1

University of Limerick


Design, Construction & Analysis of a Pulsejet
Engine


Prepared by: Thomas Naughton 0542717
Under the Supervision of: Dr. Patrick Frawley

Final Year Report Submitted to the University of Limerick, March, 2010
Aeronautical Engineering
I declare that this is my own work and that all contributions from other persons have
been appropriately identified and acknowledged
i

Abstract

This engineering reports the design construction and analysis of a pulsejet engine to
achieve static thrust. An engine was designed using available theory. Following a delay
due to ignition system problems, the completed engine was tested extensively in an
attempt to achieve static thrust. A detailed analysis of petal valve vibration was carried
out while attempting to get the engine to resonate. This included the experimental
verification of a mathematical model. Several tests were carried out using different petal
valve natural frequencies. The tests resulted in the engine being capable of achieving
sustained resonance without the external supply of air for up to two minutes. Petal valve
failure was determined to be the cause of the short running times. The operation of the
engine was analysed using available thermodynamic models but these models were
determined to be inaccurate for pulsejet cycle prediction. The pressure cycles within the
pulsejet engine were obtained experimentally using a high-temperature pressure
transducer. The resulting pressure/time plots were compared to other plots which were
obtained from published literature. The plots were found to correlate well together with
peak pressures measured in three very different sized engines being within 0.07 Bar of
each other.









ii

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Patrick Frawley, for his support and guidance
throughout the project. Without his support this project would not exist.
I would like to thank the technical staff of the M&AE Department workshop for their
help with building the project. Especially Mr. Patrick ODonnell, Mr. Ken Harris and
Mr. Jim Caulfield.
I would also like to thank the technicians of the Aeronautical Laboratory, Mr. Jim Ryan,
Mr. John Cunningham and Mr. Adrian McEvoy for their help throughout testing.
I would also like to thank the technical staff of the Electronic Engineering Department,
Mr. John Bird and Mr. John Clifford for their help with ignition system.
Finally, I would like to thank my family for their valuable support throughout the year.











iii

Table Of Contents
1. Introduction 1
1.1. Brief History 1
1.2. Operation 3
2. Objectives 5
3. Literature Review 6
3.1. Jet Design 7
3.2. Reed Valve Design 7
3.3. Thermodynamics 10
4. Conceptual Design 11
4.1. Valve System 12
4.2. Choice of Fuel 13
4.3. Fuel Delivery 14
4.4. Ignition System 16
4.5. Test Stand 17
5. Theory & Design 18
5.1. Jet Design 18
5.2. Petal Valve Vibration Frequency 23
5.3. Thermodynamic Analysis 28
5.4. Material Selection 30
6. Construction 36
6.1. Jet Body 36
6.2. Intake Diffuser 37
6.3. Valve Plates 38
6.4. Valve Retainer Plates 39
6.5. Petal Valve 40
6.6. Fuel Injection Nozzles 41
6.7. Test Stand 43
7. Testing & Troubleshooting 45
7.1. Ignition System Problems 45
7.2. Fuel Mixing 48
7.3. Valve Frequency Ratio Tuning 49
7.4. Valve Frequency High-Speed Camera Test 54
iv

7.5. Data Collection 55
8. Results 57
9. Discussion 59
9.1. Jet design 59
9.2. Petal Valve Vibration Theory 59
9.3. Valve Life 59
9.4. Valve Response to Engine Forcing Frequency 60
9.5. Ignition System 61
9.6. Thermodynamic Analysis 61
9.7. Pressure Cycle Visualisation 61
9.8. Exhaust Velocity Determination 62
10. Conclusion 63
References 64
Appendices
Appendix A Engineering Drawings
Appendix B Ignition Circuit Diagram
Appendix C Electro-chemical Etching Process
Appendix D Turn-it-in Originality Report Summary
Appendix E Kistler Pressure Tranducer Data Sheets (CD)
Appendix F Excel Spreadsheets (CD)








v

List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Marconnet pulsating combustor [Reynst, 1961] .............................................. 1
Figure 1.2 V-1 flying bomb with Argus AS-014 pulsejet engine [museumofflight.org,
2010] ................................................................................................................................. 2
Figure 1.3 Ignition Stage ................................................................................................... 3
Figure 1.4 Combustion/Power Stage ................................................................................ 3
Figure 1.5 Intake Stage ..................................................................................................... 4
Figure 1.6 Compression/Re-ignition Stage ....................................................................... 4
Figure 3.1 Pressure-Time plot example for 50cm valved pulsejet engine [Ordon, 2006] 6
Figure 3.2 Tharratt's mechanical valve which was claimed to withstand 25 hrs operation
at full thrust [Tharratt, 1965] ... 8
Figure 3.3 Cross-section of Standard Valve (left) and Low-loss Modified Valve (right)
[Bressman, 1946] . 9
Figure 4.1 Argus AS-014 Grid Valve Layout [FZG-76 Gerte-Handbuch, 1944] ... 11
Figure 4.2 Aprilia RS125 Reed Valve Assembly . 12
Figure 4.3 Petal Valve ... 12
Figure 4.4 Normally Aspirated (left) and Injected (right) Fuel Delivery [aardvark.co.nz,
2009] .. 14
Figure 4.5 Sketch of Valve Head Design . 16
Figure 4.6 Piezoelectric Oven Igniter 17
Figure 4.7 CAD Model of Test Stand Used With Previous Project .. 17
Figure 5.1 Intake Orifice Design ... 22
Figure 5.2 Final Jet Body Dimensions .. 23
Figure 5.3 Petal Valve Geometry .. 24
Figure 5.4 Simplified Petal Valve Model .. 25
Figure 5.5 Petal Valve Geometry Split for Centroid Determination . 26
Figure 5.6 Points of Interest Within the Pulsejet Engine .. 28
Figure 5.7 Ideal pulsejet cycle [El-Sayed, 2008] .. 28
Figure 5.8 Pressure Cycle plot in AS-014 pulsejet engine [Bressman, 1946] ... 31
Figure 5.9 Mechanical Properties of Grade 43A Steel at Elevated Temperatures [Bailey,
2009] .. 33
vi

Figure 6.1 Combustion Chamber and Flange 37
Figure 6.2 Intake Diffuser . 38
Figure 6.3 Anodised Valve Plates; Original (left) & Modified (right) .. 39
Figure 6.4 Valve Retainer Plate . 40
Figure 6.5 Electro-chemical Etching Apparatus 41
Figure 6.6 Fuel Injection Nozzles; Internal (top) & External (bottom) . 43
Figure 6.7 Engine Mounted on Test Stand 44
Figure 7.1 Final Ignition Circuit 47
Figure 7.2 Uneven Burning in the Combustion Chamber (left) & Burning With New
Nozzle Fitted (right) .. 48
Figure 7.3 Valve Motion Sign Convention (left) & Simplified Valve Motion Plot (right)
.51
Figure 7.4 0.010" Deformed Shim Steel Valve Following Engine Run .52
Figure 7.5 Impact and Fatigue Damage on a 0.006" Spring Steel Petal Valve . 53
Figure 7.6 High-Speed Camera Experiment Setup ... 55
Figure 7.7 Equipment Set Up For Pressure Data Collection . 56
Figure 8.1 55mm Position Pressure/Time Plot .. 57
Figure 8.2 1075mm Position Pressure/Time Plot .. 58









vii

Nomenclature
Symbol Description Units
A Area m
2

A

Mean Cross Sectional Area m

2

A
c
Exhaust Area m
2

A
v
Valve Area m
2

CNC Computer Numerically Controlled -
C
pc
Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure (cold) J/kg/K
C
ph
Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure (hot) J/kg/K
C
h
Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Volume (hot) J/kg/K
Diameter m

comb
Combustion Chamber Diameter m

c
Exhaust Diameter m
E Youngs Modulus of Elasticity GPa
F Thrust N
FEM Finite Element Method -
I Second Moment of Area m
4

ID Internal Diameter m
I Length m
I
comb
Combustion Chamber Length m
I
cng
Engine Length m
H Mach Number -
NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics -
OD Outside Diameter m
P Static Pressure Pa
P
0
Stagnation Pressure Pa

Energy Density of Fuel J/kg

R Universal Gas Constant J/kg/K
I Static Temperature K
I
0
Stagnation Temperature K
u Strain Energy J
u
c
Exhaust Velocity m/s
viii

u
n
Inlet Velocity m/s
u
]
Jet Velocity m/s
I Volume m
3

I
cng
Engine Volume m
3

b Breadth of Beam m
c
0
Local Speed of Sound in Air m/s
Frequency Hz
Heat Added Per Unit Mass J/kg
k Spring Stiffness N/m
m Mass of Lumped Mass kg
m
bcum
Mass of Beam kg
m
u
Mass Air Flow kg/s
m
]
Mass Fuel Flow kg/s
r Radius m
r

Internal Radius m
r
o
External Radius m
t Thickness m
y Vertical Distance to Centroid m
y
c
Specific Heat Ratio (cold) -
y
h
Specific Heat Ratio (hot) -
p
b
Burner Efficiency -
p
d
Diffuser Efficiency -
p Density kg/m
3

o Normal Stress Pa
o
h
Hoop Stress Pa






1. Intro
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exhaust g
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of having
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Marconnet pul
Paul Schmid
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system at t
ust jet engin
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ves, figure
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engine. Pul
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when George
1.1. This
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ed a large am
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works by e
ulsejets, as
than the c
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961]
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their name
continuous,
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it contains
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esearch into
mbustion in
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t
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,
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,
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2

through the inlet. At the same time the Argus engine company were developing
valveless pulsejet engines. Schmidt joined the Argus company and, in 1939, together
they successfully developed a valved pulsejet design which was later used to power the
unmanned V-1 flying bomb, (figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 V-1 flying bomb with Argus AS-014 pulsejet engine [museumofflight.org, 2010]

Following the end of World War II, many of the Argus engines were captured by the
US and Russia. The captured engines were reverse engineered and analysed extensively
in an attempt to create a viable propulsive device for use on aircraft. The majority of
this testing has been documented and published by NACA. The main concern regarding
the pulsejet was the operating life of the reed valves in the front of the engine. Efforts
were made to increase the operating life but these were quickly overtaken by the
development of the turbojet engine. The turbo-jet engine offered increased reliability
and fuel efficiency and the pulsejet was largely forgotten as a source of aircraft
propulsion.
Today, small pulsejet engines still find use as radio control model powerplants. This is
mainly due to their simplicity and low cost when compared to a model turbojet of the
same size. Pulsejets have also paved the way for Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE)
technology which is a major research interest among aircraft manufacturers as a high-
tech, fuel efficient form of propulsion.

3

1.2. Operation
The operation of a pulsejet engine is similar to that of a modern reciprocating engine. It
operates in defined cycles which draw in air/fuel mixture, compress it, ignite it and
exhaust it in stages before the cycle repeats itself. The following figures 1.3 1.6 are
used to explain the cycles more clearly.
The first stage begins with the ignition of a fuel/air charge, figure 1.3. Ignition is
provided by a spark plug during start-up and by residual combustion during normal
operation.

Figure 1.3 Ignition Stage

The ignited fuel/air mix expands rapidly, increasing the pressure within the engine to
greater than atmospheric pressure. This forces the spring valves shut which then forces
the expanding gases to exit rapidly through the tailpipe producing thrust, (figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 Combustion/Power Stage

Due to the Kadenacy effect, a partial vacuum is formed behind the rapidly escaping
exhaust gases. The pressure at the front of the engine is now lower than atmospheric
pressure. The pressure differential across the reed valves causes them to open and draws
fresh fuel/air mixture into the engine, (figure 1.5). At the same time, the pressure
difference within the engine slows down the momentum of the small proportion of
exhaust gases which have not yet exited the tailpipe and draws them back up towards
the front of the engine.
4


Figure 1.5 Intake Stage
The momentum of the small piston of burning exhaust gases which has been sucked
back into the engine helps to compress the fresh fuel/air charge and ignite it (figure 1.6)
and the cycle repeats itself. The cycle repeats itself 40-250 times per second depending
on the size and length of the engine.

Figure 1.6 Compression/Re-ignition Stage

The reed valves are the only moving part of the engine. The operating life of these
valves can vary from 1-2 minutes up to several hours depending on factors such as
valve material, valve construction and valve natural frequency. These factors are
discussed in more detail in section 3.2.








Partial Vacuum
5

2. Objectives
The main aims of the project were as follows:
To design and build a working pulsejet engine to provide static thrust

To analyse the operation of the engine both theoretically and experimentally so
as to gain a better understanding of the principles behind the operation of these
engines.

To investigate the pressure cycles within the engine during operation.














3. Liter

The vast
between 1
pulsejets f
period wer

Much rese
part of Pu
still ongoi
this projec
In recent
University
conducted
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from a pre
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rature Rev
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1944 and 1
for aircraft
re studied a
earch on pu
ulse Detona
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ct.
years, som
y, USA, un
d tests on d
instrumenta
ses were ma
as to be bui
cycle plots w
essure trans
from the 50c
Figure 3.1 Pr
view
of available
1970. This
propulsion
as part of the
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ation Engin
f this inform
e work has
nder the su
different siz
ation to coll
ainly valvel
ilt for this
within the en
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cm valved p
ressure-Time p
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is mainly
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e research f
mbustion ha
ne (PDE) de
mation is cl
s been carri
upervision o
zed pulsejet
lect data an
less designs
project. Ho
ngines whic
on the comp
pulsejet is s
plot example for
regarding
due to the
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compared w
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pulsejet engine
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papers from
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, since the
be accessed
f North Car
oberts. The
to 50cm us
tion. The je
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vide good e
with the plo
the pressure

e [Ordon, 2006]
6
conducted
interest in
m that time
ly 1980s as
research is
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rolina State
se students
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ets tested in
that the jet
xamples of
ots obtained
e-time plots
]
6
d
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e
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s
n
e
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s
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t
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d
s
7

An additional source of information for the project was a final year report submitted to
the University of Limerick by David Curran in 2004. This report details the construction
and testing of a valved pulsejet of similar design to the engine constructed during the
course of this project. Although the engine which was constructed in 2004 was not able
to self sustain without an external source of air, the recommendations for future work
given in the report were considered and referred to during the course of the design work.



3.1. Jet design
The most comprehensive paper found on pulsejet design was C.E. Tharratts The
Propulsive Duct. These were published as a series of articles in a journal entitled
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology between 1965 and 1966 while the
author was involved in research for the Chrysler Space Division, New Orleans. In these
articles, Tharratt attempted to produce a comprehensible theoretical approach to pulsejet
design and thermodynamic analysis. The first article proposed three basic equations
which one could use to successfully determine the basic dimensions of a pulsejet tube as
well as a theoretical analysis of the pulsejet thermodynamic cycle.

Several reports were published by Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory in the late 1940s as
part of the Project Squid experiment carried out for the United States Navy. These
reports were studied but much of their content was decided to be unnecessarily detailed
or irrelevant for the purposes of this project. Some content regarding reed valve design
was used and is detailed in section 3.2.



3.2. Reed Valve Design
Tharratts second article in The Propulsive Duct provides a brief overview of valve
design. Mechanical spring valves such as those used in the Argus engine and
aerodynamic valves used in all valveless designs are discussed in detail. Tharratt has
claimed that he developed a mechanical spring valve to withstand 25hr. at full thrust,
including several continuous runs of 7hr. duration. (Figure 3.2) This operating life is
much higher than those experienced by NACA during their tests on captured Argus
8

engines. Tharratt provides an image of this valve in the article but does not include
further details regarding its design or operating characteristics.

Figure 3.2 Tharratt's mechanical valve which was claimed to
withstand 25 hrs operation at full thrust [Tharratt, 1965]

A report published by Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory in 1947 entitled 4x6 Pulsejet
Engine Project contains a section in which reed valve material is discussed. The report
tested the performance of a pulsejet engine using reed valves of varying thickness and
materials and discussed the results briefly. According to this report, annealed spring
steel or soft steel reeds are superior to tempered and polished spring steel reeds for
longevity.
The tests also showed that heavier reeds, in general, showed a longer life than thinner
reeds although operation of the jet was more difficult to start and resonance of the jet
was more easily upset when using heavy reeds than with the lighter reeds.
These observations were taken into account when choosing the appropriate valve
material for the jet.

Two wartime reports published by NACA bear particular relevance to reed valve
design.
The first of these reports, written by Manganiello, Valerino & Breisch and published in
1945, attempts to solve the issue of poor reed valve operating life which had been
observed during earlier sea-level performance tests of a 22-inch pulsejet. The average
valve life was reported to be 30 minutes before the valve tips were damaged by the
repeated impact with the valve grid and a severe loss of thrust was observed as a result.
The authors attempted to extend the life of the valves on the same engine by coating the
valve grid with a thin layer of neoprene. The reasoning behind the neoprene coating was

to cushion
on the val
significant
valves wa
broken of
valves we
grid show
grid. The
due to the

The secon
low-loss a
uniform 0
attempt to
thick sprin
the two va
simulated
although t
high-speed
jet. The au
the over-a
made that
standard v

Figure



n the impact
lve tips. Fol
t effect on v
as visible a
ff near the
ere beginnin
wed a signifi
only disadv
reduced int
nd report, w
air valve on
0.010 thick
o improve p
ng steel rive
alves can b
ram pressu
the modifie
d performan
uthor conclu
all performa
t the life
valve.
3.3 Cross-secti
t of the valv
llowing test
valve life.
and after
rivet holes
ng to split a
icant improv
vantage ob
take area af
written by B
n the perform
k reed valv
performance
eted to a lig
e seen in fi
ures to simu
ed valves sh
nce of the m
uded that t
ance of the
of the mod
ion of Standard
ves on the v
ts, the repor
After 51.6
163.6 minu
s, evidently
and fray ne
vement on
served duri
fter the addi
Bressman pu
mance of a
ves were re
e. The com
ghter strip o
figure 3.3. T
ulate flight
howed an i
modified jet
the modific
e engine. (
dified valve
d Valve (left) an
valve grid a
rt conclude
minutes of
utes of oper
y due to fat
ear the trail
valve life c
ing the test
ition of the n
ublished in
22-inch pu
eplaced by
mposite valv
of 0.006 th
The engine
speeds of 0
ncrease in
t was slight
cation result
(Bressman,
e was cons
nd Low-loss Mo
nd thereby
d that the n
f operation n
ration, one
tigue in fle
ling edges
compared to
was a slig
neoprene co
1946, inves
ulsejet. In th
a composi
ves consiste
hick spring s
was tested
0-330mph. T
thrust at lo
tly lower tha
ted in only
1946) The
iderably sh
odified Valve (r
reduce imp
neoprene co
no deteriora
valve was
exure, and
. The mod
o the unmod
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oating.
stigates the
his report, th
ite valve de
ed of a strip
steel. A com
at sea leve
The tests sh
ower flight
han that of th
a negligible
e observatio
horter than
(right) [Bressm
9
pact stresses
oating had a
ation of the
completely
three other
dified valve
dified valve
on in power
e effect of a
he standard
esign in an
p of 0.015
mparison of
l at various
howed that,
speeds, the
he standard
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on was also
that of the
an, 1946]
9
s
a
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a
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f
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,
e
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o
e

10

3.3. Thermodynamics
The pulsating nature of combustion in a pulsejet engine makes it very complicated to
analyse as the processes are time dependant. Due to the lack of interest in pulsejet
engines as source of aircraft propulsion, not much research has been done to accurately
predict the processes within them. Therefore, very little thermodynamic analysis of a
pulsejet engine can be found in modern literature.
The most modern analysis which was found was published as a small section in Ahmed
F. El-Sayeds Aircraft Propulsion and Gas Turbine Engines. The analysis assumes
that combustion takes place at a constant volume process and that the exhaust gases
expand isentropically in the tailpipe. In reality, combustion in a pulsejet engine is
neither a constant-volume nor a constant-pressure process and, since most pulsejets
glow red-hot during operation, the expansion of exhaust gases cannot be accurately
modelled as isentropic. However, the analysis could provide an estimate of the pressure
and temperature conditions within the engine early on in the design process.

Another source of theoretical analysis was found in Jet Propulsion, a reference text
prepared by the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory for the Air Technical Service
Command and published in 1946. This text also makes similar assumptions about the
behaviour of gases within the jet as those made in El-Sayeds text. These assumptions
are bound to result in inaccuracies in calculations but were nevertheless used early on in
the design process to provide a rough estimate of operating conditions in the engine.
This text uses a different form of equation that El-Sayed to model the heat addition
during combustion. Both analyses would be carried out and their accuracy determined
from experimental results.








11

4. Conceptual Design
This section outlines the process used to determine the final layout of the project jet, the
choice of fuel, ignition system and test stand.

4.1. Valve System
The two most common valve systems found on existing pulsejet engines are grid valves
and petal valves. Grid valves are the most common type of valve used for larger engines
producing more than 100N thrust. This is because they provide the least amount of
intake flow resistance and they provide the most flexible layout on these bigger engines.
Bigger engines require a larger intake area and it is much easier and more reliable to use
several grid type valve assemblies to make up the required intake area than to design
one extremely large petal valve.
The reed valves in a grid layout are usually single valves for each intake orifice or
sometimes grouped together so that one valve covers three or four orifices. This method
of assembly is much more practical for engine maintenance. This way, if one valve
fails, it is only necessary to replace that one valve or, at the most, a group of three or
four. If one valve fails in a petal system, the entire set must be replaced.
The main disadvantage with grid valve systems is their complexity. The grid valve
systems used in large engines such as the Argus AS-014 are incredibly complex. (Figure
4.1)

Figure 4.1 Argus AS-014 Grid Valve Layout [FZG-76 Gerte-Handbuch, 1944]
12

However, the grid valve systems used on smaller engines look more like the reed valve
assemblies used at the crankcase inlet in modern two stroke engines. An example of the
reed valve assembly used in an Aprilia RS125 engine is shown in figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 Aprilia RS125 Reed Valve Assembly

Petal valve systems, on the other hand, are much simpler to design and construct. They
consist of a flat plate which covers the front of the engine in which a radial pattern of
holes is machined. A single spring steel valve shaped like a flower (figure 4.3) covers
all the holes. A circular, curved, steel disk called the valve retainer is bolted to the valve
plate behind the petal valve to limit the distance which the valves can flex when open.

Figure 4.3 Petal Valve

13

The biggest disadvantage of the petal valve system is its inefficiency. Because the valve
is placed perpendicular to the incoming airflow, they produce a lot of resistance. This
limits their use to smaller pulsejets. Also, if one petal of the valve fails, the entire valve
must be replaced.
Considering both options, it was chosen to use a petal valve system for the project jet.
This type of system would allow for quicker manufacturing and would also help
incorporate a central fuel delivery point as outlined in section 4.3.

4.2. Choice of Fuel
One of the major advantages of pulsejet engines is their ability to run on most
commercially available fuels.
Many small pulsejets used for model aircraft propulsion are run on liquid fuels such as
methanol or nitro-methane. These fuels may be attractive for this purpose as they have a
high energy density and good flammability range in air. However, nitro-methane is too
expensive to be used in a larger scale engine as the fuel consumption would make it
costly to run. Methanol has a very high flammability range but also has the
disadvantage of burning with a clear flame. This could prove to be a safety hazard in a
laboratory environment.
Diesel or kerosene fuels are also a good alternative. These fuels are cheap compared to
other alternatives but they do cause problems during cold starting. These fuels need to
be vaporised prior to injection which requires the use of a heat exchanger coil. Engines
using these fuels are usually started on a more flammable fuel and then switched over to
diesel or kerosene when the engine has reached operating temperature. The use of these
fuels has the added complexity of having a secondary fuel system for the starting fuel.
Ordinary low-octane petrol has been used with some success in pulsejet engines. Petrol
is easily ignited using a spark plug which eliminates the need for a secondary fuel
system. It is also cheap and readily available. However it does need to be vaporised
before combustion which makes it unsuitable for direct injection into the combustion
chamber unless a heat exchanger coil is used.
14

The other disadvantage with using liquid fuels is the need for a fuel pump to provide the
correct fuel pressure. This adds complexity to the project. The use of a fuel pump can be
avoided if the engine is designed to be naturally aspirated. This method has the
drawback of not being throttle-able as outlined in section 4.3. The problem with fuel
pressure can be overcome if a gaseous fuel such as propane or butane is used. The gas
would be fed from the cylinder already under pressure and the fuel flow could be
regulated using a gas regulator at the cylinder exit. The use of a gaseous fuel would also
facilitate direct injection into the combustion chamber without the need for a vaporiser.
Although the gas cylinder is bulkier and heavier than a similar liquid fuel tank, this was
considered to be unimportant as the engine was to be a purely static engine.
It was decided to use propane as a fuel due to its high energy density (50 MJ/kg), ease
of cold starting by spark plug, the elimination of a fuel pump system and relatively low
cost.


4.3. Fuel Delivery
Fuel delivery to the combustion chamber can either be normally aspirated or injected.
(Figure 4.4)

Figure 4.4 Normally Aspirated (left) and Injected (right) Fuel Delivery [aardvark.co.nz, 2009]

A normally aspirated engine operates on much the same principle as the carburettor in a
car or motorcycle. The atomiser is placed in a venturi in the intake and fuel is drawn
15

from it as high-speed air passes through the venturi. Aspirated engines are simple in
construction but aspiration does pose some restrictions.
Fuel flow is very dependent on the vertical placement of the fuel tank in relation
to the atomiser.
Aspirated engines are not throttle-able as there is no method for varying fuel
flow.
The venturi must be properly designed to produce the required pressure
difference across the fuel system so fuel can flow.

Fuel injection solves the problems associated with aspiration. Although an injection
nozzle is more complex to machine, it was decided to inject the fuel in the project
engine. Injection would allow throttling of the engine and would also allow higher
flexibility of fuel use.
It was decided to inject the fuel directly into the combustion chamber behind the valve
retainer plate. A second retainer plate would be placed on the combustion chamber side
of the injection nozzle. There were several reasons behind choosing this setup.
The different valve retainer plates could be machined with different radii of
curvature. The effect of different retainer plates on valve life could then be
investigated simply by swapping them around.
The channel created between the two retainer plates would guide the fuel out
towards the point where the incoming air is moving over the tips of the retainer
plates at a higher velocity and this would aid fuel mixing.
The second retainer plate would create a secondary barrier between the valves
and the hot combustion gases and would help keep the valves cooler during
operation.
The heat absorbed by the second retainer plate during combustion would help to
preheat the fuel as it passed between the plates and this would help increase the
efficiency of combustion.

The fuel injector nozzle would also double as the central bolt to clamp the entire
valve head assembly together. A sketch of the assembly is shown in figure 4.5.
16


Figure 4.5 Sketch of Valve Head Design


4.4. Ignition System
The ignition system in a pulsejet engine is only required for starting to ignite the first
charge of fuel/air mixture. After the jet has achieved successful ignition and is running
correctly, the ignition system is no longer needed.
The easiest method of ignition is through a spark plug situated in the wall of the
combustion chamber. Normally a spark is created across the plug gap through the
excitation of an induction coil and then switching off the current to the main coil which
causes the magnetic field in the coil to collapse rapidly. The change in magnetic field
around a secondary coil induces a very high voltage across the coil which then jumps
the plug gap in the form of a spark.
However, instead of using an automotive coil to produce the spark, it was decided to use
a piezoelectric igniter from a gas oven. (Figure 4.6) This was an extremely simple
method. It required a push-button to be pressed repeatedly until the engine fired but it
was lightweight, cheap and it did not require any additional equipment like a battery and
separate switch.
Air
Fuel
Valve
Retainer Plate
17


Figure 4.6 Piezoelectric Oven Igniter


4.5. Test Stand
The test stand needed to fulfil the following requirements:
Securely support the jet during tests
Allow for the measurement of thrust
Support all necessary ancillary equipment such as ignition system and measuring
devices.
Be mobile enough to allow easy setup for tests.
Since the project engine was to be approximately the same size as the jet which a
previous student built, it was decided to use the same test stand design for this project
also. A CAD drawing of the test stand is shown in figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7 CAD Model of Test Stand Used With Previous Project
Push Button Earth Connection
Electrode
18

5. Theory & Design
This section details the theory used in the design, analysis and troubleshooting of the
project engine.
Due to safety concerns, it was decided that the engine in this project should produce no
more than 90N thrust. This also corresponded with the thrust limitations associated with
a petal valve design.

5.1. Jet Design
The theory governing the design of the pulsejet engine in this project was adapted from
C.E. Tharratts The Propulsive Duct. Tharratt developed his equations in the 1960s
with the imperial system of units in mind. The equations were modified to work with SI
units before being used to design the project engine.

5.1.1. Tailpipe
Tharratt proposed the following basic equation governed the basic design of the pulsejet
engine duct:
I
I
, = u.uuS16F
5.1
Where:
V = Engine Volume (cu. ft.)
L = Effective acoustic length of engine (ft.)
F = Thrust (lb
f
)
Manipulating this equation to take SI unit inputs produces equation 5.2:

I
I
, = u.uuuu66F
5.2

The simplest form of pulsejet is simply a straight tube of constant cross-section. It was
decided to use this as a starting point.
19

Since for a straight pipe,
I = AI
If this relationship is substituted into equation 5.2 and simplified, then a direct
relationship between thrust and cross-sectional area is established. This cross-section
area will be used as the tailpipe area and will be referred to as A
e
(exhaust area) from
here on.
A
c
= u.uuuu66F 5.3

It was decided to make use of standard seamless pipe sizes available on the market to
make the tailpipe. This would reduce the complexity of having a long welded seam
running the entire length of the pipe.
Inputting the maximum desired thrust of 90N into equation 5.3 returned a tailpipe
diameter of 87mm. The next smallest seamless mild steel pipe available on the market
was 3 Sch40 pipe. This gave an internal diameter of 78mm.
Using 3 Sch40 pipe as the basis for the design, the expected thrust was calculated by
substituting the area of the pipe back into equation 5.3. The expected thrust returned
was 72.6N.

The total length of a pulsejet engine is what determines the frequency at which it
operates according to another of Tharratts basic equations, 5.4.

=
c
0
4I


5.4

There is still quite a bit of debate regarding the correct operating frequency for a given
size of jet. Therefore it was decided to look at some existing designs, their operating
frequencies and their length to diameter (L/D) ratios to determine a suitable length for
this engine. The known properties of some existing pulsejet designs are shown in table
5.1.
20

Table 5.1 Known Pulsejet Properties
Engine Static Thrust Output (N) Frequency (Hz) L/D ratio
Argus AS-014 2,200 46 9.6
Dynajet 20 260 15

By assessing the above data and considering the intended thrust output of the project
engine, it was determined that an L/D ratio of 14 would be a good starting point for the
engine. This would allow trimming of the tailpipe later on during testing if needed.
Using this ratio and the internal diameter of 3 Sch40 pipe, a total engine length of 1.1m
was calculated.
This length was substituted into equation 5.4. The operating temperature of the engine
was estimated to be 1000K approx.
=
yRI
4I

1.S6 287 1uuu
4 1.1
142Ez
This frequency falls within the expected range for a pulsejet of this size.

5.1.2. Valve Plate
Another important relationship which Tharratt developed was that which related the
intake valve area to the exhaust area. He proposed that:
A

= u.2SA
c
5.5
This equation does not take into account the inefficiencies associated with different
valve layouts. It is generally assumed that a petal valve layout has an efficiency of 0.5.
Therefore the equation must be modified to allow for this. To make calculation simpler,
equation 5.5 can be modified to allow for the efficiency factor and to take an input of
tailpipe diameter rather than area:

A
pctuI
= u.11Sn
c
2

5.6
A
pctuI
= 22uSmm
2


21

A combustion chamber is not necessary in a pulsejet engine. However, due to the
layout of a petal valve system, it is usually necessary to include a wider section which
resembles a combustion chamber at the front of the tailpipe. This wider section will be
referred to as a combustion chamber for convenience. The valve plate layout must be
designed before the dimensions of this section can be determined.


The valve plate was designed in ProEngineer by observing the following criteria and
attempting meet the required valve area while keeping the outer diameter of the orifices
as low as possible.
It was desired to keep the number of petals in the valve as low as possible so that
the probability of failure due to fatigue could be kept low.
It was also observed by studying previous designs that the maximum diameter
intake hole was 12mm to reduce deformation of the valve during the positive
pressure cycle of the engine. To try and solve this, the valve orifices had to have
a minimum distance of 12mm in one direction.
The valve plate needed to allow for 2mm valve overlap minimum around each
orifice.
Due to machining constraints, the smallest radius included in the design could be
no smaller than 3mm.

The final design, shown in figure 5.1, had 10 intake orifices and the outer diameter of
the intake orifice ring was 90mm.





5.1

To preven
from bein
which wou
and the co
determine

During his
the intake
was decid
of fresh fu


1.3. Combu
nt the flow o
ng overly re
uld allow fo
ombustion c
d for the co
s research in
phase, a pu
ded to make
uel/air mixtu
F
ustion Cham
of air throu
estricted, th
or an area o
chamber. U
ombustion c
nto pulsejet
ulsejet draw
e the combu
ure.
Figure 5.1 Intak
mber
ugh the intak
he combusti
of twice the
Using this gu
chamber.
t design in t
ws in 15%-2
ustion cham
I
Comb
=
ke Orifice Desi
ke holes and
ion chambe
valve area t
uideline, an
the 1930s, P
20% of its v
mber big eno
= u.2I
cng

ign
d over the t
r was given
to exist betw
internal dia
Paul Schmid
olume in fr
ough to acc

tips of the v
n an intern
ween the va
ameter of 1
dt observed
resh fuel/air
commodate
22
valve petals
al diameter
alve orifices
117mm was
that during
r mixture. It
this charge
2
s
r
s
s
g
t
e



Using equ
angle was
machining

The final
which was




5.2. Pe

During fin
valves to t
a pulsejet
is the f
valves. T
literature.

In order t
model nee
is essentia
uation 5.7,
s included
g constraint
design for t
s used to bo
etal Valve V
nal testing
the pressure
engine. The
frequency o
This is a det

o determine
eded to be f
ally a cantile
a combusti
as a reduce
s.
the jet body
olt on the va
Figu
Vibration F
of the engi
e oscillation
e response i
of the engin
ail of desig
e the natura
found to sim
ever beam o
I
comb
=
ion chambe
er to tailpip
y is shown i
alve head as
ure 5.2 Final J
Frequency
ine, it beca
ns within th
is a function
ne and
n
gn which se
al frequenc
mplify the c
of varying c
u.2
c
2
I
cng

comb
2
er length o
pe diameter
in figure 5.2
ssembly and
Jet Body Dimen
ame appare
e engine is
n of the driv
is the natur
ems to hav
y of vibrati
complex sha
cross-section
g

f 97mm w
r. This ang
2. This draw
d diffuser to
nsions
nt that the
critical to th
ving frequen
ral frequenc
e been larg
ion of the p
ape of the v
n. (Figure 5
was determin
gle was dete
wing includ
o the front o
response o
he correct o
ency ratio,
ncy of vibra
gely overloo
petal valves
valves. The
5.3)
23

5.7
ned. A 30
ermined by
des a flange
of the jet.
of the petal
operation of
/
n
, where
ation of the
oked in past
s a suitable
petal valve
3
7

y
e

l
f
e
e
t
e
e
24


Figure 5.3 Petal Valve Geometry

According to Singiresu S. Raos text, Mechanical Vibrations,
k
cq
=
SEI
I
3

Where I is the second moment of area and for a simple beam:
I =
bt
3
12

Therefore:

k
cq
=
Ebt
3
4I
3

5.8

If all variables in equation 5.8 are kept constant and only b is allowed to change, then it
can be shown that, as b increases, so does k. Therefore k increases with distance from
the root of the petal valve. If the petal were to be deflected through a small distance,
then the majority of bending would occur at the root where k has its smallest value.

To simplify the problem of varying k, the petal valve was modelled as a cantilever beam
of constant cross-section equal to that at the root of the petal, with a lumped mass at the
end which would represent the extra mass of the side lobes of the valve.
The value of that extra mass was found by:
Finding the mass of the side lobes
Finding the centre of gravity of that mass
Calculating the moments produced by this mass about the root
25

Then calculating an equivalent mass which would produce the same moment
about the root if it were placed at the tip of the valve.

The result is a constant-section beam with a lumped mass at its end as shown in figure
5.4 for which the natural frequency of vibration can be easily calculated.

Figure 5.4 Simplified Petal Valve Model

The equivalent mass of this model can be found using Raos equation:
m
cq
= m +u.2Sm
bcum
5.9

The natural frequency of vibration can now easily be calculated using
=
_
k
m



5.10
Where k is obtained using equation 5.8 and m is calculated from equation 5.9.

In order to find the position of the centroid of the side lobes, a simple 2D CAD program
called QCad was used. The geometry of the valve was drawn and then split into the
main beam and up to five other simple shapes as shown in figure 5.5.


The areas
into an Ex
following
The equi
Or:


The mass


Fig
and centro
xcel spreads
equation:
ivalent mass
of the beam
gure 5.5 Petal V
ids of these
sheet to calc
s to be place

m was calc

Valve Geometry
e shapes we
culate the p
y =

ed at the en
m =
m
m =
ptA
culated usin
m
bcum
y Split for Cent
ere found us
position of t
A

nd of the bea
m
Iobcs
y
I

A
Iobcs
y
I

ng:
m
= ptbI

troid Determina
sing QCad
their combi
am was then

ation
and these v
ined centroi
n calculated
26
values input
id using the
d using:
5.11
5.12
6
t
e
2
27

In order to tune the petal valves to the required natural frequency of vibration, it was
necessary to investigate the relationship between natural frequency , spring stiffness k,
length L and material thickness t. By combining equations 5.8 5.12 and simplifying,
the following equation 5.13 was obtained.

n
= _
Ebt
2
4pI
2
(A
Iobcs
y +u.2SbI
2
)

5.13
By varying t and L in equations 5.8 and 5.13, it can be shown that an increase in t will
increase the natural frequency of vibration but will also increase the static stiffness by a
larger factor.

n
t but k t
3

If L is reduced instead, there is a smaller increase in static stiffness for the same increase
in natural frequency.

n

_
1
I
4
but k
1
I
3

Therefore it is more desirable to tune the valve frequency by reducing the effective
length of the valve than by increasing the thickness. Keeping the static stiffness as low
as possible is also necessary to allow the engine to produce static thrust as the valves do
not have the benefit of ram-air pressure to help open them.

5.3. Thermodynamic Analysis
The thermodynamic cycle of the pulsejet engine was analysed using theory from two
different sources. The first is Ahmed El-Sayeds text; Aircraft Propulsion and Gas
Turbine Engines and the second is the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratorys
reference text Jet Propulsion. Both methods are examined separately. Both methods
refer to conditions within the engine at certain points. These points are illustrated in the
following diagram, figure 5.6.

28




Figure 5.6 Points of Interest Within the Pulsejet Engine

5.3.1. El-Sayed (2008)
Ahmed El-Sayed idealises the process within the pulsejet engine as illustrated in the T-S
diagram in figure 5.7 below.

Figure 5.7 Ideal pulsejet cycle [El-Sayed, 2008]

Due to ram effect in flight and inefficiencies due to diffuser shape and valve system,
both the pressure and temperature at point 2 can be calculated as follows:

P
02
= P
u
_1 +p
d
y
c
1
2
H
2
]
y
c
y
c
-1


5.14
I
02
= I
01
= I
0u
= I
u
_1 +
y
c
1
2
H
2
]

5.15
a
1 2 3 4
29

Where
d
is the efficiency of the diffuser and valve system and M is the flight Mach
number.
It is assumed that combustion takes place at a nearly constant volume. Therefore:

P
03
= P
02
_
I
03
I
02
]

5.16
T
03
is determined from the energy balance in the combustion chamber, equation 5.17.

(m
u
+ m
]
)C
ph
I
03
= m
u
C
ph
I
02
+ p
b
m
]

R

5.17
Where C
p
is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure and
b
is the burner
efficiency.

The exhaust gases expand out the tailpipe to ambient pressure. This process is assumed
to be isentropic and the temperature of the exhaust gases is calculated from the
following relationship, equation 5.18:

_
I
03
I
4
] = _
P
03
P
u
]
y
h
-1
y
h


5.18
The exhaust velocity and thrust are then calculated from equations 5.19 and 5.20
respectively.

I
c
= _2C
ph
I
03
_1 _
P
u
P
03
]
y
h
-1
y
h
_


5.19



F = m
u
|(1 + )I
c
I] 5.20
5.3.2. Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory (1946)
The reference text, Jet Propulsion, makes precisely the same assumptions as El-Sayed
up until the combustion stage. Although the assumptions about constant volume
combustion and isentropic expansion remain the same, this text proposes different
relationships to model the process of heat during combustion. This is described in
equation 5.21 below.
30


=
R
= C
h
(I
03
I
02
) =
1
y
h
C
ph
I
03
_1
I
02
I
03
]

5.21


5.4. Material Selection

5.4.1. Jet Body
In order to choose a suitable material for the jet body, it was necessary to first determine
the maximum pressures which could be expected within the engine during operation.
These pressures were obtained from the preliminary thermodynamic analysis in section
5.3. Also considered were pressure cycle plots obtained from existing pulsejet engines.
The analysis in section 5.3 provided a reasonable estimate for the stagnation pressure in
the combustion chamber as
P
03
= 4.1 Bar
Adding in a factor of safety of approximately 2, the jet body should be capable of
withstanding maximum internal pressures of up to 8 Bar.
Comparing to existing pulsejet analysis as shown in figure 3.1 and fig 5.8, 8 Bar
pressure appears to provide a huge factor of safety. Figure 3.1 shows a peak pressure of
27 psi or 1.86 Bar and figure 5.8 shows a peak pressure of 28 psi or 1.93 Bar.
Considering that both jets are at different ends of the thrust scale with the project jet
lying between them, it seemed reasonable to assume that the actual pressures
experienced in the jet would be very similar. Therefore, by choosing the material to
withstand 8 Bar pressure, it could be ensured that the safety concerns of the university
could be comfortably met.

Since the
not a majo
steel or sta
Mild steel
Lo
Be
Be
Su
ma
45
Th
Due to th
welded-se
rupturing
material o
application
A stress a
thick-wall
78.1mm a
Figure
project jet w
or concern.
ainless steel
l has more a
ower cost an
etter machin
etter weld-ab
uperior heat
ade from st
seconds (
his problem
he combina
eam structur
under opera
of choice a
ns.
analysis of
led cylinder
and 5.49mm
5.8 Pressure Cy
was to be a
Amateur-bu
l.
appeal as a p
nd higher av
ne-ability
bility
t radiation p
ainless stee
(Beck, 2005
is reported
ation of pre
ral steel tub
ating condit
as this was
the 3 Sch
r theory. Th
m respectivel
r
t
, =
S9.u
S.49
Cycle plot in AS
a purely stat
uilt pulsejet
pulsejet mat
vailability
properties.
el should no
5) as the bo
to be elimin
essure and
bing was un
tions. A106
s designed
h40 pipe ch
he pipe has
ly.
uS
9
= 7.1 <
S-014 pulsejet e
tic test engi
ts are most
terial over s
According
ot be operat
ody can ove
nated if mil
high temp
ndesirable a
6 seamless s
for use in
hosen in se
s a nomina
< 1u => t
ngine [Bressma
ne, the total
commonly
stainless ste
to one pul
ted staticall
erheat and b
ld steel is us
perature in
as the welde
teel pipe wa
high-temp
ction 5.1.1
l diameter
ick wollcJ

an, 1946]
al weight of
constructed
eel for sever
lsejet websi
ly for mor
burn holes i
sed.
the engine
ed seam wa
was decided
perature, hig
was condu
and wall th
J
31
f the jet was
d from mild
ral reasons:
ite, engines
re than 30 -
in the steel.
e, common
as at risk of
upon as the
gh-pressure
ucted using
hickness of

s
d
s
-
.
n
f
e
e
g
f
32

According to thick-walled cylinder theory:
o
h
=
r

2
P
r
o
2
r

2
_1 +
r
o
2
r
2
_

5.22
Since the maximum stress is needed and maximum stress occurs at the outer wall, then r
= r
o
and equation 5.22 can be simplified to:
o
h mux
=
2r

2
P
r
o
2
r

2


5.23
Using the dimensions of the pipe and the expected pressures then the hoop stresses were
calculated as follows:
Table 5.2 Max Hoop Stress in Jet Tube
Pressure (Bar) 8 1.93
Max Hoop Stress,
h max
(MPa) 5.36 1.29

While no information was found for the yield strength of A106 steel at high
temperature, the stress values in table 5.2 were compared against information found for
several other weaker grades of carbon steel. The comparison showed that the stresses in
the jet tube were significantly lower than the yield strengths of mild steel grades which
were not designed to operate under high temperature. An example of the temperature
dependant properties of common grade 43A steel is shown in figure 5.9. From the plot,
the yield stress of 43A steel at 800C can be approximated to 15Mpa.
33


Figure 5.9 Mechanical Properties of Grade 43A Steel at Elevated Temperatures [Bailey, 2009]


5.4.2. Valve Plate
The valve plate must be able to withstand the repeated impact of the valve tips up to
150-200 times per second. As well as being able to withstand this impacting, the valve
plate should also provide a certain amount of damping force to the valve tips. This
damping force should absorb some of the impact energy from the valves and thereby
reduce the amount of stress the valve tip experiences during impact. This would help to
increase the operating life of the valves. The concept of energy being absorbed by a
material during an impact was related back to strain energy theory.
The energy stored within a material when work has been done on it is termed the strain
energy (Hearn, 1997).
Since the work being done on the valve plate is the impact from the valve, the material
which stores the most amount of strain energy will be the best material choice for the
valve plate. Some of the kinetic energy of the valve tip will be converted to strain
energy in the valve plate material.
34

Strain energy can be expressed as:
u =
o
2
AI
2E

Or:

u =
o
2
I
2E


5.24

V will be constant for a given valve plate design. will also be constant for a given
valve impact. If the only variable is the material of the valve plate, then:
u
1
2E

A material with smaller E will result in a smaller value of U

To maximise U, aluminium with E = 70GPa was chosen for the valve plate material
over steel with E = 200GPa. The downside to using aluminium is that aluminium has a
very low surface hardness. This would most likely result in the repeated impact of the
valves damaging the surface of the valve plate and affecting the seal between the valve
plate and the valves. To avoid this, it was decided to hard-anodise the machined valve
plate. The thin layer of aluminium oxide would increase surface hardness significantly
without affecting the underlying material properties. A table showing Vickers hardness
values for different materials is included below in table 5.3 as a comparison.
Table 5.3 Material Hardness Comparison Table [Hard Anodising Ltd, 2005]
Material Vickers Hardness Number
Untreated Al 6082 100 120
Hard Anodised Al 6082 400 460
Mild Steel 200 220
Stainless Steel 300 350

35

Additionally, it was determined that an aluminium valve plate would conduct heat from
the valves quicker than steel and help keep them from overheating.
5754 aluminium alloy was chosen as the final valve plate material due to its excellent
anodising properties and local availability.



















36

6. Construction
This section details the manufacturing and construction of the project engine, the
problems encountered and how they were overcome.
The majority of manufacturing of the components was carried out in the universitys
engineering workshop. Detailed engineering drawings of all components can be found
in appendix A of this report.

6.1. Jet Body
The tailpipe section of the jet body was made from a 1m length of 3 Sch40 seamless
carbon steel pipe. The nominal wall thickness of this pipe is 5.5mm, therefore, the
combustion chamber was designed to have the same wall thickness. The tailpipe was
left ~150mm too long to allow tuning of the exhaust during testing.
The combustion chamber was machined from a solid carbon steel piece to the
dimensions shown in appendix A. The finished combustion chamber was welded to one
end of the tailpipe.
To allow easy assembly and disassembly of the engine, a flange was machined from
3mm mild steel plate. The flange incorporated eight 6mm holes which were designed to
take M5 bolts to bolt the engine together. The flange was welded to the front of the
combustion chamber.
A small fitting was machined to allow the spark plug to be incorporated into the jet
body. This fitting was simply a 10mm piece of 25mm diameter round bar. A 5mm step
was machined in the piece so that the OD of the step was 18mm. The fitting was then
drilled and tapped with an internal M14x1.25 thread to take the spark plug.
A 19mm hole was drilled in the combustion chamber wall, 60mm from the front of the
engine. The spark plug fitting was inserted into this hole and welded in place. The flat
surface of the spark plug fitting provides a good surface for the plugs crush washer to
seal against. The completed combustion chamber end of the jet body is shown in figure
6.1.
37


Figure 6.1 Combustion Chamber and Flange


6.2. Intake Diffuser
The intake diffuser for the jet was initially designed to be a simple cone rolled from
1mm mild steel sheet. However, the correct facilities to roll a cone of this size did not
exist in the university and, after an unsuccessful attempt to roll the cone in an external
workshop, the design was abandoned for that described below.
The final intake diffuser (figure 6.2) was machined from a solid block of aluminium.
The design was kept simple with the ID by the valve plate being 110mm and an internal
wall slope of no more than 7.
A 10mm thick flange was incorporated into the design. Eight holes were drilled in the
flange and tapped M5x0.8 to match up with the holes in the combustion chamber flange.
38


Figure 6.2 Intake Diffuser

6.3. Valve Plates
Two different valve plates were manufactured. The first was as per the design described
in section 5.1.2 and the second was a modification of the same design. The second valve
plate simply extended the intake orifices towards the centre of the plate to increase the
total intake area available. This was designed as a back-up in case problems were found
regarding the original valve plate design during testing of the engine.
The two valve plates were CNC machined from 10mm thick 5754 aluminium alloy. The
OD of the valve plates were machined to the same OD of the flanges on the diffuser and
the combustion chamber. Eight 6mm holes were machined in them to match the flanges.
One 18mm hole was machined in the centre of the valve plates to allow the fuel delivery
nozzle to pass through.
Both machined valve plates then had to be polished before being sent to Marchant
Engineering, Tramore, Co. Waterford to be hard anodised. The completed valve plates
are shown in figure 6.3.
39


Figure 6.3 Anodised Valve Plates; Original (left) & Modified (right)


6.4. Valve Retainer Plates
Three different valve plates were manufactured, each with a different radius of
curvature. The largest radius of curvature was chosen so that the valve would have a
maximum tip travel of about 8mm. This was determined to be the smallest tip travel
allowable to allow the incoming air to flow unrestricted.
A second retainer plate was chosen to have a much smaller radius of curvature which
would allow the valve to open further during the intake phase. This would also increase
bending stresses in the valve petals.
The third retainer plate was given the same radius of curvature as the first but without
any flat contact area in the centre. This would allow the valve to have total flexibility
from the root. The effects of different retainer plates on valve life could then be
investigated.
The three valve retainer plates were CNC machined from mild steel bar stock and an
18mm hole drilled in the centre to allow fitting of the fuel jet. One of the completed
retainer plates is shown in figure 6.4.
40


Figure 6.4 Valve Retainer Plate


6.5. Petal Valve
The petal valve was cut from 0.006 blue spring steel sheet. The intricate shape of the
petal valve cannot be cut with a snips as the material will just split. Therefore, an
electro-chemical etching process detailed in appendix C of the report was used.
The process involved first coating the material to be etched with an electrically
insulating coating. An automotive primer was used in this case. The shape of the petal
valve was then drawn on the painted surface and the lines scribed with a sharp knife to
expose the metal underneath.
The spring steel was placed in a saturated salt/water solution so that all the lines to be
scribed were submerged. A stainless steel plate of approximately the same size was
placed in the solution also with a sponge between the two pieces of metal to avoid
contact between them.
The spring steel was connected to the positive terminal of a 12V power supply and the
stainless steel plate was connected to the negative terminal. When current was switched
on, bubbles were seen to rise from the cathode. The entire apparatus was placed under
an extractor hood and left for 40 mins approx until the spring steel appeared to have
been eaten away at the scribed lines. The petal valve could then be popped from the rest
of the material and the paint cleaned off by immersing the valve in cellulose thinners for
up to 30 mins. The valve was then ready to be used in the engine with no further
modifications.
41

The electro-chemical etching process had some drawbacks.
Care must be taken to ensure a good even coat of masking paint is applied to the
valve material. Any pinholes in the cured paint will result in pinholes being
etched in the valve. These holes render the valve useless.
The masking paint must be allowed to cure properly for at least 48 hours.
Otherwise the etching process undercuts the paint very easily and a poor surface
on the finished valve results.
The valve must not be allowed to sit in the etching solution for too long or the
process eats through weak points in the masking paint and the finished valve
will have holes in it.
Figure 4.3 shows an electro-chemically etched valve and the etching apparatus is shown
below in figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5 Electro-chemical Etching Apparatus

During testing, shim steel was used to make valves of different thicknesses. This
material was cut using a dremel tool and the burrs ground off with a grinding wheel on
the dremel tool.


42

6.6. Fuel Injection Nozzles

6.6.1. Internal Injector
The fuel injection nozzle was turned from 25mm mild steel bar stock. A 5.5mm hole
was drilled in the centre of the piece to a depth of 45mm then six radial 2.5mm were
drilled to intersect with it and form the fuel injection outlets. An internal chamfer was
cut in the inlet hole which would help produce a tight seal with the nipple on the
propane hose.
Both sides of the piece were turned down to 18mm, leaving a 5mm wide collar at the
injection holes. An M18x1.5 thread was machined on the turned down sections.
A 15mm section at the inlet end was turned down to 16.6mm and an external 3/8 BSP
thread was cut to allow the propane hose end to be threaded on. The completed internal
fuel injection nozzle is shown in figure 6.6.

6.6.2. External Injector
During testing, it was decided to move the point of injection forward into the intake
diffuser. (see section 7.2) The quickest and simplest way to do this was to make a fitting
which would screw directly onto the original nozzles 3/8 BSP thread.
A 75mm piece of 20mm round bar was turned down to 16.6mm diameter. A 5.5mm
hole was drilled from one end to a depth of 48mm. Six radial 2mm holes were drilled to
intersect with the larger axial hole similar to what was done with the original nozzle.
The internal chamfer was cut in the inlet also.
At the opposite end, a 5mm hole was drilled to a depth of 20mm and then tapped M6x1.
A spare brass propane hose fitting was then fixed to this end using an M6x15 wide-head
screw bolt. The new external fuel injector can be seen in figure 6.6.
43


Figure 6.6 Fuel Injection Nozzles; Internal (top) & External (bottom)


6.7. Test Stand
The test stand was constructed to the same basic design as was used for a previous
pulsejet. However, to simplify the build for preliminary testing, it was decided to omit
the bearings from the support straps and the bearing tracks on the frame. Instead, the jet
supports would be bolted directly to the uprights in the frame. This would not allow for
thrust measurement but was a secure and simple method of securing the jet until self-
sustaining could be achieved.
The individual components of the frame were cut from 30mm box-section steel and
welded together. 9mm holes were drilled 25mm from the top of each upright before
welding.
To make the supporting straps for the jet, two 25mm wide straps of 2mm thick mild
steel were bent around a section of the tailpipe. The ends were then bent up so that there
was a gap of about 25mm between them. A 9mm hole was drilled through the tabs to
allow the straps to be tightened with M8 bolts.
Two 110mm lengths of 16mm round bar were welded to the outside of each strap so
that the bars were in line with each other and normal to the curve of the strap. Four
9mm holes were drilled in the bars to match with the holes in the frame uprights. The
straps were secured to the frame using four M8x50 bolts. Figure 6.7 shows the engine
mounted in the completed test stand.
44


Figure 6.7 Engine Mounted on Test Stand












45

7. Testing & Troubleshooting
The following section details the testing of the engine, the problems encountered and
how they were overcome. This section also details the measurement techniques which
were used at the end of the project, after successful running of the engine had been
achieved.

7.1. Ignition system problems
During initial testing, it was found that the spark generated by the piezoelectric igniter
was inadequate to ignite the propane/air mixture. No form of ignition could be achieved
using this method so it was decided to upgrade the system to use a motorcycle ignition
coil and an old motorcycle battery as a power source.
A coil was purchased and wired to the battery via a push-to-make switch. The circuit
was then tested by connecting the coil lead to the spark plug. A spark was observed but
it appeared weak and unreliable. When the circuit was connected to the engine, this
spark also proved unable to ignite the fuel/air mixture in the engine.
The spark plug which was being used up to this point was an NGK BM6A plug. This
plug has a standard thread reach of 9.5mm. It was decided to replace this plug with one
with a longer reach thread. This would place the electrode further into the engine and
increase the chances of ignition. An NGK BR9EH plug was purchased as a
replacement. The replacement plug had a 19mm thread reach and also had a higher heat
rating which would allow the engine to withstand higher engine temperatures and
therefore last longer.

A 5kV power supply was connected to the spark plug as a temporary solution to the
ignition problem. This system produced a continuous spark across the plug gap. A
continuous spark is undesirable in a pulsejet engine as it can disrupt the pulsating
combustion and cause the engine to stop. It was decided to use this method anyway to
see if the engine would at least ignite with the current spark plug position. Ignition with
the continuous spark was achieved but the jet did not pulsate at all. The result of this test
is discussed in more detail in section 7.3. It was decided that the intermittent spark
46

which could be produced using an induction coil was much more desirable for pulsejet
ignition.

The motorcycle coil in the old circuit was replaced with an old-type distributor coil
from a car and a short length of silicone HT lead was purchased to provide the
connection to the plug. However, on testing, the spark was again weak and very
unreliable. The circuit was checked over with a multimeter and the impedance of the
coil and spark plug were found to be 4 k each. The total resistance of 8 k between
the coil and plug electrode was much too high and the HT lead and plug were replaced.
The spark plug was replaced with a non-resistor type B9ES NGK plug and the silicone
HT lead was replaced with a length of standard copper-cored spark plug wire.
The performance of the new system was found to be very satisfactory with a strong
reliable spark being produced across the plug gap each time the switch was pushed.

Although this system was adequate for ignition, it proved awkward to have to push a
button each time a spark was needed. This system meant that more people were needed
to run a test; one person to provide spark and a second to vary the fuel flow until
ignition was achieved. An automatic system would solve this problem by allowing the
operator to simply switch on the ignition circuit, vary the fuel flow until ignition was
achieved and then switch off the ignition circuit. An ideal automatic system would be
switched on using a toggle switch and then discharge the coil at preset regular intervals
to send a steady stream of sparks across the plug gap until the system was switched off
again.
After contacting the Electronic Engineering department in the university to help with
automating the circuit, two possible solutions were determined:
1. Use a 555 timer circuit with a large transistor which would act as a switch to cut
the current to the induction coil at regular intervals which would be controlled
by the 555 circuit. This had the advantage of being completely portable with all
power to the circuit being provided by the motorcycle battery. The downside
47

was that the timing of the spark was dependant on the 555 circuit and could not
be easily changed.

2. Use almost the same circuit as above but instead of using a 555 timer to control
the transistor, a signal generator would provide a square wave signal to do the
same thing. This system had the advantage that the timing of the spark was
easily adjustable by varying the frequency of the output square wave on the
signal generator. The disadvantage was that the signal generator needed an A/C
power source and so the portability was reduced.

The second solution was chosen over the first as it was simpler to set up and the ease of
adjustment was attractive. The Electrical Engineering department also had such a circuit
already made up for demonstration purposes which was made available to this project
and could easily be integrated into the existing circuit.
The final circuit provided a reliable and adjustable ignition source for the pulsejet
during testing. It also allowed tests to be conducted more easily and with minimal
personnel. The final ignition setup is shown in figure 7.1. A circuit diagram can also be
seen in appendix B.


Figure 7.1 Final Ignition Circuit


Signal Generator
Battery
Ignition
Coil
On/Off Switch &
Transistor Circuit
48

7.2. Fuel Mixing
During the initial tests when the engine was igniting but was acting almost like a simple
propane burner (section 7.3), a video clip taken looking up the tailpipe showed that the
burning in the combustion chamber appeared over-rich and uneven. This can be seen in
a still image from the video clip in figure 7.2 below.
It was thought that the fuel may have been introduced too far into the combustion
chamber for adequate mixing of fuel/air to take place before combustion. To attempt to
solve this, a new fuel injector nozzle was machined as detailed in section 6.6.2. The new
fuel injector would be threaded in place between the original injector nozzle and the
propane hose and would move the point of injection forward into the intake diffuser.
This would give the fuel a much longer time to mix with the air as it passed through the
intake orifices and over the valve tips.
The new injector nozzle proved to be very effective. The engine was never tested with
the old injector nozzle after the valve frequency tuning had allowed the engine to
operate correctly as the performance of the engine with the new fuel nozzle was
significantly improved. There was no evidence of inadequate mixing with the new
nozzle.



Figure 7.2 Uneven Burning in the Combustion Chamber (left) & Burning With New Nozzle Fitted (right)


49

7.3. Valve Frequency Ratio Tuning
The engine test using the 5kV power supply to provide spark resulted in ignition of the
fuel/air mixture at a certain fuel pressure setting. The engine would not resonate and the
sound of burning was very low. If gas flow was decreased, the burning would stop and
if gas flow was increased, yellow flames would appear from the tailpipe. This led to the
conclusion that the continuous spark had set up a standing flame front inside the engine
which would only sustain at a certain fuel/air setting. The engine was acting as a simple
propane burner. It was this conclusion that led to the desire to create the intermittent
spark ignition system detailed in section 7.1.

However, the new improved ignition system did not improve the quality of burning in
the engine. Even with the sparking frequency turned down to under 0.5Hz, the engine
would still ignite the fuel/air mixture in the same manner as before. With the sparking
frequency that low, it ruled out that the problem was a standing flame front being set up
in the engine.
Further visual comparison of the movement of the petal valves before and after ignition
concluded that the engine was taking in air by itself and was therefore attempting to
resonate.
Since the tailpipe had been left oversized, the excess length was trimmed back to the
designed length of 1.1m and the test was run again. The change in length did not affect
the quality of burning in the engine at all.

When comparing the project engine to the previous engine which had been built in the
university, it was noticed that the basic jet body dimensions were almost identical. The
previous engine had achieved resonant combustion, albeit with an external supply of air.
The only major difference in design was the valve plate and petal valves. This detail,
coupled with the failed test following the length reduction, prompted an investigation
into the vibration of the petal valves.

50

In Part II of The Propulsive Duct, C.E. Tharratt explains how a mechanical reed valve
made up of two identical metal reeds sandwiched together provides added stiffness
whilst retaining, as closely as possible, the response characteristics of a single metal
reed. (Tharratt, 1965)
In order to narrow down the problem, the engine was tested using a double set of 0.006
petal valves in place of one. This would increase static stiffness of the valves but keep
the natural frequency of vibration as close as possible to that of a single petal valve.
Using the double valve setup, the engine ran almost exactly the same way as it had in
previous tests with a single 0.006 valve. The burning characteristics were very similar
but the engine required a much higher air supply to be started and sustain burning.
These results suggested that successful resonant combustion was reliant on the natural
frequency of vibration of the petal valves.

The theory necessary to calculate the natural frequency of the petal valves is detailed in
section 5.2. An attempt was made to theoretically plot the response of a petal valve to
the forcing frequency of the jet with varying frequency ratios. However, the analysis
was regarded inconclusive due to the following reasons:
The motion of the valve cannot be modelled as a simple spring/mass system
without damping. This is due to the effect of the valve plate damping out
one-half of the valves motion. This means that the momentum of the valve
does not carry through from one cycle to the next and therefore renders
conventional modelling inaccurate.
Although the valve motion cannot be regarded as being damped, it cannot be
modelled as a damped system either. Viscous damping and coulomb
damping both restrict the motion of a spring system regardless of whether the
amplitude is positive or negative. In a reed valve system, the valve is not
restricted at all when the amplitude is positive but the valve plate does not
allow the amplitude to become negative at any time. (Figure 7.3) Essentially
the valve is returned to initial conditions [ x(u) = u ; x (u) = u] before the
beginning of each negative pressure cycle.
51


Figure 7.3 Valve Motion Sign Convention (left) & Simplified Valve Motion Plot (right)

These issues prevented an accurate theoretical solution for the response of the valve to
be obtained without considerable further work. It was decided to carry out various tests,
varying the natural frequency of the valves each time and observe the results.

The next step in testing was to use a petal valve with a higher natural frequency of
vibration than the original. Using the theory in section 5.2, the original 0.006 valve was
calculated to have a natural frequency of 66Hz. If the thickness of the reed was
increased to 0.010, the natural frequency would rise to 110Hz.
Due to the unavailability of additional sheet spring steel in Ireland, it was decided to
carry out testing using valves cut from shim steel. The shim steel valve would have the
same vibrational characteristics as a spring steel valve of equal thickness but would be
more prone to deformation. The shim steel valves would help determine whether or not
the engine would resonate with different frequency ratios.

A test was carried out using a 0.010 thick shim steel valve. The engine achieved
resonance immediately but would only sustain for 15-20 seconds. Additionally, the
engine would not sustain combustion without an external supply of air. Several
52

subsequent attempts were made to start the engine. Engine started each time but failed
to sustain for more than 10 seconds.
When the engine was disassembled following the test and the valves were examined, it
was found that one petal had been bent so much that it no longer seated against the
valve plate. (Figure 7.4) The sections of valves which covered the intake orifices were
also visually deformed from the pressure of combustion.


Figure 7.4 0.010" Deformed Shim Steel Valve Following Engine Run

The audio was extracted from a video clip of the test and analysed using Audacity
sound editor to determine the operating frequency of the engine. An operating
frequency of ~150Hz was measured from the audio file. This is very close to the
frequency of 142Hz which was estimated in section 5.1.1.

Although the engine started with a valve frequency of 110Hz, the performance was not
satisfactory. It was decided to try and run the engine with a valve frequency of roughly
double that of the previous test. The simplest method of doing this was to insert a steel
washer of a certain size behind the petal valve. This would shorten the effective length
of the valve and thereby increase the natural frequency of vibration. It was calculated
that a 47mm diameter washer would reduce the length of the valves by 9mm and
increase natural frequency to ~250Hz.

53

The engine did not fire at all with this valve in place. It was determined that the static
stiffness of the valve was too high to allow the air from the external supply to open the
valves and create an air flow through the engine. It was calculated that using one of the
0.006 petal valves with the same diameter washer would result in a natural frequency
of 150Hz but that the stiffness would be much lower. The valve was changed
immediately and another test was run. The engine ran very erratically using this setup
and was not able to sustain at a constant setting. It was determined that the frequency of
the valves was too close to the forcing frequency of the engine for normal operation to
be achieved.

To solve this problem, it was decided to make a second washer which would increase
the natural frequency of a 0.006 petal valve to 250Hz. It was calculated that a 53mm
diameter washer was needed for this. Using this setup, the engine fired and sustained for
over 1:30 minutes. The external air supply was shut off about five seconds after starting
with no noticeable difference in running. When the engine cooled and the valves
removed, visual inspection showed that the tips of many petals were broken and one
petal had cracked along its line of flexure with the washer. (Figure 7.5)


Figure 7.5 Impact and Fatigue Damage on a 0.006" Spring Steel Petal Valve

54

Due to time constraints with the project, it was decided to discontinue further valve
frequency testing and use the remaining two valves to attempt to get pressure plots and
inlet velocity data from the jet.

7.4. Valve Frequency High-Speed Camera Test
To determine the accuracy of the theoretical valve vibration model, an experiment was
conducted using a high-speed camera to measure the frequency of vibration.
A 0.010 thick shim steel valve was used for the test. The valve was set up in
front of the camera so that it was clamped between two pieces of steel at the root
of the petal. (Figure 7.6)
The valve was deflected by hand and released so that it vibrated naturally.
The first recording of the vibration was taken at 200 fps (frames per second) but
this was not high enough to accurately capture the vibration. A second recording
was then taken at 600 fps.
On playback, the time for five complete oscillations was noted. The period of
one oscillation could then be determined and, hence, the natural frequency. The
test recorded a frequency of 104Hz. The calculated frequency was 110Hz.
The test was run again with the valve length shortened by 9mm. This was
calculated to have a frequency of 250Hz.
The vibration was first recorded at 600 fps but it was not high enough to
accurately capture the motion. The recording speed was increased to 1500 fps
and the natural frequency determined the same way as the first test.
The recorded frequency was 227Hz. The calculated frequency was 250Hz.
The experimental values of natural frequency corresponded relatively closely to the
calculated values. This verified the theoretical model.
55


Figure 7.6 High-Speed Camera Experiment Setup


7.5. Pressure Cycle Data Collection
To obtain pressure cycle plots within the engine, a high-temperature pressure transducer
was fitted to the engine. The pressure transducer which was used was a Kistler 4045A5
with a cooling adapter.
Two BSP sleeves were purchased to fit the transducer to the engine. These sleeves
were welded to the engine at positions 55mm and 1075mm from the front of the engine.
The transducer was connected to a laptop computer via a Handyscope to collect and
store the data. The water for the cooling adapter was supplied by a 12V pump from a car
windscreen wiper system. The pump was powered directly from the same battery which
powered the ignition system.

Since only one transducer was available for testing, the pressure readings from both
points had to be taken from two separate tests. In order to keep the data as consistent as
possible, the first test was started as normal but then the fuel was cut off via the main
High-Speed Camera
Petal Valve
56

valve on the propane tank. By leaving the setting on the regulator, a consistent fuel flow
into the engine could be ensured.
The tests were carried out using one 0.006 petal valve. The valve was one which had
not been etched properly. When the engine did not sustain without air, it was put down
to the defects in the valve. However, due to shortage of valves, the test was carried out
anyway with the external air supply.
The data from the transducer was recorded for the forward measurement position. The
engine was then stopped and the transducer was moved to the rear measurement
position. The engine was restarted and the transducer data recorded. Shortly after
recording the last set of data, the valves failed and the engine ceased to run. Figure 7.7
shows the equipment set up for pressure data collection.




Figure 7.7 Equipment Set Up For Pressure Data Collection




Transducer Power Supply
Transducer
Cooling Pump
Cooling Water Reservoir
57

8. Results
This section displays the results of the experimental data acquired during testing of the
engine.
The following plot (figure 8.1) of pressure vs. time was obtained for the front end of the
engine:

Figure 8.1 55mm Position Pressure/Time Plot

The plot displays the characteristic oscillating pressure cycles which occur at the front
of a pulsejet engine. By analysing the plot, a burning frequency of 160Hz was
calculated.

A pressure/time plot was also obtained for a position just 25mm from the end of the
tailpipe. This plot is displayed in figure 8.2.
0.1
0.4
0.9
1.4
1.9
2.4
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
A
b
s

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
B
a
r
)
Time(s)
58


Figure 8.2 1075mm Position Pressure/Time Plot














0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
A
b
s

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
B
a
r
)
Time(s)
59

9. Discussion

9.1. Jet Design
This project has shown that a pulsejet engine can be designed using a set of simple
equations. The equations derived by C.E. Tharratt do allow the basic dimensions of a
pulsejet engine to be determined on the back of an envelope (Tharratt, 1965).
However, very little emphasis is placed of the design of the intake valve system. Little
or no research has been carried out to accurately determine the response of a mechanical
spring valve to a forcing frequency. This response was determined to be a crucial aspect
of the correct operation of a pulsejet engine. For an engine to achieve static thrust, the
correct relationship between the frequency of operation of the engine and the natural
frequency of the reed valves must be determined. The static stiffness of the valves must
also be correct to allow the valves to open under static conditions.

9.2. Petal Valve Vibration Theory
The theoretical model for determining the natural frequency of vibration of the petal
valves was verified by capturing the vibration of the valve in front of a high-speed
camera. However, as the length of the valve was reduced, the error in calculations
appeared to increase. This may have been an error in the position where the valve was
clamped. Section 5.2 explains how natural frequency is inversely proportional to L
3
. If
the valve position in the clamp was even slightly off, it would result in a relatively large
error in natural frequency reading.

9.3. Valve Life
The operating life of the petal valves used in the project engine was extremely low. The
longest continuous engine run lasted for only two minutes. After the engine runs the
valves were found to have suffered severe impact damage and also fatigue damage at
the valve root.
60

Fatigue cracks at the valve root can easily be eliminated by machining a new curved
valve retainer plate with the correct root diameter. However, using the steel washer is
the simplest and fastest way of varying natural frequency of vibration. The washers
should be used to determine if a frequency ratio exists where valve impact damage is
minimised. A new retainer plate can then be machined to the required dimensions and
further fatigue testing can be carried out.
Impact damage did not appear to be a problem when using the shim steel valves
although the engine was not run for a long enough time to be conclusive. The major
problem with the shim steel valves was the ease in which they deformed into the intake
orifices during the combustion phase of the engine. The deformation affected the valves
ability to seal against the valve plate and the engine ceased to operate. The problem with
deformation was solved when using the spring steel valves.
It is possible that valves made with thicker spring steel will be able withstand the impact
damage for longer but failure is still inevitable. It could also be possible that annealing
the spring steel valves will increase valve life as outlined in section 3.2. To continue
testing, various thicknesses of spring steel sheet should be acquired.

9.4. Valve Response to Engine Forcing Frequency
As outlined in section 7.3, the response of the spring valve to the forcing frequency of
the engine is a complex problem. The problem cannot be solved using simple vibration
analysis. It would be very useful to be able to compute the motion of the valve. This
would allow the ideal natural frequency to be determined for a particular engine without
carrying out extensive testing.
During the course of the project, the simulation of this motion was attempted by
modelling the motion as both damped and undamped vibration. However, both these
methods failed to simulate the motion in a satisfactory manner. It is possible that a
detailed FEM analysis of the spring valve could produce more satisfactory results. The
downside is that this form of analysis is usually time consuming and it is not guaranteed
to produce an accurate result.

61

9.5. Ignition System
The importance of a reliable ignition system was realised during the early stages of
testing in this project. The ignition system is vital to the starting of the engine and
should be properly designed and tested well in advance of the first scheduled engine
test. Almost two to three weeks of testing were lost due to the failure to construct a
reliable ignition system for the engine.

9.6. Thermodynamic Analysis
Much is left to be done when it comes to modelling the thermodynamic processes
within a pulsejet engine. The theory described in section 5.3 was determined to be
inaccurate when compared to experimentally obtained results. The combustion process
in a pulsejet engine is neither a constant pressure nor a constant volume process and
therefore cannot accurately be modelled as either. The pressures anticipated were much
higher than those measured during testing.
Further testing must be done to determine which method of calculating the heat addition
from the fuel is more accurate. This can be done by obtaining exhaust velocities as well
as intake velocities and comparing experimental values to the theoretical values
obtained.

9.7. Pressure Cycle Visualisation
The pressure/time plot obtained in figure 8.1 correlates very well to those found in
literature. The peak pressures achieved in the combustion chamber area appear to be
very similar. They appear to be consistent throughout all sizes of engine. When
comparing the peak pressures experienced in the 50cm jet (figure 3.1), the Argus AS-
014 engine (figure 5.8) and the project jet (figure 8.1), they are all within 0.07 Bar of
each other. The pressure plot also allows the accurate determination of operating
frequency.
The pressure plot obtained from the tailpipe of the engine is more difficult to
understand. It is much more inconsistent than the plot obtained from the front of the
62

engine. This is mainly because gas velocity is at its maximum as it exits the tailpipe.
The pressure of combustion is also still present in the tailpipe as can be seen from the
high readings relative to atmospheric pressure. There is also a very high acceleration of
gases in the final section of the tailpipe due to the operating cycle of the engine. Exhaust
gases are decelerated during the intake phase and even reverse direction as the internal
vacuum acts on them. A small amount of fresh air is also sucked into the tailpipe during
intake before being ejected back out the tailpipe following combustion of the fresh
fuel/air mixture.
These rapid changes in gas momentum coupled with the combustion pressures create
the fluctuations in static pressure experienced at the tailpipe exit.

9.8. Exhaust Velocity Determination
Unfortunately, due to equipment restrictions, it was impossible to measure the exhaust
velocity in the engine and hence calculate thrust produced.
One solution to this could be to introduce a small metal disk to the exhaust flow at the
tailpipe exit. After running the engine for a few seconds, the temperature of this disk
could be read using an infra-red thermometer. The temperature of the wall at the tailpipe
exit should also be measured. The temperature of the disk would be the stagnation
temperature and the temperature of the wall would be the static temperature. The Mach
number of the flow could then be calculated from the following equation:
I
0
I
= 1 +
y 1
2
H
2

In order to be able to carry this out, it would be necessary to have access to an infra-red
thermometer which would be capable of accurately measuring temperatures in excess of
1300K.
This temperature is determined from the difference between the estimated frequency of
142Hz at 1000K and the experimentally determined frequency of 160Hz. The higher
frequency suggests that the exhaust gas temperature is considerable higher than 1000K.
If a frequency of 160Hz is inputted into equation 5.4, an exhaust gas temperature of
1269.8K is calculated.
63

10. Conclusions

A pulsejet engine was successfully designed and built using relatively simple
theory.

Successful running of the engine was achieved following a number of tests. At
the time of project completion, the engine was capable of producing static thrust
for a time of two minutes before valve failure caused the engine to cease running

The operation of the engine was successfully analysed both theoretically and
experimentally. The theoretical models available in literature were determined to
be inaccurate for pulsejet cycle prediction. Further testing will need to be carried
out to gain a better understanding of engine cycles.

The pressure cycles within the engine were investigated and found to correlate
closely to similar experimentally obtained plots which have been previously
published in literature.

In order to achieve successful operation of the engine, considerable attention
must be paid to the spring valve system in the engine and its response to the
engines forcing frequency.

The theoretical model for determining the natural frequency of vibration of petal
valves was verified experimentally using a high-speed camera test.

The correlation between petal valve material and life was investigated briefly
but no solid conclusion can be determined without further testing.

Failure to construct a reliable ignition system for the engine resulted in valuable
testing time being lost. The final ignition circuit was extremely reliable and
proved to be simple to operate and adjust.

A theoretical model to simulate the valve response to a forcing frequency would
help to determine the optimum valve natural frequency needed. Simple vibration
analysis cannot achieve this.
64

References
Reynst, F. H., (1961) Pulsating Firing for Steam Generators, Pulsating
Combustion, Pergamon Press, New York, 1961.

Museum of Flight (2010) V-1 Flying Bomb [image online], available:
http://www.museumofflight.org/FileUploads/v1.jpg [accessed 18 March 2010].

Tharratt, C. E., (1965) The Propulsive Duct, Aircraft Engineering and
Aerospace Technology, 37(11), 327-337.

Tharratt, C. E., (1965) The Propulsive Duct, Aircraft Engineering and
Aerospace Technology, 37(12), 359-371

Ordon, R.L.. (2006) Experimental Investigations Into The Operational
Parameters Of a 50 Centimeter Class Pulsejet Engine, unpublished thesis
(M.Sc.), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC

Curran, D. (2004) Construction and Analysis of a Pulsejet, unpublished final
year report, University of Limerick.

Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory (1947) 4 x 6 Pulsejet Engine Project, DD-
420-A-6, Buffalo, New York: Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory.

Manganiello, E.J., Valerino, M.F., Breisch, J.H. (1945) Endurance tests of a 22-
inch Diameter Pulsejet Engine With a Neoprene Coated Valve Grid, E5J03,
Cleveland, Ohio: NACA.

Bressman, J.R. (1946) Effect of a Low-Loss Air Valve on Performance of a 22-
inch Diameter Pulsejet Engine, E6E15, Cleveland, Ohio: NACA.

El-Sayed, A.F. (2008) Aircraft Propulsion and Gas Turbine Engines, Zagazig:
CRC Press.

Jet Propulsion (1946), Daniel Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory.

D. Luft (1944), FZG-76 Gerte Handbuch, T. 2076 g.

Beck Technologies (2005) Dyna-jet Pictures and Video, [online], available:
http://www.beck-technologies.com/enginedynajet.html [accessed 18 March
2010].

Rao, S.S. (1990) Mechanical Vibrations, 2
nd
Ed., Addison-Wesley.
65


Hearn, E.J. (1997) Mechanics of Materials Volume 1, 3
rd
Ed., Butterworth-
Heinemann.

University of Manchester (2010) Stress-strain Data for Grade 43A Steel at
Elevated Temperatures [image online], available:
http://www.mace.manchester.ac.uk/project/research/structures/strucfire/materialI
nFire/Steel/HotRolledCarbonSteel/MPFigure1.htm [accessed 18 March 2010].

Hard Anodising Ltd. (2005) Hardness Testing, [online], available:
http://www.hard-anodising.co.uk/hardness-testing.asp [accessed 18 March
2010].

Bruce Simpson (2009) Fuel Delivery [image online], available:
www.aardvark.co.nz/pjet/starting.shtml [accessed 18 March 2010].

































A














Appendix A

Engineering Drawings



















GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
A
A
78.1
1100
117
157
1003 86
5.49
1/17 PART 0.100
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
JET_BODY
University of Limerick


29-Sep-09 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
0.350 SCALE
A-A SECTION
0.150 SCALE
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
A
A
78.1
11
117
86
2/17 PART 1.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
COMBUSTION_CHAMBER
University of Limerick


26-Oct-09 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
A-A SECTION
0.750 SCALE
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
127
157
71
6
3/17 PART 1.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
CC_FLANGE
University of Limerick


23-Oct-09 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Thickness: 3mm
Material: Mild Steel
1.400 SCALE
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
SECT
SECT
25
10
18 12.8
5
4/17 PART 3.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
SPARK_PLUG_COLLAR
University of Limerick


20-Jan-10 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Material: Mild Steel
5.000 SCALE SECT-SECT SECTION
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
A
A
157
10
103
120 110 85
R71
4.2
5/17 PART 1.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
DIFFUSER
University of Limerick


25-Jan-10 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Material: Aluminium
Tap M5x0.8
A-A SECTION
0.600 SCALE
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
A
A
10
18 18
R3
R32.5
R45
3
18
157
10
71
6
6/17 PART 1.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
VALVE_PLATE_ORIG
University of Limerick


29-Sep-09 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Material: Hard Anodised 5754 Aluminium Alloy
SEE DETAIL A
A-A SECTION
0.800 SCALE
4.000 SCALE
A DETAIL
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
B
B
157
10
18
18
R45
6
3
18
71
6
7/17 PART 1.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
VALVE_PLATE_MOD
University of Limerick


29-Sep-09 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Material: Hard Anodised 5754 Aluminium Alloy
SEE DETAIL B
B-B SECTION
3.000 SCALE
B DETAIL
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
94
18
R5
4
14.48
18
8/17 PART 1.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
PETAL_VALVE
University of Limerick


29-Sep-09 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Material: 0.006" Blue Spring Steel
2.500 SCALE
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
C
C
26
4
R80
94
18
9/17 PART 1.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
VALVE_RETAINER_L
University of Limerick


29-Sep-09 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Material: Mild Steel
2.000 SCALE C-C SECTION
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
D
D
26
4
R50
94
18
10/ 17 PART 1.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
VALVE_RETAINER_S
University of Limerick


29-Sep-09 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Material: Mild Steel
2.000 SCALE D-D SECTION
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
E
E
16
4
R80
94
18
11/ 17 PART 1.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
VALVE_RETAINER_MOD
University of Limerick


29-Sep-09 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Material: Mild Steel
2.000 SCALE E-E SECTION
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
A
A
18
14
3
6
40
16.6
10
25
5.5
12
3
2.5
12/ 17 PART 1.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
FUEL_JET
University of Limerick


28-Nov-09 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Material: Mild Steel
Cut M18x1.25 Cut M18x1.25
Cut 3/8 BSP
1.500 SCALE
3.000 SCALE
A-A SECTION
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
A
A
16.67
75
5.5
12
45
2
5
15
13/ 17 PART 1.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
FUEL_JET_NEW
University of Limerick


12-Feb-10 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Tap M6x1
Cut 3/8 BSP
Material: Mild Steel
3.000 SCALE
A-A SECTION
1.500 SCALE
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
14/ 17 ASSEM 1.000
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
VALVE_HEAD
University of Limerick


21-Sep-09 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
15/ 17 ASSEM 0.083
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
ENGINE
University of Limerick


22-Sep-10 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
0.300 SCALE
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
90
25
9
16
100
9
115
16/ 17 PART 0.250
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
MOUNTING_STRAPS
University of Limerick


18-Jan-10 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Material: Mild Steel
1.000 SCALE
0.500 SCALE
GENERAL TOLERANCES UNLESS NOTED
MODEL
DRAWN DATE
CHECKED
APPROVED
DATE
DATE
DRAWING NAME
SCALE SHEET
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SIZE
C
.XXX .XX ANGLES
TYPE
600
1200
200
200
200
140
9
170
17/ 17 PART 0.091
ENGINE_COMPONENTS
TEST_STAND
University of Limerick


19-Mar-10 Thomas Naughton
0.50 0.01 0.001
Material: 30mm Box Section Mild Steel
0.200 SCALE
B














Appendix B

Ignition Circuit Diagram

















C


































-
+

D
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
o
r
C
o
i
l

T
o

S
p
a
r
k

P
l
u
g


1
2
V

D












Appendix C

Electro-chemical Etching Process





















Preparati

Th
wi
etc

It i

Fo
pad

Rin
edg

If d
do
sol
rin
sur
lig
to


Painting
Th
fac
Pa
sur
Ma
be
she
wh
pai
On
sec
sec
pin
cau
me
Al
48




Marking
No
Th
eas
ion
he metal fro
th no trace
ching to occ
is also impo
or best result
d. This will
nse the me
ges.
dilute sulfu
ne by dippi
lution and
nse it under
rface for pa
ghtly with 12
help paint a
he type of p
ctor in the s
aint the me
rface.
ake sure an
easier to l
eet of new
hile its flat
int runs.
nce the first
cond thorou
cond coat
nholes left i
use holes
etal.
low the pa
hours.
Out
ow scribe th
he shape of
sier to make
om which t
s of rust or
cur in unwan
ortant that th
ts scrub the
l remove all
etal in very
uric acid is a
ing the bare
lift it out a
r hot runni
aint to adhe
200 grit em
adhesion.
paint and th
uccess of th
etal with au
even and t
lay the met
wspaper an
t. This avoi
t coat is dr
ugh all-ove
of paint h
in the paint
to be etch
int to cure
he outline of
f the valve
e a template
the reed val
r grease as
nted places
he metal is k
e reed valve
l traces of g
y hot water,
available th
e metal into
at regular in
ing water a
ere to. How
mery paper. T
he manner
he etching o
utomotive p
thorough co
tal on a fla
nd spray i
ids creating
ry, give it a
er coat. The
helps avoid
t which can
hed in the
for at leas
f the reed va
can be dra
e that can be
lve will be
these will
.
keyed so th
material w
grease and an
, taking car
e metal sho
a very dilu
ntervals. W
again. This
wever if aci
This will pr
in which it
operation.
primer. Thi
oating of pa
t
t
g
a
e
d
n
e
t
alve that ne
awn directly
e traced aro
etched mu
cause the p
at the paint
ith a soap im
ny rust spot
re to hold t
ould be give
ute solution.
When its tur
acid-etch
d is not av
rovide a sim
ts applied
is paint wi
int is applie
eeds to be cu
y onto the
und.
ust be absol
paint to lift
t can adhere
mpregnated
ts.
the metal o
en an acid-e
. Place the m
rned a dull
will provid
vailable sand
milar surface
will also b
ill adhere b
ed to the m
ut.
painted me
E
lutely clean
t and allow
e properly.
d steel-wool
only by the
etch. This is
metal in the
gray color
de the best
d the metal
e roughness
be a critical
best to the
etal. It may
etal but its
E
n
w
l
e
s
e
r
t
l
s
l
e
y
s

An
as
Wh
pai
Ch
sho
of
val


Etching
Etc
con
the
Mi
and
A
sho
sol
bla
Co
ma
Pla
sur
Ma
can
mo
in
to
tou
Sw
On
bu
cat
At
fac
pro
sol
fro
Ev
and
the
If
be
lig

Post-etchi
On
Th
n existing re
the templat
hen scribin
int should b
heck to mak
ould a lin
metal that
lve from the
ching is car
ntainer that
e valve mate
ix up a satu
d water.
piece of
ould be use
lution. It sh
ank sheet of
onnect the
aterial and t
ace the plat
re that the s
ake sure th
n not accide
ove. To do
the middle
flow while
uching.
witch on the
nce the pow
ubbles shou
thode plate
t this stage
ctors, it may
ocess gets u
lution. This
om the scrib
ventually the
d when the
e paint on th
the plate is
seen where
ght will shin
ing Steps
nce the valv
he paint can
eed valve in
te for scribin
ng is finish
be visible at
ke sure that
ne that does
will make c
e sheet of p
rried out in
t is large e
erial while i
urated solut
stainless (p
ed to act a
hould be ab
f reed valve
negative te
the positive
tes in the sa
scribed side
hat the two
entally touc
this, a spon
. This will
e preventing
e power sup
wer supply
uld be seen
as in the pic
the salt so
y take betw
underway, a
s is the iro
bed lines.
e scribed lin
e plate is re
he back sur
held up to
e the etchin
ne through a
ve is etched,
now be wa
in good con
ng the patte
hed, the ste
t the bottom
t all the lin
snt join up
complicate
prepared me
a plastic or
enough to f
its stood on
tion of com
preferred)
as a cathod
bout the sam
e material.
erminal of
terminal to
alt solution
of the valv
o pieces of
ch together
nge can be
allow the c
g the plates
pply to the
y is switch
n rising fro
cture.
olution will
ween ten min
a green or b
on that has
nes will etc
emoved fro
rface can be
a lamp at t
ng is compl
as in the pic
, it should b
ashed off wi
ndition can
ern.
eel underne
m of the scrib
nes join whe
will leave a
the remova
tal.
r glass bow
fully subme
n edge.
mmon table
or mild st
de plate in
me area as
a 6-12V D
o the scribed
on opposite
e material f
f metal
if they
placed
current
s from
plates.
ed on,
om the
l still be cl
nutes and an
brown sludg
been remo
ch right thro
m the solut
e seen expo
this stage it
lete because
ture.
be pushed ou
ith suitable
be used
eath the
be lines.
ere they
a bridge
al of the
l or
erse
salt
teel
the
the
DC power s
d reed valve
e sides of th
faces the cat
lear. Depen
n hour to et
e will begin
oved
ough
tion,
osed.
t can
e the
ut from the
thinners.
supply to t
e material.
he containe
thode plate.
nding on a
tch the valv
n to form on
rest of the m
F
the cathode
er making
.
number of
e. Once the
n top of the
metal.
F
e
g
f
e
e
G















Appendix D

Turn-it-in Originality Report Summary
















H

1
1% mat ch ( st udent papers from 10/ 31/ 08)
Submit t ed t o Universit y of Adelaide
2
< 1% mat ch ( st udent papers from 03/ 18/ 09)
Submit t ed t o Universit y of Limerick
3
< 1% mat ch ( I nt ernet from 9/ 12/ 07)
ht t p: / / en.wikipedia.org
4
< 1% mat ch ( I nt ernet )
ht t p: / / naca. cent ral. cranfield. ac. uk
5
< 1% mat ch ( I nt ernet from 1/ 8/ 09)
ht t p: / / www. j ournalof911st udies. com
6
< 1% mat ch ( publicat ions)
I . CHOUTAPALLI . "An experiment al st udy of an axisymmet ric
t urbulent pulsed air j et ", Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 07/ 2009
7
< 1% mat ch ( publicat ions)
J. A. C. Kent field. "The Shrouding of Highly Loaded, Aerovalved,
Pulse, Pressure- Gain Combust ors", Combust ion Science and
Technology, 11/ 1/ 1993
8
< 1% mat ch ( I nt ernet from 9/ 9/ 08)
ht t p: / / scholar. lib. vt . edu
I

9
< 1% mat ch ( publicat ions)
Moses, E. . "On knocking predict ion in spark ignit ion engines",
Combust ion and Flame, 199505
10
< 1% mat ch ( st udent papers from 08/ 29/ 05)
Submit t ed t o Embry- Riddle Aeronaut ical Universit y
11
< 1% mat ch ( I nt ernet from 5/ 1/ 08)
ht t p: / / et d. lib. ncsu. edu
12
< 1% mat ch ( publicat ions)
Eichler, J. . "Theory of relat ivist ic ion- at om collisions", Physics
Report s, 199010
13
< 1% mat ch ( st udent papers from 02/ 17/ 10)
Submit t ed t o Universit y of Florida
14
< 1% mat ch ( I nt ernet from 11/ 1/ 09)
ht t p: / / www. j od911. com
15
< 1% mat ch ( st udent papers from 07/ 03/ 09)
Submit t ed t o Vict oria Universit y
16
< 1% mat ch ( st udent papers from 11/ 30/ 08)
Submit t ed t o Shast a College