Helicopter Slides

L.
Sankar
Helicopter Aerodynamics
1
Helicopter Aerodynamics and
Performance
Preliminary Remarks
L. Sankar
2
Thrust
Aeroelastic
Response
= + 0
= + 270
= + 180
= + 90
Dynamic Stall on
Retreating Blade
Blade-Tip Vortex
interactions
Unsteady
Aerodynamics
Transonic Flow on
Advancing Blade
Main Rotor / Tail Rotor
/ Fuselage
Flow Interference
V
Noise
Shock
Waves
Tip Vortices
The problems are many..
L. Sankar
3
A systematic Approach is
necessary
A variety of tools are needed to understand, and predict these phenomena.
Tools needed include
Simple back-of-the envelop tools for sizing helicopters, selecting engines, laying
out configuration, and predicting performance
Spreadsheets and MATLAB scripts for mapping out the blade loads over the
entire rotor disk
High end CFD tools for modeling
Airfoil and rotor aerodynamics and design
Rotor-airframe interactions
Aeroacoustic analyses
Elastic and multi-body dynamics modeling tools
Trim analyses, Flight Simulation software
In this work, we will cover most of the tools that we need, except for elastic
analyses, multi-body dynamics analyses, and flight simulation software.
We will cover both the basics, and the applications.
We will assume familiarity with classical low speed and high speed
aerodynamics, but nothing more.
L. Sankar
4
Plan for the Course
PowerPoint presentations, interspersed with
numerical calculations and spreadsheet
applications.
Part 1: Hover Prediction Methods
Part 2: Forward Flight Prediction Methods
Part 3: Helicopter Performance Prediction
Methods
Part 4: Introduction to Comprehensive Codes
and CFD tools
Part 5: Completion of CFD tools, Discussion of
Advanced Concepts
L. Sankar
5
Text Books
Wayne Johnson: Helicopter Theory, Dover
Publications,ISBN-0-486-68230-7
References:
Gordon Leishman: Principles of Helicopter
Aerodynamics, Cambridge Aerospace Series, ISBN
0-521-66060-2
Prouty: Helicopter Performance, Stability, and
Control, Prindle, Weber & Schmidt, ISBN 0-534-
06360-8
Gessow and Myers
Stepniewski & Keys
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6
Grading
5 Homework Assignments (each worth 5%).
Two quizzes (each worth 25%)
One final examination (worth 25%)
All quizzes and exams will be take-home type.
They will require use of an Excel spreadsheet
program, or optionally short computer programs
you will write.
All the material may be submitted electronically.
L. Sankar
7
Instructor Info.
Lakshmi N. Sankar
School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia
Tech, Atlanta, GA 30332-0150, USA.
Web site: www.ae.gatech.
edu/~lsankar/AE6070.Fall2002
E-mail Address: lsankar@ae.gatech.edu
L. Sankar
8
Earliest Helicopter..
Chinese Top
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9
Leonardo da Vinci
(1480? 1493?)
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10
Human Powered Flight?
HP 6.7 5.33/0.8
Merit of re Power/Figu Ideal Power Actual
33 . 5
A 2
W
W Power Ideal
slugs. 0.00238 Desnity
sq.ft 100 Area Rotor
6ft ~ Radius Rotor
160lbf Weight
= =
=
= =
=
=
=
HP
L. Sankar
11
DAmeCourt (1863)
Steam-Propelled Helicopter
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12
Paul Cornu (1907)
First man to fly in helicopter mode..
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13
De La Cierva
invented Autogyros (1923)
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14
Cierva introduced hinges at the root
that allowed blades to freely flap
Hinges
Only the lifts were transferred to the fuselage,
not unwanted moments.
In later models, lead-lag hinges were also used to
Alleviate root stresses from Coriolis forces
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15
Igor Sikorsky
Started work in 1907, Patent in 1935
Used tail rotor to counter-act the reactive torque exerted by
the rotor on the vehicle.
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16
Sikorskys R-4
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17
Ways of countering the
Reactive Torque
Other possibilities: Tip jets, tip mounted engines
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18
Single Rotor Helicopter
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19
Tandem Rotors (Chinook)
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20
Coaxial rotors
Kamov KA-52
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21
NOTAR Helicopter
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22
NOTAR Concept
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23
Tilt Rotor Vehicles
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24
Helicopters tend to grow in size..
16,027 lb (7270 kg) Lot
1 Weight
15,075 lb (6838 kg)
11,800 pounds Empty
Primary Mission Gross
Weight
17.15 ft (5.227 m) 17.15 ft (5.227 m) Wing Span
13.30 ft (4.05 m) 15.24 ft (4.64 m) Height
58.17 ft (17.73 m) 58.17 ft (17.73 m) Length
AH-64D AH-64A
L. Sankar
25
147 kt (273 kph)
[Sea Level Standard Day]
149 kt (276 kph)
[Hot Day 2000 ft 70 F (21
C)]
150 kt (279 kph)
153 kt (284 kph)
[Hot Day 2000 ft 70 F (21 C)]
Cruise Speed (MCP)
147 kt (273 kph)
149 kt (276 kph)
[Hot Day 2000 ft 70 F (21
C)]
150 kt (279 kph)
153 kt (284 kph)
[Hot Day 2000 ft 70 F (21 C)]
Maximum Level Flight
Speed
2,635 fpm (803 mpm)
2,600 fpm (793 mpm)
[Hot Day 2000 ft 70 F (21
C)]
2,915 fpm (889 mpm)
2,890 fpm (881 mpm)
[Hot Day 2000 ft 70 F (21 C)]
Maximum Rate of Climb
(IRP)
1,775 fpm (541 mpm)
1,595 fpm (486 mpm)
[Hot Day 2000 ft 70 F (21
C)]
2,175 fpm (663 mpm)
2,050 fpm (625 mpm)
[Hot Day 2000 ft 70 F (21 C)]
Vertical Rate of Climb
(MRP)
10,520 ft (3206 m)
[Standard Day]
9,050 ft (2759 m)
[Hot Day ISA + 15 C]
12,685 ft (3866 m)
11,215 ft (3418 m)
[Hot Day 2000 ft 70 F (21 C)]
Hover Out-of-Ground Effect
(MRP)
14,650 ft (4465 m)
[Standard Day]
13,350 ft (4068 m)
[Hot Day ISA + 15 C]
15,895 ft (4845 m)
[Standard Day]
14,845 ft (4525 m)
[Hot Day ISA + 15C]
Hover In-Ground Effect
(MRP)
16,027 lb (7270 kg) Lot 1
Weight
15,075 lb (6838 kg)
11,800 pounds Empty
Primary Mission Gross
Weight
17.15 ft (5.227 m) 17.15 ft (5.227 m) Wing Span
13.30 ft (4.05 m) 15.24 ft (4.64 m) Height
58.17 ft (17.73 m) 58.17 ft (17.73 m) Length
AH-64D AH-64A
L. Sankar
26
Power Plant Limitations
Helicopters use turbo shaft engines.
Power available is the principal factor.
An adequate power plant is important for
carrying out the missions.
We will look at ways of estimating power
requirements for a variety of operating
conditions.
L. Sankar
27
High Speed
Forward Flight Limitations
As the forward speed increases, advancing side
experiences shock effects, retreating side stalls.
This limits thrust available.
Vibrations go up, because of the increased
dynamic pressure, and increased harmonic
content.
Shock Noise goes up.
Fuselage drag increases, and parasite power
consumption goes up as V
3
.
We need to understand and accurately predict
the air loads in high speed forward flight.
L. Sankar
28
Concluding Remarks
Helicopter aerodynamics is an interesting area.
There are a lot of problems, but there are also
opportunities for innovation.
This course is intended to be a starting point for
engineers and researchers to explore efficient
(low power), safer, comfortable (low vibration),
environmentally friendly (low noise) helicopters.
L. Sankar
29
Hover Performance
Prediction Methods
I. Momentum Theory
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30
Background
Developed for marine propellers by
Rankine (1865), Froude (1885).
Extended to include swirl in the slipstream
by Betz (1920)
This theory can predict performance in
hover, and climb.
We will look at the general case of climb,
and extract hover as a special situation
with zero climb velocity.
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31
Assumptions
Momentum theory concerns itself with the
global balance of mass, momentum, and
energy.
It does not concern itself with details of the
flow around the blades.
It gives a good representation of what is
happening far away from the rotor.
This theory makes a number of simplifying
assumptions.
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32
Assumptions (Continued)
Rotor is modeled as an actuator disk
which adds momentum and energy to the
flow.
Flow is incompressible.
Flow is steady, inviscid, irrotational.
Flow is one-dimensional, and uniform
through the rotor disk, and in the far wake.
There is no swirl in the wake.
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33
Control Volume is a Cylinder
V
Disk area A
Total area S
Station1
2
3
4
V+v
2
V+v
3
V+v
4
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34
Conservation of Mass
( )
4 4 4
1
) ( A - S V bottom he through t Outflow
m side he through t Inflow
VS top he through t Inflow
A v V + + =
=
=

L. Sankar
35
Conservation of Mass through the
Rotor Disk
Flow through the rotor disk =
( ) ( )
( )
4 4
3 2
v
v v
+ =
+ = + =
V A
V A V A m

Thus v
2
=v
3
=v
There is no velocity jump across the rotor disk
The quantity v is called induced velocity at the rotor disk
L. Sankar
36
Global Conservation of Momentum
( ) ( )
4 4 4 4
4
2
4
2
4
4 4
1
2
v v ) v ( A T
in Rate Momentum
- out rate Momentum T , Thrust
. boundaries field far the
all on c atmospheri is Pressure
v A - S
bottom through outflow Momentum
v A
V m side he through t inflow Momentum
V op through t inflow Momentum
m V
A V V
V
S
= + =
=
+ +
=
=
=
=
Mass flow rate through the rotor disk times

Excess velocity between stations 1 and 4
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37
Conservation of Momentum at the
Rotor Disk
V+v
V+v
p
2
p
3
Due to conservation of mass across the
Rotor disk, there is no velocity jump.
Momentum inflow rate = Momentum outflow rate
Thus, Thrust T = A(p
3
-p
2
)
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38
Conservation of Energy
Consider a particle that traverses from
Station 1 to station 4
We can apply Bernoulli equation between
Stations 1 and 2, and between stations 3
and 4.
Recall assumptions that the flow is
steady, irrotational, inviscid.
1
2
3
4
V+v
V+v
4
( )
( ) ( )
4
4
2 3
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
v
2
v
v
2
1
v
2
1
2
1
v
2
1
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+ + = + +
+ = + +
V p p
V p V p
V p V p

L. Sankar
39
( )
4
4
2 3
4
4
2 3
v
2
v
v
2
v
#38, slide previous the From
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
V A p p A T
V p p
From an earlier slide # 36, Thrust equals mass flow rate

through the rotor disk times excess velocity
between stations 1 and 4
( )
4
v v + = V A T
Thus, v = v
4
/2
L. Sankar
40
Induced Velocities
V
V+v
V+2v
The excess velocity in the
Far wake is twice the induced
Velocity at the rotor disk.
To accommodate this excess
Velocity, the stream tube
has to contract.
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41
Induced Velocity at the Rotor Disk
Now we can compute the induced velocity at the
rotor disk in terms of thrust T.
T = Mass flow
rate through the
rotor disk *
(Excess velocity
between 1 and
4).
T = 2 A (V+v) v
A
T V
2 2 2
V
- v
2
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
There are two solutions. The sign
Corresponds to a wind turbine, where energy
Is removed from the flow. v is negative.
The + sign corresponds to a rotor or
Propeller where energy is added to the flow.
In this case, v is positive.
L. Sankar
42
Induced velocity at the rotor disk
A
T
A
T V
2
v
0 V velocity climb Hover, In
2 2 2
V
- v
2
=
=
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
L. Sankar
43
Ideal Power Consumed by the Rotor
( )
( )
( )
(
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
=
A
T V V
T
V T
V m
m m
P
2 2 2
v
v v 2
V
2
1
2v V
2
1
in flow Energy - out flow Energy
2
2
2
In hover, ideal power
A
T
T
2
=
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44
Summary
According to momentum theory, the downwash
in the far wake is twice the induced velocity at
the rotor disk.
Momentum theory gives an expression for
induced velocity at the rotor disk.
It also gives an expression for ideal power
consumed by a rotor of specified dimensions.
Actual power will be higher, because momentum
theory neglected many sources of losses-
viscous effects, compressibility (shocks), tip
losses, swirl, non-uniform flows, etc.
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45
Figure of Merit
Figure of merit is
defined as the ratio of
ideal power for a rotor
in hover obtained
from momentum
theory and the actual
power consumed by
the rotor.
For most rotors, it is
between 0.7 and 0.8.
P
T
T
C
C
C
T
FM
2
P
v
Hover in Power Actual
Hover in Power Ideal
= =
=
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46
Some Observations on
Figure of Merit
Because a helicopter spends considerable
portions of time in hover, designers
attempt to optimize the rotor for hover
(FM~0.8).
We will discuss how to do this later.
A rotor with a lower figure of merit (FM~0.
6) is not necessarily a bad rotor.
It has simply been optimized for other
conditions (e.g. high speed forward flight).
L. Sankar
47
Example #1
A tilt-rotor aircraft has a gross weight of
60,500 lb. (27500 kg).
The rotor diameter is 38 feet (11.58 m).
Assume FM=0.75, Transmission
losses=5%
Compute power needed to hover at sea
level on a hot day.
L. Sankar
48
Example #1 (Continued)
( )
HP 11528 1.05 * 10980 shaft the to engine by the supplied Power
loss ion transmiss 5% is There
HP 10980 power actual total rotors, two For the
HP 5490 power Actual
4117/0.75 Power/FM ideal Power Actual
HP 4117 Power Ideal
ft/sec lb 74.86 x 30250 Tv Power Ideal
! ft/sec 150 far wake in the Downwash
ft/sec 86 . 74 v
A 2
T
v velocity, Induced
lbf 30250 T rotors. two are There
feet c slugs/cubi 0.00238 Density
feet square 12 . 1134
19 A Area Disk
2
= =
=
=
= =
=
= =
~
=
=
=
=
=
= =
t
A
L. Sankar
49
Alternate scenarios
What happens on a hot day, and/or high
altitude?
Induced velocity is higher.
Power consumption is higher
What happens if the rotor disk area A is
smaller?
Induced velocity and power are higher.
There are practical limits to how large A
can be.
L. Sankar
50
Disk Loading
The ratio T/A is called disk loading.
The higher the disk loading, the higher the
induced velocity, and the higher the power.
For helicopters, disk loading is between 5 and
10 lb/ft
2
(24 to 48 kg/m
2
).
Tilt-rotor vehicles tend to have a disk loading of
20 to 40 lbf/ft
2
. They are less efficient in hover.
VTOL aircraft have very small fans, and have
very high disk loading (500 lb/ft
2
).
L. Sankar
51
Power Loading
The ratio of thrust to power T/P is called
the Power Loading.
Pure helicopters have a power loading
between 6 to 10 lb/HP.
Tilt-rotors have lower power loading 2 to
6 lb/HP.
VTOL vehicles have the lowest power
loading less than 2 lb/HP.
L. Sankar
52
Non-Dimensional Forms
( )
( )
( )
Q
C =
O =
=
O
= =
O
= =
O
= =
P
2
Q
3
P
2
T
C
Q P
Torque locity x Angualr ve Power hover, In
R AR
Q
t Coefficien Torque C
R A
P
t Coefficien Power C
R A
T
t Coefficien Thrust C
form. l dimensiona - non in
expressed usually are Power and Torque, Thrust,
L. Sankar
53
Non-dimensional forms..
P
T
T
i
C
C
C
T
FM
2
P
v
Hover in Power Actual
Hover in Power Ideal

2
C
A 2
T
R
1
R
v
inflow Induced
T
= =
=
=
O
=
O
= =
L. Sankar
54
Tip Losses
R
A portion of the rotor near the
Tip does not produce much lift
Due to leakage of air from
The bottom of the disk to the top.
One can crudely account for it by
Using a smaller, modified radius
BR, where
b
C
B
T
2
1 =
BR
B = Number of blades.
L. Sankar
55
Power Consumption in Hover
Including Tip Losses..
2
1 1
T
T P
C
C
B FM
C - =
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56
Hover Performance
Prediction Methods
II. Blade Element Theory
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57
Preliminary Remarks
Momentum theory gives rapid, back-of-
the-envelope estimates of Power.
This approach is sufficient to size a rotor
(i.e. select the disk area) for a given power
plant (engine), and a given gross weight.
This approach is not adequate for
designing the rotor.
L. Sankar
58
Drawbacks of Momentum Theory
It does not take into account
Number of blades
Airfoil characteristics (lift, drag, angle of zero
lift)
Blade planform (taper, sweep, root cut-out)
Blade twist distribution
Compressibility effects
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59
Blade Element Theory
Blade Element Theory rectifies many of these
drawbacks. First proposed by Drzwiecki in 1892.
It is a strip theory. The blade is divided into a
number of strips, of width Ar.
The lift generated by that strip, and the power
consumed by that strip, are computed using 2-D
airfoil aerodynamics.
The contributions from all the strips from all the
blades are summed up to get total thrust, and
total power.
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60
Typical Blade Section (Strip)
R
dr
r
}
}
=
=
Tip
Out Cut
Tip
Out Cut
dP b P
dT b T
dT
Root Cut-out
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61
Typical Airfoil Section
|
.
|
\
|
O
+
=
r
V v
arctan |
Or
V+v
Line of Zero Lift
u
|
o
effective
= u |
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62
Sectional Forces
Once the effective angle of attack is known, we can look-up
the lift and drag coefficients for the airfoil section at that strip.
We can subsequently compute sectional lift and drag forces
per foot (or meter) of span.
( )
( )
d P T
l P T
cC U U D
cC U U L

2
1

2
1
2 2
2 2
+ = A
+ = A
These forces will be normal to and along

the total velocity vector.
U
T
=er
U
P
=V+v
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63
Rotation of Forces
Or
V+v
AL
AD
AT
AF
x
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
X x T
l d P T
x
d l P T
rdF dF U dP
dr C C c U U
dr L D dF
dr C C c U U
dr D L dT
O = =
+ + =
A + A =
+ =
A A =
| |
| |
| |
| |
sin cos
2
1
sin cos
sin cos
2
1
sin cos
2 2
2 2
L. Sankar
64
Approximate Expressions
The integration (or summation of forces)
can only be done numerically.
A spreadsheet may be designed. A
sample spreadsheet is being provided as
part of the course notes.
In some simple cases, analytical
expressions may be obtained.
L. Sankar
65
Closed Form Integrations
The chord c is constant. Simple linear twist.
The inflow velocity v and climb velocity V are small.
Thus, | << 1.
We can approximate cos(|

) by unity, and approximate
sin(| ) by ( |

).
The lift coefficient is a linear function of the effective
angle of attack, that is, Cl=a(u|) where a is the lift
curve slope.
For low speeds, a may be set equal to 5.7 per radian.
C
d
is small. So, C
d
sin(|) may be neglected.
The in-plane velocity Or is much larger than the normal
component V+v over most of the rotor.
L. Sankar
66
Closed Form Expressions
dr r C
r r
V
r r
V
cba P
dr r
r r
V
cba T
R r
r
d
R r
r
3
0
3
2
0
2
v v
2
1
v
2
1
}
}
=
=
=
=
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
O
+
O
|
.
|
\
|
O
O
O =
|
.
|
\
|
O
O
O =
u
u
L. Sankar
67
Linearly Twisted Rotor: Thrust
Here, we assume that the pitch angle varies as
u = + E Fr
( )
R
v V
a
R bc
where
a
R
abc
C
R R ca
b
R
R
v V
FR E ca
b
T
R
T
R
O
+
= =
=
= = =
(
=
(
=
(
O =
(
O
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ O =
Ratio Inflow
) 2 (~ slope Curve Lift
/ DiskArea BladeArea/ solidity
2 /
3 2
2 /
3 2
2 /
3 2 2 4
3
3
1
2
75 . 75 .
75 .
2
3 2
t
t o
u o
u
t
u

L. Sankar
68
Linearly Twisted Rotor
Notice that the thrust coefficient is linearly proportional to the
pitch angle u at the 75% Radius.
This is why the pitch angle is usually defined at 75% R
in industry.
The expression for power may be integrated in a similar
manner, if the drag coefficient C
d
is assumed to be a
constant, equal to C
d0
.
8
0 d
T P
C
C C
o
+ =
Induced Power Profile Power
L. Sankar
69
Closed Form Expressions for
Ideally Twisted Rotor
r
R
tip
u
u =
( ) u
o
=
tip T
a
C
4
C C
C
P T
d
= +
o
0
8
Same as linearly
Twisted rotor!
L. Sankar
70
Figure of Merit according to Blade
Element Theory
Area Area/Disk Blade Solidity
R v)/ (V Ratio Inflow
,
8 /
0
= =
O + = =
+
=
o
o

where
C C
C
FM
d T
T
High solidity (lot of blades, wide-chord, large blade area) leads to higher
Power consumption, and lower figure of merit.
Figure of merit can be improved with the use of low drag airfoils.
L. Sankar
71
Average Lift Coefficient
Let us assume that
every section of the
entire rotor is
operating at an
optimum lift
coefficient.
Let us assume the
rotor is untapered.
( )
( )
o
o
t
t
T
T
R
C
R
bc
R R
T
C
R bc
dr r c b T
6 C
6
C
6
C
6
C
C
2
1
C t Coefficien Lift Average
l
l l
2
2
3 2
l
l
0
2
l
=
= =
O
=
O
= O =
=
}
Rotor will stall if average lift coefficient exceeds 1.2, or so.
Thus, in practice, C
T
/o is limited to 0.2 or so.
L. Sankar
72
Optimum Lift Coefficient in Hover
minimized. is
/ C if maximized is FM
6 / C If
8 2
2
2
C
hover, In
8
2 / 3
d0
T
0
2 / 3
2 / 3
T
0
l
l
d
T
T
d
T
T
C
C
C
C
C
FM
C
C
C
FM
o
o

=
+
=
=
+
=
L. Sankar
73
Drawbacks of Blade Element Theory
It does not handle tip losses.
Solution: Numerically integrate thrust from the cutout
to BR, where B is the tip loss factor. Integrate torque
from cut-out all the way to the tip.
It assumes that the induced velocity v is uniform.
It does not account for swirl losses.
The Predicted power is sometimes empirically
corrected for these losses.
15 . 1
8
0
=
+ =
k
o
k
d
T P
C
C C
L. Sankar
74
Example
(From Leishman)
Gross Weight = 16,000lb
Main rotor radius = 27 ft
Tail rotor radius 5.5 ft
Chord=1.7 ft (main), Tail rotor chord=0.8 ft
No. of blades =4 (Main rotor), 4 (tail rotor)
Tip speed= 725 ft/s (main), 685 ft/s (tail)
K=1.15, Cd0=0.008
Available HP =3000Transmission losses=10%
Estimate hover ceiling (as density altitude)
L. Sankar
75
Step I
Multiply 3000 HP by 550 ft.lb/sec.
Divide this by 1.10 to account for available
power to the two rotors (10% transmission
loss).
We will use non-dimensional form of power into
dimensional forms, as shown below:
P=k Tv+ (OR)
3
A [oC
d0
/8]
Find an empirical fit for variation of with
altitude:
2553 . 4
16 . 288
00198 . 0
1
(
h
level sea

L. Sankar
76
Step 2
Assume an altitude, h. Compute density, .
Do the following for main rotor:
Find main rotor area A
Find v as [T/(2A)]
1/2
Note T= Vehicle weight in lbf.
Insert supplied values of k, C
d0
, W to find main rotor P.
Divide this power by angular velocity W to get main rotor
torque.
Divide this by the distance between the two rotor shafts
to get tail rotor thrust.
Now that the tail rotor thrust is known, find tail rotor
power in the same way as the main rotor.
Add main rotor and tail rotor powers. Compare with
available power from step 1.
Increase altitude, until required power = available
power.
Answer = 10,500 ft
L. Sankar
77
Hover Performance
Prediction Methods
III. Combined Blade Element-Momentum
(BEM) Theory
L. Sankar
78
Background
Blade Element Theory has a number of
assumptions.
The biggest (and worst) assumption is
that the inflow is uniform.
In reality, the inflow is non-uniform.
It may be shown from variational calculus
that uniform inflow yields the lowest
induced power consumption.
L. Sankar
79
Consider an Annulus of the rotor
Disk
r
dr
Area = 2trdr
Mass flow rate =2tr(V+v)dr
dT = (Mass flow rate) * (twice
the induced velocity at the
annulus)
= 4tr(V+v)vdr

L. Sankar
80
Blade Elements Captured by the
Annulus
r
dr
Thrust generated by these
blade elements:
( )
( ) dr
r
v V
r abc
dr C c r b dT
l
|
.
|
\
|
O
+
O =
O =
u
2
2
2
1
2
1
L. Sankar
81
Equate the Thrust for the Elements
from the
Momentum and Blade Element
Approaches
R
v
,
0
8 8
2
O
+
=
O
=
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
V
R
V
where
R
r a a
c
c
u
o

o
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
2 16 8 2 16
2
c c
a
R
r a a o
u
o o
Total Inflow Velocity from Combined

Blade Element-Momentum Theory
L. Sankar
82
Numerical Implementation of
Combined BEM Theory
The numerical implementation is identical
to classical blade element theory.
The only difference is the inflow is no
longer uniform. It is computed using the
formula given earlier, reproduced below:
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 16 8 2 16
2
c c
a
R
r a a o
u
o o
Note that inflow is uniform if u= CR/r . This twist is therefore

called the ideal twist.
L. Sankar
83
Effect of Inflow on Power in Hover
( )
| |
| |
| |
thrust! of level specified a for power, induced least produces inflow Uniform
constant. a be must that v follows it ), multiplier n (Lagrangea contant a is Since
0 v 2 v 3 if is v s variation possible all for vanish will integral he only way t The
0 vdr v 2 v 3 4
0 v 4 v 4
0 T - P . multiplier Lagrangean a is where T - P minimize we Therefore,
T. of value specified a for power, induced minimize wish to We
v 4 dT T
v 4 vdT
2
0
2
0
2 3
0
2
0
0
3
0
|
| o
o | t
|t t o
| o | |
t
t
=
=
=
(
=
= =
= =
}
}
} }
} }
R
R
R R
R R
induced
r
dr r r
dr r
dr r P
Variation of a functional
constraint
L. Sankar
84
Ideal Rotor vs. Optimum Rotor
Ideal rotor has a non-linear twist: u= CR/r
This rotor will, according to the BEM theory, have a
uniform inflow, and the lowest induced power possible.
The rotor blade will have very high local pitch angles u
near the root, which may cause the rotor to stall.
Ideally Twisted rotor is also hard to manufacture.
For these reasons, helicopter designers strive for
optimum rotors that minimize total power, and maximize
figure of merit.
This is done by a combination of twist, and taper, and
the use of low drag airfoil sections.
L. Sankar
85
Optimum Rotor
We try to minimize total power (Induced power +
Profile Power) for a given T.
In other words, an optimum rotor has the maximum
figure of merit.
From earlier work (see slide 72), figure of merit is
maximized if is maximized.
All the sections of the rotor will operate at the angle of
attack where this value of C
l
and C
d
are produced.
We will call this C
l
the optimum lift coefficient C
l,
optimum
.
d
l
C
C
2
3
L. Sankar
86
Optimum rotor (continued..)
twisted. be must blade the how determines This
2 R
v
and
r
v
arctan -
from find we selected, is attack of angle Once
maximum. is
C
C
at which a optimum an at operate will stations radial All
d
2
3
l
T
C
=
O
|
.
|
\
|
O
=u o
u o
L. Sankar
87
Variation of Chord for the Optimum
Rotor
( ) dr C c r b dT
l
O =
2
2
1
dT = (Mass flow rate) * (twice the induced velocity at the annulus)

= 4tr(v)vdr
Compare these two. Note that C
l
is a constant (the optimum value).
It follows that
( )
r
Const
r RC R
bc
r
l
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
O
= =
1 8v
2
2
t
o
Local solidity
L. Sankar
88
Planform of Optimum Rotor
Root
Cut out
Tip
Chord is proportional to 1/r
Such planforms and twist distributions are hard to manufacture, and are optimum
only at one thrust setting.
Manufacturers therefore use a combination of linear twist, and linear variation
in chord (constant taper ratio) to achieve optimum performance.
r=R
r
L. Sankar
89
Accounting for Tip Losses
We have already accounted for two sources of
performance loss-non-uniform inflow, and blade
viscous drag.
We can account for compressibility wave drag
effects and associated losses, during the table
look-up of drag coefficient.
Two more sources of loss in performance are tip
losses, and swirl.
An elegant theory is available for tip losses from
Prandtl.
L. Sankar
90
Prandtls Tip Loss Model
Prandtl suggests that we multiply the sectional inflow by
a function F, which goes to zero at the tip, and unity in the interior.
( )
( )
t
r b
f
where
e arcCos F
f
=
=

1
2
,
2
When there are infinite number of blades,
F approaches unity, there is no tip loss.
L. Sankar
91
Incorporation of Tip Loss Model in
BEM
All we need to do is multiply the lift due to inflow by F.
r
dr
Thrust generated by the annulus:
dT =
= 4trF(V+v)vdr

L. Sankar
92
Resulting Inflow (Hover)
(
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
32
1
16
16 8 16
2
R
r
a
F
F
a
F
a
R
r
F
a
F
a
u
o
o
o
u
o o
L. Sankar
93
Hover Performance
Prediction Methods
IV. Vortex Theory
L. Sankar
94
BACKGROUND
Extension of Prandtls Lifting Line Theory
Uses a combination of
Kutta-Joukowski Theorem
Biot-Savart Law
Empirical Prescribed Wake or Free Wake Representation of Tip
Vortices and Inner Wake
Robin Gray proposed the prescribed wake model in
1952.
Landgrebe generalzied Grays model with extensive
experimental data.
Vortex theory was the extensively used in the 1970s and
1980s for rotor performance calculations, and is slowly
giving way to CFD methods.
L. Sankar
95
Background (Continued)
Vortex theory addresses some of the drawbacks
of combined blade element-momentum theory
methods, at high thrust settings (high C
T
/o).
At these settings, the inflow velocity is affected
by the contraction of the wake.
Near the tip, there can be an upward directed
inflow (rather than downward directed) due to
this contraction, which increases the tip loading,
and alters the tip power consumption.
L. Sankar
96
Kutta-Joukowsky Theorem
Or
V+v
AT
AF
x
AT = (Or) I
AF
x
= (V+v) I
I : Bound Circulation surrounding
the airfoil section.
This circulation is physically stored
As vorticity in the boundary Layer
over the airfoil
L. Sankar
97
Representation of
Bound and Trailing Vorticies
Since vorticity can not abruptly increase in space, trailing
vortices develop. Some have clockwise rotation,
others have counterclockwise rotation.
O
L. Sankar
98
Robin Grays Conceptual Model
Tip Vortex has a
Contraction that can
be fitted with
an exponential curve
fit.
Inner wake descends at a near
constant velocity. It descends
faster near the tip than at the
root.
L. Sankar
99
Landgrebes Curve Fit for the
Tip Vortex Contraction
+
R
v
v
2v
R
R
R 707 . 0
2
v
= =
L. Sankar
100
Radial Contraction
blade the from measured Filament
vortex the of Position Azimuthal
Age Vortex
27 145 . 0
78 . 0
) 1 (
R
R
: vortex tip the of position Radial
v
vortex
v
=
=
+ =
=
+ =

T
C
A
e A A
L. Sankar
101
Vertical Descent Rate
+
v
Z
v
In
itia
l d
e
s
c
e
n
t is
s
lo
w
D
e
s
c
e
n
t

i
s

f
a
s
t
e
r
A
f
t
e
r

t
h
e

f
i
r
s
t

b
l
a
d
e
P
a
s
s
e
s

o
v
e
r

t
h
e

v
o
r
t
e
x
L. Sankar
102
Landgrebes Curve Fit for
Tip Vortex Descent Rate
degrees twist, 2
degrees twist, 1
2 1
1
01 . 0
001 . 0 25 . 0
2

2
k
2

2
0
u
u
o
t
t
t

T T
T
V V
V
V V
V
C C k
C
k
b b b
k
R
z
b
k
R
z
=
(
+ =
>
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
s s =
u
twist,degrees
: Blade twist=Tip Pitch angle Root Pitch Angle
This quantity is usually negative.
L. Sankar
103
Circulation Coupled Wake Model
Landgrebes earlier curve fits (1972) were
based on the thrust coefficient, blade twist
(change in the pitch angle between tip and
root, usually negative).
He subsequently found (1977) that better
curve fits are obtained if the tip vortex
trajectory is fitted on the basis of peak
bound circulation, rather than C
T
/o.
L. Sankar
104
Tip Vortex Representation in
Computational Analyses
The tip vortex is a continuous helical structure.
This continuous structure is broken into
piecewise straight line segments, each
representing 15 degrees to 30 degrees of vortex
age.
The tip vortex strength is assumed to be the
maximum bound circulation. Some calculations
assume it to be 80% of the peak circulation.
The vortex is assumed to have a small core of
an empirically prescribed radius, to keep
induced velocities finite.
L. Sankar
105
Tip Vortex Representation
Control Points on the Lifting Line where induced flow is calculated
15
degrees
The x,y,z positions of the
End points of each segment
Are computed using
Landgrebes
Prescribed Wake Model
I
n
n
e
r

W
a
k
e
(
O
p
t
i
o
n
a
l
)
Lifting Line
L. Sankar
106
Biot-Savart Law
1
r
Segment
Control Point
2
r
L. Sankar
107
Biot-Savart Law (Continued)
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2 1
2
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
1
4
r r r r r r r r r
r r
r r
r r
r r V
c
induced
- + + -
|
.
|
\
|
-
+
I
=
t
Core radius used to keep
Denominator from going to zero.
L. Sankar
108
Overview of Vortex Theory Based
Computations (Code supplied)
Compute inflow using BEM first, using Biot-Savart law
during subsequent iterations.
Compute radial distribution of Loads.
Convert these loads into circulation strengths. Compute
the peak circulation strength. This is the strength of the
tip vortex.
Assume a prescribed vortex trajectory.
Discard the induced velocities from BEM, use induced
velocities from Biot-Savart law.
Repeat until everything converges. During each iteration,
adjust the blade pitch angle (trim it) if CT computed is
too small or too large, compared to the supplied value.
L. Sankar
109
Free Wake Models
These models remove the need for empirical
prescription of the tip vortex structure.
We march in time, starting with an initial guess
for the wake.
The end points of the segments are allowed to
freely move in space, convected the self-
induced velocity at these end points.
Their positions are updated at the end of each
time step.
L. Sankar
110
Free Wake Trajectories
(Calculations by Leishman)
L. Sankar
111
Vertical Descent of Rotors
L. Sankar
112
Background
We now discuss vertical descent operations,
with and without power.
Accurate prediction of performance is not done.
(The engine selection is done for hover or climb
considerations. Descent requires less power
than these more demanding conditions).
Discussions are qualitative.
We may use momentum theory to guide the
analysis.
L. Sankar
113
Phase I: Power Needed in
Climb and Hover
Climb Velocity, V
Power
( )
(
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+ =
A
T V V
T
V T P
2 2 2
v
2
Descent
L. Sankar
114
Non-Dimensional Form
It is convenient to non-dimensionalize these graphs, so that
universal behavior of a variety of rotors can be studied.
h
h
Tv by
lized dimensiona - non is v) T(V Power
A 2
T
v velocity inflow
hover by lized dimensiona - non
is locity descent ve or Climb
+
=
L. Sankar
115
Momentum Theory gives incorrect
Estimates of Power in Descent
V/v
h
(V+v)/v
h
Climb Descent
No matter how fast we descend, positive power is
still required if we use the above formula.
This is incorrect!
( )
0
2 2 2
v
2
>
(
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+ =
A
T V V
T
V T P
L. Sankar
116
The reason..
Climb or hover
Physically acceptable Flow
V is down
V+v is down
V+2v is down
V is down
V is down
V is up
V+v is down
V+2v is down
V is up V is up
Descent: Everything inside
Slipstream is down
Outside flow is up
L. Sankar
117
In reality..
The rotor in descent operates in a number
of stages, depending on how fast the
vertical descent is in comparison to hover
induced velocity.
Vortex Ring State
Turbulent Wake State
Windmill Brake State
L. Sankar
118
Vortex Ring State
(V is up, V+v is down, V+2v is down)
V is up
V is up
V+v is down
The rotor pushes tip vortices down.
Oncoming air at the bottom pushes
them up
Vortices get trapped in a
donut-shaped ring.
The ring periodically grows
and bursts.
Flow is highly unsteady.
Can only be empirically analyzed.
L. Sankar
119
Performance in Vortex Ring State
V/v
h
Climb
Descent
M
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

T
h
e
o
r
y
Vortex Ring State
Experimental data
Has scatter
Cross-over
At V=-1.71v
h
Power/TV
h
L. Sankar
120
Turbulent Wake State
(V is up, V+v is up, V+2v is down)
V is up
V is up
V+v is up
V+2v is
down
Rotor looks and behaves like a bluff
Body (or disk). The vortices look
Like wake behind the bluff body.
Again, the flow is unsteady,
Can not analyze using momentum
theory
Need empirical data.
L. Sankar
121
Performance in Turbulent Wake
State
V/v
h
Climb
Descent
M
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

T
h
e
o
r
y
Cross-over
At V=-1.71v
h
Vortex Ring State
Turbulent
Wake State
Notice power is ve
Engine need not supply power
Power/TV
h
L. Sankar
122
Wind Mill Brake State
(V is up, V+v is up, V+2v is up)
V is up
V is up
V+v is up
V+2v
up
Flow is well behaved.
No trapped vortices, no wake.
Momentum theory can be used.
T = - 2Av(V+v)
Notice the minus sign. This is because
v (down) and V+v (up) have opposite signs.
The product must be positive..
L. Sankar
123
Power is Extracted in
mill. wind a in as , freestream the from
extracted is power case, In this
extracted. is power means 0 P
consumed is power means 0 P
descent is 0 V climb, is 0 V
: convention Sign
) v (
2 2 2
V
v
get to
v) v(V -2 T
: equation the solve can We
2
<
>
< >
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ =
V T P
A
T V
A
L. Sankar
124
Physical Mechanism for Wind Mill
Power Extraction
Or
V+v
T
o
t
a
l
V
e
lo
c
it
y

V
e
c
t
o
r
Lift
The airfoil experiences an induced thrust, rather than
induced drag!
This causes the rotor to rotate without any need for
supplying power or torque. This is called autorotation.
Pilots can take advantage of this if power is lost.
L. Sankar
125
Complete Performance Map
V/v
h
Climb
Descent
M
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

T
h
e
o
r
y
Cross-over
At V=-1.71v
h
Vortex Ring State
Power/TV
h
Turbulent Wake
State
L. Sankar
126
Consider the cross-over Point
h
-1.7v V
extracted. nor
supplied, neither
is power speed, at this
descents vehicle the If
=
( )
! ! parachute! a as good As
A. area equivalent with parachute a as
t coefficien drag same the has rotor The
4 . 1
2
v Use
v 7 . 1
2
1
T
: follows as rotor the of t coefficien
drag the estimate can We
h
2
h
~
=
=
D
D
C
A
T
AC
L. Sankar
127
Hover Performance
Coning Angle Calculations
L. Sankar
128
Background
Blades are usually hinged near the root, to
alleviate high bending moments at the root.
This allows the blades t flap up and down.
Aerodynamic forces cause the blades to flap up.
Centrifugal forces causes the blades to flap
down.
In hover, an equilibrium position is achieved,
where the net moments at the hinge due to the
opposing forces (aerodynamic and centrifugal)
cancel out and go to zero.
L. Sankar
129
Schematic of Forces and Moments
|
0
dL
dCentrifugal
Force
r
We assume that the rotor is hinged at the root, for simplicity.
This assumption is adequate for most aerodynamic calculations.
Effects of hinge offset are discussed in many classical texts.
L. Sankar
130
Moment at the Hinge due to
Aerodynamic Forces
From blade element theory, the lift force dL =
( ) | | ( ) dr C r c dr C v r c
l l
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
O ~ + O
Moment arm = r cos|
0
~ r
Counterclockwise moment due to lift =
( ) dr rC r c
l
2
2
1
O
Integrating over all such strips,
Total counterclockwise moment =
( )
}
=
=
O
R r
r
l
dr rC r c
0
2
2
1
L. Sankar
131
Moment due to Centrifugal Forces
The centrifugal force acting on this strip =
( )
rdm
r
dm r
2
2
O =
O
Where dm is the mass of this strip.
This force acts horizontally.
The moment arm = r sin|
0
~ r |
0
Clockwise moment due to centrifugal forces =
dm r
0
2 2
| O
Integrating over all such strips, total clockwise moment =
0
2
0
0
2 2
| | O O
}
=
=
I dm r
R r
r
L. Sankar
132
At equilibrium..
( )
}
=
=
O = O
R r
r
l
dr rC r c I
0
2
0
2
2
1
|
}
} =
=
=
=
|
.
|
\
|
= =
R r
r
effective
R r
r
l
R
r
d
R
r
I
acR
I
dr C cr
0
3
4
0
3
0
2
1
o
|
Lock Number,
L. Sankar
133
Lock Number,
The quantity =acR
4
/I is called the Lock number.
It is a measure of the balance between the aerodynamic
forces and inertial forces on the rotor.
In general has a value between 8 and 10 for
articulated rotors (i.e. rotors with flapping and lead-lag
hinges).
It has a value between 5 and 7 for hingeless rotors.
We will later discuss optimum values of Lock number.

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L.

Mass flow rate through the rotor disk times

From an earlier slide # 36, Thrust equals mass flow rate

These forces will be normal to and along

Total Inflow Velocity from Combined

Note that inflow is uniform if u= CR/r . This twist is therefore

dT = (Mass flow rate) * (twice the induced velocity at the annulus)

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