CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Alcohol and other related substance abuse and dependence is now one of the most frequently occurring adjustment disorders in adolescents, young adults, and the general public or populace. In fact, alcohol and other related substance use disorders are the most prevalent form of psychiatric disorder in the United States (Rivers & Shore, 1997). Although all age groups are affected by this pervasive difficulty, adolescents and young adults are particularly heavily affected. A substantial proportion of the adolescent population uses drugs or alcohol to the extent that their health, interpersonal relationships, or school performance is adversely affected (Johnston, O'Malley, & Bachman, 2003). One of the problems faced by developing nations today, specifically Nigeria is the growing number of individuals who are using or abusing substances including, illegal drugs, alcohol, and tobacco. Although, it has been noted that the overall consumption of drugs in the Nigeria has declined by 30% in the past 20 years, the past 10 years have revealed some increase in drug abuse among youths (Ejikeme, 1999; Adebiyi, 2003). In the case of alcohol use and drug abuse, Stephen (1998) states that polls of youth indicate that nine out of ten youths drink alcohol to some extent by the time they finish high school, and a majority have used illegal drugs. According to the National Youth Violence Prevention Resource Center (2002), teenage consumption of alcohol is a serious problem in Africa and other developing countries. Recent survey revealed that 52% of eighth graders (and 80% of high-school seniors) have used alcohol at some time (Michigan University Institute for
1

Social Research, 2000). The research also found that 25% of eighth graders (and 62% of high-school seniors) have been drunk. Furthermore, while it is illegal for minors to be given access with alcoholic drinks, it seems that such restriction has no, if only little, effect. The MUISR (2000) also found that 71% of eighth graders and 95% of high-school seniors say that they have easy access to alcohol. In the two weeks survey study made by The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) in cooperation with its Monitoring the Future Study (MFS), it shows that 50% of senior high schools habitually drink alcohol, 26% of which is involved in binge drinking and, over 20% of the tenth grades are into binge drinking (Johnston, O'Malley & Bachman, 2003). In terms of tobacco use, it has been noted that its use is more prevalent and that most children are trying to experiment with tobacco as 9 years of age. According to McWhirter (2004), the use of tobacco and alcohol are critical since both are regarded as gateway substances, which often lead to the use of illicit drugs such as coca based substances and marijuana. In the study made by Grunbaum, et al (2002), it has been found out that close to 20% of secondary students had been offered, sold, or provided illegal drugs like marijuana on school premises at some period during 12 months. The data given only shows that, different substances have been used by youths. This means that all youths are at high-risk of abusing these substances because they have been aware of such and use it at the earlier age.

1.2

STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

A vast majority of youths take substance abuse as a casual thing. They are not aware that it is more of a depressant than a stimulant and that continuous intake of such substances even in small quantities lead to undesirable consequences. Substance abuse can be a false friend. It plays a major part in illness, premature death and traffic accidents (Howard, 1995). Some youths claim that substances are good because it is a way of fun rising. Youths further indicated that they are making transition from drinking patterns characteristics of adulthood because it is now a common practice to serve alcoholic drinks as a gesture of hospitality and to facilitate interpersonal relationships. Drug use and abuse among youths has become quite widespread. In many developing countries like Nigeria, alcohol consumption has been increasing dramatically over the last 18 to 20 years. There is an increasing incidence of alcohol related motor vehicle accidents among youths. Drowning and disease such as cancer of the month, oesophagus and pharynx are some of the consequences of alcohol and other related substance abuse by youths (Howard, 1995). A lot of unplanned pregnancies occur in our communities because of liquor and other substance abuse. The dropout rate is high between both male and female youths, and most of the time this is a result of alcohol abuse and other related substances. In Nigeria, alcoholism and other related substance abuse is certainly not a new phenomenon. Nevertheless, researchers and policy makers only started focusing attention in it about 15 years ago. One of the first studies conducted in this area tried to ascertain the extent to which alcoholism and other related substance abuse adversely affected the population in the Scott Health Service Area by the then director of Community Health Care
3

in that area. The survey found that approximately 20,000 people in the study area cause a problem in their families because of drinking and abusing other related substances. Majority of today's youth faces conflicts that they can barely handle in a very young age. Modernization has brought many social changes in the society. Children are being taken for granted, usually by parents who both work and have no time for their children. Another factor is the issue of broken family, peer pressure, and many other issues that would make a youth feel inferior of himself/herself. Youth like these seeks a way to express themselves and unfortunately, this search for self expression has often lead to deviant practices such as joining gangs, engaging in pre-marital sex and engaging in substance abuse. Stephen (1997) wrote that growing numbers of children are being neglected, abused, and ignored. Without change, the dark spectre of generational warfare could become all too real. Stephen (1997) further noted that child-care advocates reports that up to 15% of 16-to 19-year-olds are at risk of never reaching their potential and simply becoming lost in society. In other recent studies, the research shows that family and peer influence, individual characteristics including behaviour and personality can also be considered as factors that influence children and adolescent to engage in substance abuse (Johnston, O'Malley & Bachman, 2003). There are several ways to determine if a youth is at-risk of substance abuse. Christle, et al (2002) cited that researchers have identified a number of demographic and behavioural characteristics of youth that contribute to their risk of involvement with substance abuse. These include ethnic minority status; aggressive, antisocial behaviour; difficulties in school and school failure (including educational
4

disabilities). These risk factors are common denominators in the backgrounds of youth who require a variety of human services like child welfare services. From the above therefore, this study seeks to address the effect of drug abuse, alcohol and other related substance by answering the following questions;

1.3

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
i. ii.

What are the factors influencing youths to abuse substances? What is the level of knowledge and perception of youths about abuse of substances?

iii.

What are the effects of substance abuse on youths? In what ways and means can substance use and abuse can be prevented or reduced among youths.

iv.

1.4

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The purpose of the study is to identify the effect of drug abuse, alcohol and other related substances and factors that influence youths to use and abuse these substances. Specifically, this study aimed to:
i.

identify factors influencing youths to abuse substances in Ugwan Rana; assess attitudes, knowledge and perception of youths on abuse of substances; determine the effect of substance abuse on youths; explore ways and means of preventing or reducing substance use and abuse by youths.
5

ii. iii. iv.

1.5

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY There is evidence that there is an abuse of substance problem among the teenage population. Many people including the research have witnessed many instances of substance abuse among youth people. There is more news coverage of the national increase in youthful substance abuse and the attendant problem that go with it. Youths aim to drink because of peer pressure and emotional stress among other factors. It has been indicated earlier on that several attempts have been made but with no success. It is therefore necessary to develop a health education programme based on the identified influencing factors that lead to youth substance abuse problems. Youth is considered a critical period for the forming of coping behaviour and responses such as using drugs to deal with stress, peer pressure and emotional distress (American Journal of Public Health, 1997). It seems therefore that drug prevention programmes that focus on reducing exposure to risk factors and modifying the factors that are already present should be implemented. Health education programmes emphasizing health effects of substance abuse and prevention may be successful, in particular, programmes emphasizing both immediate physiological effects of substance abuse and skill training in coping with social pressures to abuse substances. Drink and drug refusal training may teach youths how to refuse offers with confidence and without making limp excuses. This can also be an invaluable tool for helping to prevent relapses for clients with abstinence goals. Such programmes may show effectiveness as cessation strategies i.e. with youth, who have already adopted a habit of
6

substance abuse. Knowledge and understanding of effects of substance abuse can help youths to retrain from abusing substances and therefore concentrate on their studies resulting in responsible future citizens of their country. After completion, youths could also help adults to refrain from excessive use of substances and therefore secure their work, as they will be fit both physically and mentally. With increasing understanding of substances and with gradual lessening of the stigma, it is hoped that substance abuse will be diagnosed early before the sufferer can loose health, home or happiness.

1.6

SCOPE OF THE STUDY This study is centred on the effect of drug abuse, alcohol and other related substances among youths in Ugwan Rana community of Jaba LGA in Kaduna State. The research questions and objectives clearly stated above depict the scope of this study. It is worth knowing that Ugwan Rana is one of the communities in Jaba LGA of Kaduna State. Due to the large population of this community, it will therefore be vague to venture into an elephantine project in attempting to study the whole of the population of Ugwan Rana community, since this is an individual and self sponsored study. Due to the factors mentioned above, this study shall assess the effect of drug abuse, alcohol and other related substances with selected youths within the locality.

1.7

DEFINITION OF TERMS Substance Use and Abuse:

Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, refers to a maladaptive pattern of use of a substance that is not considered dependent. It is also a disorder that is characterized by a destructive pattern of using a substance that leads to significant problems or distress. The term drug abuse does not exclude dependency, but is otherwise used in a similar manner in nonmedical contexts. The terms have a huge range of definitions related to taking a psychoactive drug or performance enhancing drug for a non-therapeutic or non-medical effect. All of these definitions imply a negative judgment of the drug use in question (compare with the term responsible drug use for alternative views). Some of the drugs most often associated with this term include alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates,

benzodiazepines (particularly temazepam, nimetazepam, and flunitrazepam), cocaine, methaqualone, and opioids. Use of these drugs may lead to criminal penalty in addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, both strongly depending on local jurisdiction. Other definitions of drug abuse fall into four main categories: public health definitions, mass communication and vernacular usage, medical definitions, and political and criminal justice definitions.

CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION Youths for many a time characterized by the onset and escalation of substance use (Duncan, Duncan, & Strycker, 2006) and experimentation with substance is a normative behaviour. Substance use at an early age has been associated with various problems (e.g. risky sexual behaviour, health problems, and depression) (Arata, Stafford, & Tims,2003). Also, it is well known that youths substance use patterns can predict heavy substance misuse and abuse at a later age (e.g. Pape & Hammer, 1996). Thus, adolescent substance use is a major issue in both youth and adult health and of great concern to society. A better understanding of the various risk and protective factors that influence adolescent substance use is crucial in developing initiatives for health promotion and effective prevention strategies, at both the individual and societal levels. In this chapter, we shall attempt to review literatures as they concern substance use and misuse by youths and a theoretical framework which will serve as a guide.

2.2

SUBSTANCE ABUSE AND DEPENDENCE Substance abuse and dependence is now one of the most frequently occurring adjustment disorders in adolescents, young adults, and the general population. In fact, substance use disorders are the most prevalent form of psychiatric disorder in developed countries and developing countries of the world (Rivers & Shore, 1997). Although all age groups are affected by this pervasive difficulty, adolescents and young adults are
9

particularly heavily affected. A substantial proportion of the adolescent population uses drugs or alcohol to the extent that their health, interpersonal relationships, or school performance is adversely affected (Johnston, O'Malley, & Bachman, 2003). One of the problems faced by developing nations today, Nigeria inclusive is the growing number of individuals who are using or abusing substances including, illegal drugs, alcohol, and tobacco. Although, it has been noted that the overall consumption of drugs in the developing countries has declined by 50% in the past 20 years, the past 10 years have revealed some increase in drug abuse among adolescents (Johnston, O'Malley & Bachman, 2003). In the case of alcohol use and drug abuse, Stephen (1998) states that polls of youth indicate that nine out of 10 teenagers drink alcohol to some extent by the time they finish high school, and a majority have used illegal drugs. According to the National Youth Violence Prevention Resource Center (2002), teenage consumption of alcohol is a serious problem in the United States. Recent survey revealed that 52% of eighth graders (and 80% of high-school seniors) have used alcohol at some time (Michigan University Institute for Social Research, 2000). The research also found that 25% of eighth graders (and 62% of high-school seniors) have been drunk. Furthermore, while it is illegal for minors to be given access with alcoholic drinks, it seems that such restriction has no, if only little, effect. In the two weeks survey study made by The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) in cooperation with its Monitoring the Future Study (MFS), it shows that 50% of senior high schools habitually drink alcohol, 26% of which is involved in binge drinking

10

and, over 20% of the tenth grades are into bringe drinking (Johnston, O'Malley & Bachman, 2003). In terms of tobacco use, it has been noted that its use is more prevalent and that most children are trying to experiment with tobacco as 9 years of age. According to McWhirter (2004), the use of tobacco and alcohol are critical since both are regarded as "gateway" substances, which often lead to the use of illicit drugs such as coca based substances and marijuana. In the study made by Grunbaum, et al (2002), it has been found out that close to 20% of secondary students had been offered, sold, or provided illegal drugs like marijuana on school premises at some period during 12 months. The data given only shows that, different substances have been used by children or adolescents. This means that all children are at high-risk of abusing these substances because they have been aware of such and use it at the earlier age.

2.3

DETERMINANTS OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE Majority of today's youth faces conflicts that they can barely handle in a very young age. Modernization has brought many social changes in the society. Children are being taken for granted, usually by parents who both work and have no time for their children. Another factor is the issue of broken family, peer pressure, and many other issues that would make a youth feel inferior of himself/herself. Youth like these seeks a way to express themselves and unfortunately, this search for selfexpression has often lead to deviant practices such as joining gangs, engaging in pre-marital sex and engaging in substance abuse. Stephen (1997) wrote that growing numbers of children are being
11

neglected, abused, and ignored. Without change, the dark specter of generational warfare could become all too real. Stephen (1997) further continues that child-care advocates reports that up to 15% of 16-to 19-year-olds are at risk of never reaching their potential and simply becoming lost in society. In other recent studies, the research shows that family and peer influence, individual characteristics including behaviour and personality can also be considered as factors that influence children and adolescent to engage in substance abuse (Johnston, O'Malley & Bachman, 2003). There are several ways to determine if a youth is at-risk of substance abuse. Christle, et al (2002) cited that researchers have identified a number of demographic and behavioural characteristics of youth that contribute to their risk of involvement with substance abuse. These include ethnic minority status; aggressive, antisocial behaviour; difficulties in school and school failure (including educational disabilities). These risk factors are common denominators in the backgrounds of youth who require a variety of human services like child welfare services. Most research had placed little emphasis on neighbourhood norms in studies of youth substance use. Previous research on teenagers smoking, drinking, and drug use has focused on imitative behaviour with respect to classmates and friends. These studies have used various strategies to assess the effects of social context on substance use: the demographic composition of the teenagers school or neighbourhood as a proxy for the prevalence of smoking (Johnson and Hoffman, 2000); friends behaviour as reported by the teen; individual teenagers reports about whether their (best) friends smoke and what their friends would do if the teenager smoked around them; teenagers estimates of the
12

percentage of other students in their grade who engage in the behaviour of interest. Most studies of this type ignore that friends select each other based on shared values (but see Case and Katz, 1991) and that teenagers may not accurately perceive the prevalence of substance use (Kawaguchi, 2004). On the latter point, for example, Perkins and colleagues (Perkins, 2002; Perkins, Haines, and Rice, 2005) show that college students overestimate campus drinking, and that misperceptions of drinking strongly predict individual behaviour. It is important to ask how teenagers are affected by the attitudes and behaviour of adults as compared to peers. Adults and peers likely matter to teens in different ways. Whereas the threat of adult sanction may be an important mechanism linking adult attitudes and behaviour to teen behaviour, the risk of social exclusion may be the driving force behind peer effects. Unfortunately, the theoretical and data demands for modelling neighbourhood and peer effects simultaneously are high, requiring a design that takes account of teens choices about peers as well as sufficient numbers of cases for each combination of neighbourhood and school or peer group (Kim et al., 2006). Few, if any, studies manage to do this. Given data constraints and the lack of research on how adult neighbours influence teen substance use, our analysis focuses on the influence of adults. Substance use among teens varies significantly by teens race/ethnicity, gender, and family structure, as well as by their parents attitudes and behaviours with respect to substance use (see USDHHS 1994, and Tyas and Pederson, 1998 on adolescent smoking). Smoking, drinking, and drug use tend to be more common among white teenagers than African American and Hispanic teens (Johnston, OMaley, and Bachman, 2001), among
13

teens who live in single-parent households (Hoffmann, 2002; Kirby, 2002), and among teens whose parents smoke, drink, or use drugs (Anderson and Henry, 1994). Furthermore, youth who believe that their parents are indifferent to smoking and/or drug use are also more likely to use these substances, regardless of their parents use of these substances (Newman and Ward, 1999). Across race/ethnic groups, boys are more likely than girls to drink and use marijuana (Wallace and Bachman, 1991), but girls are at least as likely if not somewhat more likely to smoke cigarettes (Gruber and Zinman, 2001). By contrast, socioeconomic status is not well correlated with teens substance use (Gruber and Zinman, 2001).

2.4

CONSEQUENCES OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE People abuse substances such as drugs, alcohol, and tobacco for varied and complicated reasons, but it is clear that our society pays a significant cost. The toll for this abuse can be seen in our hospitals and emergency departments through direct damage to health by substance abuse and its link to physical trauma. Jails and prisons tally daily the strong connection between crime and drug dependence and abuse. Although use of some drugs such as cocaine has declined, use of other drugs such as heroin and club drugs has increased. Substance use and abuse is in the forefront of societal problems. It is a pervasive problem, affecting directly or indirectly the overwhelming majority of persons. The deleterious impact of alcohol and drugs is devastating. The involvement of some children and adolescents in substance abuse often lead to different consequences. Such
14

consequences include physiological, psychosocial and legal aspects. It is noted that the physiological effect of drug abuse depends on the drugs that has been used. Substance

abuse undermines physical health. For example, chronic alcohol abuse is associated with diseases of the liver, central nervous system, and heart. Often, as in the case of the brain disorder Korsakoff's syndrome, the damage resulting from alcohol abuse is irreversible. Additional health problems stemming from the use of other substances are well documented (Colby, 2004)). Well-known examples are lung cancer caused by smoking, and pervasive central nervous system damage resulting from the inhaling of solvents, cardiovascular disease and neurological damage (NCCDPHP, 2000). In addition, many substances are toxic in excessive doses, resulting in numerous acute and chronic effects on physical health, potentially leading to permanent disability or death. Finally, substance abuse increases the risk for acquiring other health-related problems, such as HIV, sexually transmitted diseases, or trauma secondary to accidents while under the influence of psychoactive substances (NCCDPHP, 2000). Mental health disorders often occur with substance abuse. Co-morbidity is relatively common, with up to one third of individuals with psychiatric disorders reporting a lifetime history of substance abuse disorders as well. In some instances, psychiatric disorder precedes or even contributes to the development of substance abuse, whereas in others, emotional and behavioural disturbances arise within the context of alcohol and drug use problems. A large body of research has delineated the disproportionate representation of psychological dysfunction in substance abusers. Included are problems in personality, mood, self esteem, coping, behaviour, and social
15

functioning. Once again, some of these psychological difficulties may be evident prior to the onset of substance abuse, although psychological functioning often worsens over time in individuals with substance use disorders (McWhirter, 2004). In addition, children and adolescents who are involved in substance abuse may also be affected in terms of their educational status. Abuse of specific substances may also contribute to relatively unique psychological presentations, such as the a-motivational state that has been linked to chronic marijuana use. Other psychological effects of substance abuse are directly linked to the biological impact of psychoactive substances (such as anxiety and irritability stemming from withdrawal) and the behaviours that result from dependence on drugs and alcohol (such as craving and preoccupation with obtaining desired substances). Young people who persistently abuse substances often experience an array of problems, including academic difficulties, health-related problems (including mental health), poor peer relationships, and involvement with the juvenile justice system. Additionally, there are consequences for family members, the community, and the entire society. Declining grades, absenteeism from school and other activities, and increased potential for dropping out of school are problems associated with adolescent substance abuse. Hawkins, Catalano, and Miller (1992) cite research indicating that a low level of commitment to education and higher truancy rates appear to be related to substance use among adolescents. Cognitive and behavioural problems experienced by alcohol- and drug-

16

using youth may interfere with their academic performance and also present obstacles to learning for their classmates (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992). Injuries due to accidents (such as car accidents), physical disabilities and diseases, and the effects of possible overdoses are among the health-related consequences of youth substance abuse. Disproportionate numbers of youth involved with alcohol and other drugs face an increased risk of death through suicide, homicide, accident, and illness. The Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) study -- in a representative sample of hospitals throughout the United States -- reports trends in people seeking emergency department treatment related to illegal drug use or nonmedical use of legal drugs. Preliminary 1994 estimates indicate drug-related emergency department episodes for youth ages 12 to 17 increased by 17 percent from 1993 to 1994. This increase was greater than for any of the older age groups reported. Significantly, emergency department visits related to marijuana/hashish for youth ages 12 to 17 increased 50 percent between 1993 and 1994 (McCaig, 1995). Ninety-one youth between the ages of 12 and 17 died of drug abuse in 1993 (Office of Applied Studies, 1994). Transmission of HIV/AIDS primarily occurs through exposure to body fluids of an infected person during sexual contact or through sharing of unsterile drug-injection equipment. Another primary means of transmission is from mothers to infants during pregnancy or the birth process. Many substance-abusing youth engage in behaviour that places them at risk of contracting HIV/AIDS or other sexually transmitted diseases. This may include the actual use of psychoactive substances (particularly those that are injected) or behaviour resulting from poor judgment and impulse control while experiencing the
17

effects of mood-altering substances. Rates of AIDS diagnoses currently are relatively low among teenagers, compared with most other age groups. However, because the disease has a long latency period before symptoms appear, it is likely that many young adults with AIDS were actually infected with HIV as adolescents. Although alcohol-related traffic fatalities for youth have declined, young people are still overrepresented in this area. In 1995 alone, more than 2,000 youth (ages 15 to 20) were killed in alcohol-related car crashes (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 1997). These limited examples illustrate the catastrophic health-related consequences of substance abuse among adolescents. Besides personal and family distress, additional healthcare costs and loss of future productivity place burdens on the community. Mental health problems such as depression, developmental lags, apathy, withdrawal, and other psychosocial dysfunctions frequently are linked to substance abuse among adolescents. Substance-abusing youth are at higher risk than nonusers for mental health problems, including depression, conduct problems, personality disorders, suicidal thoughts, attempted suicide, and suicide. Marijuana use, which is prevalent among youth, has been shown to interfere with short-term memory, learning, and psychomotor skills. Motivation and psychosexual/emotional development also may be influenced (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992). Substance-abusing youth often are alienated from and stigmatized by their peers. Adolescents using alcohol and other drugs also often disengage from school and community activities, depriving their peers and communities of the positive contributions they might otherwise have made. In addition to personal adversities, the abuse of alcohol
18

and other drugs by youth may result in family crises and jeopardize many aspects of family life, sometimes resulting in family dysfunction. Both siblings and parents are profoundly affected by alcohol- and drug-involved youth (Nowinski, 1990). Substance abuse can drain a family's financial and emotional resources (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992). In a related vein, the social and economic costs related to youth substance abuse are high. They result from the financial losses and distress suffered by alcohol- and drugrelated crime victims, increased burdens for the support of adolescents and young adults who are not able to become self-supporting, and greater demands for medical and other treatment services for these youth (Gropper, 1985). There is an undeniable link between substance abuse and delinquency. Arrest, adjudication, and intervention by the juvenile justice system are eventual consequences for many youth engaged in alcohol and other drug use. It cannot be claimed that substance abuse causes delinquent behaviour or delinquency causes alcohol and other drug use. However, the two behaviours are strongly correlated and often bring about school and family problems, involvement with negative peer groups, a lack of neighbourhood social controls, and physical or sexual abuse (Hawkins et al., 1987; Wilson and Howell, 1993). Possession and use of alcohol and other drugs are illegal for all youth. Beyond that, however, there is strong evidence of an association between alcohol and other drug use and delinquent behaviour of juveniles. Substance abuse is associated with both violent and income-generating crimes by youth. This increases fear among community residents and the demand for juvenile and criminal justice services, thus increasing the burden on these resources. Gangs, drug trafficking, prostitution, and growing numbers of youth homicides
19

are among the social and criminal justice problems often linked to adolescent substance abuse. The DUF study found the highest association between positive drug tests of male juvenile arrestees and their commission of drug-related crimes (e.g., sales, possession). However, a substantial rate of drug use also was found among youth who committed violent, property, and other crimes (National Institute of Justice, 1996). Other data support the concern for drug-involved youth in the juvenile justice system. The Survey of Youth in Custody, 1987 (Beck, Kline, and Greenfeld, 1988) found that more than 39 percent of youth under age 18 were under the influence of drugs at the time of their current offense. More than 57 percent reported using a drug in the previous month. In another study of 113 delinquent youth in a State detention facility, 82 percent reported being heavy (daily) users of alcohol and other drugs just prior to admission to the facility, 14 percent were regular users (more than two times weekly), and 4 percent reported occasional use (DeFrancesco, 1996). A study conducted in 1988 in Washington, D.C., found youth who sold and used drugs were more likely to commit crimes than those who only sold drugs or only used drugs. Heavy drug users were more likely to commit property crimes than nonusers, and youth who trafficked in drugs reported higher rates of crimes against persons. Youth in this sample were most likely to commit burglary or sell drugs while using or seeking to obtain drugs. About one-fourth of the youth also reported attacking another youth to obtain drugs. However, among the youth in this sample, the majority who committed crimes did not do so in connection with drugs (Altschuler and Brounstein, 1991).
20

2.5

GENERAL PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION STRATEGIES Dependence on the support of others begins at conception, but even as people become increasingly self-sufficient, they continue to require assistance from others in one form or another throughout life. Young people struggling to become social beings and unique individuals at the same time are in particular need of the various forms of social support. When that support is missing, the resulting isolation from others increases the potential for progression from normal youthful dissonance toward more dangerous consequences that can include death or lifelong social and emotional disturbances and sometimes tend to get involve in different things that may even try to make worst of their situation such as substance abuse (Colby, 2004). In response to the increasing numbers of at-risk youth, numerous programs have been developed to cope with problem. Here are some basic examples of approaches. Stephen (1997) states that positive reinforcement is one of the approaches that works well on at-risk youth. He states that children crave attention more than anything else, especially positive attention. "A baby who is cuddled, talked to, and stimulated in the first six weeks of life is much more likely to be intelligent and well adjusted than a baby ignored and simply fed and cleaned up in silence. Later, the child who is rewarded with praise for accomplishments is much more likely than others to become optimistic and achievement oriented" (Stephen, 1997). He also states that one extinguishes unacceptable behavior by ignoring it and eliminating the child's ability to gain attention.

21

On the other hand, pats on the back, awards, and ceremonies to celebrate accomplishments are particularly effective in fostering pro-social behavior and giving atrisk youth a stake in society, helping them overcome lack of hope and lack of faith in the future. He then suggested that using positive reinforcement must become a way of life for parents, teachers, and others. Teaching positive reinforcement to potential parents has been successful in reducing the at-risk population. Parent education can offer information and skills to assist the parent-to-be with incentives to learn and use good child-rearing practices. A similar program, Healthy Families America, was launched in 1992 by the National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse to help establish home visitation programs, service networks, and funding opportunities so all new parents can receive the necessary education and support regarding proper child rearing so as to prevent the involvement of children in risky matters such as substance abuse (Stephen, 1997). Stephen (1997) also states that mentoring is one the effective ways to prevent or stop children or adolescents to engage in abusing substances. He cites the, leaders in Kansas City that are on a quest to recruit, train, and assign 30,000 mentors - one for every at-risk child in the city. Zimmerman, et al (2002) states that, researchers have suggested that natural mentors may play a vital role in adolescent development. Young people often attribute their safe passage through the tumultuous years of adolescence to the influence of significant non-parental adults such as teachers, extended family members, or neighbours. Zimmerman, et al (2002) has found empirical support for the proposition that having a natural mentor may play a vital role in the lives of adolescents.

22

It has also found out that having a natural mentor was also associated with lower levels of problem behaviour, and youth with natural mentors had more positive attitudes toward school across the range of friends' negative school behaviours. However, natural mentors had somewhat larger direct effects on school attitudes than they did on problem behaviours. Nevertheless, having a natural mentor may play a vital role in the lives of adolescents. Respondents with natural mentors reported lower levels of problem behaviour, including marijuana use and nonviolent delinquency, than did those without mentors. This was true even after we adjusted for demographic variables and known risk factors such as problem behaviour norms and friends problem behaviours. Having a mentor partially offset the effect of these negative peer influences, providing evidence of a compensatory effect (Zimmerman, et al, 2002). In addition, they suggested that programs that create settings that provide opportunities for youth to interact with non-parental adults may help adolescents foster the development of natural mentoring relationships. McWhirter (2004) states that, programs are now appearing in schools and community centers to provide attitudes and skills necessary to resolve conflict among children and adolescents non-violently. Models have been developed by the American Bar Association and the Justice Department, as well as by educators. He further states that one of the best models involves training school staff - teachers, administrators, custodians, bus drivers, and cafeteria workers - in creative nonviolent conflict-resolution methods. He concluded that older students are also taught these techniques, and they in turn teach younger students, turning peer pressure into a positive rather than negative force. Community school programs are also effective because most youth spend their time at
23

school. Stephen (1997) gave some examples of successful Community school programs. One of the programs is in Missouri, where 6,000 volunteers keep 675 schools open for extra hours. Another examples are the Boys and Girls Clubs that offer mentoring in New Jersey schools and the Safe Haven programs in New York that provide safe environments and positive after-school tutoring and enrichment programs. Another program that is effective in the prevention of children and adolescents in substance abuse is the Life-skills training. Life-skills training have been defined as the formalized teaching of requisite skills for surviving, living with others, and succeeding in a complex society. It is reported that life-skills training was "proposed as the treatment of choice" when applied to prevention with adolescents. In addition, life skills which assist in the development of an adolescent's self-efficacy include the ability to solve problems, to communicate honestly and directly, to gain and maintain social support, and to control emotions and personal feelings. Life-skills programs vary in the types and quality of services they provide. McWhirter (2004) stated that essential components of any life-skills curriculum are based on the development of fundamental, generalized interpersonal skills. Successful life-skills programs appeared to have similar core elements. Effective programs addressed developmental needs, health promotion/problem prevention, and high-risk groups. This program involves adventures as a self-esteem enhancer. The overall goal of adventure-based activities and programming appears to be the enhancement of participants' self-esteem or self-concept. Accordingly, adventure programming activities and experiences include excitement, risk taking, cooperation and competition, trust, communication, physical, mental, and emotional challenges, physical activity, problem24

solving and creativity, group and individual skill development, and fun. With all these prevention programs, children and youth initiative is obviously an important factor for atrisk recovery.

2.6

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Adolescence is characterized by cognitive as well as biological and social change (Steinberg, 2005). Children and adolescents develop in interaction with the surrounding society, parents, friends etc. It is therefore important to take a holistic perspective and study how the individual function in different areas and in relation to others (Cicchetti, 1993; Magnusson, 1997; Sameroff, 1995). The social development model (Catalano & Hawkins, 1996) incorporates elements from control theory, which stresses the importance of bonds between individuals and society that restrain people from deviating or going against the norms, and social learning theories, which emphasize that peoples tendency to learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modelling (if people observe positive, desired outcomes from a behaviour, then they are more likely to model, imitate, and adopt that behaviour themselves). The social development model states that substance use and abuse are learned behaviours resulting from exposure to multiple risk factors associated with problems within the individual, family, peers, school and community (Hawkins, Catalano & Miller, 1992).

25

Problem behaviour theory (Jessor & Jessor, 1977) is a conceptual framework that is also derived from control and social learning theories. As originally formulated, the theoretical framework included three major systems of explanatory variables: the perceived-environment system, the personality system, and the behaviour system. Each system is composed of variables that serve either as risk factors for engaging in problem behaviour or as protective factors against involvement in problem behaviour. The overall level of disposition for problem behaviour, across all three systems reflects, one the one hand, the balance between risk and protection and, on the other hand, the degree of psychosocial conventionality-unconventionality characterizing each adolescent (Jessor, 1991). The aim of identifying risk and protective factors is to promote more effective prevention initiatives, i.e. prevention science and health promotion are based on the assumption that there are identifiable factors that precede public health problems and therefore should be the focus of preventive measures. In this thesis the terms, risk and protective factor are used in the same way as in many other studies on alcohol and drug use and criminality (in Sweden e.g. Stattin, Romelsj & Stenbacka, 1997). Risk factors include elements that increase the risk of negative development (Eklund & Klinteberg, 2003), while protective factors include those that facilitate positive development (Antonovsky, 1991), especially when there is a risk of negative progression. Previous studies of substance use among adolescents (e.g., Hawkins, Catalano & Miller, 1992) have shown that many underlying and concurrent factors need to be considered. Accordingly, our choice of certain risk and protective factors was guided by a
26

multiple risk and protective factor approach. This means that we presupposed that factors from different domains (e.g., individual factors, relationship factors and

community/societal factors) must be examined in order to understand how risk and protective factors operate in relation to heavy episodic substance abuse in young girls and boys. Our main focus in this thesis is on individual and relationship factors (family and friends), although societal factors (e.g. access to alcohol and school environment) are also included. Furthermore, heavy episodic substance abuse and binge drinking are used synonymously in this thesis to describe drinking a certain amount of alcohol in a certain amount of time; six cans of medium-strength beer (3.5% alcohol by volume), or four cans of normal beer (more than 3.5% alcohol by volume), or four large bottles of strong cider, or a bottle of wine, or half a bottle of spirits on the same occasion, or five or more drinks on the same occasion.

27

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION Methodology could simply be referred to as the general approach to empirical research (Marshall, 1988). It serves as a guideline and gives the researcher a sense of direction towards solving a contending research problem. Haralambos and Holborn (2004) view methodology as concerned with the nature and quality of data produced by various methods of data collection, and the logic and rationale behind the use of those data and the more general philosophies upon which the collection and analysis of data are based as put forward in sociological research. This chapter presents the research design, population of study, sampling, sources of data, and instruments of data collection and method of data analysis.

3.2

RESEARCH DESIGN In planning for the research study, the researcher was mindful of the need to have a well articulated research design. Such a research design is desirable for the objective of data collection that will be useful in addressing the research questions. It is therefore, a veritable guide for data generation, especially primary data. The research strategy adopted in this study is the survey technique. This strategy was chosen because of the nature of the research topic which demands the collection of significant amount of data from a meaningful population size in an efficient manner. Because this method is well understood and perceived as authoritative by people in general, it was most appropriate for its
28

adoption. The research study has tried to find out those factors that pushes young people into the act of substance abuse; do youths abuse substances as a result of wrong perception or poor knowledge of such substances and the effect of substance abuse which made it a descriptive study in one hand. Survey method using questionnaires was used because the respondents have diverse backgrounds. Questionnaires were used to obtain information from the youths within the area of study. To ensure non return of questionnaire, respondents consent to participate in the study was sought and those that consented to the study were asked certain questions on the checklist and the closed-ended options. Any of the option picked by the respondent was ticked on the questionnaire.

3.3

POPULATION OF STUDY The main population of study is all the young people in Ungwan Rana in Zangon Kataf Local Government Area of Kaduna State. Some of these young people are still in school (some in secondary, while others in tertiary education), but a majority are out of school and ages ranging from fifteen years and thirty. They also come from backgrounds whose parents are mostly poor. Their urban orientation of slum living and lack of jobs may likely be responsible for their substance abuse behaviours which we intend to find out.

3.4

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

29

The stratified random sampling technique was adopted for this study. Five (5) communities were selected from the existing communities in Zangon Kataf Local Government Area for the purpose of this research work. Due to the magnitude of the local government, the study is particularly concentrated in Ungwan Rana where substance abuse seemed endemic and as a way of life. As a result of this, we restricted ourselves to those areas that can be easily accessible and that youths would be ready to respond to our study. A total of 105 young persons were chosen purposefully from Ungwan Rana community to participate in the study. The researcher collected information from them using questionnaires. In other words, one hundred and five (105) questionnaires were distributed to the respondents chosen from the selected community.

3.5

SOURCES OF DATA Both primary and secondary data were sourced for the purpose of this research work. The primary data were collected directly from the respondents using the questionnaires. The secondary data on the other hand were collected from existing materials on the research topic such as books, journals, magazines/newspaper, and the internet.

3.6

INSTRUMENT OF DATA COLLECTION

30

Every research involves the collection of data and it is on the basis of this, that conclusions are made. Data collection according to Akuezuilo and Agu (2002:71) is one of the major steps in research, which the results and conclusions obtained at the end of the research project are based. The instrument of data collection used in this study is the questionnaire which contained structured (close-ended) questions from which the respondents were to make a choice so as to avoid ambiguity of answers. The Linkert four (4) scale questionnaire of SA (Strongly agree); A (Agree); D (Disagree) and SD (Strongly Disagree) was thus used in accessing the effect of substance abuse among youths in the study area.

3.7

METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS The questionnaires were collected and collated and checked for thoroughness and for any errors. They were then entered into the computer using computer statistical software, the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17. The data were then analyzed and simple frequency tables generated.

3.8

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED One of the common problems encountered during the distribution of questionnaires was the failure of respondents to respond to certain questions and or not return some of the questionnaires. Though, for the purpose of overcoming this problem, the researcher dictated the questions to most of the youths and the options, and whichever they chose, the

31

researcher proceeded to tick same on their behalf. This was done in order to minimize nonresponse to some of the questions on the questionnaire.

32

CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, the presentation, analysis and interpretation of data collected from the field is carried out using simple percentages, charts and chi-square to test relationships where the need arises. This implies that the data gotten from respondents will be presented in tabular forms while at the same time interpreting their implication in the light of the research questions and the research objectives raised in the first chapter.

4.2

DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION OF REPONDENTS. TABLE 1.0 Distribution of respondents by age group. AGE 15 - 19 years 20 - 24 years 25 - 29 years 30 - 34 years 35 years and Above TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011 Table 1.0 above shows that significant number of respondents of N=94 questionnaires returned 41.5% (n=39) between the age of 20 24 years constituted the youths involved in drug abuse. Another significant 13.8% (n=13 of N=94) of the respondents were in their prime age of 15 19 years. This figure shows that youths constituted the majority of the entire population that responded to the questionnaires and
33

FREQUENCY 13 39 26 16 N=94

PERCENTAGE 13.8% 41.5% 27.7% 17% 100%

this is because, the focus of this study is totally on the youths in Ugwan Rana and the effects of drug abuse on their behaviour. This finding is important because the age bracket of 20 24 years constitute a significant and useful working and schooling age.

TABLE 2.0 Distribution of respondents by sex SEX Male Female TOTAL FREQUENCY 65 29 N=94 PERCENTAGE 69.1% 30.9% 100%

Source: Fieldwork, 2011 Table 2 above shows the distribution of the respondents that returned the questionnaires administered. The table shows of the total N=94 questionnaires returned 69.1% (n=65) were male, while female respondents constituted 30.9% (n=29 of N=94). This figure shows that male responded more than the female responded in the study areas. This is because males were seen more than the female at the joints, bar and many more in the various areas. It is therefore worthy of note that women are less likely to be at different joint and bars than male.

TABLE 3.0 Distribution of respondents by level of educational qualification.

34

LEVEL OF EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION Non-Formal Education Primary Education Secondary Education Tertiary Education TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011

FREQUENCY 13 13 39 29 N=94

PERCENTAGE 13.8% 13.8% 41.5% 30.9% 100%

From Table 3.0 above, it can be seen clearly that a significant 41.5% (n=39 of N=94) number of respondents had only secondary school education. Another 13.8% (n=13 of N=94) and 13.8% (n=13 of N=94) number of respondents had only non-formal education respectively. This imply that, the less educated an individual is the likely for such individual not to have sound knowledge of the danger or adverse effect of drug abuse because of inadequate information on the effects and it implication on their life. This also means that illiteracy could be a contributory factor to the abuse of drugs by the in the study areas. TABLE 4.0 Distribution of respondents by marital status. MARITAL STATUS Single Married FREQUENCY 62 20 PERCENTAGE 66% 21.3% 10.6% 2.1 100%

Divorced/Separated 10 Widowed/widower 2 TOTAL N=94 Source: Fieldwork, 2011

35

The TABLE 4.0 above shows that majority of respondents 66% (n=62 of N=94) were singles. This shows that, drug abuse is more rampant among the single youths in the study areas. In the table, we can also see that 21.3% (n=20 of N=94), 10.6% (n=10 of N=94), and 2.1% (n=2 of N=94) number of respondents are Married, Divorced/Separated, and Widowed/Widower.

TABLE 5.0 Distribution of respondents by occupation. OCCUPATION Farmer Self-employed Apprentice Students Unemployed TOTAL FREQUENCY 4 9 8 59 14 N=94 PERCENTAGE 4.2% 9.6% 8.5% 62.8% 14.9% 100%

Source: Fieldwork, 2011 TABLE 5.0 above shows that majority of respondents 62.8% (n=59 of N=94) were students of various educational qualifications as shown on table 4.2.3. This implies that school which is meant to be one of the major agent of socialization has become home of drug abusers. This implies that, the more youths enroll into various level of education the increase the number of drug abusers. Another 4.2% (n=4 of N=94) representing farmers, 9.6% (n=9 of N=94) representing self-employed, 8.5% (n=8 of N=94) representing apprentice, and 14.9% (n=14 of N=94) representing the unemployed. This goes to show that the socio-economic status of the respondents have a direct linkage to the abuse of drugs among the youths.
36

TABLE 6.0 Distribution of respondents by family background. VARIABLES Monogamy Polygamy Broken home TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011 TABLE 6.0 above shows that majority of the respondents 74.5% (n=70 of N=94) were from monogamous home (the practice of having only one husband or wife at a time) of the total respondents who responded to the questionnaires. This figure indicate that youths from monogamous home were more than youths from polygamous home which is made up of 14.9% (n=14 of N=94), and broken homes also made up of 10.6% (n=10 of N=94) of youths who responded to the research questionnaire. It also shows that, youths from monogamous home are more likely to abuse drugs base on the figure above. FREQUENCY 70 14 10 N=94 PERCENTAGE 74.5% 14.9% 10.6% 100%

TABLE 7.0 Distribution of respondents on the cause of drug abuse. VARIABLE FREQUENCY
37

PERCENTAGE

It help one to relax It enhance ones activity It help one to sleep It make one feel better and calm It help one loose weight Not decisive TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011

4 38 12 27 7 6 N=94

4.2% 40.4% 12.8% 28.7% 7.4% 6.4% 100%

From the TABLE 7.0 above, it shows that out of the total N=94 questionnaires returned, significant 40.4% (n=38) abuse drugs for the reason of wanting to enhance their daily activities at their place of work and in school. Other 28.7% (n=27 of N=94) use and abuse drug because it make them feel better and calm most likely after their daily activities. The table also shows others, 4.2% (n=4 of N=94), 12.8% (n=12 of N=94), and 7.4% (n=7 of N=94) indicating drug abuse help them relax, sleep and also to loose weight respectively as shown in the table above, while 6.4% (n=6) respondents were not decisive to why the abuse drugs. This is in consonance with Nevadomsky (1982), he advanced a theory on how change could contribute to the development of drug-use and abuse habit in a psychological vulnerable individual who has a disturbing event, and this induces a psychological disturbance or stress in the person. This as pointed out by Nevadomsky (1982) led to the choice of youths toward the abuse of drugs to help relieve them of disturbing event or stress. This also agreed with Weiten (2004:531) who reported that stress sometimes lead to reduced impulse control-unwise patterns, eating, drinking and also smoking. This means that a depressive illness of the youths can be the cause of drug abuse as a means of escape
38

from anxiety or stress. This is in opposite with the findings of Edward (2004) who argued that social deprivation sometime influence drug intake and abuse by the youths.

TABLE 8.0 Distribution of respondents as to whether influence drug abuse among youths VARIABLES Yes No TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011 FREQUENCY 67 27 N=94

environmental factors

PERCENTAGE 71.3% 28.7% 100%

TABLE 8.0 above shows that out of the total N=94 questionnaires returned from the field 71.3% (n=67) make up the majority of the respondent that accept the fact that environment such as nearness to bar, joint, motels, having friend or peer neighbour and many more who abuse drugs can also be a contributing factors to why youths abuse drugs. This is in line with Ejikeme (2010) who opine that identification is one process of attitude change due to social influence which make the individual want to be like that person or group one admires and respect. The implication of this, is that the more we continue to have the venues cribbing into our neighbourhood reason of establishing business the more the increase in the number of youths who will go into drug abuse for reason of wanting to be identify with the people or peers. From the table we can also see significant number 28.7% (n=27 of N=94) saying No to the fact that environmental factors

39

such as the ones mention above can course one to abuse drugs. Their response may likely be because their intake of drugs was not influenced by the environment.

TABLE 9.0 Distribution of respondents as to whether crises in the family contribute to why youths abuse drug VARIABLES Strongly agreed Agreed Disagreed Strongly Disagreed TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011 FREQUENCY 16 62 9 7 N=94 PERCENTAGE 17% 66% 9.6% 7.4% 100%

TABLE 9.0 above shows that of the total N=94 questionnaires returned, 66% (n=62) which make up the majority and significant 17% (n=16), agreed and strongly agreed to the fact that crises in the family such as divorced parents, separated parents, death of one partner, and home where both parents and child or both parent are into constant conflict with one another tend to breed drug abusing children/youths. These make the youths abuse drugs as a way of coping with the situation. This is in agreement with Khantzian (2005:163), he opine that the abuse of heroin is a way of enhancing ones ability to handle feelings and personal behaviour. The implication of these is that, problem or crises in our homes may likely increase the rate of drug abuse among the youths. Others as shown on the table, 9.6% (n=9 of N=94) Disagreed, and 7.4% (n=7 of N=94) of respondents strongly disagreed with the fact that crises in the family can contribute to why youths abuse drugs.
40

TABLE 10.0 Distribution of respondents by how often they abuse drugs. VARIABLES Often Very often Always Not often TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011 TABLE 10.0 above shows that 39.4% (n=37 of N=94) respondents do not abuse drugs in many cases, 25.5% (n=24 of N=94) attest that they abuse drugs very often that is in many cases, others respondents 19.1% (n=18 of N=94) abuse drugs in many cases, and 16% (n=15 of N=94) abuse drugs always for reasons of wanting to relax, enhance activities and many more as indicated in table 4.3.7. This is done most probably when in they company of friends or peers, in other words, on those accession when they were taking a break from their studies and normal daily routines. FREQUENCY 18 24 15 37 N=94 PERCENTAGE 19.1% 25.5% 16% 39.4% 100%

TABLE 11.0 Distribution of respondents by the type of drug they often abuse VARIABLES (TYPES OF DRUGS) Amphetamine (stimulant drug) Alcohol Indian hemp FREQUENCY 14 24 13
41

PERCENTAGE 14.9% 25.5% 13.8%

Pain killer Tobacco (cigarette) Valium Not decisive TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011

9 20 9 5 N=94

9.6% 21.3% 9.6% 5.3% 100%

TABLE 11.0 above shows respondents base on the drug they abuse they abuse most often. In the table 25.5% (n=24 of N94) responded that, they drink alcohol most often than any other drugs. This could because of it affordability and availability within the neighbourhoods. 21.3% (n=20 of N=94) responded tobacco as their most used drugs among them reason been it affordability and availability. Others respondents 14.9% (n=14 of N94) abuse Amphetamine, 13.8% (n=13 of N94) abuse Indian hemp, 9.6% (n=9 of N94), and 9.6% (n=9 of N94) abuse pain killer and valium respectively, and 5.3% were not decisive by leaving the space blank.

TABLE 12.0 Distribution of respondents by the rating of themselves based on their frequency of drug abuse. VARIABLES Very common Common Not common Less Common FREQUENCY 27 36 24 7
42

PERCENTAGE 28.7% 38.3% 25.5% 7.4%

TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011

N=94

100%

TABLE 12.0 above shows that good number of 40.4% (n=38 of N=94) responded that they commonly (usually) abuse drugs, 31.9% (n=30 of N=94) responded that they are very frequent in abusing drugs, while 27.7% (n=26 of N=94) responded not common in their dealing with drug abuse, and 7.4% (n=7) responded less common. The reasons behind these responses may be as a result of it availability and the fact that these drugs are cheap. Its implication there for, is that many respondents are more likely to abuse these drug more frequently as indicated in the table above. In this case, the more the availability and affordability of these drugs the more youths get involve in the abuse of the drugs.

TABLE 13.0 Distribution of respondents by whether Males abuse drugs more than Females. VARIABLES Yes No TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011 FREQUENCY 76 18 N=94 PERCENTAGE 80.9% 19.1% 100%

43

TABLE 13.0 above indicate of the total N=94 questionnaires returned, majority of the respondents making 80.9% (n=76) responded Yes (Agreed) to the fact that males abuse drugs more than females, while 19.1% (n=18) responded No (Disagreed) to the fact that females abuse drugs more than males. This is in disagreement with Capute, Weiler and Anderson (1996); they opine that females are more likely than males to have ever abuse alcohol and other drugs. These implies that males are more likely to be arrested and imprison by law enforcement agent who fight against illicit drug use and also engage in riskier forms of drug use or drug dealings than the females. TABLE 14.0 Distribution of respondents by their opinion on drugs mostly abused by male youths. VARIABLES Alcohol (Beer, Gin, Goskolo) Amphetamines Indian hemp Caffeine Not decisive TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011 FREQUENCY 42 6 36 6 4 N=94 PERCENTAGE 44.7% 6.4% 38.3% 6.4% 4.3% 100%

TABLE 14.0 above is showing a significant number 44.7% (n=42 of N94) of respondent responded that males abuse more of alcohol than any other drugs (substance), also significant number responded Indian hemp 38.3% (n=36 of N94). This is likely to be because, it is cheap and affordable and it is well known and can easily be gotten within the neighbourhoods. Others are caffeine 6.4% (n=6 of N94), and Amphetamines 6.4% (n=6 of N=94) responded using them while 4.3% (n=4) responded not decisive by leaving the space
44

blank. This implies that, male youths will continue abuse these drugs as long as they are affordable and available and so long nothing is being done to discourage them from it use.

TABLE 15.0 Distribution of respondents by their opinion on drugs mostly abused by female youths. VARIABLES Pain killer (paracetamol, buscopan) Contraceptive Alcohol Tobacco (cigarette) Not decisive TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011 This TABLE 15.0 is showing that majority of the respondents 52.1% (n=49 of FREQUENCY 49 25 7 8 5 N=94 PERCENTAGE 52.1% 26.6% 7.4% 8.5% 5.3% 100%

N=94) responded that Females abuse more of pain killer such as paracetamol, buscopan. This is to relieve them of their monthly menstrual pain. 26.6% (n=25 of N=94) respondents agreed that female also abuse contraceptive for the purpose of preventing pregnancy. Others, 7.4% (n=7 of N=94) respondents says that females also abuse alcohol, and lastly 8.5% (n=8 of N=94) responded that females also abuse cigarette while 5.3% (n=5) were not decisive by leaving the space blank. And these drugs will continue to cause harm on them so long as they continue its abuse.

45

TABLE 16.0 Distribution of respondents by whether drug abuse has adverse effect on female than the male youths. VARIABLES Yes No TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011 FREQUENCY 66 28 N=94 PERCENTAGE 70.2% 29.8% 100%

more

TABLE 16.0 above shows that majority of the respondents 70.2% (n=66 of N=94) responded Yes to the fact drug abuse has adverse effects on female than male. This means that, any female who involve in drug abuse such as the ones mentioned in table 4.3.15 will likely experience adverse effects such as miscarriage, abortion, and it can also affect their womb and their entire reproductive system and pose a health risk for both mother and their growing fetus. For example, as pointed out by Lahey (2004:184) as the case of thalidomide babies who were born with some physical abnormality due to drug used by their mother. The drugs can also penetrate the placenta membrane, and girls who use heroin tend to have babies that become pathologically addicted to narcotic drugs. 29.8% (n=28 of N=94) respondents No to the fact that female are likely to be affected by drugs when abused. With the No respond it simply means that the male are likely to experience adverse effect of drug abuse than the female.

TABLE 17.0 Distribution of respondents by their experience (consequence) after abusing drugs.
46

VARIABLES Developed heart disease Vomiting Developed liver cirrhosis Mental problems Not been able to concentrate Not decisive TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011

FREQUENCY 16 14 20 13 28 3 N=94

PERCENTAGE 17% 14.9% 21.3% 13.8% 29.8% 3.2% 100%

TABLE 17.0 above shows the confirmation of respondents that drug abuse has consequences on the users. 29.8% (n=28 of N=94) responded they loss concentrations after taking drugs. Others 21.3% (n=20 of N=94) responded having liver cirrhosis, 14.9% (n=14 of N=94) responded vomiting as they consequences of drug abuse and that they vomit after taking drugs, 17% (n=16 of N=94) responded heart disease as consequences of drug abuse, and 13.8% (n=13 of N=94) reported mental problem as the consequences of drug abuse, 3.2% were not decisive by leaving the space blank. The response above to a large extent supported the position of some researcher. It was noted by Obbot (2003) that marijuana is used by at least 10% of the youths on a daily basis. He went further to ascertain that marijuana affects the coordination of behavior, because its have significant effect on the central nervous system of the abuser. Youths take marijuana because they feel that it gives euphoria, relaxation, hearing, and it increase their
47

appetite as reported by the users. Aside the above reasons for marijuana abuse, it also has it adverse effect as pointed out by Odebunmi (2008:13) he opine that, there are dangers associated with using marijuana which include: poor judgment, behavioural problem, job and automobile accidents, learning difficulties and poor concentration. The implication of these is that, youths use these drug without the knowledge of it consequences on their health and behaviour.

TABLE 18.0 Distribution of respondents by the rating of their health condition as a result of drug abuse. VARIABLES Very satisfactory Satisfactory Uncertain Dissatisfactory Very dissatisfactory TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011 FREQUENCY 7 18 44 19 6 N=94 PERCENTAGE 7.4% 19.1% 46.8% 20.2% 6.4% 100%

TABLE 18.0 above shows significant number 46.8% (n=44 of N=94) of respondent noted that they are uncertain on the condition of their health. This implies that significant number of youths who abuse drugs do not have idea of their health condition. The implication of this is that, youths will continue to cause harm to themselves ignorantly without knowing they are doing so., they will continue to loose their life, experience disability. Others 20.2% (n=19 of N=94) respondents shows that they are dissatisfied with their health condition, 19.1% (n=18 of N=94) responded satisfied with their health despite
48

the intake of illicit drugs, 7.4% (n=7 of N=94) responded very satisfied, and 6.4% (n=6 of N=94) also responded very dissatisfied their health condition. The consequences of these drug is that, these drugs will lead them into experiencing physiological and psychological trauma without knowing it, and this will make them uncomfortable with their health. Psychologically, they will be unable to concentrate properly whether at work or at home and this will be due to loss of memory, this is in confirmation with Weiten (2004:204), that hazardous effect of drugs has implication on the personality including emotional instability or emotional swings which lead to low emotional intelligence, impaired judgment and anxiety. He also pointed out that this will then lead to some chronic such as liver cirrhosis, heart disease, cancer, restlessness, nervousness and also increase aggression. Physically they will experience changes in their body system for example body colouration, reduction in weight, loss of friend and so on.

TABLE 19.0 Distribution of respondents by whether drug abuse lead to violent behaviour. VARIABLES Strongly agreed Agreed Disagreed Strongly disagreed TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011 FREQUENCY 25 52 11 6 N=94 PERCENTAGE 26.6% 55.3% 11.7% 6.4% 100%

49

TABLE 19.0 above is indicative of the fact that most individuals who are into drug abuse are more likely to engage in violent behaviour as indicated by the majority 55.3% (n=52 of N=94) agreeing that drug abuse can lead youths to engage in violent behaviour. Other respondents 26.6% (n=25 of N=94) strongly agreed that individual who abuse drugs engage in violent behaviour. The possible effect is that, when the individual become stimulated, they are more prone to committing various forms of violent behaviour such as street fight, criminal act, child abuse and risky sexual behaviour and many more. The response in the table above are in strong term with the position of Nelson and Israel (2003), who noted that when an individual take in drugs which depending on the types of drugs, if such drugs is a stimulant, it will triggers excessive adrenaline in such an individual leading him into violent behaviour such as the one mention above. They further stated that such individual take such drugs to show their superiority, for them to be recognized by other people in carrying out certain task in school or at home or at work place.

TABLE 20.0 Distribution of respondents by the type of violent behaviour youths engage in after abusing drugs. VARIABLES Criminal behaviour Fight/quarrel Rough driving Disobeying of authority Not decisive TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011 FREQUENCY 20 29 16 18 11 N=94
50

PERCENTAGE 21.3% 30.9% 17% 19.1% 11.7% 100%

TABLE 20.0 above shows tha0.0 above shows that 30.9% (n=29 of N=94) respondents responded that fighting/quarrelling is the violent behaviour the get into after abusing drugs. 21.3% (n=20 of N=94) responded involving in criminal acidity such as stealing peoples belonging at home and outside their homes when asked to describe the type of criminal activity they are involved in. 19.1% (n=18 of N=94) disobey order from their parent, elderly ones, and higher authority, and lastly 17% (n=16 of N=94) drove roughly when driving or riding motor cycle or bicycle after the abuse of drugs while 11.7% (n=11) indicated not decisive. The implication of this was expanded by Peto and Lopez (2001) has been that of the total loss of youths or drug abusers daily alcohol account for 3.5%, tobacco 2.6% and other illicit drugs 0.6% these drugs contribute to their deaths, hospitalization, and total disability of their physical and mental disorder. This supported what is seen above, because when youths abuse drugs and the get into exhibiting violent behaviour such as the ones giving in the table above, significant number of them will experience disability, some of them will be killed by the law enforcement agents and it will also have short and long term implication on them.

TABLE 21.0 Distribution of respondents on the prevention of drug abuse among youths. VARIABLES Public awareness creation Create employment opportunity FREQUENCY 22 37 PERCENTAGE 23.4% 39.4%

51

Ensure proper supervision on the sales and operation drug stores Outlaw illegal drug dealers Create proper education TOTAL Source: Fieldwork, 2011

10 12 13 N=94

10.6% 12.8% 13.8% 100%

TABLE 21.0 above shows how drug abuse can be talked and how it can be prevented among the youths. From the table above, 39.4% (n=37 of N=94) of respondents were of the view that employment opportunities for the youths can prevent them from drug abuse, that is if employed, they will be too engaged to think of drug intake. 23.4% (n=22 of N=94) of the respondents were of the view that public awareness and 13.8% (n=13 of N=94) also responded that proper education of the youth on the effect of drug abuse can also prevent them from abusing the drugs. When asked they pointed out that this can be done through electronic and print media, inclusion into academic curriculum, organization of seminar and workshop and so on. Another 12.8% (n=12 of N=94) were of the opinion that illegal drug dealers should be outlawed and lastly 10.6% (n=10 of N=94) of the respondents were of the opinion that proper supervision on the sales and operations of drug stores should be ensured to prevent its abuse. This means that, when the entire are put in place it will help reduce drug abuse and its effects among our youths.

4.3

INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS. The findings from this study reveal that certain social factors are involved in why youths abuse drugs. These factors include environmental factors such as peer group
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influence, lack of educational opportunity, family influence among others. This finding also x-ray the limitation of the position of psychological and biological explanation of abusive behaviour which postulate that abusive behaviour is only a product of the personality characteristics of the individual concerned. The researcher also discovered that the disabilities suffered by those who abuse drugs are dependent on the drugs, these disabilities include loss of control over social inhibition of motor coordination and so on. West (1972) pointed out that a significant percentage of regular users are adversely affected by drug abuse in terms of mental health and other psychological problem such as: behavioural disorder, cancer of the lung, liver and kidney complication, violent behaviour and accident and sexual problem and many more. The research study had also shown as pointed out by Ejikeme (2010) drug abuse have very high side effects which has to do with poor social adjustment, involving in criminal behaviour. This makes greater demand on societal resources without the capacity to contribute fully to the development of the society. From the study, it has been discovered that alcohol (46.8%) was the most drug abused by the youths in the study area, followed by Indian hemp (40.4%), caffeine and amphetamine both having (6.4%) respectively as shown in table 4.3.11 by males youths while pain killer (54.2%) and contraceptive having (27.7%) of consumption among the female youths as shown in table 4.3.15 Lastly, drug has been one of the major phenomenon the world is facing today. As the then Secretary General of United Nations Kofi Anan once remarked Drug are tearing
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apart our societies, spawning crime, spreading disease such as AIDS, and killing our youths and our future (UN, 2006).

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CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS. What informed this study is to find out the effects of drug abuse on the behaviour of youths in Ugwan Rana. Relevant literatures were consulted as a means of searching into other research work related to my objectives of; the causes of drug abuse, frequency of drug abuse, difference between male and female youths involvement in drug abuse, effects of drug abuse, and ways to curtail drug abuse among youths in Ugwan Rana. One hundred (100) questionnaires were distributed to ten (10) purposively sampled areas using purposive sampling technique and the finding was analyzed using the simple percentage (%) method. The findings are as follows: The most indicator of measuring the rate of drug abuse in the study area are Age, Sex, Level of educational qualification, Marital status, Occupation, and Family background. More so, there is clear cut difference between the single, married, divorced/separated, and widowed/widower in drug abuse in the study areas as showed in table 4.2.4. 13.8% - n=13 respondents who responded confirm that, they have no formal education at all in their life as shown in table 4.2.3. Mostly youths 62.8% - n=59 use drugs and abuse it at a relatively higher rate as in table 4.2.5. Many participants give reason for using drugs in the study areas as; It helps one to relax, It help one to sleep, It make one feel better and calm, It help one loose weight, and It enhance ones activity among others just as shown in table 4.3.7. The findings reveal that

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enhancing activity (42.6%) is the number one reasons why youths abuse drugs in Ugwan Rana. The finding also shows that Alcohol (26.6% - n=25) is the most commonly abuse drug as shown in table 4.3.11. The finding also shows that males (46.8% - n=44) abuse more of alcohol than any other drugs as shown in table 4.3.14. While females (54.2% n=51) abuse more of pain killer as presented in table 4.3.15. This finding also shows that environmental factors such as nearness to bar, neighbour who is into drug abuse and where illicit drugs are traded can also be contributing factors to why youths abuse drugs. From the finding in table 4.3.8 environmental factors stand at (71.3% - n=67). The search also showed that family crises (66% - n=62) in table 4.3.9 contribute to why youths abuse drugs. The researcher also find out that male (80.9% - n=76) in table 4.3.13 youths abuse drugs more than female youths. The researcher also find out that not been able to contrite (31.9% - n=30) in table 4.3.17, 46.8% - n=44 Uncertain of their health condition due to drug abuse, 55.3% - n=52 agreed that drug abuse lead to violent behaviour as shown in table 4.3.19, and lastly 35.1% - n=33 of drug abusers get into fight and quarrel after abusing drugs as indicated in table 4.3.20. Drug abuse is as old as mankind and serves different functions to human kind, but when misused it can cause hardship to humanity. Drug use should therefore be used with great caution and when there is medical need and proscriptions. Drug use and abuse are no longer strange to the entire Nigeria society and the world, but they should be eradicated in the interest of the well-being of our youths.
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Alcohol and Indian hemp was the major drug abuse by the respondent in the study area. It was found among the youths and mostly singles and married youths. Drug abuse affects almost all system of the body, including nervous system, Castro intestine, circulatory system, respiratory endocrine, and reproductive system, giving rise to a variety of physical and mental health disorders. The problem of drug abuse goes beyond damages it cause to the health of the consumer. Drug abuse has social, psychology and economic implications. The effects are felt by individuals, family and the entire members of the society. Also, the cost on industry and schools as a result of absenteeism, lateness, workrelated accidents and decreased inefficiency is tremendous. The health and social consequences of drug abuse create a major economic loss to any nation. Drug use and abuse affects the health of the labour force which reduces its over all productivity. Treatment of drug abusers is very expensive and huge sum of money are required to combat it as noted by Ibanga (1998:22). Based on the finding and analysis of the data, it is quite clear that there is an increasing trend of drug abuse in Ugwan Rana with her youths constituting the high risk group. It is also clear that hospital case and most accident cases, violent cases and mental disorder can be traced to drug abuse problems in the study area.

5.2

RECOMMENDATIONS. The finding of the research has informed the researcher to make recommendations. The inclusions of such suggestions are based on the researchers assessment that they are
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objective suggestions and would serve the interest of harmonious social relations. These recommendations are made taking into consideration that Drug Abuse is a phenomenon not just in Ugwan Rana, but in the world today. In order to reduce the increasing rate of drug use and abuse and its adverse effect on the economy and the society at large, the following recommendations are presented here for consideration.
a.

Recovery (rehabilitation) centre should be established to help the addict himself by first doing for them what they cannot do for themselves: - If addict could quite by themselves they would. A strong, caring, knowledgeable and experience support system and network of resources are required to be established to help the drug addict recover from their addiction. Families and loved ones can learn about addiction and themselves by reading resource materials such as this to help expand their knowledge of drug abuse, its effects on the behaviour of their children (youth) and also help to control their behaviour.

b.

Its also important to observe the living condition and the environment of the addict: - If the addicts environment is considered an improper environment where proper treatment can be received, there may be need to change that environment. The reason is some environment may provide difficulties for the addict to be able to make positive progress. In the case of the existence of such environment, the drug addict may need a neutral environment where proper adjustment can be sought.

c.

Family counselling should also be encouraged: - the needed family support and the environment of warmth and living lender care could do the drug addict or abuser a lot of good. Strong family supports have been recognized to have positive effect on
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many drug abusers who have been observed to possess low self-esteem and also low emotional intelligence. d. There is also the need for long-term professional care for severe emotional disturbance among individuals may also assist in the positive lifelong remission of drug abuse. e. Treatment and lack of proper self-discipline (self care) due to underlying psychological, emotional disturbance or trauma, is just one causal factor for drug abuse, therapy can therefore focus on instilling discipline properly without intimidation or physical abuse. f. There is need to train the drug abusers on how to make better use of long-term goals rather than the frustrating short-term goals which often time lead to frustration.
g.

There is need to introduce freedom and faire-play to our countrys political atmosphere: - our politician should not destroy our youths by turning them to political thugs and hooligan with the aid of drug abuse. Politicians should be requested to bring their own children to lead the political violent groups.

h.

Gone are the days when the whole village was interested in raising the child. Our society may need to revert to the traditional societal norms of every adult within the community, showing interest in the growth and development of every child.

i.

Sociologist and social workers should go out to fish for drug abusers who have the intension to stoop drug abusing behaviour and help drug abuse client to voluntary change their drug dependent behaviour and re-orientate their attributes, values and goals so that their problem of drug abuse may be solved.
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j.

The National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) should be empowered in all ramifications by the government in their fight against drug abuse in the country. They must also intensify their antidrug campaigns in order to have a drug- free society with a special focus on the Nigerian youths because they are the future leaders of this great Country in the black continent of Africa.

k.

Preventive education, treatment and rehabilitation, public enlightenment, nongovernmental organization community mobilization and social re-integration programme should be organized to assist youths in the society.

l.

Parents should endeavour to learn to communicate with their children without yelling or rage. It is presumed that a peaceful environment will always promote peaceful and normal growth.

m.

In order to really help the situation, the government should have a well- defined comprehensive and realistic policy on control of drugs. This policy should include establishing a federal drug control centre, under the auspices of the ministries of health and internal affairs, which will collate information on drug use, and liaise with similar smaller units, to be based in each state.

n.

Finally, any law, which is designed to control drug abuse behaviour, must embrace suggestions from the countrys relevant professional bodies such as social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, sociologists, youth and welfare officers, counsellors, educationists, ministry of health officials and law enforcement agents.

5.3

CONCLUSION.
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Drug abuse has been considered by most experts worldwide to be more problematic than other forms of social problems. The problem and effects of drug abuse include; academic challenges, poor peer relationship, and several health related problems such as; cancer, heart disease, including mental health problem. This problem does not only have consequences on the individual but also to his/her family members in the aspect of finances, emotional resources, the entire community where one lives and the society as a whole and many more. Drug abuse by youths can cause adverse health effects or issues such deaths; it can also be a stumbling block to ones success at work places, at home and in their various place of educational pursuit. The finding of this research work is concerned with following; the causes of drug abuse, frequency of drug abuse, difference between male and female youths involvement in drug abuse, effects of drug abuse, and ways to curtail drug abuse among youths in Ugwan Rana. This will help parent, policy makers and the government, teachers in fashioning out ways or policies that can help in checking youths accessibility to drugs. It will also help contribute to knowledge of parents an all stakeholders in the areas of direction in the war on drug abuse and how to educate their youths in the dangers associated with drug abuse. It will also help the various government law enforcement agencies burdened with the task of war against illicit drug use and abuse such as; National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) and the National drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA). This will make ensure that war against drug abuse is worn for the betterments of every body and our loving society.

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REFERENCES A Nigerian Student Activist. (1997). The Sociological Implications of Drug Abuse Among Nigerian Youth: Who is to blame? Retrieved June 28, 2011 from http://www.ub.no/isf/people/campaign/drug.htm. Abdulkarim AA, Mokuolu OA, Adeniyi A. (2005): Drug Use Among Adolescents in Ilorin, Nigeria. Tropical Doctor 2005; 35: 225-228. Abudu, S. (2008): The Social Implications of Drug Abuse. A case Study of Lagos State. Being A PhD Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sociology, University of Ibadan. Adlaf, E.M., Paglia, A., Ivis. F. (1999): Drug Use among Ontario Students, 1977- 1999: Findings from the OSDUS. CAMH Research Document No. 5, Toronto: Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. Anumonye, A. (1980). Drug use among young people in Lagos, Nigeria. Bulletin on narcotics (United Nations publication), 32:4:39 - 45. Barbara .B. (1993): Alcohol and Drugs and the Workplace .Toronto, Butterworths. Black and Champion (1976); Methods and Issues in Social Research: Retrieved from, www.scribd.com. Brook, J.K Whiteman, M.Gordon A.S & Cohen .P. (1986): Dynamic of Adolescent and Personality Traits and Changing World, New York Drug Abuse. Development Psychology 22, 403-414. Caputo, T., Weiler, R., and Anderson, J. (1996): The Street Lifestyle Study. Health Canada, Damon, W., (1983): Social and Personality Development: Infancy Through Adolescence. New York: Norton. Edwards, G. (2004). Matters of Substance- Drugs and why everyones a user. London: Penguin Books Ejikeme, G.G. (2010). Low Emotional Intelligence, Drug Abuse and Child Maltreatment. Implications for Psychological and Social Work Services. University of Jos Inaugural Lecture Series. Jos: University of Jos Press. Ejikeme, G. G. (2000, 2003). Socio-economic and cultural conditions of the girl child: implications for radical social work services in Nigeria. Jos: Deka Publications. Erikson, E (1980). Identity and the Life Cycle. New York: Norton.
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Ibanga A.K. (1998): Youths, Drugs and Secrete Cults. Journals of the African Council on Narcotics, pp.8. 10 - 25. Ibanga U.A.C. (1992): Statistics for Social Sciences. Centre for Development Studies, University of Jos. ISBN: 978-2827-04-5. Jacob, P.E (1978): Style of Middle-Class Adolescent Drug Use. Pacific Sociology Review.17, 251285. James A. C. (1994): Alcohol-Related Problems as an Obstacle to the Development of Human Capital: Issues and Policy Options, World Bank Technical Paper No. 219, Washington, D.C.World Bank. Khantzian, E.J.; Mack, J.E.; and Schatzberg, A.F. (1974): Heroin use as an Attempt to cope: Clinical observations. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131(2):160-164. Lahey, B. (2004). Psychology: An introduction. Boston: McGraw. Mallum and Haggai (2002): Child Development. Daka Publishers Jos. National Institute on Drug Abuse-NIDA-(2002). Doctors Dont Always Address Drug Abuse. Retrieved on 6/24/02 from www.nida.gov/caw/prevention/prevention PAs.html.

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Navaratnam, V. (1990). Drug Use among Malaysian Youth: Selangor: Jawatankusa Anti Dadah Negari Selangor, Revised by the National Drug Research Centre of Drug Research, University Science Malaysia. Navaratnam, V., Foong, K. & Kulalmoli, S. (1992). An Evaluation Study of the Drug Treatment and Rehabilitation Programme at Drug Treatment Centre, Monograph Series No. 7 Penang: Centre for Drug Research UN/WHO/IFNG Research and Training Centre University Science Malaysia. Nevadomsky, J. (1981): Patterns of self-reported drug use among secondary school students in Bendel State, Nigeria. Bulletin on narcotics (United Nations publication) 33:1:9 - 19. Odebumi .D. (2008): Alcohol and Drug Abuse Prevention and Management. An NDLEA Initiative in Collaboration with Department of Local Government SGFS office Presidency. Afabumi press. ISBN#978-37749-5-6. Osuala E.C. (1987) Introduction to Research Methodology. Onitsha: Africana Publishers limited. Paglia, A. (1998) Tobacco Risk Communication Strategy for Youth: A Literature Review. Health Canada. Peto R, Lopez A.D (2001): Future worldwide health effects of current smoking patterns. In Critical issues in global health. Edited by: Koop CD, Pearson C, Schwarz MR. New York, NY: Jossey-Bass. Room, R. (2005) Stigma, social inequality and alcohol and drug use Drug and Alcohol Review Vol. 24, 143 155 Room, R., Paglia, A. (1998) Preventing Substance-Use Problems among Youth: A Literature Review and Recommendations. Addiction Research Foundation. Spooner, C. (2005) Structural determinants of drug use a plea for Broadening our thinking Drug and Alcohol Review, Vol. 24, 89 92. Weiten, W. (2004). Psychology: Themes and Variations. Belmont, C. A.: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. World Bank, World Development Report, 1993: Investing in Health (Oxford University Press). World Health Organization (2002). More about substance abuse: African Region (Nigeria). Retrieved on 6/24/02 from http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/more.html. World Health Organization (1994) The current global situation of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, Geneva.
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World Health Organization: (1973). Technical Report Series No. 516 on Youth and Drugs. Geneva.

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APPENDIX Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. Dear Respondent, I am an undergraduate student of the above named institution carrying out a research on the Effects of Substance Abuse among Youth of Ungwan Rana. This is a criterion for the award of Bachelor of Science in Social Work and Administration. You are kindly requested to fill this questionnaire as suggested. All informations provided will be treated with high sense of confidentiality and will be used only for the purpose of this research and nothing else. Please tick and fill the appropriate box that is most suitable among the alternative provided for each question. All questions should be answered. Thank you Akas Susie SECTION A: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
1. AGE RANGE OF RESPONDENT.

(a) 15-19 years ( ) 2. 3. SEX (a) Male ( ) (b) Female (

(b) 20-24 years (

) (c) 25-29 years ( )

(b) 30-34 years ( ) (e) 35 year and above ( )

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION: (a) Non-Formal ( ) (b) Primary ( ) (c) Secondary ( ) (d) Tertiary (
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4.

MARITAL STATUS: (a) Single ( (d) Widowed ( ) (b) Married ( ) (e) Separated ( ) (b) Self-employed ( ) (c) Divorced ( ) ) (c) Apprentice ( ) (d) Student ( ) )

5.

OCCUPATION: (a)Farmer ( (e) Unemployed ( ) (f) Others (specify)...............

6.

FAMILY BACKGROUND. (a) Monogamy ( ) (b) Polygyny ( ) (c) Broken home ( ) (d) Others (specify)..................

SECTION B. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 1: CAUSES OF DRUG ABUSE AMONG YOUTHS 7. What do you think is the most important reason why you abuse drug? (Specify).............................................................. 8. Do you think environmental factors (such as closeness to hotels, joints) where one lives influence your abuse of drugs? (Specify).................................. 9. Does crisis in the family influence your intake of drugs? (a) Strongly Agree ( (d) Strongly Disagree ( ) (b) Agree ( ) ) (c) Disagree ( )

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 2: FREQUENCY OF DRUG ABUSE AMONG YOUTHS 10. How often do you use and abuse drugs?.............................................. 11. What type of drugs do you often take? (Please specify below). (a) .............................................. 12. Under which of the following will you rate yourself on the frequency of drug intake (based on your answer above in question 11 above). (a) Very Common ( ) (b) Common ( ) (c) Not Common ( ) (d) Less Common ( )
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RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 3: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE YOUTHS INVOLVEMENT IN DRUG ABUSE. 13. Do you think the Male use and abuse drugs more than the Female? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No 14. Which of the drug is abuse more by males (if Yes)................................................ 15. Which of the drug is abuse more by female ................................................ 16. Do you think drug abuse has more adverse effects on female than male? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No Give reason for your response above in question 16 if Yes ...................................... RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 4: THE EFFECTS OF DRUG ABUSE ON THE YOUTHS 17. What is your experience after taking any drugs? (Please specify) (i)......................................... 18. How would you rate your health condition base on your drug intake? (a) Very Satisfactory ( (d) Dissatisfactory (a) Strongly Agree ( (d) Disagree ( ( ) (b) Satisfactory ( ) (c) Uncertain ( ) ) ) ) (e) Very Dissatisfactory ( ) (b) Agree ( ) (c) Undecided ( )

19. Youths who abuse drugs engage in violent behaviour. ) (e) strongly disagree (

20. What type of violent behaviour do you engage in after taking drugs? (Base on your response above if Strongly Agree or Agree)............................................................. 21. What do you think can be done by the government, individual and organizations concerned with youths to help youths who abuse drugs? (i)..................................................................

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