A2 Psychology Unit 4, Issues and Debates

Alexander Hunter 13Ln
Psychology Unit 4 Issues and Debates

1. Psychology makes Contributions to Society.
A)
Describe and Evaluate (inc. strengths and weaknesses) two contributions to society within each approach from Units 1 + 2.
Social Approach
Reducing Prejudice: 2 Theories SIT + Social Conflict help to reduce prejudice. Social Identity Theory Tajfel (1979) Social categorisation: categorise self as member of a group (s) i.e. students/ female.... Social identification: adopt the norms of a group (in-group). This leads to see people who do not belong to the same group to being seen as the out group. Social comparison: in group favouritism and over accentuation of similarities. It can lead to rivalry/competition and hostility Social Conflict Theory Sherif (1954) Sherifs social conflict goes further and says that not only 2 groups are likely to be out of favour with one another but that prejudice arises from deep competition between the two over resources. In order to reduce prejudice the two groups need to work together to solve a common problem, a superordinate goal. Evaluation: +Sherif (1954) found the 2 groups worked together to achieve a common goal and levels of prejudice were significantly redued supporting social conflict theory. +Both tested by Laboratory and Field experioments where there are direct and clear controls and measurable independent and dependent variables, sop reliable cause and effect can be drawn. +Both suggest formation of groups causes prejudice and removal of the group delineation reduces it, so they support one another. + It can be applied when conflicts stem out of grouping then we can change the grouping to diffuse the conflicts. -It does not take into account the history of conflicts i.e. long-standing feuds. -It does not take into account the competition for scarce resources(real conflict theory). -Not very easy to reduce in/out-group behaviour as it is a feature of society and is likely to lead to happiness. -Many different circumstances needed to achieve a common goal. It depends on the status of the groups and cultural norms. Explaining blind obedience: Agency theory Milgram (1973) When we obey we are in an agentic state: we become the agent of a person in authority, we obey their order even if they go against our values, we might feel moral strain when we do so. We do not feel responsible for our actions. The rest of the time we use our free will and feel responsible for our actions. This is called autonomous state. Evaluation: +It has empirical support: Milgram (1963) and Hofling (1966). +It helps explain real-life situations such as the Holocaust however other factors were involved i.e. deindividuation of the Jews, possibility of promotion, effect of propaganda and Hitlers charismatic personality. Adolf Eichmann. -Difficult to explain the concept of an agentic state some people always would refuse such orders from authority. -It does not explain why some participants disobeyed and stopped before reaching 450v. -Other factors influence obedience: buffers, social support, personal characteristics and moral values. -It is a circular argument, if you obey you are in an agentic state if you do not obey you are in an autonomous state but it does not explain what these states consist of.
Cognitive Approach
Understanding the problems with EWT: -Reconstructive memory: there will be distortion in recall but this cannot be helped as it is subconscious -Cue dependent forgetting: witnesses recall better when state and contextual cues are present therefore police should use reconstruction and cognitive interview -Trace decay: if the information is not rehearsed the new engrams formed when learning takes place decay and the information is no longer available for recall therefore the police should interview witnesses as soon as possible after the event. -Weapon focus: when a weapon is used during the event the witnesses are likely to focus their attention on the weapon and be unable to recall details concerning other aspect of the event therefore they might not identify the perpetrator reliably (Loftus et al (1987) -Leading questions: a leading question is a question which contains information which in turn influences the witnesss answer. (Loftus and Palmer, 1974) therefore the police should be trained in interview techniques to avoid leading questions. Evaluation: +The studies of EWT are mainly lab. Experiments so they might not reflect the way people would behave in normal environment for example the Ppts know that what they say will have no consequences so they might not put as much effort in the degree of accuracy, also they have not witnessed a real crime so they are not put under the level of stress that such event tend to create.
+The findings have been widely applied in real life and police and court practices have been changed as a result. +Supported by studies from Yullie and Cutshall (1986), Loftus and Palmer (1974) and Krackow and Lynn (2002). +Yullie + Cutshall (1986) help show minor errors do not necessarily mean entire evidence is wholly unreliable. -It is impossible for ethical reasons to create real situations and study the EWT of those present however there have been a few such studies (Yuille and Cutshall, 1986) but they lack control as they are natural studies. -Some studies evoke low levels of emotion, low in mundane realism, so not a valid measurement of EWT. The use of cognitive interview The cognitive interview technique was proposed by Geiselman (1985) to assist the police in obtaining accurate information from eyewitnesses using the information from psychological research. Four stages: 1. Reinstate feelings and context at the time of the event. 2. Tell the story with maximum details even it they seem irrelevant. 3. Recall the event in different order. 4. Tell the story from the pint of view off another witness. Evaluation: +Fisher et al. (1990) found recall increased by 46% with 90% accuracy (research done in real life situations. +It is used widely by the police in the US but also in some other European countries although in altered form. +Studies such as Loftus + Palmer (1974) showed just how a change of a verb could alter a witnesses judgement. Cognitive Interview takes the problems and issues of leading questions into account. +Evidence comes from reliable and replicable studies, meaning the evidence is useful. -It cannot help overcome problems such as reconstructive memory as this is a subconscious process or weapon focus as the encoding has already taken place during the event and cannot be altered afterwards. -Milne (1997) found the cognitive interview did not seem to lead to the recall of more information than other techniques. -Memon et al. (1997) found no difference of recalling in the same or a different place. -The enhanced version of the cognitive interview (Fisher + Geiselman 1992) is hard to test which features are effective.
Psychodynamic Approach
The use of psychoanalysis as a therapy: According to the psychodynamic approach mental disorders are caused by unconscious conflicts originating in early childhood therefore the aim of psychoanalysis is access the unconscious mind and deal with the conflicts (catharsis) which are causing the mental disorders. To access the unconscious, Freud proposes the use of four main techniques: Dream analysis: the royal road to the unconscious Manifest content: the content the dreamer is aware of it hides the latent content, the underlying wish present in the unconscious. Freudian slip: the unconscious lead us to substitute an unintended action (or word) for intended one. Free association: words or use of inkblots Transference: the way the mind recreates the conflicts and feelings from their life (i.e. relationships with parents) and transfer them to the therapist. Evaluation: +It was the first talking cure, before these mental patients were treated in a very inhuman way. +NICE (2002) has found that Psychoanalysis is as useful technique at treating disorders as CBT with a 67% success rate. +Still used today, over 100 years after it was invented. Theory continues to be built on. +Looks at the patients whole life, so has value when trying to help them live a more successful life. -There is evidence that psychoanalysis works for some people (Bachrach) however people who cannot express themselves and have little or no insight (schizophrenics for example) do not benefit from the therapy. -It is an expensive and time consuming therapy rarely financed by the NHS in its original form so it is mostly accessible to people who can afford it. -The therapy rests on a theory which is not scientifically testable. -Extremely Subjective. Explanations of the significance of dreaming: Freud argued that dreams are the royal road to the unconscious. Manifest content: the content the dreamer is aware of it hides the latent content, the underlying wish present in the unconscious. Furthermore Freud proposed that once unconscious thoughts and desires are made conscious they lose their power to influence a persons behaviour. It is a useful contribution as it offers an alternative explanation to the biological approach which states that dreams have no meaning and that dreams are the products of the active brain trying to make sense of random thoughts while we are sleeping. This approach also contributes to the treatment of mental health problems. Evaluation: +This explanation is based on in-depth analysis of a lot of quantitative data and takes a holistic view of the person so is more likely to be found helpful by individuals. +This theory can help recurring and upsetting dreams which the biological explanation cannot explain so it can contribute to the treatment of sleep disorders. -The biological explanation of dreams has more scientific support i.e. scans and EEG done on sleeping people. -Freuds explanation is based on a theory which cannot be scientifically tested. -Analysers have their own interpretation on each of the dreams.
Biological Approach
Understanding Gender: All foetuses have the same undeveloped sex organs. The original system can develop into both male and female sex organs. It is the presence or absence of a single gene (SRY gene) which will dictate the future development of the foetus as a male or a female. Females: The ovum (egg) is fertilised by a sperm containing a X chromosome. The absence of male hormone will result in the development of female sex organs Males: The ovum (egg) is fertilised by a sperm containing a Y chromosome containing the SRY gene. SRY gene produces a protein: Testis Determining Factor (TDF). TDF influences the development of the gonads; they become testis The testis produce testosterone. Testosterone triggers the development of external male organs i.e. penis. It also affects brain lateralisation. Differences can also occur when hormones are not released normally during gestation. It helps to understand why people might feel wrongly sexed and provide them with help and treatment. Evaluation: +It is an explanation scientifically tested using research methods which are reliable and objective i.e. scans and genetic studies +It offers an explanation which can lead to treatment for people who have difficulties with gender assignment. +By showing how brain development is influenced by hormones it explains some of the differences between males and females. +Those with sex differences with regards to genes/hormones (Turners Syndrome) have consistently similar observable differences. -It is reductionist as it does not take into account the influence of social factors, e.g. learning approach etc. -Much of the research has been done on animals so it is difficult to extrapolate the results to humans as although there are significant similarities there are also considerable differences i.e. cognition, moral and social values. PET Scanning: PET scanning involves generating computerised pictures of the brain by using a radio-active tracer to highlight areas of activity. This helps society to contain mental health problems by better understanding them. Health problems are expensive and do not help productivi4ty, as well as causing individuals stress.# Evaluation of Contribution: +PET Scanning is objective in that another person can check the print outs to make sure their is no subjectivity. +Inter-rater reliability amongst doctors when diagnosing the illness. +Replicable, so reliable. -Only show certain areas of the brain to be active but cannot pinpoint precise areas of this very complex organ. -It is very difficult to decide whether it brain changes cause certain problems, or whether behaviour causes change in the brain. This is supported by Raine et al. (1997)
Learning Approach
Systematic Desensitisation: A therapy to improve phobias, its aim is to break the association between an stimulus (the phobic object) with a response (exaggerated fear) and to replace it by a relaxed response using the principles of classical conditioning, in which the client learns relaxations techniques, works out a hierarchy of fear from the least frightening to the most frightening. The client then works through the hierarchy learning to use relaxation techniques in the presence of the feared object Evaluation: +It is ethical because the client gives consent to the treatment and has control of how fast the treatment proceed however the client can experience considerable of stress during the treatment. +It is an effective treatment and allows people to lead a more normal life i.e. agoraphobics might be able to get back to work or use public transports. +It can be self-administered and does not necessarily require a therapist, which means it is free and at its own pace. -It does not take into account the psychological causes of phobias (remember Little Hans) -It can be fairly time consuming as the treatment can take a number of treatment can require a number of sessions -SD is not duitabler for clients who unable to relax or to imagine scenarios where their phobia may actually occur. -It is better for specific phobias rather than free floating anxiety or social phobias. This is because a specific issue needs to be broken down into a hierarchy. -SD may not be as effective for phobias that might have a survival element, such as fear of closed spaces or dangerous animals. It is more effective for learned phobias through classical conditioning. Token economy: Token economy programmes use operant conditioning to replace aggression or other undesirable behaviours with more appropriate behaviours. Required behaviour is rewarded. Individuals are given tokens (secondary reinforcers) for approved behaviour and the tokens can be exchanged for something desirable, such as visits or watching TV(primary reinforcers). It is possible that as part of the programme, maladaptive behaviour is punished too. Evaluation: +Can be run by people who are not therapists, although they must be trained. It is very cost-effective and less time-consuming. +TEPs help deal with people who find therapeutic or councelling situations difficult so is more useful treatment. +It has no physical or psychological side-effects, that may be caused by drugs or counselling. +It has proved to be effective both in prisons and in mental institutions where violent behaviour is significantly reduced. +Uses operant conditioning to shape a behaviour, which can then be generalised outside of the institution.
+Has been found to be successful by many studies, even thought there tends to be 10 20 % of people who do not respond well to TEPs. +Ayllon and Milan (1979) reviewed a number of programmes and found that they worked for clear behaviour e.g. the general keeping of rules and control over interpersonal aggression. +Milby (1975) found that programmes were successful in psychiatric hospitals and helped in preparing someone to leave hospital BUT we do not know if the effects worked long term. -However it can be hard to generalise the behaviour to the outside as the environment is different. -Issue over how the programme is run. Is it at Staffs discretion to reward and punish. -Few long term studies to actually support this theory. -Unethical as it may change a persons behaviour against their will when it may in fact be a survival technique.
B)
Describe and Evaluate (inc. strengths and weaknesses) one contribution from each of Unit 3 and from Clinical Psychology. Criminological Psychology -Token economy (See Above)
Child Psychology
Daycare Daycare has been researched in great deal by psychologists and has lead Karen to label it as the Child Care Wars (1994). This is because psychologists want to see if it has good or bad implications for the child. If Daycare is bad, and the child will exhibit problems in later life, it is harmful, as it has potentially negative effects for society. If it is good however, and parents can work and contribute to the economy without it affecting the child, then Daycare is an excellent form of care provision. Although studies have shown both positive and negative effects, the general conclusion seems that the right quality, quantity can be beneficial, but if this is not the case it can be detrimental to the Childs development. Evaluation: +Evidence that Daycare is beneficial, e.g. Swedish Studies (Andersson 1996), and the EPPE study in the UK. Even critics like Belsky, have shown that not all forms of Daycare are bad, only elements of it. +Studies tend to include results from all sorts of methods experiments, questionnaires, observations. So information is valid. -It is hard to carry out a study that takes all variables into account e.g. quality, duration, gender, temperament etc. -Studies conducted globally e.g. in the US and UK have all found different results. Swedish studies seem to show that Daycare is more successful indicating there may be some aspect of Swedish culture that makes it more suited to Daycare. -Although studies may be valid, they may also be unreliable. As generally studies which are valid, arent replicable, as the methods are very different to obtain a balance.
Clinical Psychology
2.
Token economy (See above). Psychology Involves Ethical issues in the treatment of participants (both animals and humans). A) Describe 5 ethical guidelines in psychological research that relate to humans.
-Informed Consent Getting informed consent is important, though it is not needed for observations in a public place. Consent must be informed, though the participants may not always be fully informed if it will jeopardise the study. In that case, they must be fully informed at a debrief. E.g. Godden + Baddeleys (1975) study, the divers needed fairly fully informed consent because they had to know what to do, but the main point about the environment for learning and recall was not explained, to avoid affecting the findings. -Deceit Deceit should be avoided as far as possible, but sometimes it is necessary for success of the study. Again, this should be explained in a debrief and corrected. Hofling et al.s (1966) study deceived the participants when a doctor gave fictitious orders. However the point was to see if nurses would obey so they could not be told that the orders were real. -Right to Withdraw Participants must have the right to withdraw at any time. They must also have the right to withdraw the data after the study has finsihged. Milgrams (1963) study included verbal prods to make the participants carry on, so the right to withdraw was compromised 9although they could still refuse to continue). -Debreif To make sure the participant leaves the study in the same emotional state as they arrive, they must be debriefed and everything revealed to them. Milgrams (1963) study included a thorough debrief. -Competence A researcher must be competent to carry outthe study and must check with colleagues if there is doubt or carry on if not. Hofling et al. (1966) showed their competence, for example, in the setting up of observers to makes sure the nurses were safe and debriefed. -Protection from Harm or Distress Participants must not be under any harm or distress at any point during a study. Milgram is a known example of where this was not taken into consideration. -Confidentiality Participants personal data/information must be kept confidential (unless specifically granted). Often it is necessary that pseudonyms are given for particularly detailed accounts of a particular participant e.g. a case study. B) Describe 5 ethical Principles that relate to the use of animals (non-human) in research in psychology.
-Cost Benefit Consideration Cost-benefit analysis involves considering the costs of the study, including the cost to anumals compared with potential benefits with the findings. It is also important to take account of how sound the findings are. A good study is one in which the benefits, outweigh the costs. -Suitably qualified researchers Research must be conducted by researchers who are suitably qualified and competent and they must make sure that everyone they supervise on the study has appropriate skills. In the UK, the researcher must have a personal licence, be part of a licensed project and the study must be done in the place specified on the licence. -Using non-animal procedures if possible The research can only be done using animals if alternatives using non-animal procedures have been considered. -Keeping discomfort to a minimum Where a protected animal has been used in a study and has suffered pain and distress they must not be used again. Pain must be minimised. -Using suitably equipped premises Premises must be suitable and licensed. Caging must be suitable for the species, for example, and there should be provision for anaesthetic procedures. -Endangered Species must not be used They are already low in numbers, so they must not face any further threat.
C)
Evaluating ethical issues with Human Participants and Animals.
Ethical Guidelines for Humans: +Psychological research must be carried out for the following reasons: +Participants feel safe. +Societys moral standards need to be maintained and even improved. +Vulnerable participants need protection. Ethical Guidelines can restrict studies. These restrictions are: -Not being able to do a covert observation of private behaviour. A covert observation can be difficult to set-up because it is hard to get informed consent of the participants and observations are only exempt from informed consent if they concern public behaviour. -Not being able to set-up a violent or aggressive behaviour experimentally. It is not possible to set-up real violence in an experimental situation. -Not being able to report on all aspects of a case study. Important information from a case study may not be reported because of confidentiality. -Often studies where ethical guidelines were not considered e.g. Milgram have proved to be the most valuable for Society. Milgrams studies laid down foundations for ethics, but also provided a genuine explanation into Genocide. -Often ethical guidelines may actually hinder the experimental process, e.g. informed consent and avoiding deceit. Ethical Reasons for Animals: +They are there to protect animals. +Adheres to societys moral standards, so people are comfortable research is being carried out. +Having ethical guidelines means that research can be carried out thatll benefit humans without the costs of such animals is too high. Guidelines in themselves can hinder research in a number of ways: -Endangered species cannot be used, so some research is not possible. -The smallest possible number of animals must be used, which can make the findings less reliable as too few animals are used. -Replication can also be prevented by ethical principles, as the same study cannot be carried out repeatedly. -Getting the right licences from the Home Office + finding suitably qualified researchers can be time consuming and expensive, limiting research. D) Describe and Evaluate (inc strengths and weaknesses) two studies in terms of ethical considerations. Milgram (1963) Study of obedience Aim: Milgram set out to investigate how obedient people would be in a moral situation where following orders would mean breaking participants moral code and harming another person. Procedure: Milgram advertised for volunteers to take part in a memory experiment at Yale University. They would receive a fee of $4.50 in return. 40 participants between 20-50 years of age (all males) took part in the study. Mr. Wallace (the stooge) was always the learner and the participant always the teacher (although the ppts. Didnt know this). The learner was strapped to a chair and wired up to a shock generator, which was demonstrated by giving a mild shock. Each participant was positioned on either side of the screen, in which they could not see the ppt. They were instructed whenever Mr. Wallace gave an incorrect answer to give a shock and increase the voltage by 15volts. The experimenter ordered participants to continue even when they objected by giving verbal prods such as you must continue, including at lethal voltages of 300V (Danger) and 450 V (XXX). It was a structured observation not an experiment as many people believe, it was an independent measures groups design. Results: All participants gave Mr. Wallace at least 300V. 65% of all participants went the full way to 450V. The average maximum voltage was 368.25V. Conclusion: Most participants showed distress but decided to continue. Despite this the saw no alternate except to obey. This is believed to be as a result of the order coming from legitimate authority. Evaluation: +Milgram carried out a full debrief that included a questionnaire to make sure the participants were all happy to have taken part; most said they were.
+At this time in the US, there was cloudiness over ethics committee, so Milgram had few guidelines to adhere to. +He checked with colleagues to make sure the study was ethical and they agreed he was; so he showed competence. -The participants were very much affected by the study, with one having a seizure and other becoming very distressed. -Although they could still withdraw, it was compromised. Milgram gave verbal prods to continue. -Participants were deceived, did not give their informed consent and in some ways there was a lack of confidentiality. Skinner (1948) Superstitious Pigeons: Aim: - To demonstrate the superstitious behaviours could be acquired by animals Procedure: 8 pigeons were given limited food to reduce them to 75% of their normal weight to ensure that they were hungry. Each was placed in a skinner box for a few minutes a day and received a food pellet every 15 seconds regardless of its behaviour. After several days of conditioning 2 independent observers recorded the birds' behaviour. The time interval between pellets was increased to 1 minute and the frequency of responding was recorded again. Finally, the pigeons was given time for acquired behaviours to extinguish by stopping the release of the pellets. After this 20 minute extinction, the 15 second interval pellets were reintroduced to one pigeon Findings: 6 of 8 pigeons developed repetitive behaviours that they performed between the arrival of the pellets. These include turning, hopping, head tossing and pendulum swings of the head (nutters) - none of which were exhibited before the expt. Most of the new behaviours were exhibited in the same part of the cage each time 5-6 times between every reinforcement (very frequent). When the time between the reinforcers had increased to one minute , the pigeons behaviour increased and they went mental (became frantic). The extinction was SLOW e.g. over 10,000 hopping responses were displayed before extinction (hungry pigeon), When the pellet intervals went back to 15 seconds the pigeon started hopping again. Conclusion: Pigeons behaved as though they believed that the delivery of food pellets depended upon their response even though it did not, as people do when they hold superstitions. Since reinforcement was intermittent (not continuous), the pigeons' behaviour was difficult to extinguish. When extinction occurred the behaviour could be reconditioned Evaluation: +Pigeons are not an endangered species, so are a suitable species to use. +Experiment only involved eight pigeons, when more would have been possible, so adheres to requirement of using as few animals as possible. +This study was conducted in 1948, whereas the Animals Scientific Procedures Act was not until 1986, so no real guidelines. -Could have been conducted in humans to see if they acquired superstitious behaviours rather than animals. Guidelines say that alternatives to animals should always be sought. -Each pigeon was starved to 75% of their body weight. This could be said to cause undue distress since, as long as the bird wanted feeding, it could have been conducted at the normal time. -Pigeons were caged in very cramped and uncomfortable questions. -Did not involve suitably qualified researchers, a lack of professionalism.
3.
Methodology Experiments -In an experiment the IV is manipulated and consequent changes in the DV are measured in order to establish a cause + effect relationship. -This is because the researcher actively allocates each participant to groups or conditions. -There are 3 main types Lab, Field and Natural. -There are 3 types of experimental design: -Independent groups design Different groups of participants are used for each level of the IV. -Repeated Measures Design Each participant performs in every level of the IV. -Matched Pairs Design Participants are arranged into pairs, each pair is similar in ways that are important to the study and the members of each pair perform in the two different levels of the IV. -Independent Measures: Used to reduce the effects of demand characteristics or order effects, and can test all conditions simulataneously. -Repeated Measures: Overcomes problems of individual differences, any difference should be sue to experimenters manipulation, Although order effects cannot be avoided they can be cancelled out by counterbalancing. Matched Pairs Avoids problems of individual differences + order effects. -Statistical significance of experiments can also be measured. Lab Experiment Involves a study in an artificial environment using careful controls. The experimenter manipulates the IV to measure the DV, and measures it in a controlled environment. Evaluation: +Reliable because they are replicable. Controls and variables are carefully noted + study can be repeated. +Objectivity because variables are operationalised. +Extraneous variables can be controlled by the experimenter. -Tend to lack validity because tasks are unnatural. -Lack ecological validity because the setting is unnatural and unlike real life. -Problems of demand characteristics.
Loftus & Palmer (1974) Reconstruction of automobile destruction: example of interaction between language and memory Aim: To investigate the effect of a leading question about a car accident that implies damage on subsequent recall of speed and of damage caused. Procedure: Experiment 1 -A sample of 45 students was shown clips of traffic accidents. They were then asked a series of question about the film including one that read about how fast were the cats going when they... each other? -The missing verb was either: smashed, collided, bumped, hit or contacted. Experiment 2 -A sample of 150 students were shown a short film that included a four-second scene of a car accident (which did not include and broken glass) and asked some questions. -One third of the participants were asked the critical question About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? -A third were asked the same question but the word hit -The final third were not asked about speed. -A week later the participants were given another questionnaire including the critical question Did you see and broken glass? Results: Experiment 1 More severe verbs resulted in higher estimation of speed. This distance was significant at p < 0.005. -Smashed 40.5mph, Collided 39.3mph, Bumped 38.1, Hit 34.0mph, Contacted 31.8mph Experiment 2 Again the estimate of speed was higher for smashed (mean 10.46 mph) than hit (mean 8mph), a difference that was significant at p < 0.05 -With a more severe verb, participants were more likely to report having seen (non-existent) broken glass. A chisquared test had shown a significant difference (0.025). -Probability for saying yes to broken glass question is 0.32 for smashed but only 0.14 for hit. Conclusion: -The leading information of the verb in the speed question affects the way in which the event was represented in memory. -Over time, the misleading information from the question was integrated with the original memory so that, at the retrieval, the memory was reconstructed to include this new information Evaluation of Loftus and Palmers study (1974) +Useful in doubting effectiveness of EWT. Police can learn from such evidence. +Shows leading questions can have an effect on result. Police should not ask leading questions. +Well structured procedure. +Able to control extraneous variables as in a lab environment a film can be shown. +Both qualitative and quantative data could be gathered and then later analysed. -Small sample so difficult to generalise, and reliability is poor. -Not accurate reflection of a car accident, as a lab situation. The film does not evoke same arousal as real event. -Ethnocentric and all students. And all psychology students may have guessed what study was about demand characteristics. -Independent measures design is weak as different type of people in each group age/gender/IQ etc. difficult to generalise. -Evidence from Yullie and Cutshall amongst others goes against this conclusion. Field Experiment Experimenter still manipulates IV, but carefully involves controls in a natural environment or setting. Evaluation: +Can be reliable as controls are clear and are clearly documented. +Higher ecological validity than lab experiments as in a natural setting. +Higher levels of mundane realism. -Lack of control over extraneous variables when in a natural environment. -Often take a long time to set-up and are expensive to run. -Remain prone to demand characteristics. Hofling et al. (1966): Aim: To see whether nurses would obey a doctor when doing so would breach hospital regulations + endanger the lives of patients. A secondary aim was to see whether nurses were aware of how obedient they tended to be. Procedure: Boxes of capsules labelled Astroten were placed with other medicines in 22 hospital words of American hospitals. The capsules were placebo and contained glucose and thus were harmless to most patients. However the label identified the max. safe dose as 10mg. A researcher calling himself Dr. Smith from the psychiatric dpt. Phoned each of the nurses on duty and requested that they gave 20mg of Astroten. Although written authorisation was required before prescribing, nuhe claimed he was running late and would sign the papers later. Meanwhile 22 other nurses who were not involved in the field expt. Were interviewed and were asked whether they would prescribe a dangerous dose if the doctor asked them to. Results: 21/22 said they wouldnt obey the doctors instructions, yet 21/22 of the nurses told by telepho0ne did give a large dose of astroten. When questioned 11 of the nurses said they didnt notice the diffence between the doseages, whilst the other 10 said they had but they presumed it was safe as tit was Doctors orders. Conclusion: Although the nurses believed that they would not obey the doctor if they were instructed to do something that breached hospital regulations when in reality the did. Evaluation of Hofling et al. (1966)
+The drug was a placebo it had no effect on the patient. +The results showed how obedient the nurses would be. +It is a field experiment and thus has ecological validity. +Control group to allow comparison. +Supports Milgrams Agency Theory Unethical Did not gain the consent of the patients before hand, deception. The implications of the actions of nurses could have cause them moral strain or stress. Naturalistic Experiments Involve a study with an independent and a dependent variable where the IV is naturally occurring. Evaluation: +Extremely valid as the IV is naturally occurring. +Eliminates demand characteristics, as naturally occurring, non guesswork involved. -Hard to replicate as they tend to be one off situations, so difficult to say which findings are reliable. -Often hard to generalise from results as one-off. -No control over extraneous variable which could hinder the experiment. Charlton et al. (2000) Aim To investigate the effects of television on childrens behaviour, in particular whether TV affected pro-social and anti-social beh. Procedure -Employing a cross-sectional design, the researchers studied the playground behaviour of 3-8 year old children before and after the introduction of television on the island of St Helena. Video recorders were set-up in playgrounds of two schools 5 months prior to the introduction of television in March 1995 + once again 5 years later. -Childrens free-play during break times was recorded for a 2 week period each time + researchers compared the findings to establish whether behaviour changed as a result of Television. -Eight Playground behaviour were categorised as pro-social or anti-social: +Pro-social gestures or comments made. +Sharing, turn-taking or helping. +Displaying affection or consoling others. +Holding hands, arm in arm. -Anti-social gestures or verbal comments. -Kicking, punching, hitting. -Seizing or damaging property. -Non-complaint holding or forcing. -Independent researchers in the UK viewed the video footage + tallied how many times children or groups displayed these behaviours. -Two researchers watched the same video footage as many times as they wished alone + only tallied results were recorded. -This ensured inter-rater reliability. Results Of 64 comparisons made of the childrens behaviour in 1994 + 2000, only 9 were statistically significant: -Two showed decreases in anti-social behaviour amongst boys. -Five showed increases in pro-social behaviour amongst both boys and girls. -Two showed decreases in pro-social behaviour in boys. Boys tended to display less hitting and pushing after television was introduced, but were less willing to help and show affection. However both boys and girls showed significant increases in pro-social behaviour overall. Conclusion -Charlton concluded that the introduction of television had no negative effect on childrens behaviour. This finding shows longer-term effects and contradicts most laboratory research. Evaluation: +Study shows behaviour as response to real-life situation natural so high ecological validity. Also children played as normal. +Use of video recorders presented researcher bias, because could be checked by other observers. Prevents fatigue. +High inter-rater reliability. +Hidden cameras meant children behave naturally. +Evidence concrete against media causing aggression, as proved the opposite of many studies. -Did not analyse the viewing habits of children involved they may have not watched television. -One reason for findings may be the tight-knit community in St Helena. -Island conscious of promoting a good image of inhabitants. -Later found television viewed by inhabitants not similar to mainland television programming e.g. teenage mutant ninja turtles. Methodology: Observation There are two types of observation that you need to know for AA2 Pscyhology. These are structured and naturalistic. Structured observations These involve careful controls and set-up a situation that can be repeated. There is often more than one observer and observations tend to be carried out through a one way mirror to avoid the situation being affected by the observer.
Naturalistic Observations These take place in a natural environment or setting. They can be either covert or overt or participant or non-participant. Participant when part of the group being observed/Non-participant when not part of group observed. Evaluation Structured Observations: +Can be repeated and tested for reliability. +Carefully controlled so findings can be analysed and compares. +Inter-observer reliability ensures reliability, and means findings can be correlated. -Take place in a controlled setting so lack reliability. -Demand characteristics are possible under observation. Evaluation - Naturalistic Observations: +It is valuable to see how people behave in a natural setting and an observation provides very detailed qualitative information which can be used as a starting point for further, more controlled research. +It can be used when other methods might be unethical. -The presence of observers could influence the behaviour of those being observed, and it is difficult to control extraneous variables. -It is difficult for another psychologist to replicate the observation. -Because there are so many variables which could affect behaviour it is not possible to draw conclusions about determine cause and effect (i.e. there is no manipulation of the IV). Melhuish et al. (1990) Looked at 4 types of Daycare to see how childrens development was affected. The four types were: relatives, child minders, nursery or remaining at home. The data was gathered using observations of the children individually, in the home or setting. -Study involved 255 families in London, who also completed a questionnaire giving out information about themselves. -The observation reported here was carried out at age 18 months but the children were also visited at 36 months, five years and 11, so this is an example of longitudinal study. -There were two separate one-hour observations of the children in their daycare setting. For the children not at home during the day, observations were also carried out in their homes. -The observer watched during free play sessions and recorded the childs activity every 10 seconds. Some behaviours were on-off and were recorded once, others were recorded by including their start and end time. -More than one observer was used and, if the observers didnt agree 70% or more of the time, that observation was discarded. Some of the results were that: -The home and relatives groups showed more responsiveness than the nursery group. -The Home group was also more responsive than the childminder group. -Nursery group showed fewer affection responses than the other groups. -Aggression was generally low but there was more aggression in the nursery group. -The nursery group also produced the fewest language utterances. -It was concluded that the four types of daycare gave different outcomes with regard to specific behaviours, such as responsiveness, affection, aggression and language. Evaluation: +Good inter-observer reliability and where this does not occur the data was not included in the results. +The children were observed during free play when they could choose their own activities, which should have led to fair comparisons between the four groups. If the observations were of structured sessions this might have affected the childs behaviour. -The nurseries were privately owned and not well-resourced. Other better-equipped and resourced nurseries may not give the same findings. -The researchers point out that the observations all watched 18-month old children, so findings may only generalise to that age group. Questionnaire Method: -Questionnaires usually involve gathering both qualitative data and quantitative data. Closed questions gather quantitative data and open questions gather qualitative data. Open questions allow a respondent to give some opinions and closed question offer forced choice. -Personal data such as age, gender, work situation and other required information are also asked. Evaluation: +Questionnaires reach out to a large number of people so gather a lot of data. +The inclusion of instructions and information on the questionnaire means they can be ethical for example, the respondent knows what they are being asked to do and can be given the right to withdraw. -Some respondents may lie because they want to look good social desirability effects. -Low validity if social desirability effects are present. -Questionnaires can be sent out by post to large numbers of people. This can be an advantage, but the response data is usually low. Mumford and Whitehouse (1988) Aim: To investigate if eating disorders do actually occur fewer times in British Asian Scholl girls than in their white counterparts. Procedure: -Researcher studied girls aged 14 to 16 from 4 different schools in Bradford. Total sample size 559 204 asians/355 whites. -Girls given an eating attitudes test and a body shape questionnaire. In both the test and questionnnair, the more abnormal the girls attitudes were to eating or body shape. Those who scored over 20 on eating attitudes test, or
over 140 in body shape attitude questionnaire, went on to interview, where details of their eating history were collected and they were examined to see if they had an eating disorder. -Altogether, 22 Asian girls and 32 white girls were interviewed. A disorder was only diagnosed after a discussion with researchers. Results: -Found significant difference from the eating attitudes test with Asian girls having a mean of 10.6 and the whites 7.7. However there was no significant difference in the body shape questionnaires, with the Asian Girls having a mean of 70.3 and the white 70.3. -Of those who went to interview, 7 Asian girls and 2 white girls were diagnosed with bulimia, a significant difference. -Anorexia was diagnosed in one Asian girl and no white girls. Conclusion: -Concluded Bulimia Nervosa was more prevalent amongst Asian girls, and more Asian schoolgirls were concerned about their weight than their white counterparts. Evaluation: +Large Sample size 554 questionnaire, and 54 interviewed, so results generalisable to other schoolgirls. +Reliability of diagnosis of eating disorder was high because researchers came to joint decision. -Very limited Age range. Not generalisable to girls outside of that age range. -Original questionnaire administered in girls classroom by teachers, so may have affected results. Perhaps white girls lied on it. -No independent verification of the diagnosis of someone not involved in study. Experimenter effects. Should have been double Blind. However this is reduced as they found the opposite to what they expected. -They used the DSMIII-R to diagnose, which may not be reliable. Nicholls et al. (2000) found the DSM was not a reliable measure of eating disorders in children. Interviews: Structured Uses set questions that are fixed for each respondent. Unstructured Has a schedule of questions but the interviewer can divert from them to investigate areas that arise or that the respondent chooses to address. Semi-Structured Combination of a set list of questions and some room for exploring areas. Evaluation: +One-to-one so any questions can be explained and areas of interest explored. +Data should be more valid due to the in-depth and reality of it. -However respondents can choose not to tell the truth, throwing doubt over its validity. -Demand Characteristics and Social Desirability. +/-Structured interviews replicable and reliable but unstructured not so Example Brown et al. (1986) Aim: To test whether self-esteem + social support affected the likelihood of suffering depression in the year following a stressful life event. Procedure: -Design was prospective. 400 women, mostly working class, all with children living at home + a husband in manual occupation. -All from Islington, North London + recruited through GPs + interviewed. Initial interview assessed mental health, self-esteem _ social support using a range of standard interview schedules. -1 year on 353 ppts consented to be re-interviewed. These 2nd interviews re-assessed the same variables + looked for major stressful life events that had taken place in the previous year. This was done using Life Events + Difficulties Schedule (LEDS) interview. -Social support was re-assessed with particular regard to support received during stressful life events in previous year. -50 ppts showed signs of depression in 1st interview were not included in analysis, as researchers wanted new cases. Results: -91% of ppts (29/32) who experienced depression during the year between 2 interviews had experienced a severely stressful life event, as compared to 23% who did not suffer depression. -Low self-esteem did not make the women more vulnerable to depression unless there was a stressful life event, but it did make depression more likely where such a life event took place. -General level of social support assessed at first interview wasnt associated with depression; however, in those who suffered a stressful life event, women who received good crisis support from husband or partner were less likely to suffer depression. Conclusion: -Both low self-esteem + lack of social support make it more likely that stressful life events will lead to depression. -However there is no evidence from this study that either factor led to depression in the absence of stressful life events. Evaluation: +Findings support theory that women are more prone to depression. +Natural Experiment stressful life events naturally occurring. -Sample is small. -Not generalisable Only women and all working class. Content Analyses:
-When analysing the content of a media story or topic, references to that topic or to some aspect of it are counted that is content analysis. -Often categories relating to the topic are set-up and agreed beforehand so that it is known what is to be counted. -A researcher goes through the material a newspaper, series of programmes or childrens books etc. And counts the number of times each category is mentioned This is tallying. -When writing up the analysis it is very important that the categories are clear so that what is covered in each case is overt and wrong conclusions are not drawn. For example, if going through childrens books looking for references to jobs and gender, the categories are probably clear, but if looking for acts of aggression, a clear definition of act of aggression will be needed. Evaluation: +Content analyses involve collection of data from sources that already exist, so few ethical issues involved. No deceit + informed consent not necessary. +It studies data that exists in a novel way, so is unlikely to highlight a fresh interpretation of such data. -Require interpretation and so may be subjective. -If categories are set up that do not represent what is being studied then data will not be valid. -Some issues of confidentiality when looking through old records. Cumberbatch and Gauntlett (2005) -Research for Ofcom. The Broadcasting code requires under 18s to be protected from unsuitable broadcasting. The aim was to look at programmes targeted at or watched by 10-15 year olds to see how drugs, smoking, solvent abuse + alcohol were treated. -The top 10 programmes watched by the age group were chosen. Over a three month period in 2004, 256 programmes were watched, 70% of which were soaps and broadcast before 9pm watershed. -Analysis noted all scenes where alcohol, smoking or drugs were mentioned whether elegal or illegal use. Altogether 2099 scenes noted. -12 alcohol scenes per hour, 1.7 drug related scenes ph, 37% drinkers, 4% smokers, 84% neutral messages on alcohol. Evaluation +If Ofcom wishes to research this, content analysis is the obvious way. +Nothing unethical about examining TV programmes. They arent even real, so no need for ethical considerations. +Sample size was extremely large and a 3 month duration is a long time for a study. -Categories would need to be set to make sure a scene was clear. Difficult in practice to measure when one starts/stops. -Although top 10 programmes chosen, many more would be watched by 10-15 year olds, meaning results cannot be generalised to the population. Correlation Method: -A form of analysis because they involve two scores generated by one person and then compared. If enough people are asked, their scores on one variable can be correlated with their scores on another variable + a test can be done to see if there is a relationship. -A positive correlation is between 0-1 and a negative between 0 -1. The higher the degree the stronger the correlation. Evaluation: +The only way of showing a relationship between two variables + a test is good at showing how great that relationship is (Spearmans). +Relationships are first steps to linking one variable with another. +More ethical, using existing data no need to explore sensitive areas like schizophrenia. +Replicable so reliable. -Correlation is not causation. -Conceptually limited. Gottesman (1991) -Combined results of 40 European Studies to examine whether genetic similarity of a patient with schizophrenia was associated with risk of developing it. -The greater the genetic similarity of the relatives, the more likely they were to both have a diagnosis of schizophrenia. -For an identical twin of a patient suffering schizophrenia the risk was 48% whilst for non-identical twin was 17%. -For a child of one parent with a diagnosis the risk was 6%, if both parents had a diagnosis this rose to 46%. Evaluation: +A clear correlation and relationship between the variables. +Very ethical. No intrusion in sensitive areas. Based on existing research. -Correlations not concrete relationships were only as high as 46%. -Not necessarily causation. -Ignores other factors. The Case Study Method Case studies are in-depth and content rich studies of one person (or perhaps a small group of people). There are many different research methods Freudian or studies of the brain. The research aspect of the case is secondary to the mire pressing aim of helping a patient or client in difficulty. In addition clinical case studies tend to be written up afterwards to prove a point. This is quite different to an experimental study which is generally written to find something out in the first place. Evaluation: +Qualitative Data. +Valid and real-life.
+Extremely Detailed. -Subjective. -Unreliable, cannot be replicated in anyway. -Not generalisable as every situation is different and unique. -Lack of quantitative data so difficult to do statistical tests.
Curtiss (1977) - Genie: psycholinguistic study o a modern day wild child Background: -When Genie was 20 months old a doctor told her family that she might have learning difficulties. -In response, unstable father kept her isolated in her bedroom tied to a potty by day and tied to a sleeping bag by night. -Beaten by father every time she tried to communicate and only had basic interactions with her father. -Her mother and brother were not allowed to communicate with her or leave the house Case History: -Rescued at the age of 13 when her mother ran away and took her to social services. -Genie had very little speech and was afraid of adults. -Initially fostered by a special needs teacher and then by one of the psychologists studying her. -Developing language (Steadily increasing vocabulary, no grammatically correct sentences) + attachment to carers - Continued to display extreme anxiety -Research funding terminated psychologists returned her to social services and cared for in a succession of foster homes. -Physically abused again in one of her foster homes and regressed to the state she was in when first rescued. -Settled in with an adult foster-carer who did not wish her to have anything to do with psychologists again Interpretation: -Genie suffered privation as the result of being forcibly separated from her mother and being isolated from all human interaction. -Both emotional and cognitive damage. Evaluation: +The reports on Genie form a richly-detailed case study, with good quantitative and qualitative data. +Evidence to support that privation is not reversible, and the effects are detrimental to a person. -Difficult to generalise from case studies. -There were strong suggestions that Genie may have had developmental problems in infancy, it was not possible to say that her subsequent failure to develop normally was due solely to her experiences. -Also it was not known how much, if any, language stimulation Genie had received during her years of abusive confinement. In any case, because there was a strong suggestion that Genie may have had developmental problems in infancy, it was not possible to say that her subsequent failure to develop normally was due solely to her experiences. -Ethical Considerations: - She was not offered the opportunity to give her consent to the studies though she may not have understood if it had been offered to her. However, the researchers undoubtedly gave Genie a very high level of care. -She was given a pseudonym to protect her identity but the broadcast of some of the film of her (without permission) increased the likelihood that someone would recognise her.
B) Plan a Study -Draw on exisiting Knowledge.
Include Hypothesis/Aim/Design/Procedure/Ethical Considerations/Analysys of Results/Statistical Tests (Correlation Spearmans/Experiment Nominal Chi Squared, Ordinal/Interval/Ratio Mann Whitney U).
C) Evaluate Psychological Studies with reference to research methods used, including suggestions for improvements+ changing method. 4. Key Issues within Psychology (from each approach)
Social Approach Genocide Why do people commit acts of genocide, and murder huge numbers of innocent people the Holocaust, My Lai massacre at Vietnam. Social-psychological ideas can be applied to these situations to help explain them: In-Group favouritism + Social Identity People categorise themselves as either one of ;them or us. Whenever we identify someone as part of a different group we favour ourselves. According to SIT we do this to boost selfesteem. This means we have a tendency to put down out-groups in order to boost the status of the in-group. It is the start of genocide e.g. Hitler labelling all Jews across Europe with an armband and all shops being clearly named as Jewish shops. Obedience + Agency Milgram has shown that people have an amazing tendency to follow other peoples orders. Peters + Richards (1998) found people who commit atrocities believe they are serving the wider interest of the community. They have to carry out even if it is against their moral code. Cognitive Approach - EWT (Eye Witness Testimony) Loftus has thrown the accuracy of EWT into doubt. Loftus (1975) tested whether misleading questions could lead participants to remember false details of a film. A piece of film showing a car that was involved in a crash to 150 students. All ppts. Were given nine of the same questions but the tenth one differed How fast was the car going when it went past eh barn and the other How fast was the car going down the road. There was no barn. A week later they were tested and 17% of those in the Barn group reported seeing a barn compared to just 3% of the control group, throwing the reliability of EWT into doubt. However there is counter evidence from Yullie + Cutshall (1986) which found that 13 of 21 witnesses of a shooting after 5 months correctly recalled the event, and were unfazed by the misleading questions. This was similar to Riniolo (2003) on questions of the titanics sinking. Krackow and Lynn (2003) The use of Tagged questions in shaping a response from a child. Psychodynamic Approach -False Memory and Repression -When someone is under Psychoanalysis will they agree to the analysts interpretation of a memory? The debate is over the power of an analyst, and whether the memory is false or not. It can however be true in which case it has been repressed. -Psychoanalyst uses various techniques as encouragement for the client to develop insights into their behaviour and the meanings of symptoms including free association, interpretation, resistance analysis. -Anxiety disorders such as phobias, panic attacks, OCD, and Post Traumatic stress are areas where psychoanalysis is assumed to work. -Aim is to assist the patient in coming to terms with their identity impulses or to recognise the origin of their current anxiety in childhood relationships that are being relieved in adulthood. If a problem is caused by repressed emotions, it can be brought into concsciousness by psychoanalysis. -It has been claimed that in doing so, false memories such as sexual abuse, have been recalled, which never happened have lead to wrongful convictions, and a great deal of trauma for the families involved. -If the memory is true and has been repressed then psychoanalysis does work. However if it is false, then it goes against psychodynamic explanations as it is undesirable. -According to psychodynamic theory, traumatic memories are pushed into the unconscious by the ego to help the personality gain a balance. Defence mechanisms are used which leads to the trauma being forgotten which fits with the idea that false memories are not false but buried. -There have been cases which have shown memories were false e.g. Beth Rutherford who claimed her father forced her to have an abortion when he didnt. Masson suggested the power given to the analyst can be abused although it is not always deliberate. -Unconscious mind cannot be tested so there is no scientific measurement or evidence. -Debate highlights the problem with the approach that the issue cannot be tested. +Psychoanalysis has shown to be successful; we accept childhood experiences do have an impact on personality. It might lead to a cure or simply tackle some of the emotional factors of the underlying cause. -Psychoanalysis is expensive and time-consuming. Biological Approach Understanding Gender. All foetuses have the same undeveloped sex organs. The original system can develop into both male and female sex organs. It is the presence or absence of a single gene (SRY gene) which will dictate the future development of the foetus as a male or a female. Females: The ovum (egg) is fertilised by a sperm containing a X chromosome. The absence of male hormone will result in the development of female sex organs Males: The ovum (egg) is fertilised by a sperm containing a Y chromosome containing the SRY gene. SRY gene produces a protein: Testis Determining Factor (TDF). TDF influences the development of the gonads; they become testis The testis produce testosterone. Testosterone triggers the development of external male organs i.e. penis. It also affects brain lateralisation. Differences can also occur when hormones are not released normally during gestation. It helps to understand why people might feel wrongly sexed and provide them with help and treatment.
Evaluation: +It is an explanation scientifically tested using research methods which are reliable and objective i.e. scans and genetic studies +It offers an explanation which can lead to treatment for people who have difficulties with gender assignment. +By showing how brain development is influenced by hormones it explains some of the differences between males and females. +Those with sex differences with regards to genes/hormones (Turners Syndrome) have consistently similar observable differences. -It is reductionist as it does not take into account the influence of social factors, e.g. learning approach etc. -Much of the research has been done on animals so it is difficult to extrapolate the results to humans as although there are significant similarities there are also considerable differences i.e. cognition, moral and social values. Learning Approach Are Token Economy Programs Effective? (See Contributions) Criminological Psychology - Can criminals be rehabilitated through TEPs and Anger Management or are they simply born bad? -Widespread evidence to suggest that through schemes such as anger management, and token economy systems that criminals can be rehabilitated into society through action. -There is significant evidence from studies such as Hobbs & Holt (1976), Jenkins et al. (1974), Krigin et al. (1982) that rate of crime with young offenders in particular those who have committed minor offences such as theft, burglary and assault are significantly reduced after receiving Token-Economy treatment. -And there is equally important evidence from studies such as Ireland (2004) and Hillbrook (1997) to suggest that anger management as a treatment can seriously improve reconviction rates among criminals who have committed assault or affray. Irelands study was particularly successful showing a 92% improvement rate. -In serial offenders however this is a different case. Loza & Loza-Fanous found that anger management is ineffective with violent criminals, as they are encouraged to re-enact their violence rather than taking full responsibility for this. It is also possible to examine reconviction rates across the globe In order to establish whether rehabilitation can have an effect. -This may stem from the belief that criminals are born rather than made their genes are predetermined to be more violent, so little can be done to rehabilitate them. -Others who argue that it stems from SFP (A stereotype), or the influence of SLT and the media, would predict that changes in the environment and reducing the stereotype through these techniques can reduce recidivism rates. -Despite low recidivism rates in minor criminals, the recidivism rates in serial offenders is much higher, supporting the hypothesis that criminals will always be criminals. -Some serial offenders, such as Mary Bell, who killed two boys when she was just 11, was fully rehabilitated in society. But others cannot be rehabilitated, e.g. the case of Bulgers killer Venables, who was recently imprisoned on committing yet another disgusting crime. -This means we can conclude quite simply that criminals who commit lesser crimes, such as theft or an ASBO, can be rehabilitated into society through evidence like Hobbs & Holt, Jenkins etc. Serial offenders, such as murderers and rapists cannot be rehabilitated into society, because although some may proved to be perfectly normal citizens we never know. -This casts serious doubt over the justice system, which was made pathetic, on the Labour Governments stupid decision to sign the Lisbon Treaty. Criminals now have more rights, effectively, than us decent folk. This world is crazy! -A solution is to treat offenders of the less bad kind with techniques like education, Anger management, as they can be normal. For serial killers, and rapists, we cannot take that risk. We do not know who will and who will not go on to be a murderer, or go on to reoffend. Yes some may return to be perfectly normal citizens, but for the security of the rest of the population, it is not safe or morally acceptable to take that risk and release a murderer back into society, because we dont know who is going to do it again. Child Psychology - Daycare Daycare has been researched in great deal by psychologists and has lead Karen to label it as the Child Care Wars (1994). This is because psychologists want to see if it has good or bad implications for the child. If Daycare is bad, and the child will exhibit problems in later life, it is harmful, as it has potentially negative effects for society. If it is good however, and parents can work and contribute to the economy without it affecting the child, then Daycare is an excellent form of care provision. Although studies have shown both positive and negative effects, the general conclusion seems that the right quality, quantity can be beneficial, but if this is not the case it can be detrimental to the Childs development. +Evidence that Daycare is beneficial, e.g. Swedish Studies (Andersson 1996), and the EPPE study in the UK. Even critics like Belsky, have shown that not all forms of Daycare are bad, only elements of it. +Studies tend to include results from all sorts of methods experiments, questionnaires, observations. So information is valid. -It is hard to carry out a study that takes all variables into account e.g. quality, duration, gender, temperament etc. -Studies conducted globally e.g. in the US and UK have all found different results. Swedish studies seem to show that Daycare is more successful indicating there may be some aspect of Swedish culture that makes it more suited to Daycare. -Although studies may be valid, they may also be unreliable. As generally studies which are valid, arent replicable, as the methods are very different to obtain a balance. Clinical Psychology Are TEPs an effective way of treating people who suffer from mental illness? See above.

5. Psychology Involves Different Debates.
A) Describe + Evaluate issues of ethnocentrism in psychological research, inc. the potential effect of cultural bias in the interpretation and application of cross-cultural studies. Ethnocentrism When someone is said to be ethnocentric they are said to be focusing on their own culture and seeing their won cultural ways as the right ways. It therefore tends to be a criticism, just by saying someone is prejudiced or biased. Certainly it is a type of bias, because if research is interpreted from the view of one culture it might not be appropriate for a different culture. -Smith & Bond (1993) found nearly all work in psychology textbooks came from USA + Europe, yet were generalised to all humans. -In Clinical Psychology, Calvin was a Jamaican man who was diagnosed as mentally ill when he was dressed as any other Jamaican man, and Littlewood & Lipsedge (1997) concluded that Black and Irish people were more likely of a mental illness diagnosis in the UK due to the cultural differences. -Van Ijzendoor & Kroonenberg found that there were major cultural differences between attachment types suggesting the strange situation was not a suitable measure. -Etic approaches argue that there are universals in human behaviour, whilst an emic approach argues that findings are only relative to the place where they have been conducted, -Omoaregba et als. (2009) study attempted to overcome ethnocentric bias in her study of Nigerian women with schizophrenia. Cultural Relativity -Cultural relativism means being sure that the findings from research are understood in the culture from which they came, including those norms and beliefs. An example is cultural relativity with regards to mental illness, in that it is relative to the culture being assessed. -The idea of ethnocentrism and the idea of cultural relativism both rest on the claims of those like Kant, who showed that there cannot be knowledge separate from the cultural beliefs and norms of the researcher. For example, language was studied, and it was found that if a culture had no word for a particular colour- such as green then they did not see green. Cross-Cultural Studies True et al. (2001) in Mali West Africa -Studied attachment interactions between mothers and infants in the Dogon people of Mali in West Africa. They used the Strange Situation, which involves interactions between the infant and mother and stranger. The main focus is the reunion between mother and child. -The childs behaviour is observed and categorised as one of three or four types of attachment bond, securely attached, anxious avoidant, anxious resistant and disorganised (the last being added later). The strange situation was developed in the USA by Ainsworth and has been used to measure different attachment types. -True et al. (2001) wanted to look at how infant attachment security is linked to the quality of mother-child communication and also whether mothers of secure infants respond more sensitively than mothers of insecure infants. -They also looked to see if disorganised attachment type is linked with frightened or frightening behaviours. They studied 27 mothers and infants and found 67% of the pairs showed secure attachment, none were avoidant 8% resistant and 25% disorganised. Ainsworth also found more than 60% were securely attached, so True et al.s study to this extent confirms the test is appropriate across different cultures. -The security of the attachment in the Dogon people was related to quality of mother-infant communication and there was also some correlation between security of attachments and maternal sensitivity. -Disorganised infants did have mothers who were either frightened or in some way frightening, -There were many similarities between the findings and the US, although some differences which may be a result of Dogon child-rearing practises. This study suggests that the tools for studying attachments can work across the different cultures but that cultural norms and beliefs are important when interpreting the findings. -Cultural relativity is an issue here. Without taking into account the Dogons own cultural practises, there could be bias in interpretation of the results. Evaluation: +True attempted to make the strange situation culturally appropriate, using a Dogon woman as the stranger + using a Malian researcher to interpret the reunion behaviours. -The researchers say that they would try harder to incorporate the cultural beliefs into the categories if they did the study again e.g. in Mali many babies die before the age of 5, sp if the mother had just lost a child it may affect her rearing style and baby be disorganised. -Avoid ethnocentric bias in saying that Dogon mothers are in some way more frightening than mothers in the West. +Findings are thus not conclusions, but rather are interpreted in light of cultural relativism. -Van Ijzendoorn found the opposite in his study, concluding attachment types are very different. B) Desribe the Debate over what science is and how far psychology fits the definition. Evaluate whether psychology should be called a Science Should Psychology be Called A Science -Two ways of asking whether psychology is a science? Considering either the subject matter or the processes involved, and how scientific it is -Subject matter of science is terminology that is considered to be scientific e.g. genes, hormones etc. At least some of psychology is scientific.
-How scientific it is depends on the actual approach some would consider biological psychology to be more scientific, and social less so. -The other measure is: is psychology done in a scientific way? (Doing Science) -When doing science the following should be considered: -Hypothesis writing drawing an idea from something and making a statement (hypothesis) about it. -Empirical Testing Testing the idea against reality and showing it to others. -Falsification Trying to prove a hypothesis is false. -Reductionism Make something measurable against reality (through empirical testing), complex issues may be reduced to small parts. -Controlling to avoid Bias To ensure what is being measured can cause what is being looked at, there must be no bias in either setting up the study or interpreting the results. -Karl Popper discussed the ideas of science and falsification. Theory->Hypothesis to test->Empirical Testing-> Accept or Change-> (LOOP) -Reasons for not doing science: -Holism The person or complex event is studied as a whole, the idea being that the whole is more than the sum of the parts. E.g., our brains may not just be the sum total of different neurotransmitter functioning and different brain organisation because the relationship between all the parts is likely to affect our behaviour as well. -Humanistic Psychologists like Maslow and Rogers turned to a new approach they called humanism because the did not want to rely on theory and testing. They just wanted to consider individuals with their individual needs, such as the need to self-actualise. -Scientific Controls and careful measuring of data tend to give replicability and therefore reliable data. However, you can do a study many times and get the same results without them having any validity. For example, a questionnaire can find over and over again that as self-confidence rises anxiety falls (e.g, Craft et al. 2003) but that does not mean we know any more about what self-confidence is or whether it has any link with anxiety. -Qualitative data cannot easily be gathered scientifically because it involves stories, attitudes and opinions all of which are about people who are changeable, unsure and can be swayed by others. -Social Construction is that so much of what is being studied in social science is a construct, a construct being opposite from a universal. According to Social Constructionism very little of what we know is universal. Most of what we study are constructs e.g. Gender can be seen as a construct because gender behaviour is different between cultures. -Obedience has been found in different cultures to different degrees (according to Milgram and other studies) so is perhaps a universal, as Milgram suggested in Agency Theory. -Social Constructionism is anti-science and suggests we should not look for universals because they only tell us very basic facts about people and interactions. Instead we should study constructs, which will identify bias such as ethnocentrism, and will tell us more about real-life (valid) behaviour within a specific social and cultural setting. -Kuhns idea of science being a series of cycles or paradigms is generally accepted in psychology, in that new theories replace older ones, and in this way can be considered a science. C) Compare the Five Approaches from Units 1 and 2 according to how scientific their content and methods are. -The Social Approach and Science -Subject Matter Social Psychology tens to be seen as non-scientific. However there are elements of science, such as in suggesting tat societies evolved to have agents and followers (Agency Theory). Evolution theory is a part of Science. -Methodology Good use of experimental methods e.g. Hofling et al. (1966), Tajfel et al. (1979) used Lab experiments as did Sherif. Also scientific when looking at helping behaviour. Even surveys (e..g Adorno), piloted questions and care was taken to avoid ambiguity, and gather quantitative data. Almost all experiments, studies used hypotheses and empirical testing. -The Cognitive Approach and Science -Subject Matter Cognitive does contain biological principles. Memory and forgetting involve information processing and, when considered in more depth, can involve scanning the brain and considering neuroscience, so very scientific at times. -Methodology Follows scientific research methods, including laboratory experiments, scanning and brain imaging. Craik and Tulving used lab experiments with careful controls and Godden + Baddeley conducted out a well controlled field experiment. There are hypotheses and empirical testing and statistical testing for results. -The Psychodynamic Approach and Science -Subject Matter Studies the unconscious and its power over conscious thoughts. As the unconscious is not empirically measurable, the subject matter of Psychodynamic Approach is not scientific though Freud does allude to energy and instincts which are biological aspects of a person. -Methodology Least scientific of all approaches. It focuses on case studies and unique research methods such as dream analysis and free association. Qualitative data is gathered, not quantitative, and there are few controls over behaviour, with participants generating data freely and without control. No hypotheses to test using empirical data, more that data drives the analysis. -Freud hoped to build a scientific theory so he made sure he could give examples and evidence for all his claims e.g. Little Hans he only took notice of what Hans father said that came from Hans, + checked back where possible with Hans to see if his analysis was appropriate. -However the Oedipus complex, unconscious, ego and id are not measurable or testable, so the Scientific is seen as non-scientific. This does not in itself make its conclusions wrong however. -The Biological Approach and Science
-Subject Matter-Clearly Scientific, includes terminology like genes, hormones, brain lateralisation, brain functioning. -Methodology-Scientific including Lab experiments, PET scans, MRI scans, + EEG measurements. Hypotheses rigorously set-up, with clearly operationalised variables, and empirical testing takes place to confirm or amend them. -Take Explanations of Autism, Schizophrenia, Depression All scientific. Drugs used in measurements. -ECT is not scientific rather a random shock applied to the brain a form of social control. -The Learning Approach and Science -Subject Matter Behaviour, only measurable and observable behaviour is considered in a bid to make the approach scientific. At first focuses on stimulus and response both of which observable and testable. By reducing behaviour to separate parts for study, such as rat pressing a lever to get food- the subject matter was claimed to be scientific. -Methodology Lab experiments + animals with the aim of making the study scientific. SLT was the basis of moving it away from a strong scientific background, although Bandura used carefully planned experiments. He later considered motivation and memory, aspects of thinking. -When Bandura moved towards issues like self-efficacy, (considering feelings in succeeding), the research methods + subject matter became increasingly less scientific. -Is Psychology a Science? -With regard to subject matter in general, social and psychodynamic psychology are thought to be the least scientific but the cognitive, biological and learning approaches, are thought to be scientific at least to some extent, in that they look at brain and behaviour, -With regard to research methods, expcept for psychodynamic psychology, scientific methods are used as far as possible. Hypotheses are generated, empirical testing takes place, and statistical testing is used to see how far any finding s may be due to chance. Psychology as a Science SUMMARY -Falsifiability -The idea of testing data using inferential statistics to see how far results can eb said to be due to changce and yet still be accepted. The point is to set-up the idea, the null hypothesis, that there is no difference as precdicted by the original hypothesis, + then see if there is enough difference to say if the null is false. -This attempts to deal with the idea of falsifiability. In Psychology, it is rare people always conform to a hypothesis. Inferential testing allows to measure if it is due to chance. -Paradigms -Psychology is a pre-science because there is no single paradigm in which psychologists are working. Behaviourism, Psychodynamic and Biological Approaches can be called Paragidms. -It could be claimed that psychology works within a paradigm accepting, for example, Darwins ideas about evolution and the general idea of scientific methodology being the way to discover truths about the world. -The question is whether psychology is a science strongly suggests psychology paradigm is a science. -Discourses -Discourses are socially constructed views of the world. As long as you are having a discussion with someone sharing the same discourse, you will have a good understanding, but if you do not share views or understand the meaning, there will be a poor understanding. -Necessary to understand not only what people mean, and this is not often what is done in a laboratory situation or experimental situation. Psychology and Science Reductionism, Experiments, Biology + Brain, Hypothesis testing against reality, Measurable Data, Falsification and Statistical Testing, Experiments using animals, Paradigm, Observable Facts. Psychology and non-science Holism, Case Studies, Humanism and self-actualisation, focusing on individuals, unconscious/personality, human stories and detail, ethology to study animals naturally, Pre-Paradigm, Socially constructed discourses. D) Describe issues related to the use of psychological knowledge as a means of social control and assess ethical and practical implications of such control. Issues should include: i use of drug therapy ii token economy iii classical conditioning iv influence of the practitioner in treatment/therapy. -All societies have a set of norms and customs or rules, which people learn to respect through socialisation. People are expected to conform to such rules without any social control, but this isnt always possible. -There are occasions where it is required to get people to adhere to social norms. -A number of measures exist. This will examine each type. Drug Control -Drugs can help to control behaviour and are used by those that are normal to make those more abnormal like them. E.g Rosenans study (1973) saw pseudo-patients be prescribed drugs as a form of social control to make them normal. -Usually people with schizophrenia are given drugs to control their behaviour, an example of psychological knowledge being used as social control. -It is also used as a social control when prescribed for heroin addiction. Methadone is a substitution for heroin and does not give the strong withdrawal symptoms so is more likely to be taken by an addict.
Ethical Issues -Power of the practitioner in making a decision about controlling someone else behaviour. The individual may be thought of as unable to make the decision, and the family may feel they should- but do they have the knowledge to? +Often perceived professionals are in the best position to make decision. Often decision stems from multi-agency working group decisions. +There are guidelines in place for dealing with mentally ill not only in research but in hospitals. Issues focus on confidentiality + consent. Practical Issues: +How do you check whether patients take their drugs? Schizophrenia often involves drug-therapy in the institution but this stops outside, and the patient relapses as they fail to take their medicine. New drugs avoid re-lapse and side-effects. +Drug therapy for drug addiction is widely believed to be effective but with other treatments. Should focus on lifestyle, not solely addiction. Therapy is more effective alongside counselling, with other behavioural therapies and community care. Token Economy as a Social Control -Used in schools, prisons, mental institutions to help control behaviour. Required behaviour is identified and is then broken down in steps that are achievable and observable. When required behaviour is observed it is rewarded with tokens which can be exchanged for goods. -The principles are: rewarding required behaviour, ignoring undesired behaviour, offering positive reinforcement, using shaping. Ethical Issues -Who has power to control behaviour? To help mitigate this te member of staff should not stand out as having power in the programme. The system must be explicitly clear, predictable, and reliable for it to work. Behs must be clear, why desired + by whom. Practical Issues -TES difficult to use outside institution where it is set-up. Might revert to undesired behaviour. -Very careful system must be enforced where required behaviour is always reinforced, at first at least. This labour-intensive as staff constantly involved. As shifts change, behaviours may be missed. -Difficult to sort out what tokens should buy for an individual must be real and tailored else programme will not work. Classical Conditioning as Social Control -Systematic Desensitisation and Aversion Therapy are both treatments or therapies that use classical conditioning principles. Systematic Desensitisation (SD) -Works for anxieties or specific phobias where there is a particular stimulus that causes problems. -The response of fear can be replaced by one of relaxation, the aim of the treatment. Ethical Issues -Ethically sound as the patient is in control of the process, lists hierarchy, and can say if too much anxiety caused. -Although therapist has power to make suggestions and push client further up hierarchy, it is not as strong as other therapies like drugs. Practical Issues -SD is good for certain anxious situations such as where there is a clear stimulus causing anxiety for it to be worked on. -Treatment works best with client who can learn to relax and sufficiently maintain relaxation when required to. -Client needs to be able to transfer learning to another situation. Aversion Therapy -Used in cases like alcoholism. Alcoholic takes emetic to make them feel sick, so associate alcohol with sickness to stop drinking. Ethical Issues -Strong form of social control as someone can be made to undergo it. Used to be used on homosexuals. -However nowadays only appropriate if individual asks for treatment and is in control of it. Practical Issues -Difficult to achieve as association has to be made very clear. E.g alcoholics should drink water and soft drinks when undergoing treatment without the drug else they may become conditioned not to drink at all. -Now cognitive principles are incorporated, so client will be given a drink they think will make them sick, but it wont. It has no harmful effects, only a mental association. Influence of Practitioner in therapy and their role in social control. Therapies like CBT (Cognitive) and Psychodynamic therapies like dream analysis. -Nice Recommend CBT as effective treatment for schizophrenia as no risk of medication, but can lead to depression-awareness of disorder. -It does not cause any harm biologically, which may result in side effects. -However the therapist has power over the patient and can influence thoughts and behaviours and potentially implant thoughts into patients mind. However all therapists are trained, supervised and tested on these issues, but cases do exist where this has occurred. -Psychodynamic therapies have shown to be far less effective in treating mental disorders although NICE (2002) found it had a 67% success rate of treating schizophrenia. -But power lies in the analyst and power to implant false memories. -Also the cost of treatment is very expensive, and courses last a long time and are time-consuming for a potentially unscientific and not useful treatment for disorders.

Describe issues related to the role of Both Nature and Nurture in explaining Human Behvaiour, drawing on material (including content and methods) studied in psychology. F) Explain the differing emphases placed on both nature and nurture by the various approaches and/or applications studied.. This explanation covers both parts of the syllabus. The role of nature Nature refers to what we are born with, including ant processes that develop as we mature, and any effects on ourselves as an organism before birth. -As Human beings we are genetically programmed to look certain ways, behave in certain ways. -Genes dictate release of hormones, neurotransmitter functioning. Neurotransmitters stem from brain. Our brain is also responsible for a lot, e.g. the hippocampus in forming new memories. Biological Approach Genes, Hormones, Brain lateralisation and functioning. Psychodynamic - Unconscious guides us. Id, Ego, Superego and psychosexual stages of development. Criminological Psychology Personality and criminal behaviour. Child Psychology Evolutionary aspects of attachment. Clinical Psychology Biological explanations of mental health issues, biological treatments for mental health issues (drug therapy) The role of nurture -Refers to the effect of the environment on us as we develop and grow. The biological environment that affects us before birth and after conception is still part of nature, but all other influences are nurture. -Social Psychology concerns nurture how we are influenced by groups that we belong to and how they cause prejudice. -Cognitive focuses on nurture when considering cues in environment to retrieving memories, and how the word of a question can affect exactly what is recalled from an event. -Psychodynamic Considers nurture in focusing on desires for mother and guilt towards father affects sons behaviour. -Learning approach completely based on nurture proves learning takes place in environment, e.g. stimulus and response. Stimulus is the environment and linked to it so involuntary and biological. -Operant conditioning is another way which explains nurture any behaviour rewarded is repeated to get reward. -SLT suggests learning comes from modelling and imitation. Behaviour that someone sees is replicated, particularly if rewarded. Nurture and learning and socialisation into social norms and customs. AS + A2 Approaches and Nature-Nurture Social Interactions between people and environment so focuses more on nurture + environmental effects. However does consider some in-built tendencies such as forming groups and to act as an agent for society. Cognitive Looks at info processing and how brain takes in info, processes it and forms output. Processing is likely to be feature of nature but what is processed is environment so nurture therefore takes both into account. Psychodynamic - Role of unconscious and importance of first five years. Stress is on innate behaviour and thus nature. But life experiences lead to fixation are from nurture, so like cognitive takes both into account. Biological Most focused on nature genes, hormones etc. However environment is necessary to trigger certain behaviours, and element of interaction with environment. Uses twin studies so involves methodology that can uncover nature/nurture as defining human behaviour. Learning Deliberately focused on nurture because desire to experiment using observable features of behaviour. It acknowledges biology, such as involuntary behaviours like fear, but it focuses on how behaviours can be learnt from the environment. Criminological Interested in nature so far as there are biological explanations for anti-social behaviour and crime. Also interested in examining what background or environment is more likely to lead to anti-social behaviour or crime. Elements of both, Child Focused what happens to child after birth and attachment experiences + type of mother. Firmly on nurture of child. However there is an interest in childs innate temperament and on any possible developmental disorders that will affect them e.g. ADHD/autism. Clinical Mental Health Issues. Shown to have biological explanations such as dopamine hypothesis (schizophrenia). Also use biological treatments like drug therapy and ECT. However nurture explanations like stress and lack of social support. Has elements of both. Evaluation of the role of nature or nurture when explaining human behaviour: -Most explanations involve element of both nature or nurture when explaining behaviour, so impossible to say which. -If behaviour is reduced to parts (reductionism) and not looked as a whole (holism) then it is likely that either can be pinpointed. -However this would take war aspect of looking at human behaviour as a whole, so criticism of focusing on nature/nurture. -Nomothetic View of learning or scientific view (reducing it to universal terms) it is possible either nature/nurture is responsible. -But Ideographic view draws on qualitative data, and looks at both accounts of nature/nurture, suggesting they cant be separated. -One point is that debate is non-existent as impossible to separate them.
E)
-Research methods help to uncover differences between nature/nurture e.g. twin studies showing no influence of nature in identical twins. -Cross-Cultural studies help also to uncover differences between nature and nurture because if differences do exist it is most likely due to a difference in the environment. However there are also nature differences so impossible to say.
6. Previously Unseen Stimulus material concerning a Key Issue using psychological concepts, theories and or research from different approaches or application.

A2 Psychology Unit 4, Issues and Debates

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A2 Psychology Unit 4, Issues and Debates

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Alexander Hunter 13Ln

Psychology Unit 4 Issues and Debates

Alexander Hunter 13Ln

Alexander Hunter 13Ln

Alexander Hunter 13Ln

Alexander Hunter 13Ln

Evaluating ethical issues with Human Participants and Animals.

Alexander Hunter 13Ln

Alexander Hunter 13Ln

Alexander Hunter 13Ln

Alexander Hunter 13Ln

Alexander Hunter 13Ln

Alexander Hunter 13Ln

Alexander Hunter 13Ln

B) Plan a Study -Draw on exisiting Knowledge.

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Alexander Hunter 13Ln

Alexander Hunter 13Ln

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Alexander Hunter 13Ln

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