but has left the matter entirely to legislation by Parliament. However. it lays down the classes of persons who would be deemed to be citizens of India at the commencement of the Constitution. (I) Domicile: A person domiciled in J ndis at the commencement of the Constit.ution of India is a citizen of India provided: (i) he was born in India; (il) either of his parents was born in India; and (ill) he has ordinarily been resident in India for the last five years immediately preceding the rommencement of the Constitution. (2) Immigrants from Pakistan: Any person who has migrated to India from Pakistan is a citizen of India provided he or either of his parents or grandparents were born in the pre partition India. and (a) if he migrated before the 19th July, 1948 and he has been ordinarily resident of Inetia since the date of migration, (b) ifhe migrated on or after the 19th July. 1948, he has been registered as a

citizen. (3) Migrants to Pakistan: A migrant to areas now forming Pakista n after the 1st March, 1947 is not a citizen of I.ndia. But if he returned to Inwa undel' a proper permit for resettlement or under the authority of any law and is duly registpred, he is a citizen of India. (4) Residents in Foreign Countries: Any person ordinarily residing out of India is deemed to be a citizen of India ifhe or either of his parents or any of his grand-parents was born in pre-parution India provided that he is registered as a Ci tizen by a diplomatic or consular representative of India. ACQUISITION OF CITIZENSHIP According to the Citizenship Act, 1955, the citizenship could be acquired through any of the following five methods: (1) By Birth: All the persons born in India on or after 26th January, 1950, are treated as citizens by birth. However, the children born to foreign diplomats posted in India are not. e ntitled to Indian ciLizenship. (2) By Descent: A person born even outside India shall be treated as citizen of India by descent if at the time of his birlh, his father is a citizen of India. (3) Registration: A person can acquire citizenship of India by registration with the appropriate authority, The persons who could acquire citizenship by registration include (a) persons of Indian origin who have ordinarily been resident in India for SLX months, immediately before making an 228 application for registration. A person is deemed to be of Inctian origin ifhe, or either of his parents, or an) of his grand-parents, was born in the undivided lndia; (b) persons oflnctian origin ordinarily resident outside lndia; (c) women married to Indian citizens; (d) minor children of persons who are citizens of India; (e) persons of adult age and capacity who are citizens of Commonwealth countries or Republic of Ireland. (4) By Natura lisation: A person can acquire citizenship of India by naturalization ifhe fulfils the foUowing qualifications: (a) he belongs to a country where the citizens of India are allowed to become subjects or citizens of that country by

naturalization: (b) he renounces the citizenship of his country in accordance with the law of that country and intimates the renunciation to the Government of India; (c) he has been residing in India or serving the Government oi India for at least 12 months immediately preceding the date of application; and (d) he possesses workable knowledge of an Indian language. (5) By Incorporation of Territory: In the event of certain territory being added to the territory of India, the Government can specify the persons or categories of persons who shall be entitled to India.n citizenship, by reasons of their connection with the territory. LOSS OF CITIZENSHIP The Act envisages three methods for the loss of the Indian citizenship, which are as foUows: (1) By Renunciation: An Indian citizen, who wants to become the national of another country, can volun tarily renounce his citizenship by ma king a necessa ry declaration to this effect in the prescribed form. It may be noted th at even the minor children of such a person also cease to be citizens of India. (2) By Termination: The citizenship of a person is automatically terminated if he voluntarily acquired the citizenship of nny other country by naturalization, registration or otherwise. However, the utizenship of a person is not terminated if he acquires the citizenship of a country with which India is at war, till such time as normal relations are restored between the two countries. (3) By Deprivation: A person can be deprived of his citizenship under the following conditions: (a) ifhe obtains the certificate of citizenship by fraud, false rep resentation or concealment of any material fact: (b) if he shows disloyalty or disaffection towards the lndian Constitution; (c) ifhe assists a country with whom India is at war; (d) ifhe stays abroad for seven consecutive years without showing any intention to continue as Indian citizen; and (e) if he is sentenced to imprisonment for a

period not less than two years within five yea rs of naturalization or registration. It is noteworthy that the citil.el"..ship of a person can be taken from him only if he has acqnirnd Indian citizenship by naturaliultion, pure domicile or registration. The persons. who are citizens of India by birth or descent., cnnnot be deprived of their citizenship in any of the above manner. MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT OF THE UNION . THE EXECUTIVE The Constitution provides for a parliamentary executive which consists of the President. the Vice President and the Council of Ministers, with the Prime Minister at its head. THE PRESIDENT Election : The President is elected by an electoral coUege composed of elected members of both HOllses of Parliament and elected members of State Legislative Assemblies by a system of proportional representation by means of 8 single transferable vote; the voting shall be by secret ballot. Tenure of Office: The President holds office for a period of five years [rom the day on which he enters upon his office, He is eligible for reo election, Qualifications for Election as President: (1) He should be a citizen of India. (2) Heshould not be less than 35 years of age. (3) He should be qualified for election as ,a member of Lok Sabha. (4) He should not. hold any office of profit under the Government. (5) He should not be a member of either House of Parliament or State Legislature, Powers: (a) Executive Powers: (1) The President is the executive head of the Sovereign, Socialist, Secular. Democratic Republic of India. (2) He is exofficio Supreme Commander of the defence forces. He can declare wat' and make peace, (3) He makes all important appointments such as those of Governors, Chief Justice, Prime Minister and Ministers. (4) He governs the Union Territories directly through Lieutenant Governors. (b) Legislative Powers: (1) Any Bill passed by the Parliament must receive his assent before it becomes an Act, except in the case of Money Bills on which prior assent is necessary. (2) President can issue Ordinances when the Parliament is not in session. (3) He can

nominate 12 members to the Rajya Babha and 2 Anglo-Indian members to the Lok Babha. (4) He can address either House QfParliament. (5) He can dissolve the Lok Sabha and order fresh elections. (c) Financial Powers: (1) No Money BiD can be introduced in Parliament without his prior assent. (2) He can appoint a Finance Commission after every five years. (d) Judicial Powers: (1) He can grant pardon, reprieve or remission of punishment or commute death sentence. (2) He is not answerable to any court.oflaw. (3) He appoints Judges of Supreme COllI't and High Courts. (e) Emergency Powers: Th~ President. can suspend the whole Const.itution or some articles of it under emergency <:onditions arising out of: (i) threat to the security of I.ndia or any part thereof by war, external aggression or armed rebellion; (ii) fa.ilure of constitutional machinery in a State; and (iii) financial emergency Discretionary Powers: (I) If after the gem.ral election, no single party is able to secure a majority or postelectlon splits red uce the majority to minority, the President can use his own discretion to determine which party has the best chances oCforming a Government. Similar is the case in the case of death of a Prime Minister. (2) In case th! President comes to a conclusion that none -of the parties represented in the Parliament is to a position to form a stable Government, he can dissolve the Lok Sabha and order fresh elections. (3) When an advice is sent by the Council of Ministers to the President for approval, he can once I'eturn the same to the Council of Ministers for reconsideration under Art. 74(1) of the Constitution. However, once an advice is reconsidered by the Council of Ministers and returned to the President of approval, he cannot refuse to it in accordance with it. Impeachme nt: The President may be removed form office by impeachment for the violation of the Constitution. The charge .. for this may be preferred in either House of Parliament. The Resolution for impeachment must be passed by a two thirds majority of the total membership of t.he House. The other House will investigate the charge. If the investigating House passed by a two-thirds majority of the total membership, a resolution

that the charge preferred against the President has been sustained, it will have the effect of removing the President from his office. Salary and Allowances: The President is entitled to an official rentfree residence and draws a salary of &.50,000 per month besides various allowances. He is entitled to pension of Rs.30,000 per month. VICE-PRESIDENT Method of Election: The VicePresident is elected by the members of both Houses of Parliament at a joint session by meaDS of single transferable vote according to the system of proportional representation. Voting is by secret ballot. Qualifications: (1) He must be a citizen of India. (2) He must not be less than 35 years of age. (3) He must be qualified to become a member of the Rajya Sabba. (4) He should not be holding any orfice of profit under the Government. (5) He should not be 8 member of e ither House of Parliament or State Legislature. Terms of Office: The Vice President holds office for a maximum period of five years and is eligible for re-election. Functions: (1) The Vice President is exofficio Chairman of the Rajya Sabhs. (2) If there occurs any vacancy in the office of President by reason of his death, resignation or removal. then he acts 8S President till a new President is elected, subject to a maximum period of six months. During this period he ceases to be the Chairman of Rajya Sabhn. (3) He also acts as the President during the temporary abse nce of the Pesident due to illness or any other cause. Removal: The Vice President can be removed from his office by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha by a majority of its total membership and agreed to by the Lok Sabha by a simple majority. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS The Constitution provides for a Council of Ministers with a Prime Minister as its head to aId and advise the President in the exercise of his functions. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President. The other Ministers are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Council of Ministers IS

collectively responsible La the Lok Sabha under Art. 75(3) of the Constitut.ion, The President is bound by the advice of Council of Ministers. INDIAN PARLIAMENT The Union Parliament consists of the President and two Houses Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. RAJYASABHA Composition: It consisls of not more than 250 members, out of which 238 are elected and the remaining 12 nominated by the President for their special contribu tion to art, literature, science and social services. The elected members are chosen by the Stote Assemblies in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote. The allocat.ion of seats among the States is not on the basis of equality of representation. In the case of Union Territories. members are chosen in such a manner as the Parliament by law determines. A candidate for election to the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) must be (i) a citizen ofTndia: (ii) not less than 30 years of age; (iii) not holding any office of profit under the Government: and (iv) ordinarily a resident of the State from which he is contesting. Duration: The Council ofStat.es isa permanent. body, not subject. to dissolu tion. The term of office for its melT!bers is six yea rs, onet.hird of the members retiring after every second year. Other Provisions: The Vice President of India is e.(o~cio Chairman of the Council of States. The Council elects one of ils members as Deputy Chairman. who presides over its meetings in the absence of the VicePresident. But whenever the Council is considering a Resolution for the removal of the Vice President or the Deputy Chairman from his office. these officers shall n9t preside over the sitting of the House, nor can they vo~ on the resolution, though t.hey are entitled to speak .. Powers and Functions: With regard to legislative powers, the authority of the Rajya Sabhs is co-extensive with that of the Lok Sabha. No measure can become a law. unless it has been passed by the Rajya Sabha. It exercises control over the Union Administration by seeking information. by means of questions and supplementaries. by moving resolutions or motions of adjournment or censure. Blit it cannot oust the Ministry from office. As regards the Mom~y Bills. these

cannot be introduced in the Council of States. Also when a Money Bill is passed by the Lok Sabha and transmitted to the Rajya Sabha, the iatt2r can delay the Bill for 14 days. It cannot reject the Bill LOKSABHA Composition: It consists of not more than 552 members, out of which 530 members are elected from States and not more than 20 members from the Union Territories and tribal areas. The representatives from the States 8redirectly elected by the people on the basis of adult franchise. At present there are 543 elected members. The representatives of the Union Territories are to be chosen in such manner as the Parliament may, by law, provide. The President can also nominate two Members to Lok Sabha to represent the Anglo-Indian community if, in his opinion, it is not adequately represented. [Art. 331J A member for election to Lok Sabha must be (i) a citizen of India; (ii) not less than 25 years of age; and (iii) not holding any office of profit. The number of seats to each State is so allotted that the ratio between the members and population, as far as practicable, is the SRme for each State. Each member of the House should represent not less than 51akh citizens. Tenure: Lok Sabhs has a tenure of 5 years unless dissolved earlier. But while a Proclamation of Emergency under Art. 352 is in operation, this period may be extended for a period not exceeding one year ata time and not exceeding in any case beyond a period of six months after the proclamation has ceased to operate. Disqualification of Members of Parliament A person shall be disqualified for being chosen as, and for being, a member of either House of Parliament: (i) if he holds any such office of profit under the Government of India or Government of State, as is declared by Parliament. by law to disqualify its holder; (ii) if he is of unsound mllld and stands so declared by a competent court; (iii) if he is an undischarged insolvent; (iv) if he is not a citizen of India. or has voluntarily acquireu citizenship of a foreign State; and (v) ifhe is so disqualified by any law made by Parliament. Powers and Functions of Parliament

(1) Its main function is to enact laws for the good government of the counLry. (2) It can pass a vote of No-confidence and thus dismiss the Government in power. (3) It controls the fmances of the Union. (4) The members can elicit information by asking questions and supplimentaries. (5) The members can move adjournment motions and thus criticize the government. (6) It ean impeach the President in case he violates the Conj>titution.(7) Maximum Gap between two sessions of ParUament is 6 months under Art. 85(1). JOINT SESSION For Non Money Bills After a Bill has been passed by one House of Parliament and transmitted to the other House and (a) the Bill is rejected by the other Hom.e; or (b) the two Houses have finally disagreed as to the amendments to be made in the Bill; or (c) more than six months have elapsed from the date of receipt of the Bill by the other House without the Bill being passed by it. The Parliament may. unless the Bill has lapsed by reason of dissolution of the Lok Sabhs, notify to the Houses by message, if they are sitting, or by public notification, if they are not sitting, his intention to summon them to meet in a Joint session for the purpose of deliberating and voting on the Bill. If at the joint sitting of the two Houses, the Bill, with such amendments, if any. as are agreed to in the joint sitting, is passed by the majority of the t-Ota1 number of members of both Houses present and voting, it shall be deemed to have been passed by both the Houses. For Money sms: A Money Bill can be introduced in the Lok Sabha only on the recommendations of the President. Aner a Money Bill has been passed by the Lok Sabha. it is transmitteu to Rajya Sabha for recommendations. The Rajya Babha must make its ~ecommendations within 14 days of the receipt of the Bill. It is up to the Lok Sabha to accept or reject any of the recommendations. If the Lower House accepts any of the reoommendationsofthe Hajya Sabha, the Bill is deemed to have been passed by both the Houses with the amendment recommended by the Hajya Sabha and accepted by the Lok Sabha.If the Lok Sabha does not accept any of the recommendations of the Rajya Sabha, the

Money Bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses in the form in which it was passed by the Lok Sabha. If the Bill is not returned within 14 days, it is deemed to have been passed by both the Houses at the expiration of the term of 14 days. It is then transmitted to the President for assent. After this. it becomes an Act. In the case of an amendment to Constitution, the deadlock cannot be resolved by the joint session of the Parliament. The BiU for the amendment of the Constitution has to be presented again to both the Houses of .Parliament and it becomes an act only when passed by both the Houses by requisite majority. THE SPEAKER Election: The Speaker of the Lok Sabha is elected by the members of Lok Sabha by a simple majority. The term of his office is co terminus with the life of the House itself. Power and Functions (1) He presides over the sitting ofLok Sabha and the joint session of Parliament. (2) He decides whether a particular Bill is a Money BUI or not Bnd his decision is in al. (3) He determines the order of the business in the House in consultation with the Leader of lhe House. (4) He decides about the admissibility of questions and Adjournment Motions, etc. (5) He appoints Chairmen of the Select Commit.tees. (6) He maintains proper decoru m in the Housc. He warns disorderly members and suspends them from s ittings of the House. if any member flouts his authority. Removal: The House of the People can remove the Speaker at any time by a resolution passed by the majority of the members of the time being. Such a resolution can be introduced in the House only after a notice has been given to t.hat effect at. least fourteen days in advance. MONEY BILL A Bill is said to be a Money Bill if it contains only provisions dealing with all or Bny of the following matters: (i) the imposition, abolition. remission. alteration or regulation of any tax: (ii) regulation of borrowing of money or creating or regulation of any tax; (iii) custody of the Consolidated Fund of India or Contingency Fund of India and its operation; (iv) appropriation of money out of the

Consolidated Ftlnd of India; (v) the declaring of money charged on the COl!:;oli:l.ated Fund of India or increasing the amount of such expenditure; (vi) the receipt of money on account of the Consolidated Fund of India or Public Account of I ndin or cllstody or iSSlle of 8 ny such expenditure; (vii) audit of accounts of the Union or a State; or (viii) any other matter incidental to any of the matters referred to above. The Privileges of Parliament are certain rights belonging to each House collectively and some to the members individually for maintaining its freedom, status and dignity. The following are the privileges, viz., (i) freedom of speech in Parliament; (ii) no member of Parliament is liable to any proceedings in any court in respect of anything said or any vote given by him in Parliament or any committee thereof; and (ill) no peeson is liable in ,espeot of the publication by or under the orders of either House of Parliament of any report, paper, votes or proceedings. Powers of Parliament: The privileges, powers and immunities of a House of Parliament are: (i) that no court. shall look into the validity of its proceedings; (ii) no Officer or Member of Parliament is answerable to any court for exercise of the powels vested in him under the Constitution; (iii) To make its own rules for regulating its procedure and business; (iv) To regulate recruitment and conditions of service of persons appointed to the Secretaria t of the House; and (v) To punish any person for contempt of the House and breach of privileges of Members, Committees and the House. COMNUTTEESOFPARL~NT To cope with the ever-increasing work, the Indian ParliamenT. has set up a number of committees. These committees play an effective role in the working of the Indian Parliament. The members of these committees are appointed by the Speaker or are elected by the House from amongst its members. These committees are authorized to call witnesses and collect evidence by asking for official papers and

records. The important committees of the Lok Sabhs are as follows: (1) Business Advisory COITlITlittee: This committee is concerned with the planning and regulation of t~e business of the House. It also advises the H Oll~e regarding allocation of ti.me for T.he discussion of various issues. This 'Committee is formed at the beginning of the Lok Sabha's session and consists of 15 members. The Speaker is the Chairman of this Committee. Toensure.the smooth workmg of the House, the leaders of the major opposition parties are also associated with this Committee. (2) Select Conunittees on Bills: There are a number of Select Committees of the House which collect information on various issues and submit necessary report on the basis of the examination of relevant material and witnesses. 'I'he Committee is dissolved soon after it has submitted the report on the subject under reference. The members of the Select Comrcittee are appointed by the House. The strength of members of various Select Committees differs according to the import.ance of the Bill. (3) Committee on Privi leges: The Committee tries to safeguard and protect the privileges of the members of the House and suggests appropriate action against the erring authorities. It may be noted that the members of the Parliament have been granted certain privileges and immunities, and any violation or denial of these is tantamount to a crime for which legal proceedings can be instituted against the erring authority. The Privileges Committee consists of 15 members, who are nominated by the Speaker at the commencement of the session of the Lok Sabha. Generally, the Deputy Speaker acts as the Chairman of this Committee. (4) Committee on Subordinate Legislation; The Committee IS constituted to ensure that the rule making powers delegated to the executive are not misused. It scrutinizes the rules and regulations enacted by the various departments to ensure that these conform to the main law enacted by the

Parliament. Thus the Committee plays an important role in preventing llsurpation of Parliament's powers by the executive. This Committee also consists of 15 members who are nominated by the Speaker. The Ministers cannot be members of this Committee. (5) Committee on Public Undertakings: This is a Committee of both the Houses of Parliament. It consists of22 members 15 from the Lok Sabha and 7 from the Rajya Sabha. The Committee examines the working of the Public Undertakings, including their fmancial matters. It is also the function of the Committee to examine the reports and accounts of Public Undertakings specified in the Rules of Procedure and the reports of the Comptroller and Auditor-General thereon, if any, and to examine, in the context of the autonomy and efficiency of the Public Undertakings, whether the affairs of the Public Undertakings are being managed in accordance with the sound business principles and prudent commercIal practice. (6) Committee on Government Assurances: This Committee examines the various assurances and undertakings given by the Ministers on the floor of the House to find out how far these have been fulfilled or implemented within the stipulated time. This Committee consists of 15 m~mbers who are nominated by the Speaker for one year. The Ministers arc not eligible for membership of this Committee. (7) Estimates Committee: It is very significant Committee and performs the following functions: (i) It reports what economies, improvements in organization, efficiency or administrative reforms, consistent with the policy underlying the estimates, can be effected. (ii) It suggest alternative policies to bring about efficiency and economy in administration. (Ui) It ensures that tge money is weU laidout within the limitS of the policy implied in the estimates. (iv) It suggests the form in which the estimates should be presented to the Parliament. The Estimates Committee consists of 30

members of the House on the basis of the proportional representation and single transferable vote. The Chairman of the Estimates Committee is appointed by the Speak-er. However, if the Deputy Speaker happens to be a member of this Committee. he ipso facto becomes its Chairman. (8) Public Accounts Committee: This is also a joint committee of the two Houses. It consists of 22 members - 15 from Lok Sabha and 7 from Rajya Sabha. It may be noted that Rajya Sabha members are only associate members and are not. entitled to vote. The members of the Committee are elected for one year but by convention they generaUy continue in office for at least two years. The election is held on the basis of proportional representation through a single transferable vote. The Ministers cannot be members of this Committee. The Chairman of the Committee is appointed by the Speaker'from amongst its members. The main function of the Committee is to examine the repprt of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India and to ascertain that the expenditure has not exceeded the grants made by the Parliament and the money has been spent for the purpose it was sanctioned by the Parliament. It also sees to it that the fmaneia! rules and regulations have been foUowed by the executive. The Committee plays an important role in ensuring regularity and economy in expenditure. UGC Governance IV SUPREME COURT Appointment of judges: Every judge of the Supreme Court is appointed by the President by warrant under his band and sea l after consultation with such Judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts a6 the president may deem necessary for the purpose. In case of appoint.ment of a judge, other than chief Justice, t.he Chief Justice of India is to be necc'3sanly consulted. A Judge of the Supreme Court remains in office until he attains the age of65 years. No person can be appointed a Judge of the Supreme Court unless (i) he is a citizen of India, (ii) has been for at. least five years a Judge of High Court or has been for at least ten

years an advocate of a High Court or two or more courts in succession, (iii) is in the opinion of the President a distinguished jurist. Privileges of Judges: A Judge of the Supreme Court is entilled to such salaries as are specified in the Second Schedule. Every Judge of the Supreme Comt is entitled to the use of an official residence without rent. Also, every judge is entitled to such privileges and allowances and to such rights.in respect of leave of absence and pension as may, from time to time , be determined by the Parliament. Removal of Judges: Judge of the Supreme Court can only be removed from office by an order of the President, Parliament, supported by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members of that house present and voting. Has been presented to the President in the same session for such removal on the ground of proved misbehavior or incapacity. The parliament has been empowered to regul,ate the procedure for the presentation ofan address and for the investigation and proof of the misbehavior or incapacity of a Judge under Article 124. Composition: The Supreme Court is the highest court of justice in fndia. ft consists of one chief justice and 25 other judges. There is provision for the appointment of ad hoc judgea and even the retired judges may be at times. when the neceSSlty arises, requested to be present. Powers and Functions: The Supreme Court is a court of recol'd and exercises all the powers of such a court, including th~ power to punish for the contempt of itself. Ita malO functions may be studied under the following heads: {l) Original Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court has exclusive jurisdiction in aU disputes(a) between the Government of India and one or more States; (b) between the Government of India and any State or States on the other; and (e) between two or more States. Such jurisdiction, however, does not extend to a dispute al'ising out of any treaty, agreement, coven a nt , engagement or sanad or any similar instrument which was executed before the commencement of the Constitution. (2) Appellate Jurisdiction in Civil Cases: An appeal to the Supreme Court lies from

any judgement, decree or final orders of a High court or, a certificate from a high court concerned that the case involves a substantial question as to the interpretation of the Constitution. (3) Jurisdiction in criminal Cases: In criminal cases an appeal lies to the Suprema Court if the High Court (i) has given any decree or final order in the case; (li) has withdrawn for trial before it self any case from any court subordinate to its authority a nd ha s in s uch trial sentenced the accused to death; or (iii) certifies that the case is a fit one for appeal to the Supreme Court. (4) Advisory Jurisdiction: The President may refer to the Supreme Court any question of law or fa ct of s ufficient importance for its opinion. The President may also refer to the court disputes arising out of any provision of treaty, agreement, co.-ensnt, engagement or sanad, etc. The opinion 80 expressed is not binding on the President. (5) Enforcement of Fundamental Rights: The Supreme Court has been armed with powers to issue directions or orders or writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandam us, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari for the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights conferred by the Constitution. (6) Additional Jurisdiction: Article 138 of the Constitution provides for enlargement of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court by Parliament with reference to any matter contained in the Union List. It has also jurisdiction on any such matter as the Government ofIndia and the Government of any State may, by agreement, confer. But the Parliament has to give effect to this agreement by passing a law. (7) Power to Review: The Supreme Court has power to review sny judgement or order made by it, subject to any law passed by the Parliament in this regard. (8) Supplementary Powers: Parliament may by law confer such supplemental powers on the Supreme Court ss may appear to be necessarY and desirable for the due discharge of its functions. Guardian of the Constitution: It is clear

from the powers and functions of the Supreme Court that it is the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution and, as such, its guardian. The authority of the Court is further re-inforced by the provision that "the law declared by the Supreme Court shall be binding on all courts within the territory of India" (Art. 141). Further, in the exercise of its jurisdiction, the court is authorized to pass appropriate decrees or orders in the interests of complete justice in any case before it. Independence of Judiciary: The independence and impartiality of the Supreme Court is the corner-stone of democracy. Justice is said to be blind and this must be so, especially in a democracy which professes all its citizens to be equal before law. Our Constitution ensures the independence of the Judiciary through the following measures: (1) Though appointed by the President~ ajudge ofthe Supreme Court can only be removed a fter an address of each House of Parliament supported by a majority of the total membership of that House and by a majority of not less than 2/3 of the members present and voting and presented to the President on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity. (2) The salary and the conditions of service of a judge of the Supreme Court cannot be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment. (3) After retirement, a judge of the Supreme Court cannot plead or act in any other Court or before any authority within the territory ofIndia. (4) The salaries. etc., of the judges and administrative expenses of the Supreme Court are chargeable on the Consolidated Fund of India and are, therefore, not votable. HIGHCOURTS Appointment of Judges: Ajudge of the High Court is appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal after consultation with the Chief Justice ofIndia, the Governor of the State, and in the case of appointment of a judge other than Chief Justice, the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned. Provision has also been made for the attendance of the retired judges at sittings of the High Courts. Qualifications: A pErson cannot be appointed a judge of a High Court unless: (i) he is a citizen of India;

(ij) has for at least ten years held a judicial office in the territory of India; and (iii) has for at least ten years been the advocate of a High Court or of two or more such Courts in succession. Conditions of Services: A judge of a High Court holds office until he attains the age of 62 years. He may be removed from his office in the same manner in which a judge of the Supreme Court is removed (discllssed earlier). Every judge is entitled to such allowances and to such rights in respect oC leave and pension as may from time to time be determined by the Parliamentary enactment. His allowances and other rights are not to be varied to his disadvantage after the appointment. THE GOVERNOR Appointment: The Governor of a State is appointt:d by the President. Only a citizen of India, who hAS completed 35 years of age, is eligible for appointment 88 a Governor. He need not be a residentoCthat State for appointment as Governor. He holds office during the pleasure ~fthe President. Subject to this, he holds office for a period of five years. He receives asalary of Rs. 36,000 per month, and is entitled to certain other allowances and privileges. Powers of a Governor: (a) Legislative Powers: He summons, fixes the time and place for the meeting of the Legislature. He addresses the meeting of the Legislature at the commencement of session once in a year, He can send messages to the State Legislature. Every ~ Bill passed by the Legislature must have his assent. He has the power to promulgate an ordinance, whenever the legislature is not in session. (b) Executive Powers: He appoints Chief Minister of the State and the other Ministers on the advice of the Chief Minister, He also appoints the Chairman and members of the State Public Service Commission. He acts ss the agent of the Centre during an emergency. (c) Financial Powers: No Money Bill can be introduced in the Legislative Assembly of the State except on the Governor's recommendation. The State Contingency Fund is at his disposal and he can make advaoces out of it to meet unforeseen expenditure pending its authorization by the State Legislature.

(d) Judicial Powers: He haa the power to grand pardons, and suspend, remit or commute sentences where the offence is under a low relating to matters within the executive competence ofthe State. (e) Discretionary Powers: (i) He detcrm.ines whether the Government of a State can or cannot be carried on in accordance With the provisions of the Constitution.lfhe feels that it cannot be SO carried on, he can make a report to the President under Art. 356(1). (0) If after the general elections, no single party is able to secure a clear majority or post-election splits reduce the majority to a minority, the Governor can use his owo disrretion to determine which party has the best chances of forming a stable government. (iii) In case the Governor comes to conclusion that none of the parties represented in the legislature is in a position to form a stable government he can in his discretion dissolve the legislature and order fresh elections. (iv) The Governor can reserve a bill or bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President. Role of Governor: Ordinarily, the Governor has to act according to the wishes of the Council of Ministers. No other role can fit in well in a Parliamentary set up. It is only in the exercise of discretionary powers when he may ignore the wishes of the Ministers. Apart from the role of Governor as a Constitutional head of the State, the Constitution certainly visualizes another role on his part when he acta 88 the agent of the Centre. Itis only, when so doing that the use of discretionary powers become relevant. When the administration of State is not carried on in accordance with th~ provisions of the Constitution, he is to report to the Centre, During President's Rule, be runs the administration directly with the help of the Advisers appointed by the Central Government STATE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS The Constitution provides for a Council of Ministers, with a Chief Minister at its head, to aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his functions. The Governor appoints the Chief Minist.er and his Ministers. UsuaUy, all the Ministers must be members of the Legislature ofthe State but sometimes even a non member

may be appointed a Minister. In that case, he cannot retain his office for more than six months without being a member of the Legislature of the State. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly of the State. STATE LEGISLATURE In every State, the Legislature consists of the Governor and (a) in case of Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, V.P. and Jammu & Kashmir two Houses, namely, Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly and (b) in other States one House, viz. , Legislative Assembly. Legi'slative Assembly: It is a directly elected body on the basis of adult franchise. The total number of members of the Assembly shall in no case be more than 500 or less than 60. Its normal life is fiv(. years. A candidate for election to the Legislative Assembly ofa State should be (i) a citizen of India; (li) not less than 25 years of age; and (ill) not holding an office of profit under the Government. Legislative Council: This is a permanent body. Onethird of its members l'etire every second year. Its total members should not exceed onethird of the members of State Legislative Assembly. Its minimum strength is 40. Only U.p.., Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Jammu & Kashmir have Legislative Councils. DISTRIBUTION OF LEGISLATIVE POWERS BETWEEN THE UNION AND THE STATES The Constitution of India makes a division of legislative powers between the Union and the States under Seventh Schedule. The Union Parliament has powers to make laws for the whole or any part of the territory of India, while the Legislature of a State can make laws for the State concerned. Also, like the Government of India Act, 1935, there is three fold distribution of powers between the Union and the States: (1) Union List: It includes 99 subjects ovel' which the Union Parliament has exclusive power of Legislation such as Defence, Foreign Affairs, Banking, Currency, etc. (2) State List: It comprises 61 items over which the State Legislatures have exclusive powers of Legislation, e.g., Health, Agriculture, etc. (3) Concurrent List: It comprises 52 items in which the Union and the State Legislatures both can make laws, e.g.,

criminal law and procedure, marriages, economic planning, education, etc. (4) Residuary Powers: According to Art. 248 of the Constitution, the residuary powers are vested in the Union Legislature, Le., the Parliament have the exclusive right to make any law with regard to any matter not specified in the Concurrent or State List. Conflict of Jurisdiction: In case of the overlapping of a matter as between the lists, predominance has been given to the Union Legislature. Thus, in the case of repugnancy between a law of the State and a valid Union law, the latter will prevail and the law made by the State to the extent of repugnancy shall he void. If, however, the legislation relates to a concurrent subject, the State legislation may prevail, notwithstanding any repugnancy, if the State law had been reserved for the President and received his assent. ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNION AND THE STATES The Union Government have the power to give directions to the Slate Governments as regards exercise of their executive r"wers in respect of the following matters: (A) Normal Time Directions (1) To ensure compliance with Union laws and existing laws which apply in that State. [Art. 257J (2) To ensure that the exercise of executive powers of State do not interfere with the executive powers of the Union. [Art. 257(I)J (3) To ensure maintenance construction of the means and of communication of national or military importance by the state. [Art. 257(2)] (4) To ensure ,protection of railways within the State. [Art. 257(3)J (5) To ensure drawing and execution of schemes specified in the dirt:ctions to be essential for the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in the State. [Art. 339(2)J (6) To ensure the provisions of adequate facilities for instruction in the mothertongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to the linguistic minorities. [Art. 350-AJ

(7) To ensure the_ development of Hindi language. [Art. 351] (8) During Emergency (1) During a proclamation of Emergency, the Union Government is empowered to give directions to any State as to the manner in which the executive power of the State is to be exercised. [Art.353(a)] (2) During a proclamation of failure of constitutional machinery in a State, the President may assume to himself all or any of the executive powers of the State. (Art.35G(I) (3) During the proclamation of Financial Emergency, the executive authority of the Union extends to the giving of directions to any State: (i) to observe such canons of financial ~ropriety as may be specified in the directions; (li) to red uce t he salaries and allowances of all or any class of persons serving in connection with the affairs of State or Union including Judges of Supreme Court and High Courts; and (iii) to require that all Money Bills and other financial Bills be reserved :Cor consideration by the Preside.nt when passed by the State Legislature. [Art. 30(4)] Sanction for Ensuring Compliance with Directives Article 35 of the Constitution provides that in case of non-compliance of directives given to a State by the Union, it shall be lawful for the President to declare that a situation has arisen in which the Government of the State cannot be carried in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. On such a declaration being made, the provisions of Art. 356 regarding failure of constitutional machinery will come into operation and t he President will assume to himself all or any of the executive powers and thereby have the violated directives carried out. FINANCIAL RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNION AND THE STATES Ideally speaking, the best system of federal finance would be one which effected a clear-cut division of sources of the revenue between the Federal and the State Governments so as to make each of the parties financially independent of each other. Indian Constitution make elaborate provisions regarding the

distribution of revenues between the Centre and the States. The financial relations between the Union and the States can be studied under the following heads: (1) Duties levied by the Union but Collected and Appropriated by the States: Stamp duties and duties of excise on the medical and toilet preparations are levied by the Government of India, but collected and appropriated by the States within which such duties are leviable except in the Union Territories where they are coll~cted by the Union Government. [Art. 268] (2) Taxes Levied and Collected by the Union but Assigned to the States within which they a,re Leviable: (i) Succession duty in respect of property other than agriculture land; (ii) Estate duty in respect of property other than agricultural land; (ill) Terminal taxes on goods or passengers carried by railways, sea or air; (iv) Taxes on railway fares and freights ; (v) Taxes on transactions in stock exchanges; (vi) Taxes on sale and purchase of newspapers, including advertisements published therein; (vii) Taxes on the sale and purchase of goods other than newspapers, where such purchase takes place in the cowse of inter-state trade or commerce. [Art. 269] (3) Taxes Levied and collected by the Union and distributed between the Union and the States: Certain taxes are levied as well as collected by the Union, but their proceeds are divided between the Union and the States in a certain proportion in order to effect an equitable distribution of the financial resources. There are: (a) taxes on income other than agricultural income; and (b) excise duties as are included in the Union List, excepting medicinal and toilet prepara.tions. (4) Surcharge: The Parliament is, however, authorized to levy surcharge on the taxes mentioned at (2) above and on income-tax for the purpose of the Union. (5) Grants-in-Aid: Parliament may make grants-in-aid from the Consolidated Fund of India to such States as are in need of assistance, particularly for the promotion of welfare of tribal areas, including special grant to Assam.

(6) Loans: The Union Government may make loan to any State or give guarantees with respect to loans raised by any States. (7) Previous Sanction of the President: No Bill or amendment can be introduc:ed or moved in either House of Parliament without" the previous sanction of the President, if: (a) it imposes or varies any tax in which the States are interested; or (b) it varies the meaning of the expression "Agricultural Income" as defined in the Indian lncome-Tax Act; or (c) it affects the principles on which money are distributed to the States; or (d) it imposes a surcharge on the State taxes for the purpose of the Union. (8) According to Article 301, freedom oftrade, commerce and intercourse throughout the territory of India is guaranteed, but the Parliament has the power to impose restrictions in public interest. (9) Although taxes on income, other than agricultural income, are levied by the Union, yet the State Legislatures can levy taxes on profession, trade, etc., provided that the total amount of such taxes payable in respect of anyone person should not exceed Rs. 2500 per month. (10) Provision has been made for the constitution of a Finance Commission to recommend to the President certain measures for the distribution of financial resources between the Union and the States. FINANCE COMMISSION Constitution: Under Art. 280 of the Constitution, provision has been made for the Constitution of a Finance Commission within 2 years of the commencement of the Gonstitution and thereafter after expiration of every fifth year. It consists of a chairman and four other members appointed by the President. Functions: It is the duty of the Commission to make recommendations to the President as to: (i) the distribution between the Union and the States, the net proceeds of taxes, which are divisible between the Union and the States; (ii) the principles, which should govern the 241 UGC-JRF (Paper I}-31 grant-in-aid of revenues to the States out of the Consolidated Funds of India;

(iii) the measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement the resources of the Panchayats in the State on the basis of the recommendations made by the Finance Commission of the State; (iv) the measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement the resources of Municipalities in the State on the basis of the Finance Commission of the State; and (v) any other matter referred to the Commission by the President in the interest of sound Finance. Report: The President shall cause the report of the Financ;e Commission with an explanatory memorandum as to the action taken thereon, to be laid before each House of Parliament. UNION PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION Constitution: The Union Public Service Commission consists of a Chairman and ~ other members appointed by the President and they hold office for a period of 6 years from the date of their appointment. Functions': The following are the main functions of the V.P.S.C.: (1) To conduct examinations for appointment to the Services of the Union. (2) If requested by two or more States, to assist those States in framing and operating the scheme of joint recruitment for services for which candidates possessing special qualifications a re required. (3) To serve all or any of the needs of a State witb the approval of the President if requested by the Governor of a State. (4) To advise the Union Government on: (i) all matters relating to methods of recruitment to civil services and for civil posts; (ti) the principles to be followed in making appoin~ments to civil services and posts. and in making promotions and transfers from one service to another; (iii) suitability of candidates for such appointments, promotions or transfers; (iv) all disciplinary matters affecting a person serving under the Government of India, including memorials or petitions relating thereto; , (v) any claim for the reimbursement of expenses incurred by a Government

servant in defending legal proceedings against him for acts done in the execution of his duties; (vi) any claim. for the award of pension for injury sustained by a person while serving under the Govt. of India in a civil capacity; and (vii) on any matter which the President may refer to the Commission. ALL-INDIA SERVI CES Under Art. 312 ofthe Constitution, if the Rajya Sabha declared by resolution supported by not less than two-third of the members present and voting, that it is necessary or expedient to create an All-India Service, common to the Union and the States, Parliament may by law create such a service and regulate the recruitment and conditions of service of person appoin.ted to any such service. The Indian Administrative Service and Indian Police Service, w hicb were in existence at the commencement of Constitution, are deemed to be All-India Services created by the Parliament. The All-India Services Act was passed by Parliament and detailed rules and regulations under the Act have since been promulgated. The recruitment to All-India Services, namely. LA.S., I.F.S ., I.P.8., etc., is made by the U.P.S.C. on the basis of a competitive examination supplemented by viva-voce test. The conditions of service of persons appointed to those services have since been regulated by an act of Parliament. ATTORNEY-GENERAL OF INDIA Appointment The Attorney-General af lodia is appointed by the President under Article 76 of the Constitution. A person qualified to be ajudge of the Supreme Court is appointed to such a post. He is the highest legal adviser to the Gevt. of India and is consulted in all important cases. He also appears in the Supreme Court on behalf of the Gevt. oeIndia to conduct important cases. Functions: The main functions of the AGI are: (i) to advise the Union Government in legal matters; (ii) to perform such other legal duties, which may be assigned to him by the President; and (iii) to discharge such other functions conferred on him by or under the

Constitution or any other law for the time being in force. Terms of Office: He holds office during the pleasure of the President and receives such remuneration as the President may determine. Rights: In pursuance of his duties, the Attorney-General has the right of audience in all courts in'the territory of India. He has also a right to speak or take part in proceedings in either House of Parliament or in the joint session of two Houses or any Committee of the Parliament. He cannot, however, vote. COMPTROLLER AND AUDITORGENERAL Functions: The comptroller and AuditorG~ neral of India is appointed by the President. His main function are : (i) to bring account of the recipes and expenditure of the Union Government (except Railways, Defence Services and other ministries, the accounts of which are maintained by the departmental authorities); (ii) to audit all expenditure from the revenues of the Union and States; and (ill) to audit all trading manufacturing and Profit and Loss Accounts of stores and stocks, where the President may have required him to conduct such audit. Independence of Audit: The independence of the Comptroller and Auditor-General has been sought to be ensured by the following provisions of the Constitution: (1) Though appointed by the President, the Comptr oller and Auditor-General of India can be removed from his office only after an address of each House of Parliament, supported by a majority of total membership of that House and not less than 213 of the members of the House present and voting, has been presented to the President on the grounds of (i) proved misbehaviour and (ii) incapacity. (2) The salary and the conditions of service of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India cannot be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment. (3) He is not eligible for further appointment after his retirement, so that he may have no inducement to please the Executive of the Union or any State. (4) The salaries, etc., of the Comptroller and Auditor-General and his staff are charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India and

are thus non-votable. (5) The reports of the Comptroller and AuditorGeneral relating to Accounts are submitted to the President who causes them to be laid before the Parliamene ELECTION COMMISSION Composition: It is a statutory body appointed under Article 324 of the Constitution. It consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two other Election Commissioners. The Chief Election Commissioner is the Chairman of the Commission. Functions: The main functions of the Election Commission are: (i) to superintend, direct and control the preparation of electoral rolls for the elections; (ii) to conduct all elections and by-elections to the Parliament and State Legislatures and elections to the offices of President and Vice-President; (iii) to advise the President! Governors regarding the disqualification of Members 243 of Parliament or Members of State Legislatures; and (iv) to examine the return of expenses filed by the candidates nominated to various elections, disqualify the defaulting candidates and their election agents and consider the representation of such of them as apply for the removal of their disqualification. LANGUAGE The official language of the Union is Hindi in Devnagari script and international form of Indian numerals is used for official purposes. For a period of fifteen years from the commencement of the Constitution, English was to continue for official purposes of the Union. If at the end of 15 years, Hindi was not able to replace English, Parliament could provide for the use of English for specific purposes. The Constitution also lays down that the legislature of a State may, by law, adopt any one or more of the languages for use in the State, but Hindi is to be used for all official purposes of the Uni9n. The need for use of English in the proceedings of the Supreme Court, High Courts, etc., and in bills and enactments has been recognized. The Official Language Act of 1967 has provIded for the use of English indefinitely. It

has been provided that the Centre will carry on the correspondence with non-Hindi-speaking States in English and witlJ, the Hindi-speaking States in Hindi. REGIONAL LANGUAGES According to the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, the following 18 languages have been recognized as regional languages: (i) Assamese; (ii) Bengali; (iii) Gujarati; (iv) Hindi; (v) Kannada; (vi) Kashmiri; (vii) Malayalam; (viii) Marathi; (ix) Oriya; (x) Punjabi; (xi) Sanskrit; (xii) Sindhi; (xiii) Tamil; (xiv) Telugu; (xv) Urdu; (xvi) Gorkhali; (xvii) Manipuri; and (xviii) Konkani. The last three languages were intro:luced in the Constitution (71stAmendment) Bill, 1992. ZONAL COUNCILS Zonal CQuncils have been est\blished by the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 to advise on matters of common interest to ea~h of the five zone.s into which the territories of India. has. been divided Northern, Southern, Eastern, Western and Central. These Zonal Councils do not owe their origin to the Constilution but to an Act of Parliament, having been introduced by the States Reorganisation Act, with a view to securing co-operation and co-ordination as between the Slates, t he Union Territories and the Union, particularly in respect of economic and social development. If properly worked these Councils would thus foster the "federal sentiment" by re sisting the separatist tendencies oflinguism and provincialism. The zones covered by these councils are as under: (i) The Central Zone, comprising the States of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttaranchal and Chhatlisgarh. (ii) The Northern Zone, comprising t he States of Haryana. Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Jammu & Kashmir and the Union Territories of Delhi and Chandigarh. (ill) The Eastern Zone, comprising the States of Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Sikkim and Jharkhancl. (iv) The Western Zone, .comprising the States of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa and the Union Territories of .Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu. (v) The Southern Zone, comprising the States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the Union Territory of Pondicherry .

Besides these, there is the North Eastern Council set up in 1971, to deal with the common problems of Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram. Constitution: Each Zonal Council consists of the Chief Minister and two other Ministers of each of the States in the Zone and the Administrator in the case of a Union Territory. There is also provision for holding joint meetings of two or more Zonal Councils. The Union Home Minister has been nominated as the common Chairman of all the Zonal Councils. Functions: The main functions of ZOnes) Councils are: (a) to inquire into and advise upon disputes, which may arise among the States; (b) to investigate and discuss subjects, in which some or all the States or Union and one or more States have common interest; and (c) to make recommendations upon any such subj ect and, in particu lar, recommendations for better co-ordination of policy and action with respect to that subject. Role: The Zonal Councils play multiplicity of roles in order to achieve (i) an emotional integration of the people; (ii) arresting the growth of acute state consciousness in the form of regionalism, linguism, etc.; (Ui) enabling the Centre and the States in economic and social matters for evolving the uniform policies; (iv) co-operating with each other in speedy and successful execution of developmental plans; and (v) securing some kind of political equilibrium between different regions of the country. Importance: The importance of the Zonai Councils lies in the fact, they help to further co ordination and integration through extrac constitutional advisory organization, without undermining the autonomy of States, thereby fostering the "federal sentiment" by resisting the separatist tendencies of linguism and provincialism. AMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION Method of Amendment Indian Constitution provides three methods of amending the Constitution: (1) Amendment by Special Majority: Under

Article 368 of the Constitution, the general provision for the amendment of the Constitution can be initiated out by the introduction of a Bill in either House of Parliament. If the Bill is passed by a majority of total membership of the House and by a majority of not less than twothirds of the members present and voting in each House and thereafter assented to by the President, the Constitution stands amended. (2) Amendments requiring Special Mfljority and Ratification by States: Changes in the Constitution with regard to the following matters can be made by the Parliament after the Bill has been passed by both the Houses of Parliament by a majority of total membership of each House and by a twothirds majority of the members present and voting in each House and having been ratified by not less than one-half of the States and assented to by the President: (i) the manner of election of the President; (ii) extent of executive powers of the Union and the States; (iii) provisions relating to the Supreme Court and High Courts; (iv) distributing of legislative powers between Union and the States; (v) representation of States in Parliament; and (vi) provisions for the amendment of the Constitution. (3) Amendment by Simple Majority: A Bill in respect of any of the following subjects is treated as an ordinary Bill, that is, it is passed by a simple majority of members present and voting: (i) admission or establishment of new States, formation of new States, and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States (Art. 4); (ii) creation or abolition of Legislative Council in the States (Art. 169); (iii) administration and control of Scheduled Areas (para 7 of the Fifth Schedule); and (iv) administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya. Tripura and Mizoram (para 21 of the Sixth Schedule). Though normal legislative procedure holds good so far as this class of amendments is concerned, certain conditions. however, do attach to the bills referred to in (i) and (ii) above,

such as recommendation of the President for introduction of such Bills in Parliament and adoption of necessary resolution by concerned State Legislative Assembly, respectively. NATIONAL FLAG The National Flag of India consists of three horizontal bands - saffron, white and dark green with the Asoka Wheel (having 24 spokes) in dark blue colour in the centre of the white band; all strips being equ~l in width. It ~ is rectangular in shape, the ratio of the length to breadth being 3:2. The emblem of the flag is an exact reproduction of the Dharma Chaki'a on the capitol of Asoka's pillar at Sarnath. Symbolic Representation: According to Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, the saffron colour represents the spirit of renunciation, the white stands for truth and peace, and green signifies growth. NATIONAL EMBLEM The emblem of the Government of India is a reproduction of the Asaka's Pillar at Sarnath. It shows three standing lions at a base having a Dharma Chakra in the centre, a bull on the right and a horse to the left. The words "Satyameva Jayate" , taken from Mundaka Upanishad, meaning ''Truth Alone Triumphs", are inscribed in Devnagari at the bottom. 74TH CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT PANCHAYATI RAJ (1992) It was also passed by Parliament in Dec. 1992 in order to activate Municipalities and to confer them statutory status. It provides for (i) constitution of three types of municipalities. (ii) Reservation of seats in every municipality for the Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes, Women and backward classes; (iii) Devolution of powers and responsibilities upon the municipalities with respect to preparation of plan for economic development, levy of taxes and duties, and review of finances of the municipalities; and (iv) Conducting election to the local bodies by an independent State Election Commission. NATIONAL LITERACY MISSION (NLM) It was launched in 1988. It aims at attaining functional literacy for 100 million persons in the age-group of 15-35 (including age-group 914 . were NonFormal education is not in operation) in a timebound manner. The most important development has taken place Wlder NLM is the

near ascending of campaign made in adult education programme in the country. MINORITIES COMMISSION Status: It was set up as a statutory Commission for Minorities in 1992. Composition: It consists of a Chairman and six other members. Functions: Its main functions are (1) evaluation of the working of various safeguards for the minorities provided in the Constitution; (ii) making recommendations for the effective implementation of safeguards for the protection of the interests of minorities by the Central Government or State Governments; (iii) reviewing of implementation of policies pursued by the Un ion and State Governments; (iv) looking into specific complaints regarding deprivation of rights and safeguards; (v) making surveys and research; (vi) suggesting appropriate and legal welfare measures in respect of any minority requiring special protection; (vii) making periodic or special reports to the Central Government on any matter pertaining to t he minorities and in particular difficulties confronted by them; and (viii) making recommendations regarding any other matter referred to it by the Central Government. Habeas Corpus: Habeas Corpus is a writ provided in the Constitution. It gives facilities to the prisoners for obtaining speedy trial or release on bail. Ombudsman: Ombudsman, a Swedish Jprd, stands for "an officer appointed by the legislature to handle complaints against administrative and judicial action". Although appointed by the legislature, t he office of Ombudsman is a constitutional post and the incumbent is politically independent of the legislature. Created for the redressal of citizen's grievances, the institution ofQmbudsman is typically Scandinavian. Writ of Mandamus: Mandamus is an order from a superior court to a lower court or tribunal or public authority to perform an act. which falls within its duty. It is issued to secure the performance of public duties and to enforce private rights withheld by the public

authorities. This writ cannot be claimed as a matter of right. I t is the discretionary power of a court to issue such writs. UGC Governance V QUESTIONS 1. India is a: A. Secular Slate B. Bilingual Slate C. CommuniBt State D. CapitalistState 2. What is the literal meaning of secularism? A. Freedom to worship any God B. Death ofreligion C. Separation of religion from the state D. None of these S. The Tenth Schedule to the Constitution of India relates to: A. Panchayati Raj Institutions B. Anti-defectionAct C. List of languages recognised by the Constitution D. Procedure for amendment to the Constitution 4. The real powers in the Central Government are enjoyed, according to the Constitution of India by the: A. President of India B. Vice-President of India C. Prime Minister ofIndia D. CouncllofMinisters 5. The Council of Ministers is responsible to the: A. President B. Lok Sabha C. Vice-President D. Supreme Court 6. The Prime Minister is: A. nominated by the President B. elected by the Chief Ministers of States C. is the leader of the majority party of LokSabha D. is not elected; it is a hereditary post 7. The quorum of the Parliament is fixed at: A one-tenth of the membership of the House B. one-third of the membership of the House C. one-half of the membership of the House D. four-fifths of the membership' of the House 8. Why are the Fundamental Rights considered fundamental? A. Necessary for the successful working of democratic institution

B. Basic to the welfare, dignity and happiness of the individ ual C. Constitution is based on these D. All of these E. Only A and B 9. The judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the: A. Prime Minister ofIndia B. Speaker of the Lok Sabha C. President of India D. Ministry of Law & Justice 10. The President's Rule is imposed in a State or in a Union Territory when the: A. Governor of a State or the Chief Commissioner or a Lt Governor advises the President to do so because the Government in that StatefI'erritory cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution B. Chief Minister of a State requests to this effect C. Chief Justice of the State High Court recommends through the Governor D. President knows best E. Elections are being held there 11. The Directive Principles: A. aim at establishing welfare state of Gandhian conception B. aim at giving ideals to be incorporated at a later stage C. aim at giving support to the Fundamental Rights D. A and B only 12. Agriculture, including research and education, falls in: A. State List B. Union List C. ConcurrentList D. None of the above 13. Which of the following are the ideals set forth in the Preamble? A. Social, economic and political Justice B. Equality of status and of opportunity C. Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship D. All of these 14. Fundamental Rights of the citizens are: A. non-justiciable B. justiciable C. justiciable if the highest court fee ls it should be D. Some rights are justiciable while others are not 15. In India the executive is responsible directly to the:

A. Legislature B. President C. Judiciary D. People 16. Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens are contained 10 .......... of the 'Indian Constitution'. A. Part I C. Part III B. Part II D. Part IV 17. Of which fundamental right is a foreigner in India deprived of? A. To seek justice in court B. To seek security of life C. To criticise policies of government D. To. vote at the time of'Parliamentary election 18. Freedom of the Press as such: A. has been guaranteed by the Constitution B. bas not been expressly guaranteed by the Constitution C. has been given only to selected institutions D. None of the above 19. The Rajya Sabha is: A. dissolved once in two years B. dissolved after every four years C. adjourned every six months D. not subject to dissolution 20. Administrative Law means: A. law passed by the Union B. law or rules made by the executive C. laws relating to administration of nonGovernmental institutions D. all the above 21. The Legislative Council of a State is a: A. temporary body B. permanent body C. semi-permanent body D. chamber of the nominatt:d members 22. The Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha sit .... jointly when: A tl<ey like B. there is a disagreement between the two (Houses). C. the President. summons bot.h the Houses D. they must meet when two years have lapsed aft.er the last meeting E. they must meet every 5 years 23. Ministers in the Union Cabinet are appointed by the: A. Prime Minister

B. President C. President of India on the advice of the Prime Minister D. Prime Minister on the advice of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of India 24. Who administers the Union Territories? A. The President through the Administrators appointed by him B. The Prime Minister of India C. The Law Minister, Government of Inelia D. The Attorney-General of India 25. Which of the following is not the federal feature of the Indian Constitution? A. There is distribution of Powers in accordance with 2 lists B. Written and rigid constitution C. Independent Judiciary D. All of these 26. Directive Principles of State Policy aim at: A. ensuring individual liberty B. ensuring and strengt.hening the country's independence C. protecting the depressed classes D. providing social and economic base for gem:.ine democracy in the country 27. The Council of Ministers. headed by the Prime Minister is responsible to: A. Prime Minister B. President C. Parliament D. Speaker 28_ Usually a Gram Panchayat is not responsible for: A. construction of village roads and tanks B. sanitation, maternity and child welfare C. financing of aKPiculturists D. agricultural production 249 29. Which one of the following provides constitutional guarantee of personal freedom? A. Quo Warranto B. Mandamus C. Certiorari D. Habeas Corpus 30. What does the Panchayati Raj System signify? A single tier structure of local Government B. Double-tier system of self Government C. Three-tier structure of local Govt. at the village, block and district level D. None of these 31. Out of the following, in which lesson, a geneal rule is explained first and then, knowledge is accumulated on the basis of

that rule? A. Deductive lesson B. Inductive lesson C. Developing lesson D. Knowledge lesson 32. For knowledge lessons A. Glover's Scheme is used B. Herbart's five-stage systePl is used C. Garry's scheme is used D. none of these 33. The project education method of teaching is associated with A. Rousseau B. Frobel C. Dewey D. Armstrong 34. "This methodology trains the child to search for facts, rules and principles by his own efforts, organise the set of knowledge gained and delineate general rules. n The aforementioned statement is about the following metho,dology of teaching A. Montessori B. Kindergarten C. Heuristic D. Playway 35. In the project education technique, the work load on the teacher is A. very high B. comparatively low C. low D. nil 36. In Garry's Plan A. work is important B. play is important C. learning is important D. all these three have equal importance 37. Under the Wennetka Plan A. t he diversity of inte rests of the students is recognised B. the diversities of abilities are accepted C. the diversities of needs are accepted D. all of these are recognised 3B. The Dalton Scheme of education is useful for which ones of the following? A. For infants B. For little children C. For older children D. For all of these 39. Why do you not support the five stage method of Herbart? A. In this, there is no scope for the individual diversity of students B. Under this, it is difficult to make coordination between various subjects C. Under this, generalisa tion is not required to be done while teaching

subjects like language, history, geography etc. D. all ofthese 40. In the school, provisions must be made for free and natural expressions of a child." Who give this sta tement? A. T. Remont B. Ryeburn C. Montessori D. Lyndon 41. According to Dewry. education is a A. Social need B. Personal need C. Psychological need D. theoretical need 42. In the context of education, some views of Gandhiji have been appended below. Which one of them is incorrect? A. In education, experimentation, work and research must be given due places B. Education must be selfdependent C. Literacy is education D. Education must be such as to develop all the powers and inherent qualities of children 43. Who is known as the father of educational psychology? A. Pestology C. Herbart B. Devy D. Spencer 44. "There should be no difference between the words and deeds of a teacher." who gave this statement? A. Mcckennan B. J ohn Locke C. Rousseau D. Aristotle 45. Who gave the principle of "pupil activity?" A. Rousseau B. Handezrson C. Comenius D. Binet 46. Personalised System of education A. does not inculcate a feeling of socialisation in students B. does not inculcate a leeling of competition in students C. leads to wastage of time and energy D. all of these are true 47. The educational system of today promotes "educated unemployment". The reason is that A. education gives theoretical knowledge only B. professional education is not a part of education C. the objective of education is not vivid D. all of these

48. The teacher ought to know about the problems prevalent in the field of education. The reason i~ that A only a teacher can do something about solving them B. he can tell about the same to another teacher C. teachers can tell the government about it D. with this knowledge, the teacher can have information about education 49. In the wake of serious shortages of resources and rising population of our nation, you have the following views about t he programmes for improving the standards of education (under the aegis of national policy of education). A They are impractical B. They are courageous and laudable efforts C. They are new forms of traditional programmes D. They increase the workload of teachers 50. In your view, arrangement for "education on' environment" in the school A is : 'nportant for creating an awareness among students about the environment B. is likely to put more burden on students C. is a mode of e nte rtainment for students D. is like giving work to teachers 51. In the school. "education on environment" can be imparted by A. lectures B. articles C. sports D. adopting it ourselves 52. The major objective of education is A. reforming the society B. making ~~ude nts discipline C. developinJ inherent abilitiesfpowers of students D. making students followers of teachers 53. Adult education should be under the authority of the following A. The gover~ment B. Nongovernmentorganisations C. Edur.:ated persons D. All ofthese 54. Education not only conserves the culture

of a nation, but also it A. makes the latter rich B. defines the latter C. makes the latter spiritual D. makes the latter mass-oriented and popular 55. Indian Institute of Advanced studies is located in A. Shimla B. Solan C. Dharmshala D. Chandigarh 56. All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) is located in A. Lucknow B. Delhi C. Mumbai D. Chennai 57. NASA is the name of space agency of __ A. Netherlands B. Britain C. America D. India 58. National Defence Academy (NDA) is situated at 251 A. Kharadwasla (Pune) B. Dehradun C. Allahabad D. Chennai 59. Air Force Administrative College 15 situated in A. Hyderabad B. Coimbatore C. Bidar D. Agrn 60. How many Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT) are there in India? A. Eight B. Four C. Six D. Three 61. Indian Institute of Science (lISe) is located m A. Chennai B. Kolkata C. Bangalore D. Mumbai 62. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARe) is situated at A. Hyderabad B. Bangalore C. Delhi D. Trombay (Mumbai) 63. Indian School of Mines is situated at A. Patna (Bihar) . B. Dhanbad (Jharkhand) C. Kolka ta CW. Bengal) O. Guwahati (Assam) 64. How many Indian Institu tes of Management (lIM) are there in India? A. Six B. Seven C. Five D. Eight 65. Indian Institute of Foreign Trade is situated in

A. Lucknow B. Dehradun C. New Delhi D. Mumbai 66. Birla Institute of Technology is situated at A. Ranchi B. J aipur C. Kota . D. Hardwar 67. What is the full form of MCA? A. Ministry of Commerce & Agriculture B. Master of Computer Application C. Member Chartered Accountant D. Master of Commerce & Arts 68. Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences is situated in A. Mumbai B. Chennai C. Delhi D. Kolkata 69. National Institute of Immunology is situated in A. Delhi B. Hyderabad C. Goa D. Koehi 70. Central Forensic Science Laboratory IS situated in A. Chandigarh B. Patna C. Patiala D. Ludhiana 71. Immediate feedback is an essential characteristic of: A. team teaching B. teaching machines C. the Dalton Plan D. the project method 72. The most accurate statement about teaching machines is that: A. B F Skinner began the movement for their use B. they were designed as an economy measure to replace teachers C. they are not as efficient as teachers in reinforcing responses D. they can be used for all learning programmes 73. A set of test papers from a class of 29 students has been arranged in order from the highest to the lowest scores. The mark on the ftfteenth paper is known as the: A. median B. mean C. mcxle O. norm 74. In a class 01 ten pupils the grades in a spelling test were: 97-97-97-92-92-85 7673-65-60. The mode ofthose scores is: A. 92 B. 97 C. 97 minus 60 divided by 2 D. the sum of the scores divided by 10 75. Of the following objectives of an elementary music programme, the one of

lowest priority is: A. to expose children to ' a variety of musical compositions B. to prepare children for wise use of leisure time C. to develop a group of performers for the holiday assemblies D. to provide children with emotional outlets 76. A culturally disadvantaged child is best served by the school system that: A. places himlher in a class with other culturally disadvantaged children B. gives himlher an annual intelligence test C. trains teachers to understand hislher impoverished home background D. assesses his/her strengths and needs and provide for an individualized learning plan 77. Recreational reading should be: A reserved for the school library period B. assigned as homework C. a responsibility of the home, not the school D. an integral part of the language arts curriculum 78. Of the following intelligence tests, the one which is individually administered is the: A. WISe B. Pintner-Cunningham Primary C. Army Alpha D. Kuhlman-Anderson 79. With regard to readiness to read, all of' these statementsare true except that: A some psychologists believe that a child is not ready to begin reading until hel she has achieved a mental age of about six years B. a strong desire to read is a determining factor C. a reading readiness programme may begin for some children III kindergarten D. physical maturation is a crucial factor 80. All of the following tend to erode local control of education in favour of national control, except the: A National Seie_nee Foundation B. National Institute of Menta! Health C. College Entrance Examination Board D. National Defence Education Act 81. When Jeewan receives his failing test

mark, he tells the teacher, "You don't like me." This is an example of: A identification B. transference C. egocentrism D. projection 82. With respect to the development of skills, all of the following are correct except that: A. pupils of the same mental age should learn at the same rate B. group instruction facilitates the learning process C. individual instruction is often required D. workbooks can be an invaluable learning aid 83_ If you were reading a series of articles about the teaching of reading, you would expect to be reading an article by: A Paul McKee B. Albert Harris C. Arthur Gates D. Frank Reissman 84. A student fails a test for which he did not study. By a,scribing his failure to the fact that the teacher does not like him he is utilizing: A convers.ion B. sympathism C. rationalization D. compensation 85. Of the following learning theories, the one that embodies the idea that learning takes place through insight is known as: A. Gestalt B. stimulus-response C. connectionist D. pragmatic 86. The pair of terms incorrectly associated is: A. IQ-relationship between MA and CA B. validity-measure of consistency In testing C. inkblot-projective testing D. median-the middle score 87. Of the following, the author of a widely used intelligence test is: A David Wechsler B. B F Skinner C. William Cruikshank D. Bruno Bettelheim 88. The project method of teaching is best associated with the philosophy of: A. .lohn Dewey B. Max Rafferty C. Robert Hutchins D. B F Skinner 89_ Overlea rning tend& to strengthen an individual's: A. powers of retention B. endurance C. feeling of boredom

D. motivation 90. "School is life, not a preparation for life." This statement summarizes one important aspect of the educational philosopbyof: A John Dewey B. RobertHutchins C. Mortimer Adler D. SI Hayakawa 91. A frequency distribution is best defined as the: A number of scores above the median score B. number of pupils scoring above the median score C. number of test items answered correctly by a majority of the class D. number of pupils who received each score on a test 92. Mai.nstreaming is a term associated with: A career education B. education for the handicapped C. interage class groupings D. environmental education 93. Of great importance in determining the amount of transference that occurs in learning is the: A. IQ of the learner B. knowledge of the teacher C. use of appropriate materials D. presence of identical elements 94. Of the following, the educatortwho is not an advocate of radical educational reform IS: A Postman B. lllich C. Bester D. Row! 95. With regard to standardized testing, which of the following statements is correct? A the testing of intelligence began in Germany B. the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISe) is a group test C. the Rorschach test uses inkblots D. the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is easy to interpret. 96. Most students in medieval universities learned by: A. laboratory experimentation B. reading the Bible C. listening to lectures O. studying in libraries 97. The term least restrictive environment refers to the education of the: A. handicapped

B. gifted C. early childhood youngsters O. retarded 98. All of the following are correctly paired except: A. Froebel- progressivism B. Dewey- pragmatism C. Skinner-Gestalt D. Herbart-apperception 99. Heterogeneous grouping best serves the aims of a democratic society because: A parents prefer it B. pupils prefer it C. it minimizes class distinctions D. it is the best environment for learning 100. All of the following are advantages of teaching machines except: A. the control of cheating B. the tracking of errors C. the insura;'ce of attention D. their universal use for different kinds of programmes 101. Which among the following is not a Fundamental Right now? A Right to equality B. Right to property C. Right to Constitutional remedies D. None of these 102. The most powerful Upper Ohamber in the \ world is A. American Senate B. British House of Lords C. Rajya Sabha of the Indian Republic D. None of the above 103. Who is legally competent under the Indian Constitution to declare war or conclude peace? A. The President B. The Prime Minister C. The Council of Ministers D. The Parliament 254 104. Holding of elections for the village Panchayat is decided by A The Collector B. The Election Commission C. The Centr'a1 Government D. The State Government 105. The time of gap between two sessions of Parliament is not more than A. 9 months B. 1 month C. 3 months D. 6 months 106. The President ofIndia is

A. The head of the State B. The head of the Government C. The head of the State as well as Government D. All of these 107. In the context of Panchayati Raj, which one of the following is true about Gram Sabha? A This is the topmost tier of the Panchayati Raj B. It consists of all the voters residing in the jurisdiction of a Village Panchayat C. It is the excutive body consisting of selected representative from Village Panchayat O. It consists of aU the adult males of the Village Panchayat 108. The joint sittings of the Union Parliament may be summoned for A. Special address of the President B. Annual address of the President C. President's occasional messages of national significance D. Resolution of the. dead lock between the two Houses on a non-money bill 109. Which one of the following High Courts has the Territorial Jurisdiction over Andaman and Nicobar islands A. Andhra Pradesh B. Calcutta C. Madras D. Orissa 110. As per Indian Protocol, who among the following ranks highest in the order of precedence? A. Deputy Prime Minister B. Former President C. Governor of a State within his State D. SpeakerofLokShaba 111. The Lok Sabha secretariat comes under the control of A. Ministry of Home Affairs B. Speaker of the Lok Sabha C. Ministry ofParliament.ary-Affairs D. Prime Minister 112. Who appoints the comptroller and Auditor-Generaloflnwa? A The U.P.S.C. B. The President C. The Prime Minister D. The Parliament 113. In case of absence of President and VicePresident, which of the follow ing acts as the president of country. A Prime Minister

B. SpeakerofLokSabha C. Chief Justice of India O. Leaderofopposition 114. A bill becomes a law when A. Both Houses ofPal'liament approve it by requisite majority B. The Council ofM.inisters approves it C. The President gives his assent D. The Supreme Court upholds its constitutional validity 115. Who examines the report of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India after it is laid before Parliament? A. Lok Sabha Speaker B. Estimates Committee C. Public Accounts Committee D. None of the above 116. Consider the following statements regarding the Governor of a state in India: (i) To be appointed as Governor, one should have completed the age of 45 years (u) The Governor holds the office during the pleasure of the President (iii) After completing five years in office. the Governor cannot continue to hold the office even when his successor has not entered upon his office (iv) The executive power of the state is vested in the Governor Which of the above statements are correct? 117. Which of the following subjects does not belong to the Union List? A. Atomic Energy B. War and Peace C. Post office Savings Bank D. Public Health and Sanitation US. The Chairman and the members of State Public Service Commission are appointed by the A. President B. Governor C. Chairman of upse D. Prime Minister 119. In which of the following states was the Panchayati Raj first introduced? A. Rajasthan S. Gujarat C. Uttar Pradesh D. Bihar 120. How many members of the Anglo-Indian community can be nominated to the Lok Sabha by the President? A.2 B.5

C. 10 D. 12 121. President can be removed on charges of violating the Constitution by A. No-confidence motion B. Impeachment C. Electoral College of Legislative Assemblies D. Prime Minister 122. The function of the Panchayat Samiti is to A. Deal with rural industrialisation B. Deal with administration of justice at the Panchayat level C. Implement community development project schemes D. Deal with financial matters of the Panchayat 123. Which Writ is issued by a High Court or the Supreme Court to compel an authority to perform a function that it was not performing? A. Writ of certiorari B. Writ of Habeas Corpus C. Writ of Mandamus D. Writ of Quo Warranto 124. Which one of the following sets of special powers has been conferred on Rajya Sabha by the Constitution? A. To change the existing territory of a state and to change the name of a state B. To pass a resolution empowering the parliament to make laws in the State List and creation of one or more AllIndia services C. To amend the election procedure of the President and to determine the pension of the President after his retirement D. To determine the functions of the Election Commission and to determine the number of Election Commissioners 125. In the Rajya Sabha, the States have been provided A. Equal representation B. Representation on the basis of poupulation C. Representation on the basis of population and si:te D. Representation on the basis of size 126. The salaries of the Judges of the Supreme Court are charged on the consolidated fund of rndia because A. they may get salaries regularly every month

B. their salaries may be free from legislative vote C. there may not be any cut in their salaries D. their financial position may be secure to enable them to dispense impartial justice 127. 'Judicial Review' is the power of the higher court to declare unconstitutional any 1. Law passed by legislature 2. Judgement of the lower court 3. Order of the executive Choose the answer from the following choices A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 128. Which of the following standing committees of Parliament has no MP from Rajya Sabha? A. Public Accounts Committee B. Estimates Committee 131. How many types of emergency can be C. Committee on Public Undertakings declared by the President of India? D. Committee on Government A. 2 B. 3 AsSurances C. 4 D. 5 129. The Comptroller and Auditor-General of 132. Who is the custodian of fundamental India acts as the chief accountant and rights of people? auditor for the A. Supreme Court B. President A. Union Government C. Prime Minister D. State Assembly B. State Governments 133. Education is a subject in the: C. Union and State Governments A. Union list B. State list D. Neither Union nor State Governments 180. A member of the Union Public Service C. Concurrent list D. None of the lists Commission holds office for a period of 134. Who can amend the Constitution? A. Five Years A. President B. Parliament B. Seven years C. Prime Minister D. Union Cabinet C. Six years or sixty five years of age 135. The retirement age of a Supreme Court whichever is more Judge is: D. Six years or until he attains the age of A. 55 years B. 58 years s ixty five whichever is earlier C. 62 years D. 65 years ANSWERS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ACBCBCAECA 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 DADBACDBDB 21 22 23 24 25 26 'l:I 28 29 30 BBCADDCCDC 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 411 ABCCADDCDC 41 42 43 44 .., 46 47 48 49 50 ACCADDBABA 51 52 53 54 65 56 57 68 59 60

DCBAABCABA 61 62 63 54 65 66 In 68 69 70 CDBACABCAA 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 BAABCDDADB 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 DADCABAAAA 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 DBDCCCACCD 101 102 103 104 105 lOG 107 108 109 110 BAADDABDBC 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 CBCCCDDBAA 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 BCCBBDCBCD 131 . 132 133 134 135 BACBD IGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA India has one of the largest 'Higher Education System' in the wo.ld. Main players in the higher education system in the country are: University Grants Commission (UGC) is responsible for coordination, determination and maintenance of standards, release of grants. Professional Councils are responsible for recognition of courses, promotion of professional institutions and providing grants to undergraduate programmes and various awards. The statutory professional councils are: All Inclia Council for Technical Education (AIeTE), Distance Education Council (DEC), Indian Council for Agriculture Research (lCAR), Bar Council of [odis (BCI), National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) Rehabilitation Council of India (ReI), Medical Council of India (MCr), Pharmacy Cotmcil of India (Pcn, In!!!an Nursing Council o NC), Dentist Council of India (DCl), Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH), Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) Central Government is responsible for major policy relating to higher education in the country. It provide grants to the uae and establishes central universities in the country. The Central Government is also responsible for declaration of Educational Institutions as 'Deemed to be University' on the recommendation of the UGC. Presently there are sixteen (16) Central Universities in the country. In pursuance of the Mizoram Accord, another Central University in the State .of Mizoram is planned. There are 37 Institutions

which have been declared as Deemed to be Universities by the Govt. of [nelia as per Section of the UGe Act, 1956. State Governments are responsi ble for establishment of State Univer s ities and colleges, and provide plan grants for their develo,PpIent and non-plan grants for their maintenance. The coordination and cooperation between the Union and the States is brought about in the field of education through t.he Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE). Special Constitutional responsibility of the Central Government: Education is on the 'Concurrent list' subject to Entry 66 in the Union List of the Constitution. Thip gives exdusive Legislative Power to the Central Govt. for co-ordination and determination of standards in Institutions of higher education or research and scientific and technical institutions. ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION FRAMEWORK DEGREE STRUCTURE There are three principle levels of qualifications within the higher education system in the country. These are: Bachelor' Undergraduate level Master's f Post-graduate level Doctoral f Pre-doctoral level Diploma courses are also available at the undergraduate and postgraduate level. At the undergraduate level, it varies between one to three years in length, postgraduate diplomas are normally awarded after one year's study. Bachelor's degree in arts, commerce and sciences is three years of education (after 12 years of school education). In some places there are honours and special courses available. These are not necessarily longer in duration but indicate greater depth of study. Bachelor degree in professional field of study in agriculture, dentistry, engineering, pharmacy, technology and veterinary medicine generaUy take four years, while arch.itectw'e and medicine. it takes five and five and a half years respectively. There are other bachelor degrees in education, journalism and librarian-ship that are second degrees. Bachelor's degree in law can either be taken as an integrated degree lasting five years or three-year course as a second degree. Master's degree is normally of two-year I duration. It could be coursework based without t hesis or research a lone. Admission to

p08tgradua~ programmes in engineering and technology is done on the basis of Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering or Combined Medical Test respectively. A pre-doctoral programme - Master of Philosophy (M.Phil ) is taken after c;ompletion of the Master's Degree. This can either be completely research based or can include course work as well Ph.D. is awarded two year after the M.Phil. or three years after the Master's degree. Students are expected to write a substantial thesis based on original research, generally takes longer. NEW INITIATIVES, VOCATIONALIZATION AT THE FlRSfDEGREE LEVEL In conformity with the National Policy on Education, 1986, a tiCheme to provide career orientation to education at the first degree level was l aunch~d in 1994-95. Under the scheme. a university I college could introduce one to three vocational courses in 35 identified subjects. Autonomous Colleges: 138 collegea have been functioning as autonomous colleges in eight states in the country. National Eligibility Test (NET) is being conducted by the UGC since 1989 for eligibility for lect ureship. Around 50000 students appear for the test every year. Pass percentage is around 5%. Eight State Level Tests have been accredited 8S par with NET. System of Governance of Hig her Education Institutions: The Universities are of various kinds: with a single faculty, or multi-faculties; teaching or affiliating, or teaching cum aff.tliating, single campus or multiple campus. Most of the Universities are affiliating universities. which prescribe to the affiliat.ed colleges the course of study, hold examinations and award degrees, while undergraduate and to some extent post, the colleges affiliated to them impart graduate instruction. Many of the university along with their affiliated colleges have grown rapidly to the extent of becoming uamanageable. Therefore, as per National Policy on Eaucation, 1986, a scheme of autonomous colleges was promoted. In the autonomous colleges, whereas the degree continues to be awarded by the University, the name of the college is also included. The colleges develop and propose new courses of study to the university for approval. They are

also fully responsible for con duct of examination. There are at present 126 autonomous colleges in the country. Focus of Ninth Plan: Thrust areas are: measures for quality improvement and modernization of syllabi. renewal of infrastructure, extra-budgetary resource mobilization and greater attention to issues in governance. Issues of access and relevance would receive attention. Conferment of grater autonomy to deserving colleges and professional upgradation of teachers through Academic Staff Colleges would be given priority. Emphasis is being placed on consolidation and optimal utilization of the existing infrastructure through institutjonal networking. restructuring expansion. so as to only meet the demand of the unserved areas with a focus on women and under privileged seCtiOIUl. The Open University system, which has been growing in popularity and size. is striving to diversify courses and offerings and gain wider acceptability by upgrading its quality. It would focus more sharply on the educational needs of women and rural society, as well as professional training of in-service employees. CENTRAL UNIVERSITIES * President of India is the Visitorofall Central Universities. * PresidentNisitor nominates some members to the Executive Committee/Board of ManagementlCourtiSelection Committees of the University as per the pl'ovisions made in the relevant University Act. * Ministry provides secretariat service for appointment of Vice-ChancellorfExecutlve Committee NomineeslCourtNomineeslSelectJon Committee Nominees etc. by the President. Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) Established in 1985 for introduction and promotion of Open University and distance education system. Major objectives include widening of access to higher education. IGNOU programmes telecast on Doordarshan Network six days a week. Its jurisdiction is through out the oountry.lt can set up Study Centres outside the country .This was allowed vide amendment of the IGNOU Act in 1997. Distance Education Council (DEC) under IGNOU has the responsibility for coordination and maintenance of standards in open and distance education system in the country.

University Of Hyderabad, Established in 1974 for post-graduate teaching and research, 20 Km from the City of Hyderabad on the Old Hyderabad - Bombay road. It has a City campus 'The Golden Threshold' - the residence ofthe late Sarojini Naidu. The University has Eight Schools of Studies and a Centre for Distance Education offering postgraduate diploma in five disciplines. University or Delhi, Established in February 1922 as a unitary and residential university. It has 14 faculties, 82 teach.ing departments and 78 colleges spread over national Capital Territory of Delhi. A new State University - [ndraprashtha Vishwavidhlaya bas come up in Delhi as an affiliating University. Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Visbwavidyalaya, Wardha Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya Act (at Wardha) was passed by the Parliament in December, 1996. Univ~I' .. i.LY came into existence with effect from 29th December 1997. It has international cbaracter. Four schools proposed under this University. For the time being the University is operating from its temporary office at Delhi. Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow Established 8S a State University in 1994 at Lucknow, it was notified as a Central University on 10th January 1996. It aims to provide instructional and research facilities in new and frontier areas of learning. Has three schools and three centres. (School of Ambedkar Studies, School for Information Science and Technology and School fo :, Environmental studies and Centre for Rural Technology, Centre for Vocational Studies and Centre for Human Rights.) Pondicherry University Established in 1985 8S a teaching-cum affiliating university. It has jurisdiction over the Union Territory of Pondicherry and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It also has a Community College. Affiliated institutions of which 13 are located in Pondicherry, 3 in Karaikal, 2 in Mahe. 1 in Yanam and 3 in Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Visva Bharati, Santiniketan It is an unitary teaching and residential University. Founded by Guru Rabindranath Tagore. Incorporated as a Central University by t.he Visva Bharati Act, 1951 . Itsjurisdiction

is restricted to the area known as Santiniketan in the District of Birbhum, West Bengal. It imparts education from the Primary School level to Post-Graduate and Doctorate levels. It has 12 institutes - 8 at Santiniketan, 3 at Sriniketan and 1 at Kolkata. Rural Segment of the University (Sriniketan) created CAREER (Centre for Advanced Rural Education, Extenuation and Research) and CSV (Centre for Science in Villages). For creating facilities in the housing technology Nirman Bhawan (Building Centre) was established under the sponsorship of HUDCO. Millia lslamia, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi Functioned 8S a Deemed University since 1962. Acquired ytatus of a Central University in December, 1988 by an Act. of Parliament Imparts education from Nursery stage to p~st: graduate & Doctorate levels. It has six Faculties and Eight Centres Rnd Five Schools. AJ, Kidwai Mass Communication Research Centre (AJKMCRC) providefJ training at Post graduate level in Mass Communication, producing educational material on different educational aspects/subjects for the UGC, INSAT Programme. Aligarb Muslim University, Aligarh Established in 1920 8S a fully residential Central University. It maintains four Hospitals, six Colleges (including Medical, Dental and Engineering Colleges), two Polytechnics and eight Schools. Offers six diploma courses exClusively for women. 18562 students (including school strength) were in rolls. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Came into existence in 1916 as a teaching and residential University. It consists of three Institutions Institute of Medical Sciences, Institute of Technology and Institute of Agricultural Sciences. It has faculties with 121 academic departments and 4 interdisciplinary schools. It maintains a constituent Mahila Mahavidyalaya and three School level institutions. lOOOBedded Modern Ayurvedic Medicine Hospital. Jawahar La! Nehru University, New Delhi It came into existence in 1969. It is primarily concerned with Postgraduate Education and Research. It has 7 schools consisting of 24 Centres of Studies and a separate Centre for

BioTechnology. Maulana Azad National Urdu University The University Act was passed by the Parliament in 1997 and it came into existence on 9th January, 1998. Its Administrative Office has been set up at Hyderabad. It has Regional Officers at Delhi, Patna and Bangalore. lt'saim is to promote and develop Urdu language and to impart vocational and technical education in Urdu medium through conventional and distance education system. ASSAM UNIVERSITY, Dorgakona, Assam Established as a teachingcumaffiliating University on 21.1.1994. Though the act was passed in 1989. It has Jurisdiction over the districts ofCachar, Karimganj, Karhi, anglong and Hailakandi in the State of Assam. Nagaland University, Kohima Established as a teaching-cum affiliating University on 6.9.1994. Though the act was passed in 1989. Its Headquarters is at Lumami, Nagaland. It. has jurisdiction over the whole of the State of Nagaland. It has 39 colleges affiliated. It has campuses in Kohima, Lumami and Medsiphema (School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development SASRD), 25 Departments and 4 Schools of Studies. Tezpur University, Nappam, Assam A nonaffiliating unitary Central University set up in 1994 under an Act of Parliament, Tezpur University Act, 1993. It's aims is to offer employment-oriented and inter disciplinary courses, mostly at post-graduate level. It has 11 Departments under 4 schools of studies and 6 centres of Studies. North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong Established in 1973 at Shillong by an Act of Parliament. North Eastern Hill University Act, 1973. It has a Campus at Aizwal and a centre in Tura. Its jurisdiction is over the States of Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram. Its Headquarters at Shillong. Post graduate Departments and four Centres of Studies under its six schools of studies and an under-graduate college. It has 58 Under graduate Colleges and 8 professional course colleges and North-Eastern Regional Institute olScienee and Technology (NERJST) affiliared. It has a Regional Sophisticated Instrumentation Selitre (RSIC). UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION (UGC) Objective: The government established

University Grants Commission (UGC) by an Act of Parliament in 1956. It discharges the Constitutional mandate of coordination" determination, and maintenance of standards of teaching, examination and research in the ' field of University and Higher Education. UOC serves 8S a vita l link between the Union and State Governments and the institutions of higher learning. It monitors developments in the field of collegiate and university education; disburses grants to the univers ities and colleges: advises Cent.ral and State Governments on the measures necessary for the improvement of university ed ucation; and fram es regulations such as those on the minimum standards of instruction. Composition Commission comprises of the Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and ten other members appointed by the Central Government. 'The Chairperson is selected from among persons who are not officers of the Central Government or any State Government. Of the ten members, two are from amongst the officers of the Central Government to represent it. Not less than four. selected from among persons who are, at the time they are selected, shall be a teacher in the Universities. Others are selected from among eminent educationists, academics and experts in various fields. Chairperson is appointed for a term of 5 years or until the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. ViceChairperson is appointed for a term of 3 years or until the age of 65 yesrs, whichever is earlier. The other members are appointed for a term of 3 years. The Chairperson. Vice Chairperson and members can be appointed for a maximum of two terms. Funding UGC has no funds ofits own. It receives both Plan and NonPlan grants from the Central Government to carry out the responsibilities assigned to it by law. It allocates and disburses full maintenance and development grants to all Central Universities, Colleges affiliated to Delhi and Banaras Hindu Universities and some of the institutions accorded the sta tus of 'Deemed to be Universities'. State Universlties, Colleges and other institutions of higher education, receive support only from the Plan grant for development schemes. Besides, it provides financial assistance to Universities and co lle ges under various schemesl

programmes for promoting relevance, quality and excellence as also promoting the role of social change by the Universities. Regional Offices Si." Regional Offices Name of Regional Office States Southem Regional Office: Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu. NorthemRegional Office: Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana. Uttar Pradesh. Central Regional Office: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan. Eastern Regional Office :.West Bengal, Biha!', Orissa, Sikkim. North Eastern Regio/wl Office: Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Nagaland. Western Regional Office : Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra. Inter University Centres (lUes) Under Section 12 (ccc) of the UGC Act, the Commission has established the follOwing Inter - University Centres to provide common facilities, se rvi ce and programmes to Universities since heavy investment in infrastructure and inputs have made it beyond the reach of individual .Universities to obtain these facilities: Nuclear Science Centre. New Delhi: Accelerator oriented research ruc for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune: State-oftheart instrumentation for research in astronomy IUC for DAE facilities, Indore: Use of facilities of Department of Atomic Energy Information ond Library Network (INFLIBNET), Ahmedabad: Networking of libraries through electronic medis Consortium for Educational Communication (CEe), New Delhi : To dissemi nate Countrywide programme through television 216 National Assessment & Accreditation Council (NACC), Bangalore: To assess and accredit public & Private institutions of higher learning National Facilities UGC has also set up the following Centres as National facilities in selected Universities:Western Regional Instrumentation Centre, Bombay: Design and development of indigenous equipment and training to staff in instrumentation. Regional Instrumentation Centre, Indian

Institute of Science, Bangalore: Design and development of indigenous equipment and training to staff in instrumentation. Chennai : Research and dissemination of knowledge and oorganization of training programme in crystal growth. M.S.T. Radar Centre SriVenkateswara Tirupati: Studies in atmospheric Dynamics to enable teachers to use MSTfRadar facility. Eastern Centre for Radio Astr'ophysics, Calcutta University: Research in Astrophysics Japal - Rangapur observatory, Osmania University. Hyderabad: Science Research Observatory Centre for Science Education & Communication, New Delhi: Popularization of Science INDIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM Institution Types & Credentials Types of higher education institutions: University Institute of Technology College Open University School leaving adult higher education Credentials: Higher Secondary School Certificate Secondary School Certificate Diploma Bachelor's Degree Postgraduate Diploma Master's Degree Master of Philosophy Post-Master Degree Doctorate Doctor of Laws Doctor of Literature Doctor of Science Structure of education system Pre-higher education: Duration of compulsory education: Age of entry: 6 Age of exit: 14 Structure of school system: Primary Type of school providing this education: Lower Primary School (Standards I To V) Length of program in years: 5 Age level from : 6 to 11 Middle Type of school providing this education: Middle School (Standards V1 To Vllt) Length of program in years: 3

Age level from: 11 to 14 Secondary Type of school providing this education: Secondary School (Standards IX To X) Length of program in years: 2 Age level from: 14 to 16 Certificate/diploma awarded: Secondary School Certificate Senior Secondary Type of school providing this education: Higher Secondary School (Standards Xl To XlI) Length of program in years: 2 Age level from: 16 to 18 Certificate/diploma awarded: Higher Secondary School Certificate Vocational Secondary Type of school providing this education: Secondary schools Length of program in years: 3 Age level from: 16 to 18 Certificate/diploma awarded: Higher Secondary School Certificate School education: School education in India is a two-tier system, the first ten years covering general education followed by two years of senior secondary education. Primary education is divided into two stages: the first five years constitute the prlmary stage (Standards I-V) and the next three years, the upper primary stage or middle school (Standards VI-VIII). Secondary education usually lasts between two and four years. After two years, pupils who have completed ten years of education (Standard X) take the Secondary School Certificate. Pupils then enter higher secondary schools or Junior Colleges and complete a further two years of ed ucation (Standards XI and XTI). Courses focus on university preparation. Public examinations are held at the end of Standard IX either by individual states or by Central Boards and lead to the award of the Higher Secondary School Certificate (also called All india Senior School Certificate or Indian School Certificate or Pre-University Course).Vocational education is offered in two years at Higher and Technical Schools and lead to the Certificate of Vocational Education (CVE). Higher education: Higher ed ucation is provided by: (1) Universities -including agricultural

universities and medical universities divided into Central Universities, funded directly by the Ministry of Human Resources Development, and State Universities, set up and funded by various states. (2) "Deemed to be universities", single-faculty, multi subjects institutions which enjoy the same academic status and privileges of a university; and (3) Institutions of Nationa l Importa nce , university-level institutions funded by the central government. These include the Indian Institutes of Technology. Most universities belong to the affiliating and teaching type in which departments impart instruction at the postgraduate level and undertake research. Agricultural universities stress research and extension work. Finally, there are technological universities and ten open universities. There are also research institutions, administered by the Indian Council of Social Science Research, and research laboratories, as well as more than tO,OOO colleges. most of which are afftliated to universities. Unive rsities are governed by statutory bodies such as the Academic Council. the Senate/Court and the Executive CounciU Syndicate. Funding for State universities largely comes from the State governments and the University Grants Commission. Higher education falls mainly under its jurisdiction. The Association of Indian Universities (AIU) represents univer si ties and has the responsibility for all matters within the higher ed ucation sector other than funding . Professional institutions are coordinated by different bodies. The All-India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), established in 1987, is responsible for the coordination of technica l and manage ment Educa ti on institutions. Bodies such as State Councils of Higher Education were established r ece ntly. Non-university level: On completion of Standard X, students may opt for (1) Further secondary school studies leading to the Higher Secondary School Certificate ; (2) Craftsman or apprenticeship courses offered in Industrial Training Institutes through the Craftman Training Scheme and Apprenticeship Scheme and leading to Trade Certificates or (3) Entering a Polytechnic where they are offered one to three-year diploma courses in all subjects except Medicine. There are over 1200 Polytechnics in l!ldia. Although planned to train technicians, an increasing

number now offer oour8es leading to degrees and even post-graduate diplomas and certificates. Access to cou rses for the Higher National Diploma (HND) requires Standard XII. University level studies: First stage: Bachelor: First degree generally require three years' fulltime study leading to Bachelor of Arts, Science and Commerce degrees. Entrance to &n Honours course may require a higher pass mark in the higher secondary or pre university examinations. An Honours degree does not generally involve longer study hut indicates greater specialization. In professional subjects: courses last for four to five and a half years. the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) can either be taken as an integrated flrst degree course (five years) or as a two to three-year course taken as a second degree. Second stage: Master's Degree: A Master's Degree in Arts, Science and Commerce generally requires two years of study after a first degree. Most. are cowseworkbased without a thesis. The Indian Institutes of Technology offer three semester studies leading to ME, MSc (Engg) and MTech degrees. Master's courses in Engineering and Technology normally require two years' study after a first professional degree. Candidates must qualify through the Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering Colleges. I n Medicine and Surgery, the MaFlter's degree takes two years after MBBSfBDS. The Master of Technology is awarded after a study period of three semesters. Students must complete a research project which usually takes one semester. The Master of Computer Applications (MCA) is awarded after three years' study beyond the Bachelor's Degree. Third stage: Master of Philosophy, PhD: One and a half-year MPhil programmes are open to those who have completed their second stage postgraduate degree. It is a preparatory programme for ~octoral level studies. Some universities admit MBBSIBE degree holders to PhD courses. The PhD programme involves two years' study beyond tt;le MPhil or a minimum of three years' stutly beyond the Master's degree and the submission of a thesis, as well as an oral examination. Fourth stage: DSc. Dlitt: The Doctor of Science (DSc) and the Doctor of Literature (Dlitt) degrees are awarded by some

universities two to three years after the PhD for original contributions. Teacher education: Training of preprimary and primary/basic school teachers Teachers for lower primary classes (Standards I to V) are trained in Teacher Training Institutes (also called Junior Basic Training Institutes or Primary Teacher Colleges) attached to State departments of education. The course usually lasts for two years and leads to a Diploma or a Teacher Training Certiflcate. Upper primary school teachers are trained in two years and the course leads to a Diploma. They must have passed the Higher Secondary School-Leaving Certificate. Training of secondary school teachers Teachers at lower secondary level (Standards IX and X) are graduates who havE' completed a one-year Bachelor of education at a college affiliated to a university. Teache-rs at the higher secondary level (Standards XI and XU) are postgraduates who have usually completed a Master's degree followed by a one-year Bachelor in Education. Four Regional Colleges of Education offer a combined fOUT-year integrated programme leading to a Bachelor's degree. Training of higher education teachers Teachers at colleges of education must hold an M.Ed and a PhD. Studies for these are undertaken at a number of universities. Non-traditional studies: Distahce higher education Since its inception in 1962 at the University of Delhi, distance education has grown considerably. There are now some sixty InstituteslDirectorates of distance education attached to conventional universities and ten Open Universities, including Indira Gandhi National Open University with over 150 regional centers throughout India. Distance education programmes cover about one hundred DegreelDiploma courses. Many conventional universities also offer correspondence courses, which are sometimes supplemented by contact classes. Lifelong higher education Universities and colleges offer adult and continuing education with assistance from the uac. Programmes include Population Eucation, Legal Literacy, Science Encation and Technology Transfer. There are also evening co lleges which provide courses at

undergraduate level and, in some areas, postgraduate courses are also offered. Other forms of non-formal education Non-university level post-secondary education consists of one-year Certificate courses and two- to three-year Diploma courses in various technical and commercial fields. They are conducted by industrial training institutes and polytechnics administered through the state departments oftechnical education. NATIONAL BODIES Administration & co-ordination: Responsible authorities: Ministry of Human Resources Development, Science and Technology Head: Arjun Singh Shastri Bhavan New Delhi 110001 Association of Indian Universities AIU House, 16 Kotla Marg, New Delhi 110002 University Grants Corrunission Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi 110002 Role of governing body: Coordinates the work of the universities; establishes equivalences of degrees; acts as a bureau of information; conducts research on university development. VOCATIONAL COURSES COVERED UNDER APPRENTICES ACT 1961 Agriculture 1. Poultry Production 2. Fisheries/Fish Processing 3. Dairying 4. Sericulture 5. Apiculture 6. Floriculture 7. Plant Protection 8. Agricultural Ctiemicals 9. Inland Fisheries 10. Plantation Crops and Management 11. Seed Production Technology 12. Swine Production 13. Vegetable Seed Production 14. Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Industry 15. Sheep and Goat Husbandry 16. Repair and Maintenance of Power Driven Farm Machinery 17. Veterinary Pharmacist-cum-Artificial Insemination Assistant 18. Agro Based Food Industry (Animal based)

19. Agro Based Food Industry (Crop based) 20. Agro Based Food Industry (Feed based) WHAT ARE COMPUTERS? Computers have been around since the Chinese Abacus. They are here to stay. There is a certain feel and flow to the logic that directs their activities. Electronically, all computers work about the same. Computers vary widely in size and use. However all computers are similar in what the hardware does. So-called microcomputers (like your desktop Personal Computer (PC)) are designed for personal use, relatively low price, and modest data processing tasks. Minicomputers are moderate sized (a small refrigerator size) and perform more complex tasks with larger amounts of data. Minicomputers might be used in a small engineering office or a local bank branch to send transaction data to a head office computer. Mainframe computers are large, expensive and process billions of characters of data rapidly and fill entire rooms. Finally, supercomputers are built to minimize distance between circuit boards and operate at very high speed for complex uses such as designing airplanes, animating complex movie sequences graphically or solving complex engineering formulas having billions of steps mathematically. Supercomputers are built for raw speed. Supercomputers are the main servers in the Internet System. Some terms apply to all computers. INPUT is how data gets into a computer. The keyboard and mouse are familiar INPUT devices. OUTPUT references how data is provided from the computer. A Monitor or printer are good examples of OUTPUT devices. PRIMARY STORAGE or MEMORY is the computers immediate data storage area usually this is in small integrated circuit chips which hold data ONLY while power is supplied. This PRIMARY STORAGE area is thus temporary. More permanent SECONDARY STORAGE is used when computer power is off or when data overflows primary storage. This is usually floppy or hard disk drives but can include paper tapes, punch cards, or even non-volatile magnetic bubble memories. A computer system includes computer hardware, software and people. A computer is a device capable of solving problems or manipulating data by accepting data, performing prescribed operations on the data, and displaying the results in the desired form. The computer is a useful tool for data (or Information) Input, storage, processing and output. HISTORY -HOW, WHERE, WHEN DID IT ALL START? The first computational device was the abacus. This has been in continuous use for thousands of years. During the 1600's the Pascal adding machine was developed. This was a mechanical device that laid the groundwork for today's odometers and gas meters. The 1800's saw many machines developed that were controlled by punch cards - weaving looms. The theoretical basis for electronic circuitry was developed in the mid 1800's. In 1947, just after the first electronic computer was built, the transistor was invented, enabling the birth of vastly less expensive, more reliable computers. Even with transistors, computers were still too complex and costly for widespread use until the advent of the integrated circuit (IC) in 1961 made truly inexpensive computers possible at last. From this point forth there were many firsts as computers became less mechanical, smaller, faster and cheaper. In 1971, IC technology progressed to a point where a complete central processing unit - the heart of the computer - could be integrated on

a single piece off silicon, giving birth to the microprocessor. The microprocessor led to the personal computer. The Personal Computer is distinguished by its size, cost, and applications for small business and the home. The first one appeared in January 1975 and was the Altair 8800 kit. Only hobbyists bought these. Then the Radio Shack TRS 80 and Apple computers hit the market as the first pre-assembled microcomputers. Market growth remained sluggish until two business students - Dan Bricklin and Dan Fylstra - developed a program to run on Apple computers to handle the tedious recalculations in their school assignments. This program was called VisiCalc and is the forerunner to the spreadsheet program Lotus 123. With VisiCalc as a useful tool, Apple sales took off. Apple became the standard because all programs were written for Apple. Today in the US, Apple still dominates the school market. In 1981 IBM introduced its PC. IBMs legacy still dominates the industry today. The PC was unable to run Apple software. Unlike Apple or other IBM products, the IBM PC had an open architecture. This means the technical details of how it operated were published with the product's introduction. This permitted hundreds of companies to write software (programs) for the IBM PC and a variety of hardware accessories. Adding IBM's sterling reputation, the open architecture did enable rapid market penetration. The microcomputer was no longer a toy, it was a business tool. The open architecture also allowed for the generation of a host of lower cost compatible computers. IBM had traded quick initial market entry for eventual erosion of market share. In both instances, the consumers' benefit. In the early 90s Computers were applied variously in the fields of Science, Technology and Space exploration. Initially, PCs revolutionized how businesses are run, but today, computers deepest impact are felt in the merging of Communications and Information. The emergence of the World Wide Web and the explosion of Internet usage is having far-reaching effects on all aspects of society. Success and progress in all spheres of life, is now driven by Information and Technology. The future is bright, but it is up to every user of the technology to see that it is used to positive effect. History of Computers: 1. First Generation (1939-1954) - vacuum tube 1937 - John V. Atanasoff designed the first digital electronic computer 1939 - Atanasoff and Clifford Berry demonstrate in Nov. the ABC prototype 1941 - Konrad Zuse in Germany developed in secret the Z3 1943 - In Britain, the Colossus was designed in secret at Bletchley Park to decode German messages 1944 - Howard Aiken developed the Harvard Mark I mechanical computer for the Navy 1945 - John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert built ENIAC at U of PA for the U.S. Army 1946 - Mauchly and Eckert start Electronic Control Co., received grant from National Bureau of Standards to build a ENIAC-type computer with magnetic tape input/output, renamed UNIVAC in 1947 but run out of money, formed in Dec. 1947 the new company Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation (EMCC). 1948 - Howard Aiken developed the Harvard Mark III electronic computer with 5000 tubes 1948 - U of Manchester in Britain developed the SSEM Baby electronic computer with CRT memory

 1949 - Mauchly and Eckert in March successfully tested the BINAC stored-program computer for Northrop Aircraft, with mercury delay line memory and a primitive magentic tape drive; Remington Rand bought EMCC Feb. 1950 and provided funds to finish UNIVAC 1950- Commander William C. Norris led Engineering Research Associates to develop the Atlas, based on the secret code-breaking computers used by the Navy in WWII; the Atlas was 38 feet long, 20 feet wide, and used 2700 vacuum tubes 1951 - S. A. Lebedev developed the MESM computer in Russia 1951 - Remington Rand successfully tested UNIVAC March 30, 1951, and announced to the public its sale to the Census Bureau June 14, 1951, the first commercial computer to feature a magnetic tape storage system, the eight UNISERVO tape drives that stood separate from the CPU and control console on the other side of a garage-size room. Each tape drive was six feet high and three feet wide, used 1/2-inch metal tape of nickel-plated bronze 1200 feet long, recorded data on eight channels at 100 inches per second with a transfer rate of 7,200 characters per second. The complete UNIVAC system weighed 29,000 pounds, included 5200 vacuum tubes, and an offline typewriter-printer UNIPRINTER with an attached metal tape drive. Later, a punched card-to-tape machine was added to read IBM 80column and Remington Rand 90-column cards. 1952 - Remington Rand bought the ERA in Dec. 1951 and combined the UNIVAC product line in 1952: the ERA 1101 computer became the UNIVAC 1101. The UNIVAC I was used in November to calculate the presidential election returns and successfully predict the winner, although it was not trusted by the TV networks who refused to use the prediction. 1954 - The sage aircraft-warning system was the largest vacuum tube computer system ever built. It began in 1954 at MIT's Lincoln Lab with funding from the Air Force. The first of 23 Direction Centers went online in Nov. 1956, and the last in 1962. Each Center had two 55,000-tube computers built by IBM, MIT, AND Bell Labs. The 275-ton computers known as "Clyde" were based on Jay Forrester's Whirlwind I and had magnetic core memory, magnetic drum and magnetic tape storage. The Centers were connected by an early network, and pioneered development of the modem and graphics display. 2.Second Generation Computers (1954 -1959) - transistor 1950 - National Bureau of Standards (NBS) introduced its Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) with 10,000 newly developed germanium diodes in its logic circuits, and the first magnetic disk drive designed by Jacob Rabinow 1953 Watson Junior led IBM to introduce the model 604 computer, its first with transistors, that became the basis of the model 608 of 1957, the first solid-state computer for the commercial market. Transistors were expensive at first, cost $8 vs. $.75 for a vacuum tube. But Watson was impressed with the new transistor radios and gave them to his engineers to study. IBM also developed the 650 Magnetic Drum Calculator, the first by IBM to use magnetic drum memory rather punched cards, and began shipment of the 701 scientific "Defense Calculator" that was the first of the Model 700 line that dominated main frame computers for the next decade 1955 - IBM introduced the 702 business computer; Watson on the cover of Time magazine March 28 1956 - Bendix G-15A small business computer sold for only $45,000, designed by Harry Huskey of NBS 1959 - General Electric Corporation delivered its Electronic Recording Machine Accounting (ERMA) computing system to the Bank of America in California; based on a design by SRI, the ERMA system employed Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) as the means to capture data from the checks and introduced automation in banking that continued with ATM machines in 1974

3. Third Generation Computers (1959 -1971) - IC 1959 - Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments patented the first integrated circuit in Feb. 1959; Kilby had made his first germanium IC in Oct. 1958; Robert Noyce at Fairchild used planar process to make connections of components within a silicon IC in early 1959; the first commercial product using IC was the hearing aid in Dec. 1963; General Instrument made LSI chip (100+ components) for Hammond organs 1968 1964 - IBM produced SABRE, the first airline reservation tracking system for American Airlines; IBM announced the System/360 all-purpose computer, using 8-bit character word length (a "byte") that was pioneered in the 7030 of April 1961 that grew out of the AF contract of Oct. 1958 following Sputnik to develop transistor computers for BMEWS 1968 - DEC introduced the first "mini-computer", the PDP-8, named after the miniskirt; DEC was founded in 1957 by Kenneth H. Olsen who came for the SAGE project at MIT and began sales of the PDP-1 in 1960 1969 - Development began on ARPAnet, funded by the DOD 1971 - Intel produced large scale integrated (LSI) circuits that were used in the digital delay line, the first digital audio device 4. Fourth Generation (1971-1991) - microprocessor 1971 - Gilbert Hyatt at Micro Computer Co. patented the microprocessor; Ted Hoff at Intel in February introduced the 4-bit 4004, a VSLI of 2300 components, for the Japanese company Busicom to create a single chip for a calculator; IBM introduced the first 8-inch "memory disk", as it was called then, or the "floppy disk" later; Hoffmann-La Roche patented the passive LCD display for calculators and watches; in November Intel announced the first microcomputer, the MCS-4; Nolan Bushnell designed the first commercial arcade video game "Computer Space" 1972 - Intel made the 8-bit 8008 and 8080 microprocessors; Gary Kildall wrote his Control Program/Microprocessor (CP/M) disk operating system to provide instructions for floppy disk drives to work with the 8080 processor. He offered it to Intel, but was turned down, so he sold it on his own, and soon CP/M was the standard operating system for 8-bit microcomputers; Bushnell created Atari and introduced the successful "Pong" game 1973 - IBM developed the first true sealed hard disk drive, called the "Winchester" after the rifle company, using two 30 Mb platters; Robert Metcalfe at Xerox PARC created Ethernet as the basis for a local area network, and later founded 3COM 1974 - Xerox developed the Alto workstation at PARC, with a monitor, a graphical user interface, a mouse, and an ethernet card for networking 1975 - the Altair personal computer is sold in kit form, and influenced Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak 1976 - Jobs and Wozniak developed the Apple personal computer; Alan Shugart introduced the 5.25-inch floppy disk 1977 - Nintendo in Japan began to make computer games that stored the data on chips inside a game cartridge that sold for around $40 but only cost a few dollars to manufacture. It introduced its most popular game "Donkey Kong" in 1981, Super Mario Bros in 1985 1978 - Visicalc spreadsheet software was written by Daniel Bricklin and Bob Frankston 1979 - Micropro released Wordstar that set the standard for word processing software 1980 - IBM signed a contract with the Microsoft Co. of Bill Gates and Paul Allen and Steve Ballmer to supply an operating system for IBM's new PC model. Microsoft paid $25,000 to Seattle Computer for the rights to QDOS that became Microsoft DOS, and Microsoft began its climb to become the dominant computer company in the world. 1984 - Apple Computer introduced the Macintosh personal computer January 24.

 1987 - Bill Atkinson of Apple Computers created a software program called HyperCard that was bundled free with all Macintosh computers. This program for the first time made hypertext popular and useable to a wide number of people. 5. Fifth Generation (1991 and Beyond) 1991 - World-Wide Web (WWW) was developed by Tim Berners-Lee and released by CERN. 1993 - The first Web browser called Mosaic was created by student Marc Andreesen and programmer Eric Bina at NCSA in the first 3 months of 1993. The beta version 0.5 of X Mosaic for UNIX was released Jan. 23 1993 and was instant success. The PC and Mac versions of Mosaic followed quickly in 1993. Mosaic was the first software to interpret a new IMG tag, and to display graphics along with text. Berners-Lee objected to the IMG tag, considered it frivolous, but image display became one of the most used features of the Web. The Web grew fast because the infrastructure was already in place: the Internet, desktop PC, home modems connected to online services such as AOL and Compuserve 1994 - Netscape Navigator 1.0 was released Dec. 1994, and was given away free, soon gaining 75% of world browser market. 1996 - Microsoft failed to recognized the importance of the Web, but finally released the much imporoved browser Explorer 3.0 in the summer. WHY DO WE USE COMPUTERS? This similar to asking why do we use cars? But too many people and organizations purchase and use Computers for the wrong reasons. Computers are practical tools to be used in helping you get results. Computers are needed where: 1. There is a need for a more accurate and cost effective knowledge to assist decision making. Success and progress is now being determined by your access to information and how you use that information to get results. 2. It is impossible to get results due to either time constraint or sheer magnitude of work involved. 3. It will reduce the mental and physical effort in tackling certain tasks. 4.There is intense competition and there is a need for cost efficiency through the elimination and reduction of inefficient practices. 5.There is a need to assist in enhancing Customer service. 6.There is a need for correct forecasting of market trends to ensure business survival. COMPUTER APPLICATIONS Due to technological developments, Computers are now used in virtually all spheres of life. Here are a few of the application areas: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (S&T) Computers are used in S&T to promote advances that could be useful to mankind, i.e. discovering better and more efficient ways of doing things. They are especially useful for humanly intractable calculations and simulation experiments. This is especially critical in situations where it would be too risky or expensive to directly carry out the required operation. For example, in Space exploration, underwater exploration, testing of new drugs, etc. Computers enable S&T professionals can carry out their practical procedures using faster, more accurate and safer methods. EDUCATION Computers are useful for promoting learning experiences. From the toddler to the full grown adult, educational Computer tools are available. Computers are useful for learning about Computers and learning about other subjects, i.e. using Computer Assisted Learning software. Learning is usually interactive and can be reinforced over and over.

For children, the advent of Multimedia, has made learning fun. They often dont realize it when theyre playing that they are also learning. BANKING & FINANCE Computers are very useful for handling financial transactions, most especially the storage and processing of huge amounts of information kept by financial institutions. Computers enhances Customer service, through the provision of upto date and timely information for their Customers. Computers additionally assist with the monitoring of operational costs, to ensure cost effectiveness and profitability of operations. In some financial institutions, Computers are used to identify trends and provide timely information for present and future management decision making. RECREATION On your average PC, you can play a variety of games. You know what they say about Jack. With the games, you could be the sole player, play against the Computer or you and a friend could play against each other. SECURITY Computers are useful for storing information about crimes, criminals and suspects. This can be very useful in Crime detection and prevention. Such systems can be interfaced with photograph capturing and fingerprint systems. They can also be linked to mobile radio communication systems over a wide area to enable in the fast and efficient sharing of information on Criminal activities. Such systems would possess enquiry facility for historical and analytic purposes. There so many other areas where the impact of the Computer is being felt such as Medicine, Law, Sports, Entertainment, Media, Building, Construction, etc. In every situation the Computer performs different functions relating to Information storage, input, output and processing. It is no wonder that productive Computer based activity is referred to popularly as Information Technology. What are Computers? A computer system includes computer hardware, software and people. HARDWARE versus SOFTWARE What is the difference between computer hardware and software? HARDWARE In simplest terms, hardware is the physical parts associated with a computer - the electronic, magnetic, and mechanical devices (monitor, keyboard, printer, micro chip boards, floppy drives, cables and physical pieces of a system. These INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES allow the operator to interact with the computer. SOFTWARE Sets of programs (stored sets of instructions) that govern the operation of the computer system and make the hardware perform. These programs (instructions) tell the hardware how to do a particular task such as word processing, games, database management, etc. Although these instructions are usually stored inside a piece of hardware (e.g., software instructions stored inside a circuit chip or floppy drive) but they are nevertheless software. In a way, Software refers to the instructions that enable an otherwise dead machine to understand your inputs and transform them into desired outputs. Computer hardware by itself lacks personality; this is determined by the software. Word processing software turns the computer into a word processor, accounting software turns the computer into an accounting tool, etc. Lets discuss a bit about Software before we go back to Hardware. There are two major types of software: Operating system software and Applications software. Operating system software (like DOS, UNIX or Windows 95) performs very elemental housekeeping instructions (e.g., where is the monitor, how can I keep track of what data is on which track or sector of a floppy drive, whether more than user can work

on the system at the same time e.g. UNIX.) The operating system that all IBM and compatible PC's use is called DOS (sounds like floss). DOS is software that allows the terminal, printer, computer and mass storage systems (floppy disks) to work together as a unit, and controls the execution of programs. It also allows you to do housekeeping chores regarding managing disks and files. Applications programs perform tasks on a higher level (e.g., word processing Spreadsheet, Games, Database Management, Accounting, Payroll programs are applications.) Generally an application software package uses the lower level operating system (DOS) to do routine tasks (e.g., your word processing application uses the lower level DOS operating system frequently to write and store data on a disk. And what is a Database? A database is a collection of information that is organized for ease of reference. For example, your address book is a database, just as an inventory of goods, a list of all churches in your state or your staff list. Before Electronic processing of information, databases had to be maintained on paper stored in file folders that were kept in filing cabinets. With Electronic DataBase Management Systems (DBMS), information stored electronically and be recalled instantly and accurately. HARDWARE CENTRAL PROCESSOR UNIT (CPU) Heart of the PC - it contains the microprocessor. The CPU is a set of miniaturized circuits that does all the "thinking". It controls the interpretation (arithmetic-logic unit) and execution (control unit) of instructions. The CPU in conjunction with Random Access Memory (RAM) comprise the computer's "brain". The CPU does the "thinking / calculating" while RAM contains the instructions or "memories". It is the CPU that largely determines the operating speed of the computer. The type of processor on your PC will determine the nature of functions it can carry out and the speed at which instructions are carried out. For example, while a 286 processor would struggle to load Windows 3.1, a 486 processor loads it easily. Additionally, a 286 processor is obviously incapable of running most new software. Pentium processor are now as fast as 200 MHz. Now the good stuff. Lets read on and want delve into great complexity. Now its time to delve deeper into the heart of the computer. The central processing unit or CPU is the "brains" of every computer. On the PC, the CPU is simply a tiny integrated circuit. It is the control center and contains two circuit elements to perform tasks plus several special locations or memory areas called registers which hold instructions. Registers, located within the CPU chip are temporary storage locations which hold instructions. Secondly, the arithmetic logic unit or ALU is the location within the CPU where basic math and logic operations take place (such as addition and subtraction.) Finally, the control unit is a portion of the CPU which directs all elements of the computer. It does not add or subtract like the ALU, it only directs the activity. Despite this seeming complexity, a basic fact remains: all digital computers can only add and subtract two numbers: zero and one! Lets back up a bit. For purposes of digital computer electronics, internally a computer can only respond to two things: on and off - just like a light switch. These electronic states of being might actually be a positive and negative voltage or a high and low voltage stored in a series of transistors etched in silicon on a chip, but to the computer the logic is on or off. Two conditions, that is all. Back in the human world we can represent these as one and zero (1 and 0). A

special branch of mathematics deals with calculations of numbers represented by 1 and 0 which is called binary arithmetic. We rarely think of 0 as a number since we consider it NOTHING.) To computers ZERO is always a number!!! To a computer these binary numbers march together in a long string, one after another. Remember, the CPU has only two numbers to work with: 1 and 0. Human Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Computer Binary 0 1 WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A BIT AND A BYTE? The IBM PC and its clones generally use 8 bits (electrical pulses) to make up a byte (computer word.) A ninth "odd bit" is used for error checking (parity testing) to make sure the other eight bits are not accidentally erased or lost during storage or use by the computer. Bits are like alphabet characters and bytes are like the words made up from alphabet characters. Bits and Bytes are used to measure information by the computer. BIT Smallest unit of information recognized by the computer. BIT is short for Binary Digit. A Binary Digit can be either a 0 or a 1. Several bits make up a byte. BYTE A group of 8 BITS. This grouping of adjacent binary digits (bits) is operated on by the computer as a unit. Computers use 1 BYTE to represent 1 character such as a letter of the alphabet, a number, a punctuation mark, a space, etc. A BYTE is also a unit of measure since it represents 1 character. For example, when the letter "A" is pressed, the keyboard actually sends the following to RAM: 10000001 - a set of 8 bits. RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) Think of a computer as a human brain. Your brain is a memory sponge. It contains a lifetime of memories that cause us to act or react based on inputs. Inputs come through our 5 senses. If you see and smell hot suya burning on the grill (inputs) you know how to react based on previous experiences. A set of miniaturized circuits which represents the working memory of the computer. This is where application programs (software) can be loaded from the outside and then executed. The larger the RAM the better. A typical single user computer system may contain approximately 8,000,000 bytes of RAM. (This is often abbreviated as 8MB RAM.) The computer's brain consists of the RAM and the CPU. The CPU and RAM work together as the computer's "brain". Each day when we start up the computer one of the first tasks will be to fill RAM with instructions to give it an ability to do work. This work may be in the creation of documents or tracking accounting data. You control which instructions will go into the computer's brain. You control the sets of experiences you will provide the computer. Once in RAM, the computer will evaluate inputs from many devices and react. The most typical input device is a keyboard. As you type commands, the computer evaluates them. Based on the set of instructions within its RAM, it will follow some action: print a document, calculate, send information over a telephone line, etc. At some later point you may empty the computer's brain and install a different set of instructions, thus giving it a different ability. The RAM is emptied when the computer is turned off - thus it is often called "volatile" memory. WHAT YOU SEE ON YOUR COMPUTER MONITOR IS ACTUALLY IN RAM ONLY - a temporary storage location. To make it permanent we "save" it or "write" it to a floppy disk or hard drive. These devices are non volatile storage - they do not

require electricity. Each time the computer is turned off, all information within RAM is lost. RAM is called volatile memory because of the electricity requirement. READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM) This is a special section of memory that contains instructions which are activated each time the computer is turned on. These instructions are set at the factory and cannot be changed - thus, they can only be "read", not written to. ROM instructions perform equipment checks and initialization of the computer prior to each use. DISKS Think of disks as cassettes. You can record information on a cassette that can be replayed indefinitely and if desired, recorded over. Floppy and Hard Disks operate in a similar fashion. We record (Save) something we have created - like a document onto the disk. Then, hours, days, or months later we can play back (Retrieve) the document into the computer to alter or print out. The magnetic disk used to store information works in a manner similar to a tape recorder - magnetic impressions are placed on the tape and can be later replayed. A magnetic computer disk works in the same fashion but spins in a circle like a music record rather than moving in a straight line like recording tape. Magnetic computer disks are available in two basic types: floppy and hard disks. Just like cassettes, the Floppy and Hard Disks do not require electricity to retain their information. Hard Disks and Floppy Disks are similar. However, Hard Drives have a larger capacity for file storage, are faster and are less likely to fail due to the protected environment from within which they operate. Floppy and Hard Disks are nonvolatile in nature because they will retain their information without the aid of electricity. A hard disk can hold considerably more information than a floppy disk - frequently billions and millions of computer words (or "bytes") while a floppy disk holds less than a million in many cases. However what the floppy disk loses in capacity in gains in the advantage of portability since it can easily be removed from the PC and stored which is not true of the hard disk. When you format a disk you ask the computer to inspect the magnetic surface of the disk for any errors, prepare it for use by future data and create an index "file allocation table (FAT)" which is like a card index for a large library of books. Formatting a disk is a little like taking a blank piece of paper and using a pencil and ruler to turn it into graph paper with both horizontal and vertical lines. What was blank before now has little cells or file drawers which can hold information. DISK DRIVE The port in which a floppy disk is inserted. This device "reads data from a magnetic disk, and copies data into the computer's memory (RAM) so it can be used by the computer, and that "writes" data from the computer's memory onto a disk so it can be stored for later use. Each Disk Drive is labeled A,B,C, etc. because we often must tell the computer which drive has the disk with the information or where to send the information. A Disk Drive reads and writes on a 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch floppy disk. FLOPPY DISKS The most commonly used mass storage device. Allows entering programs to RAM and saving data from RAM. Will hold data even after the computer is turned off. Data on these disks is stored in concentric rings called tracks. The Disk surface is a thin piece of mylar and is coated with a magnetized material similar to audio or video tape. The read/write heads can magnetize and demagnetize the coated surface repeatedly. Therefore, the Disk can be used, erased, and reused indefinitely.

Floppy disks are also available as double density and high density format. A standard floppy diskette is either 5D inches or 3A inches square. Obviously the high density of 3A" diskette contains more information than the 3A" double density diskette. A 5D" Double-sided, Double density disk holds approximately 360k worth of information (250 double spaced pages of text). The smaller 3.5 inch Double density disks which hold at least twice as much - 720k. Working with floppy diskettes. To insert a floppy diskette into your computer drive, first remove it from the paper or plastic slipcover if one protects it. The proper way to insert a floppy diskette in most drives is as follows. For larger 5 - 1/4 inch floppies, turn the printed label side up and locate the TWO VERY TINY notches along one edge. Near the notches will be a jelly bean shaped hole about one inch long cut into the plastic surface of the diskette. This oblong hole is the read/write opening. Insert the diskette into the drive with the label side up and the two tiny notches FIRST into the drive opening then close the drive locking handle. Along one edge of the diskette you will also see a SINGLE square shaped hole which is the write protect notch. If this write protect notch is UNCOVERED you can BOTH read and write data to the diskette. If the write protect notch is covered with a piece of tape, then you can READ information from the diskette but you CANNOT write information to the diskette. This is a safeguard feature you may wish to use from time to time. Keep fragile diskettes away from smoke, hair, dirt and ESPECIALLY sources of magnetism such as motors, loudspeakers or even children's magnetic toys which may ERASE your data! For smaller 3 - 1/2 inch size diskettes, turn the label side up and locate the metal "shutter". Insert the diskette into the drive with the label up and the shutter FIRST into the drive. The write protect notch or opening is a small square hole with a SLIDING PLASTIC TAB which is slid CLOSED (cannot see an open hole) to enable BOTH reading and writing to the diskette. The sliding tab is placed OPEN (visible open hole) to enable reading but NOT writing. FIXED DISK DRIVE Usually named disk drive C. It is essentially a very large floppy disk. This Fixed Disk (commonly called a Hard Drive) is secured within the machine and cannot be seen or transported. The storage capacity is so large it is measured in megabytes (1M = 1K squared = 1,048,576 bytes). Fixed Disks are available from 5M on up. The main advantages are that it has enough space to meet most users' total storage needs, operates much faster than a floppy (5-10 times faster), and is less likely to fail since it "lives" within the protected computer. INPUT DEVICES Since we have covered data storage lets move to data input. (a) PRIMARY INPUT DEVICES Two primary input devices are key to getting data into a PC. The keyboard and the mouse. (i) KEYBOARD Input device that lets you enter data into the computer. The layout is similar to the standard QWERTY typewriter keyboard. However, there are many extra special keys that are defined by the software you are running. (ii) MOUSE

Hand operated pointing and selection device which serves as alternate input to the keyboard. It is very useful for Graphical User Interface (GUI) Applications such as Windows, etc., which is rolled or moved across the desktop to position a cursor or pointer on the computer screen. The mouse also contains several buttons to help select items on data on the monitor screen. A mouse was initially an optional device, but it is becoming difficult to work without it, with the spread of Windows based systems. (b) SPECIALTY INPUT DEVICES Lets move on to the specialty input devices like the scanner and the Digital camera. (i) SCANNER A scanner converts text and images to digital information. This text and images can be from a variety of sources such as magazines, photographs, articles, scientific diagrams, etc. The scanner creates a digital image from your photograph or drawing, for use in graphics, DeskTop Publishing or Presentation applications. There are different types of scanners like Hand scanner, flatbed scanner and the multifunction scanner/fax/printer/copier. The flatbed scanner provides a larger scanning area than the other scanners and is the usually more expensive. (ii) DIGITAL CAMERA The Digital Camera produces the same result as a Scanner. Any pictures taken are transferred straight to the computer, i.e. in the form of a graphics image suitable for image editing or DeskTop Publishing applications. It eliminates the need for film. OUTPUT DEVICES Another introductory topic is that of output devices such as a monitor, printer or plotter. (i) PLOTTER A plotter is a device which uses a motor to move pens or drawing implements in tightly controlled horizontal and vertical motions on a piece of paper or film. The computer can control a plotter to combine on one piece of paper differing pen colors and text and pictures stored within the computer. Computer plotter can be purchased with flat table or flat bed configurations or in models which move the pen(s) back and forth with gears that also drive the paper movement at the same time. (ii) PRINTER The printer is probably the most common and useful output device attached to your computer. There are many types of modern computer printer with differing speeds and capabilities. The most common printer is the Dot matrix printer which provides characters made up from tiny dots of ink on paper. Line printers (usually with Mainframe computers or Minicomputers) print entire lines of text in one sweep then move to the next line and are thus very fast. Ink jet printers produce characters made from individual dots of ink sprayed onto the paper. The ink jet printer squirts individual dots of ink onto the paper to form letters or other characters. A high quality paper is necessary since the wet ink can smear if not carefully handled. Although with the most recent models, ordinary paper can also be used. The Colour print facility is also now standard with most inkjet printer. Finally, laser printers use a rapidly scanning laser to sensitize a polished drum with an entire page of information quickly and look and work roughly like an office copier. The first two printers are classified as impact printers since something strikes the paper while the later two are non impact printers. The laser and ink jet printers are becoming more popular due to rapid speed of printing and quiet mode of operation.

The laser printer is used for quickly producing one page of text at a time. In operation, the laser scans a polished drum with an image which is then dusted with dark toner particles which stick to the exposed areas made sensitive by the laser. Paper is then placed in contact with the drum and the toner is transferred to the page and is finally fused with heat to "fix" or seal the toner particles to the page. Of the Microcomputer printers, the Laser is the most expensive in terms of purchase price, maintenance cost and consumable cost. Dot matrix printers are common and affordable alternatives for many small offices, home computer hobbyists or organizations with voluminous printing requirements (e.g. statements of accounts for banks). The Dot matrix is additionally designed for use with continuous flow paper, as well as typical single sheet paper. Dot matrix usually operates in varying modes of draft and letter quality. In draft mode, the printer speed is faster, with draft quality. Letter quality is slower with higher quality. Dot matrix printers produce letters via small pins which strike the ink ribbon and paper to produce print which can be jagged looking. Nine pin dot matrix printers produce somewhat rough looking letters while 24 pin dot matrix printers produce crisper, fully-formed letters. The Dot matrix printer strikes the paper through a ribbon to transfer ink to the printed page. Connecting a printer via a cable to the computer is always done through one of two plugs (or interfaces) on the back of the computer. One type of interface (computer plug) is serial, the other called parallel. The most commonly used interface for printers today is the parallel interface but serial interface printers do exist. What is the difference? Recall that there are eight bits (computer dots and dashes) to a byte (or computer word). The serial interface has each bit sent one at a time to the printer - like men in single file at the supermarket checkout counter. The parallel interface sends all eight bits at once like eight men all entering eight supermarket counters at once. Each interface is different, the printer manufacturer will tell you which interface to use, i.e. serial or parallel. Frequently, modems or mouse devices use the serial interface leaving the printer to the parallel interface. (iii) MONITORS We have talked about output to paper, next let's briefly discuss output to a monitor or screen. The monitor is a television like device that the computer uses to communicate with you. The monitor or video display works much like your television - some older home computers still use a TV. An old term for a monitor is the cathode ray tube or CRT. Monitors differ in the sharpness or resolution they can display. On the low end of the resolution spectrum is the monochrome (single color) monitor frequently available in either green or amber screens. Next is the color RGB monitor (RGB stands for Red, Green and Blue) which displays low resolution color dots to make up an image. Higher resolution is obtained with an EGA monitor (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) and still higher with a VGA (Video Graphics Array) Monitor and even higher with an SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) Monitor. Each monitor is matched to work with a circuit card located within the body of the computer. One way to upgrade a computer is to switch both the monitor and display/graphics circuit card to produce a sharper, more colorful image. The dots which make up all images on the monitor screen are called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the higher and sharper the image resolution. Typically the monitor displays 80 columns (characters) by 25 rows (lines) of information. The initial SVGA cards could only display 16 colours. And then 256 colours. Now some SVGA card can display millions of colours.

INPUT & OUTPUT DEVICES Certain devices can act as both input and output devices to the computer. Typical devices mentioned earlier are the disks (floppy and hard). (i) MODEM Short for Modulator/Demodulator. A device to send and receive computer output over telephone lines.

THE COMPUTER DEVICES & RELATIONSHIPS CASING & MOTHERBOARD Where is your CPU kept? Don't look for RAM near your mouse. Most of the components are internal, and kept inside a casing. This casing model can be Tower, minitower or desktop. Inside the casing, there is a power supply unit that takes in the power supplied from the public power supply and steps it down to supply the computer's needs. Also inside the casing is the motherboard, which is a large printed circuit board that all expansion boards plug into. The motherboard contains the most essential parts of the computer such as the CPU, RAM, ROM, keyboard, speaker and power connections, and other assortment of important parts. The expansion boards contain special circuits for the monitor (monitor card), disk drives and mouse (multi Input/Output card) and other options such as modem and scanner.

SOME SHORT NOTES ON COMPUTER SCIENCE : 1. Hardware (disambiguation).

Hardware is a general term that refers to the physical artifacts of a technology. It may also mean the physical components of acomputer system, in the form of computer hardware. Hardware historically meant the metal parts and fittings that were used to make wooden products stronger, more functional, longer lasting and easier to fabricate or assemble. In modern usage it includes equipment such as keys, locks, hinges, latches, corners,handles, wire, chains, plumbing supplies, tools, utensils, cutlery and machine parts, especially when they are made of metal. In theUnited States, this type of hardware has been traditionally sold in hardware stores, a term also used to a lesser extent in the UK. In a more colloquial sense, hardware can refer to major items of military equipment, such as tanks, aircraft or ships. In slang, the term refers to trophies and other physical representations of awards.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" Categories: Equipment

2. System software From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia System software is any computer software which manages and controls computer hardware so that application software can perform a task. Operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X or Linux, are prominent examples of system software. System software contrasts with application software, which are programs that enable the end-user to perform specific, productive tasks, such as word processing or image manipulation.

System software performs tasks like transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering text onto a display device. Specific kinds of system software include loading programs, Operating systems, device drivers, programming tools, compilers, assemblers, linkers, andutility software. Software libraries that perform generic functions also tend to be regarded as system software, although the dividing line is fuzzy; while a C runtime library is generally agreed to be part of the system, an OpenGL or database library is less obviously so. If system software is stored on non-volatile memory such as integrated circuits, it is usually termed firmware. 3. Computer software Computer software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer system.The term includes application software such as word processors which perform productive tasks for users, system software such as operating systems, which interface with hardware to provide the necessary services for application software, and middleware which controls and co-ordinates distributed systems. "Software" is sometimes used in a broader context to mean anything which is not hardware but which is used with hardware, such as film, tapes and records. Relationship to computer hardware

Main article: Computer hardware

Computer software is so called to distinguish it from computer hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and devices required to store and execute (or run) the software. In computers, software is loaded into RAM and executed in the central processing unit. At the lowest level, software consists of a machine language specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions which change the state of the computer from its preceding state. Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is usually written inhigh-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code. Software may also be written in anassembly language, essentially, a mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language must be assembled into object code via an assembler. The term "software" was first used in this sense by John W. Tukey in 1958. [3] In computer science and software engineering,computer software is all computer programs. The theory that is the basis for most modern software was first proposed by Alan Turingin his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. 4. Keyboard (computing) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The 104-key PC US English QWERTY keyboard layout evolved from the standard typewriter keyboard with extra keys special to computing.

The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard layout arranges keys so that frequently used keys are easiest to press. Advocates of this keyboard layout claim that it reduces muscle fatigue when typing common English.
partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard. Physically, a keyboard is an arrangement of buttons, or keys. A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys; in most cases, each press of a key corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence; other keys do not produce any symbol, but instead affect the operation of the computer or the keyboard itself. See input method editor. A majority of all keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters) that are appropriate for the operator's language. Other keys can produce actions when pressed, and other actions are available by the simultaneous pressing of more than one action key. 5. Mouse (computing) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

. A contemporary computer mouse, with the most common standard features: two buttons and a scroll wheel.

In computing, a mouse (plural mice, mouse devices, or mouses) is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensionalmotion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of a small case, held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons. It sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various system-dependent operations, or extra buttons or features can add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a Graphical User Interface. The name mouse, originated at the Stanford Research Institute, derives from the resemblance of early models (which had a cord attached to the rear part of the device, suggesting the idea of a tail) to the common mouse.[1] The first marketed integrated mouse shipped as a part of a computer and intended for personal computer navigation came with the Xerox 8010 Star Information System in 1981. 6. Input/output From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

I/O, I/O device, I/O interface, Read/write channel, and Transput all redirect here. For the use of the term input-output in economics, see Input-output model. For other uses of the term I/O, see I/O (disambiguation).
In computing, input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information processing system (such as a computer), and the outside world possibly a human, or another information processing system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to "perform I/O" is to perform an input or output operation. I/O devices are used by a person (or other system) to communicate with a computer. For instance,keyboards and mouses are considered input devices of a computer, while monitors and printers are considered output

devices of a computer. Devices for communication between computers, such as modems and network cards, typically serve for both input and output. Note that the designation of a device as either input or output depends on the perspective. Mouses and keyboards take as input physical movement that the human user outputs and convert it into signals that a computer can understand. The output from these devices is input for the computer. Similarly, printers and monitors take as input signals that a computer outputs. They then convert these signals into representations that human users can see or read. (For a human user the process of reading or seeing these representations is receiving input.) In computer architecture, the combination of the CPU and main memory (i.e. memory that the CPU can read and write to directly, with individual instructions) is considered the heart of a computer, and from that point of view any transfer of information from or to that combination, for example to or from a disk drive, is considered I/O. The CPU and its supporting circuitry provide memory-mapped I/Othat is used in low-level computer programming in the implementation of device drivers. Higher-level operating system and programming facilities employ separate, more abstract I/O concepts and primitives. For example, most operating systems provide application programs with the concept of files. The C and C++ programming languages, and operating systems in the Unix family, traditionally abstract files and devices as streams, which can be read or written, or sometimes both. The C standard library provides functions for manipulating streams for input and output. 7. Central processing unit

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search "CPU" redirects here. For other uses, see CPU (disambiguation). Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor (actual size: 126.75 mm) in its packaging.
A Central Processing Unit (CPU), or sometimes just called processor, is a description of a class of logic machines that can executecomputer programs. This broad definition can easily be applied to many early computers that existed long before the term "CPU" ever came into widespread usage. The term itself and its initialism have been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s(Weik 1961). The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation has remained much the same. Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, usually one-of-a-kind, computer. However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of mass-produced processors that are suited for one or many purposes. This standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured in very small spaces (on the order of millimeters). Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones to children's toys. 8. Computer data storage

160 GB SDLT tape cartridge, an example of off-line storage. When used within a robotic tape library, it is classified as tertiary storage instead.
Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components, devices, and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time. Computer data storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of information retention. It is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer model used since the 1940s. In contemporary usage, memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor storage known as random access memory (RAM) and sometimes other forms of fast but temporary storage. Similarly, storage today more commonly refers to mass storage - optical discs, forms of magnetic storage like hard disks, and other types slower than RAM, but of a more permanent nature. Historically, memory andstorage were respectively called primary storage and secondary storage. The contemporary distinctions are helpful, because they are also fundamental to the architecture of computers in general. As well, they reflect an important and significant technical difference between memory and mass storage devices, which has been blurred by the historical usage of the term storage. Nevertheless, this article uses the traditional nomenclature. 9. PCU: computer memory unit - a unit for measuring computer memory

unit, unit of measurement - any division of quantity accepted as a standard of measurement or exchange; "the dollar is the United States unit of currency"; "a unit of wheat is a bushel"; "change per unit volume" byte - a sequence of 8 bits (enough to represent one character of alphanumeric data) processed as a single unit of information sector - the minimum track length that can be assigned to store information; unless otherwise specified a sector of data consists of 512 bytes block - (computer science) a sector or group of sectors that function as the smallest data unit permitted; "since blocks are often defined as a single sector, the terms `block' and `sector' are sometimes used interchangeably" allocation unit - a group of sectors on a magnetic disk that can be reserved for the use of a particular file partition - (computer science) the part of a hard disk that is dedicated to a particular operating system or application and accessed as a single unit word - a word is a string of bits stored in computer memory; "large computers use words up to 64 bits long" KiB, kibibyte, kilobyte, kB, K - a unit of information equal to 1024 bytes kilobyte, kB, K - a unit of information equal to 1000 bytes kb, kbit, kilobit - a unit of information equal to 1000 bits kibibit, kibit - a unit of information equal to 1024 bits mebibyte, MiB, megabyte, MB, M - a unit of information equal to 1024 kibibytes or 2^20 (1,048,576) bytes megabyte, MB, M - a unit of information equal to 1000 kilobytes or 10^6 (1,000,000) bytes Mb, Mbit, megabit - a unit of information equal to 1000 kilobits or 10^6 (1,000,000) bits mebibit, Mibit - a unit of information equal to 1024 kibibits or 2^20 (1,048,576) bits

GiB, gibibyte, gigabyte, GB, G - a unit of information equal to 1024 mebibytes or 2^30 (1,073,741,824) bytes gigabyte, GB, G - a unit of information equal to 1000 megabytes or 10^9 (1,000,000,000) bytes Gbit, gigabit, Gb - a unit of information equal to 1000 megabits or 10^9 (1,000,000,000) bits gibibit, Gibit - a unit of information equal to 1024 mebibits or 2^30 (1,073,741,824) bits tebibyte, TiB, terabyte, TB - a unit of information equal to 1024 gibibytes or 2^40 (1,099,511,627,776) bytes terabyte, TB - a unit of information equal to 1000 gigabytes or 10^12 (1,000,000,000,000) bytes
10. User (computing) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Users in a computing context refers to one who uses a computer system. Users may need to identify themselves for the purposes of accounting, security, logging and resource management. In order to identify oneself, a user has an account (a user account) and ausername, and in most cases also a password (see below). Users employ the user interface to access systems. Users are also widely characterized as the class of people that uses a system without complete technical expertise required to fully understand the system. In most hacker-related contexts, they are also divided into lusers and power users. See also End-user (computer science). Screen names (also called a handle, nickname, or nick on some systems) refer to a public name that can be used to 'screen' ones true user name from the public eye. Services such as AOL allowed customers to have multiple screen names per user name, and IRCnicks are independent of one's system account username. For instance, one can be a user of (and have an account on) a computer system, a computer network and have an e-mail account, anIM account and use one or more nicks on IRC.